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how has the previous generation “ruined the housing market” for millennials?
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The short answer, we don’t make as much money as they did.
Slightly longer answer: US household median income in 1970 was $9,780 which has a buying power of $64,700 in today’s money. The current median US wage is 61,800, about $3,000 less or effectively 5% less money available per year than they did.
Next, median home sale price in 1970 was $23,600 or $155k in today’s dollars. The median sale price in Jan 2018 was $330k; double what they were paying ‘back in the day.’
So, you have to spend on average 25-50% more money to get a home with 5-10% less money.
This is all due to wage stagnation relative to productivity and inflation. Or otherwise said, wages did not keep up with the cost of goods and your dollar just doesn’t go as far.
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[
"The number of multigenerational households has been steadily rising because of the economic hardships people are experiencing today. According to the AARP, multigenerational households have increased from 5 million in 2000 to 6.2 million in 2008.\"There's no question that with some ethnicities that are growing in America, it is more mainstream and traditional to have multigenerational households. We're going to see that increasing in the general population as well,\" says AARP's Ginzler. While high unemployment and housing foreclosures of the recession have played a key role in the trend, Pew Research Center exec VP and co-author of its multigenerational household study Paul Taylor said it has been growing over several decades, fueled by demographic and cultural shifts such as the rising number of immigrants and the rising average age of young-adult marriages. The importance of an extended family is one that many people may not realize, but having a support system and many forms of income may help people today because of the difficulties in finding a job and bringing in enough money.\n",
"The U.S. housing boom of the first few years of the 21st century ended abruptly in 2006. Housing starts, which peaked at more than 2 million units in 2005, plummeted to just over half that level. Home prices, which were increasing at double-digit rates nationally in 2004 and 2005, have fallen dramatically since (see Chart 1). As home prices decline, the number of problem mortgages, particularly in sub-prime and Alt-A portfolios, is rising. As of third quarter 2007, the percentage of sub-prime adjustable-rate mortgages (ARMs) that were seriously delinquent or in foreclosure reached 15.6 percent, more than double the level of a year ago (see Chart 2). The deterioration in credit performance began in the industrial Midwest, where economic conditions have been the weakest, but has now (2006–2007) spread to the former boom markets of Florida, California, and other coastal states. \n",
"From the 1990s, the break-up of the traditional family unit, when combined with low interest rates and other demographic changes, has created great pressure on the housing market, in particular on accommodation for \"key workers\" such as nurses, other emergency service workers and teachers, who are priced out of most housing, especially in the South East. Some research indicates that in the 21st century young people are tending to continue to live in the parental home for much longer than their predecessors. The high cost of living, combined with rising costs of accommodation, further education and higher education means that many young people cannot afford to live independently from their families.\n",
"In 2008 the area's construction based boom was brought to a sudden halt by the financial crisis of 2007–2010, and by 2009 it was ranked as the fourth worst performing housing market in the United States.\n",
"The booming housing market halted abruptly in many parts of the United States in late summer of 2005, and as of summer 2006, several markets faced the issues of ballooning inventories, falling prices, and sharply reduced sales volumes. In August 2006, \"Barron's\" magazine warned, \"a housing crisis approaches\", and noted that the median price of new homes dropped almost 3% since January 2006, that new-home inventories hit a record in April and remained near all-time highs, that existing-home inventories were 39% higher than they were just one year earlier, and that sales were down more than 10%, and predicted that \"the national median price of housing will probably fall by close to 30% in the next three years ... simple reversion to the mean.\"\n",
"As the baby boomer generation retires and housing costs and financial crisis become more rampant and prevalent, understanding the difference between environmental causes versus traditional causes such as mental illness and drug addiction will be necessary. According to Individuals who first became homeless before age 50 had a higher prevalence of recent mental health and substance use problems and more difficulty performing instrumental activities of daily living (p. 1)”. Thus, education and compassion training will be extremely important, especially for Gen X and Gen Y, in order to understand reasonings behind homelessness and creating solutions. In addition, housing programs and civic engagement will be extremely important and necessary as well.\n",
"In response to supporters' claims that the real cause of the housing shortage was an abundance of luxury housing, opponents said that regardless of the market segment it was intended for, \"any\" new housing would eventually drive down the price of \"all\" housing. It was also noted that overall vacancy rates were at historic lows, based on census data from the last decade, compared to 2010. The CPLA countered by citing a report by the chief economist for the popular real-estate website Zillow that this purported \"trickle-down\" effect was not, in fact, occurring, not in Los Angeles or any other American city it studied. In fact, it claimed, median rents for the lowest third of houses and apartments were rising at much greater rates than the overall rental market, particularly in California.\n"
] |
why is it important to create credit and the benefits of it
|
Essentially, "building credit" is just showing that if you borrow someone else's money, they can trust you to pay it back. If I'm a random stranger, you probably wouldn't want to lend me a bunch of money, but if a bunch of people you trust all vouch for me that they loaned me money and I paid them back in full and on time, you might be more willing to consider it.
As to why it's important, if you want to finance a large purchase like a car or a house (or even if you just want to raise the maximum on your credit card), your bank is going to want to know they can trust you to pay them back before they'll put the money down for you.
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[
"Credit allows a borrower to increase today’s standard of living at the expense of some future standard of living. Thus in financial terms, credit allows a consumer to spend a large amount of money today (raising their standard of living) while reducing their disposable income as the debt is repaid (lowering their future standard of living relative to its potential). In environmental terms, credit can be thought of as raising today’s standard of living through the consumption of finite resources (like oil). This action will lower the future standard of living, as future consumers will be denied to opportunity to consume.\n",
"Charles Hugh Smith, writing for Business Insider, argues that while the use of credit has positive features in low amounts, but that the consumer economy and its expansion of credit produces consumer ennui because there is a marginal return to consumption, and that hyperinflation experts recommended investment in tangible goods.\n",
"Whilst credit allows access to products or services that cannot be acquired out of a single month’s income, it can also be a dangerous instrument that can lead to high levels of debt and indebtedness.\n",
"Credit enables people to have use of a product or service, at a cost represented by an interest rate, prior to their having paid for that product or service or, where an item cannot be afforded from a single month’s salary, to spread payments over a number of months.\n",
"Credit (from Latin \"credit\", \"\"(he/she/it)\" believes\") is the trust which allows one party to provide money or resources to another party wherein the second party does not reimburse the first party immediately (thereby generating a debt), but promises either to repay or return those resources (or other materials of equal value) at a later date. In other words, credit is a method of making reciprocity formal, legally enforceable, and extensible to a large group of unrelated people.\n",
"BULLET::::- A major part of all new credit money that is created is spent on changing the ownership of existing assets rather than creating new assets. This process inflates the prices of assets, including real estate, factories, land, and intellectual rights. This makes living unnecessarily costly for everybody. It contributes to growing inequality and it makes the economy unstable because of the creation of asset bubbles.\n",
"Many scholars and practitioners suggest an integrated package of services ('a credit-plus' approach) rather than just providing credits. When access to credit is combined with savings facilities, non-productive loan facilities, insurance, enterprise development (production-oriented and management training, marketing support) and welfare-related services (literacy and health services, gender and social awareness training), the adverse effects discussed above can be diminished. Some argue that more experienced entrepreneurs who are getting loans should be qualified for bigger loans to ensure the success of the program.\n"
] |
how i shock people/get shocked by touching things? (i.e. static electricity)
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> How does it get built up?
Everything is made of charges of positive electricity and negative. The two kinds of electricity are carried by the protons and electrons of atoms. But usually an object is electrically "neutral," because its own pos and neg charges are equal in number and cancelled out.
"Static electricity" happens when the positives and negatives aren't in perfect balance. To create an imbalance, just pull some positives out of one object and put them on a second object. The first object ends up with excess negatives, and the second object will have excess positive charge.
The usual way to create the imbalance is to push two different surfaces together, then peel them apart. When different surfaces touch, they unequally share atoms and charges. When the surface are pulled away from each other, usually one surface ends up with too many negatives, and the other has too many positives.
If you walk across a carpet, you will leave positive footprints behind, and your shoes will become negatively charged. The charge on your shoes leaks to your body. Don't reach for a doorknob or you'll get a big zap!
If you sit on a chair for awhile, then get up again, there will be a highly charged butt-print on the chair. And your clothes end up with excess charge of the opposite polarity. (Now don't dare to touch the car door!)
.
> Why does it hurt to be moved from one object to another
The little spark is hotter than the surface of the sun. It's plasma, and gives you a tiny burn. Also the high voltage in your skin at the spark location can trigger the nerves in your skin to signal hot, cold, pressure, pain, etc.
> but not by just having the electricity in my body?
When you're charged, you might feel slight prickles as your body hair stands on end. But you won't feel pain without the 10,000 degree spark plasma drilling through the dead skin layers and into the live tissues below!
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[
"The feeling of an electric shock is caused by the stimulation of nerves as the neutralizing current flows through the human body. The energy stored as static electricity on an object varies depending on the size of the object and its capacitance, the voltage to which it is charged, and the dielectric constant of the surrounding medium. For modelling the effect of static discharge on sensitive electronic devices, a human being is represented as a capacitor of 100 picofarads, charged to a voltage of 4000 to 35000 volts. When touching an object this energy is discharged in less than a microsecond. While the total energy is small, on the order of millijoules, it can still damage sensitive electronic devices. Larger objects will store more energy, which may be directly hazardous to human contact or which may give a spark that can ignite flammable gas or dust.\n",
"The injury related to electric shock depends on the magnitude of the current. Very small currents may be imperceptible or produce a light tingling sensation. A shock caused by low current that would normally be harmless could startle an individual and cause injury due to suddenly jerking away from the source of electricity, resulting in one striking a stationary object, dropping an object being held or falling. Stronger currents may cause some degree of discomfort or pain, while more intense currents may induce involuntary muscle contractions, preventing the victim from breaking free of the source of electricity. Still larger currents usually result in tissue damage and may trigger fibrillation of the heart or cardiac arrest, any of which may ultimately be fatal. If death results from an electric shock the cause of death is generally referred to as electrocution. \n",
"Electrical injury is a physiological reaction caused by electric current passing through the body. Electric shock occurs upon contact of a (human) body part with any source of electricity that causes a sufficient magnitude of current to pass through the victim's flesh, viscera or hair. Physical contact with energized wiring or devices is the most common cause of an electric shock. In cases of exposure to high voltages, such as on a power transmission tower, physical contact with energized wiring or objects may not be necessary to cause electric shock, as the voltage may be sufficient to \"jump\" the air gap between the electrical device and the victim.\n",
"Electrical shock is the physiological reaction, sensation, or injury caused by electric current passing through the body. It occurs upon contact of a body part with any source of electricity that causes a sufficient current through the skin, muscles, or hair.\n",
"In power transmission systems, one side of the circuit, known as the neutral, is grounded to dissipate static electricity and to reduce hazardous voltages caused by insulation failure and other electrical faults. It is possible to get a shock by only touching the \"hot\" wire, due to the person's body being capacitively coupled to the ground upon which the person stands, even if the person is standing on an insulated surface.\n",
"Mild electric shocks are also used for entertainment, especially as a practical joke for example in such devices as a shocking pen or a shocking gum. However devices such as a joy buzzer and most other machines in amusement parks today only use vibration that feels somewhat like an electric shock to someone not expecting it.\n",
"A person touching the un-earthed metal casing of an electrical device, while also in contact with a metal object connected to remote earth, is exposed to an electric shock hazard if the device has a fault. If all metal objects are connected, all the metal objects in the building will be at the same potential. It then will not be possible to get a shock by touching two 'earthed' objects at once.\n"
] |
if someone started wearing weights/ weighted clothing, increasing as they got used to it, what would the effects actually be if they went through having it on often?
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You will destroy your joints, your body is not Designed to have weight on the ends of your limbs and why we gain weight on our butts and bellies. Also the weights tend to flap around a bit when you move pulling in directions you don't want.
Pretty sure there is a 'because science' YouTube video on this topic if your interested.
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[
"In those who are overweight or obese, a 2016 study indicates that the use of wearable technology combined with standard behavioral interventions results in less rather than more weight loss after two years of use when compared to usual weight loss interventions. There was no evidence that the devices altered the amount that people exercised or their diet compared to control. It is unclear whether these devices affect the amount of physical activity children engage in.\n",
"In those who are overweight or obese some evidence has found that the use of these type of devices results in less weight loss rather than more after 18 months of use. However, it has been noted that the activity tracker used in this study is a now discontinued tracker that is worn on the upper arm which might be uncomfortable, and wear times of the tracker were low.\n",
"Over the next few years as I tried the ‘lose-weight-without-any-change’ method, as I wore ever tighter clothes, and weighed myself to depression, I felt doomed. My lowest point was the day I weighed myself after a haircut.\n",
"The use of weighted clothing is a form of resistance training, generally a kind of weight training. In addition to the greater effect of gravity on the person, it also adds resistance during ballistic movements, due to more force needed to overcome the inertia of heavier masses, as well as a greater momentum that needs deceleration at the end of the movement to avoid injury. The method may increase muscle mass or lose weight; however, there have been concerns about the safety of some uses of weights, such as wrist and ankle weights. It is normally done in the form of small weights, attached to increase endurance when performed in long repetitive events, such as running, swimming, punching, kicking or jumping. Heavier weighted clothing can also be used for slow, controlled movements, and as a way to add resistance to body-weight exercises.\n",
"Weighted clothing is clothing that adds weight to various parts of the body, usually as part of resistance training. The effect is achieved through attaching weighted pieces to the body (or to other garments) which leave the hands free to grasp objects. Unlike with held weights or machines, weighted clothing can leave users more able to do a variety of movements and manual labour. In some cases certain weighted clothing can be worn under normal clothing, to disguise its use to allow exercise in casual environments.\n",
"There is a substantial market for products which claim to make weight loss easier, quicker, cheaper, more reliable, or less painful. These include books, DVDs, CDs, cremes, lotions, pills, rings and earrings, body wraps, body belts and other materials, fitness centers, clinics, personal coaches, weight loss groups, and food products and supplements.\n",
"While there are studies that show the health and medical benefits of weight loss, a study in 2005 of around 3000 Finns over an 18-year period showed that weight loss from dieting can result in increased mortality, while those who maintained their weight fared the best. Similar conclusion is drawn by other studies, and although other studies suggest that intentional weight loss has a small benefit for individuals classified as unhealthy, it is associated with slightly increased mortality for healthy individuals and the slightly overweight but not obese. This may reflect the loss of subcutaneous fat and beneficial mass from organs and muscle in addition to visceral fat when there is a sudden and dramatic weight loss.\n"
] |
how can large chains (target, walmart, etc) produce store brand versions of nearly every product imaginable while industry manufacturers only really produce a single type of item?
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Because they don't actually make it.
Costco doesn't make "Coscto Whisky" Costco has a contract with (it's not but for ease of names) Jack Daniels. And again for ease I will use "Bottles" not "Barrels"
If Jack Daniels sells their whisky for $20 a bottle, say it costs them $10 to produce. Costco says "We want to buy your whisky at $15 per bottle, but we will order 10,000 bottles. We're going to resell it as Costco Whisky"
Jack Daniels says "Sure thing, but here's an Non-Disclosure Agreement. You cannot tell anyone Costco Whisky is made by Jack Daniels."
Jack Daniels may only make $5 per bottle instead of 10 but they just sold 10,000 bottles. Costco paid $15/bottle, cost the $1/bottle to re-label it and they sell it at $18/bottle.
So it's cheaper to buy costco & they still make money. They then do this with many other products.
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[
"Retailers, like Walmart and Target, buy the product from the manufacturer and sell them directly to the consumer. This channel works best for manufacturers that produce shopping goods like, clothes, shoes, furniture, tableware, and toys. Since consumers need more time with these items before they decide to purchase them, it is in the best interest of the manufacturer to sell them to another user before it gets into the hand of the consumers. It is also a good strategy to use another dealer to get the product to the end-user if the producer needs to get to the market more quickly by using an established network that already has brand loyalty. In accordance with the form of the retail property, operators can be an independent company, owned by a different owner or to engage in the retail network. Intermediaries (retail service) are essential and useful due to its professionalism, an ability to offer products to the target market, using their connections in the industry, experience, the advantages of specialization and the high quality of work. The fact suggests that manufactories produce large goods and products but limited in its assortment and merchandise. However, consumers seek broader assortment in lesser quantities. Therefore, it is highly important to distribute goods from different manufacturers to suit consumers needs and wants. When creating a retail store the efforts that required by buyers when making a purchase are considered. For example, stores that selling everyday consumer goods are conveniently located for residents of the nearby neighborhood. The speed and convenience of service for clients’ interests are put in high priority and suits their schedule. An equally important component of the retail trade are the retail functions that play crucial roles and they include; research of products, implementation of storage, setting of pricing policy, arrangements of products and its selection for the creation of different merchandise assortments, exploration of the condition prevailing in the market. This channel is considered to be beneficial if; the volume of pre-sale and post-sale is insignificant, the amount of segments of the market is not enormous, the assortment of goods and products is broad. Ultimately, the significance of intermediaries in distribution business is vital as they help consumers obtain a particular good of a particular brand without unnecessary steps. Thus, mediators play an important role in establishing a correspondence between demand and supply.\n",
"Walmart, Inc., like many large retail and grocery chain stores, offers private brands (also called house brands, generic brands, or store brands), which are lower-priced alternatives to name brand products. Many products offered under Walmart brands are private label products, but in other cases, the production volume is enough for Walmart to operate an entire factory.\n",
"They may be manufactured by less prominent companies or manufactured on the same production line as a 'named' brand. Generic brands are usually priced below those products sold by supermarkets under their \"own\" brand (frequently referred to as \"store brands\" or \"own brands\"). Generally they imitate these more expensive brands, competing on price. Generic brand products are often of equal quality as a branded product; however, the quality may change suddenly in either direction with no change in the packaging if the supplier for the product changes.\n",
"Products from this company bear more than one brand. Common examples are \"Durabrand\" (Sold by Wal-Mart since early 2003), and \"Audio Solutions\" (sold by Walgreens). They also sell with their own name \"Lenoxx Sound\". Market position is at the low end with products rarely over $80. The company's products are often sold at discount and drug stores, but rarely in other markets.\n",
"The company's products are divided into two lines, with very similar entries but sold toward different audiences. They are marketed through large retail chains, particularly Toys \"R\" Us and Target, as well as Amazon.com.\n",
"The company's products are mostly resold through vendors, such as Best Buy, Apple and Target. However, online retailers, such as Amazon.com and Crutchfield, also play in the role of distributing and reselling the products manufactured by the company. According to a press release in November 2011, the company had over 6,300 retail locations that housed their products in North America.\n",
"Traditional marketing for new generation has been changed in last 5years. Customer wants to buy anything (e.g. Groceries, Garments, Foot Ware, FMCG etc.) from a decorated shopping outlet, where everything is open, customer can choose the product which is best for them, which is not possible in the local shops. Also, we are not just selling a product, we are making a customer’s future by selling it. That is the most different thing from other retail chain in the world. On that basis, we are targeting those customers and that’s why our growth percentage is so high. \n"
] |
why are toilets round?
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Your ass is round.
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[
"Chutes are in common use in tall buildings to allow the rapid transport of items from the upper floors to a central location on one of the lower floors or basement. Chutes may be round, square or rectangular at the top and/or the bottom.\n",
"Squircles have also been used to construct dinner plates. A squircular plate has a larger area (and can thus hold more food) than a circular one with the same radius, but still occupies the same amount of space in a rectangular or square cupboard. This is even more true of a square plate, but there are various problems (such as fragility, and difficulty of wiping up sauce) associated with the corners of square plates.\n",
"In architecture, a squinch is a construction filling in (or rounding off) the upper angles of a square room so as to form a base to receive an octagonal or spherical dome. Another solution to this structural problem was provided by the pendentive, commonly used in Western architecture.\n",
"Buildings in Australia no longer use the square as a unit of measure, and has been replaced by square metres. The measurement was often used by estate agents to make the building sound larger as the measure includes the areas outside under the eaves, and so cannot be directly compared to the internal floor area. Residential buildings in the state of Victoria, Australia are sometimes still advertised in squares.\n",
"Box patterns are juggling patterns that combine vertical, columns-like throws with horizontal throws, such as in the shower pattern. Box patterns are so named due to the props in the pattern apparently tracing several sides of a box in the air, and can be performed with any number of props greater than or equal to two, synchronously (see right) or asynchronously (e.g. 612).\n",
"Some forms of jargon have their own terms for toilets, including \"lavatory\" on commercial airplanes, \"head\" on ships, and \"latrine\" in military contexts. Larger houses often have a secondary room with a toilet and sink for use by guests. These are typically known as \"powder rooms\" or \"half baths\" in North America, and \"cloakrooms\" in Britain.\n",
"The system of squinches, which is a construction filling in the upper angles of a square room so as to form a base to receive an octagonal or spherical dome, was already known in Sasanian architecture. The spherical triangles of the squinches were split up into further subdivisions or systems of niches, resulting in a complex interplay of supporting structures forming an ornamental spatial pattern which hides the weight of the structure.\n"
] |
how did other languages adopt the latin alphabet?
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Did a little search and found this, might interest you
_URL_0_
Seems that a major factor is the spread of Western Christianity and the roman empire.
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[
"The Latin alphabet spread from Italy, along with the Latin language, to the lands surrounding the Mediterranean Sea with the expansion of the Roman Empire. The eastern half of the Roman Empire, including Greece, Asia Minor, the Levant, and Egypt, continued to use Greek as a lingua franca, but Latin was widely spoken in the western half of the Empire, and as the western Romance languages, including French, Italian, Portuguese, Spanish and Catalan, evolved out of Latin they continued to use and adapt the Latin alphabet.\n",
"The Latin letters' ancestors are found in the Etruscan, Greek and ultimately Phoenician alphabet. As the Roman Empire expanded in late antiquity, the Latin script and language spread along with its conquests, and remained in use in Italy, Iberia and Western Europe after the Western Roman Empire's disappearance. During the early and high Middle Ages, the script was spread by Christian missionaries and rulers, replacing earlier writing systems on the British Isles, Central and Northern Europe.\n",
"The Latin alphabet spread, along with the Latin language, from the Italian Peninsula to the lands surrounding the Mediterranean Sea with the expansion of the Roman Empire. The eastern half of the Empire, including Greece, Turkey, the Levant, and Egypt, continued to use Greek as a lingua franca, but Latin was widely spoken in the western half, and as the western Romance languages evolved out of Latin, they continued to use and adapt the Latin alphabet.\n",
"It is generally held that the Latins adopted the western variant of the Greek alphabet in the 7th century BC from Cumae, a Greek colony in southern Italy – making the early Latin alphabet one among several Old Italic alphabets emerging at the time.\n",
"There are two families of manual alphabets used for representing the Latin alphabet in the modern world. The more common of the two is mostly produced on one hand, and can be traced back to alphabetic signs used in Europe from at least the early 15th century. The alphabet, first described completely by Spanish monks, was adopted by the Abbé de l'Épée's deaf school in Paris in the 18th century, and was then spread to deaf communities around the world in the 19th and 20th centuries via educators who had learned it in Paris. Over time, variations have emerged, brought about by natural phonetic changes that occur over time, adaptions for local written forms with special characters or diacritics (which are sometimes represented with the other hand), and avoidance of handshapes that are considered obscene in some cultures. The most widely used modern descendant is the American manual alphabet.\n",
"The Latin alphabet spread, along with Latin, from the Italian Peninsula to the lands surrounding the Mediterranean Sea with the expansion of the Roman Empire. The eastern half of the Empire, including Greece, Turkey, the Levant, and Egypt, continued to use Greek as a lingua franca, but Latin was widely spoken in the western half, and as the western Romance languages evolved out of Latin, they continued to use and adapt the Latin alphabet.\n",
"After the Roman conquest of Greece in the 1st century BC, Latin adopted the Greek letters and (or readopted, in the latter case) to write Greek loanwords, placing them at the end of the alphabet. An attempt by the emperor Claudius to introduce three additional letters did not last. Thus it was during the classical Latin period that the Latin alphabet contained 23 letters:\n"
] |
what made concorde so fast compared to other commercial planes?
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It was built to go that fast. The market isn't really willing to deal with the costs and complications of a plane like as compared to 747s and other craft we'd now call conventional though, so the concorde failed.
It's just like how someone can build ships that go far faster than your average freighter, but the average freighter is more profitable even taking into account the potential for a faster ship to run cargo faster.
Bigger and better engines are usually going to cost more to travel the same distance between fuel and maintenance costs. Often the time savings isn't worth that extra cost.
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[
"Within its own category in commercial aviation, the supersonic airliner Concorde began service in 1976. Its four Rolls Royce/Snecma Olympus 593 turbojets allowed it to cruise at twice the speed of sound. At the time of inception it was regarded as the future of air transportation. However, in large part due to high operating costs and noise issues, Concorde never achieved the predicted level of success.\n",
"While subsonic commercial jets took eight hours to fly from New York to Paris, the average supersonic flight time on the transatlantic routes was just under 3.5 hours. Concorde had a maximum cruise altitude of and an average cruise speed of Mach 2.02, about 1155 knots (2140 km/h or 1334 mph), more than twice the speed of conventional aircraft.\n",
"Concorde was originally designed for cruising speeds up to Mach 2.2, but its regular service speed was limited to Mach 2.02 to reduce fuel consumption, extend airframe life and provide a higher safety margin. One of Tupolev's web site pages states that \"TU-144 and TU-160 aircraft operation has demonstrated expediency of limitation of cruise supersonic speed of M=2.0 to provide structure service life and to limit cruising altitude\".\n",
"Both Wiggs and the Anti-Concord Project claimed that the Concorde was louder than conventional aircraft on take-off and landing as a result of its delta wing being optimized for high speeds so it needed to use more power than conventional aircraft. When measured in 1977, the British Civil Aviation Authority (CAA) noted:\n",
"Concorde had considerable difficulties that led to its dismal sales performance. Costs had spiralled during development to more than six times the original projections, arriving at a unit cost of £23 million in 1977 (equivalent to £ million in ). Its sonic boom made travelling supersonically over land impossible without causing complaints from citizens. World events had also dampened Concorde sales prospects, the 1973-74 stock market crash and the 1973 oil crisis had made many airlines cautious about aircraft with high fuel consumption rates; and new wide-body aircraft, such as the Boeing 747, had recently made subsonic aircraft significantly more efficient and presented a low-risk option for airlines. While carrying a full load, Concorde achieved 15.8 passenger miles per gallon of fuel, while the Boeing 707 reached 33.3 pm/g, the Boeing 747 46.4 pm/g, and the McDonnell Douglas DC-10 53.6 pm/g. An emerging trend in the industry in favour of cheaper airline tickets had also caused airlines such as Qantas to question Concorde's market suitability.\n",
"In practice all supersonic transports have used essentially the same shape for subsonic and supersonic flight, and a compromise in performance is chosen, often to the detriment of low speed flight. For example, Concorde had very high drag (a lift to drag ratio of about 4) at slow speed, but it travelled at high speed for most of the flight. Designers of Concorde spent 5000 hours optimizing the vehicle shape in wind tunnel tests to maximize the overall performance over the entire flightplan.\n",
"When Concorde was being designed by Aérospatiale–BAC, high bypass jet engines (\"turbofan\" engines) had not yet been deployed on subsonic aircraft. Had Concorde entered service against earlier designs like the Boeing 707 or de Havilland Comet, it would have been much more competitive though the 707 and DC-8 still carried more passengers. When these high bypass jet engines reached commercial service in the 1960s, subsonic jet engines immediately became much more efficient, closer to the efficiency of turbojets at supersonic speeds. One major advantage of the SST disappeared.\n"
] |
Is it possible to make 100% pure alcohol?
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One thing to consider is the definition of purity, and the fact that it's essentially impossible for any macroscopic sample of a substance to be 100% pure at room temperature.
I can confidently say that nobody has ever made a bottle of ethanol that contains no other molecule. We probably haven't even made a bottle of ethanol that contains no detectable impurities, partly because chemists are very, very, very good at detecting infinitesimal quantities of substances using instruments like accelerated mass spectrometers.
Let's say, for the sake of argument, that you had a magic wand that could fill a glass or plastic bottle with ethanol and absolutely nothing else. Within a few milliseconds, it would no longer be pure. The bottle material would start to dissolve into the ethanol. What's more, the ethanol would undergo a process called auto-ionization, in which one ethanol hydroxyl group will transfer a proton to a neighboring molecule. Suddenly, you have some units of ethanolium ethoxide dissolved in your previously pure bottle of ethanol.
More exotic chemical reactions can also begin to occur to a small extent, making any number of pyrolysis, addition, and condensation products. On a macroscopic scale it's never considered, but it does not bode well for a sample that is supposed to be absolutely pure.
|
[
"However alcoholic drinks cannot be further purified to 0.00% alcohol by volume by distillation. In fact, most drinks labeled non-alcoholic contain 0.5% ABV as it is more profitable than distilling it to 0.05% ABV often found in products sold by companies specializing in non-alcoholic drinks.\n",
"Alcohol of more than 12% can be achieved by using yeast that can withstand high alcohol. Some yeasts can produce 18% alcohol in the wine however extra sugar is added to produce a high alcohol content.\n",
"Ethanol cannot be concentrated by ordinary distillation to greater than 97.2% by volume (95.6% by weight), because at that concentration, the vapor has the same ratio of water to alcohol as the liquid, a phenomenon known as azeotropy. The 190-proof variation of Everclear is 92.4% ethanol by weight and is thus produced at approximately the practical limit of distillation purity.\n",
"The concentration of alcohol in a beverage is usually stated as the percentage of alcohol by volume (ABV, the number of milliliters (ml) of pure ethanol in 100 ml of beverage) or as \"proof\". In the United States, \"proof\" is twice the percentage of alcohol by volume at 60 degrees Fahrenheit (e.g. 80 proof = 40% ABV). \"Degrees proof\" were formerly used in the United Kingdom, where 100 degrees proof was equivalent to 57.1% ABV. Historically, this was the most dilute spirit that would sustain the combustion of gunpowder.\n",
"Ordinary distillation cannot produce alcohol of more than 95.6% by weight, which is about 97.2% ABV (194.4 proof) because at that point alcohol is an azeotrope with water. A spirit which contains a very high level of alcohol and \"does not contain any added flavoring\" is commonly called a neutral spirit. Generally, any distilled alcoholic beverage of 170 US proof or higher is considered to be a neutral spirit.\n",
"Alcohol 52% is a version of Alcohol 120% without the burning engine. It can still create image files, and mount those images on up to 31 virtual drives. There are two versions of Alcohol 52%, free and 30-day trial. The free version contains an optional adware toolbar bundled and is limited to 6 virtual drives.\n",
"Up to the 20th century, alcoholic spirits were assessed in the UK by mixing with gunpowder and testing the mixture to see whether it would still burn; spirit that just passed the test was said to be at 100° proof. The UK now uses percentage alcohol by volume at 20 °C (68 °F), where spirit at 100° proof is approximately 57.15% ABV; the US uses a \"proof number\" of twice the ABV at 60 °F (15.5 °C).\n"
] |
how would alien races communicate via mathematics?
|
You could do this using a series of pulses from an electromagnetic beam.
Let's say you send out a group of 5 pulses. After a pause, you send out 7 more. After another pause, you send out 12.
It doesn't matter what language the aliens speak and it doesn't matter what base their number system is expressed in or what symbols they use (if any) to record mathematical expressions. That 5 + 7 = 12 is a universal mathematical truth, and aliens on the lookout for intelligent life who have the capability to receive the signal could interpret this message.
The purpose isn't to communicate just any message. It's to communicate the specific message that there is intelligent life present.
|
[
"The problem of alien language has confronted generations of science fiction writers; some have created fictional languages for their characters to use, while others have circumvented the problem through translation devices or other fantastic technology. For example, the Star Trek universe makes use of a 'universal translator', which explains why such different races, often meeting for the first time, are able to communicate with each other.\n",
"Linguist Keren Rice posits that basic communication between humans and aliens should be possible, unless \"the things that we think are common to languages—situating in time [and] space, talking about participants, etc.—are so radically different that the human language provides no starting point for it.\"\n",
"BULLET::::- Marvin Minsky (MIT AI researcher): Believes that aliens may think similarly to humans because of shared constraints, permitting communication. First proposed the idea of including algorithms within an interstellar message.\n",
"Decades after the Terran Civil War the aliens arrive and attempt to colonize an inhabited human world. They are not able to recognize the intelligence of the planet's inhabitants, because they do not recognize human forms of communication as communication.\n",
"In the \"Star Control\" computer game series, almost all races are implied to have universal translators; however, discrepancies between the ways aliens choose to translate themselves sometimes crop up and complicate communications. The VUX, for instance, are cited as having uniquely advanced skills in linguistics and can translate human language long before humans are capable of doing the same to the VUX. This created a problem during the first contact between Vux and humans, in a starship commanded by Captain Rand. According to \"Star Control: Great Battles of the Ur-Quan Conflict\", Captain Rand is referred to as saying \"That is one ugly sucker\" when the image of a VUX first came onto his viewscreen. However, in \"Star Control II\", Captain Rand is referred to as saying \"That is the ugliest freak-face I've ever seen\" to his first officer, along with joking that the VUX name stands for Very Ugly Xenoform. It is debatable which source is canon. Whichever the remark, it is implied that the VUX's advanced Universal Translator technologies conveyed the exact meaning of Captain Rand's words. The effete VUX used the insult as an excuse for hostility toward humans.\n",
"Also during this period, Archer has the distinction of making Earth's official first contact with dozens of alien races, including the Andorians, , Suliban, , Tellarites, Tholians, Xindi and Romulans (although this is not a face-to-face contact).\n",
"In 2016, McGill University Linguistics Professor, Jessica Coon, spoke with Business Insider about how 2016 sci-fi blockbuster, \"Arrival\", properly portrayed how humans might actually communicate with aliens. To create this language, film producers consulted with Wolfram Research Founder and CEO, Stephen Wolfram - creator of the computer programming language known as the Wolfram Language - and his son, Christopher. Together, they helped analyze approximately 100 logograms that ultimately served as the basis for the alien language utilized throughout the film. This work, along with many other thoughts with regard to artificial intelligence communication has been documented in an interview published by Space.com. During production, Wolfram's personal copy of \"Lincos: Design of a Language for Cosmic Intercourse\" was also on set.\n"
] |
I stumbled across an image of the inside of the Hagia Sophia, it appears Christian imagery was not removed by the ottomans, why was this?
|
These mosaics were painted over but not removed when the city was taken by Mehmed II. Minarets, minbar, and mihrab were added and it became a functional mosque. After the fall of the empire and the transformation of the Hagia Sophia from mosque into museum in the 1920s, restorationists removed some of the plaster and whitewash to reveal the mosaics underneath.
|
[
"Hagia Sophia (from the , \"Holy Wisdom\"; or \"Sancta Sapientia\"; ) is a former Orthodox patriarchal basilica, later a mosque, and now a museum in Istanbul, Turkey. From the date of its dedication in 360 until 1453, it served as the Greek Patriarchal cathedral of Constantinople, except between 1204 and 1261, when it was converted to a Roman Catholic cathedral under the Latin Patriarch of Constantinople of the Western Crusader established Latin Empire. In 1453, Constantinople was conquered by the Ottoman Turks under Sultan Mehmed II, who subsequently ordered the building converted into a mosque. The bells, altar, iconostasis, and sacrificial vessels were removed and many of the mosaics were plastered over. Islamic features – such as the mihrab, minbar, and four minarets – were added while in the possession of the Ottomans. The building was a mosque from 29 May 1453 until 1931, when it was secularised. It was opened as a museum on 1 February 1935.\n",
"Hagia Sophia was the seat of the Orthodox patriarch of Constantinople and a principal setting for Byzantine imperial ceremonies, such as coronations. Like other churches throughout Christendom, the basilica offered sanctuary from persecution to outlaws.\n",
"Hagia Sophia (; from the Greek Αγία Σοφία, , \"Holy Wisdom\"; or \"Sancta Sapientia\"; ) is the former Greek Orthodox Christian patriarchal cathedral, later an Ottoman imperial mosque and now a museum (\"Ayasofya Müzesi\") in Istanbul, Turkey. Built in AD 537 at the beginning of the Middle Ages, it was famous in particular for its massive dome. It was the world's largest building and an engineering marvel of its time. It is considered the epitome of Byzantine architecture and is said to have \"changed the history of architecture\".\n",
"Hagia Sophia (, meaning \"Holy Wisdom\" ) is a museum, formerly Greek Orthodox church which was converted into a mosque in 1584, and located in Trabzon, in the north-eastern part of Turkey. It dates back to the thirteenth century when Trabzon was the capital of the Empire of Trebizond. It is located near the seashore and two miles west of the medieval town's limits. It is one of a few dozen Byzantine sites still extant in the area. It has been described as being \"regarded as one of the finest examples of Byzantine architecture.\"\n",
"Since the 3rd century, there was a church in the location of the current Hagia Sophia. In the 8th century, the present structure was erected, based on the Hagia Sophia in Constantinople (present-day Istanbul, Turkey). In 1205, when the Fourth Crusade captured the city, the Hagia Sophia was converted into the cathedral of Thessaloniki, which it remained after the city was returned to the Byzantine Empire in 1246. After the capture of Thessaloniki by the Ottoman Sultan Murad II on 29 March 1430, the church was converted into a mosque. It was reconverted to a church upon the liberation of Thessaloniki in 1912.\n",
"When the Ottomans had conquered Constantinople, they found a variety of Byzantine Christian churches, the largest and most prominent amongst them was the Hagia Sophia. The brickwork-and-mortar ribs and the spherical shell of the central dome of the Hagia Sophia were built simultaneously, as a self-supporting structure without any wooden centring. In the early Byzantine church of Hagia Irene, the ribs of the dome vault are fully integrated into the shell, similar to Western Roman domes, and thus are not visible from within the building. In the dome of the Hagia Sophia, the ribs and shell of the dome unite in a central medallion at the apex of the dome, the upper ends of the ribs being integrated into the shell: Shell and ribs form one single structural entity. In later Byzantine buildings, like the Kalenderhane Mosque, the Eski Imaret Mosque (formerly the Monastery of Christ Pantepoptes) or the Pantokrator Monastery (today: Zeyrek Mosque), the central medallion of the apex and the ribs of the dome became separate structural elements: The ribs are more pronounced and connect to the central medallion, which also stands out more pronouncedly, so that the entire construction gives the impression as if ribs and medallion are separate from, and underpin, the proper shell of the dome.\n",
"The \"Hagia Sophia\" was converted into a mosque, but the Greek Orthodox Church was allowed to remain intact and Gennadius Scholarius was appointed Patriarch of Constantinople. This was once thought to be the origin of the Ottoman \"millet\" system; however, it is now considered a myth and no such system existed in the fifteenth century.\n"
] |
the zapatista movement
|
Ooh, I was just looking into this! So basically, they are a guerrilla group of (mostly agricultural and ethnically Mayan) farmers that seek to limit government and foreign incursions into Chiapas, the southernmost state of Mexico. Their ideology is "Neozapatism", a blend of Marxism, anarchism and Mayan culture.
|
[
"The Zapatista Army of National Liberation (\"Ejército Zapatista de Liberación Nacional\", EZLN) often referred to as the \"zapatistas\" is a revolutionary leftist group based in Chiapas, the southernmost state of Mexico. Since 1994, the group has been in a declared war \"against the Mexican state\", though this war has been primarily nonviolent and defensive against military, paramilitary and corporate incursions into Chiapas. Their social base is mostly rural indigenous people, but they have some supporters in urban areas and internationally. Their former spokesperson was Subcomandante Marcos (also known as Delegate Zero in relation to The Other Campaign). Unlike other Zapatist spokespeople, Marcos is not an indigenous Maya. Since December 1994, the Zapatistas had been gradually forming several autonomous municipalities, called Rebel Zapatista Autonomous Municipalities (MAREZ). In these municipalities, an assembly of local representatives forms the \"Juntas de Buen Gobierno\" or Councils of Good Government (JBGs). These are not recognized by the federal or state governments and they oversee local community programs on food, health and education as well as taxation. The EZLN political formations have happened in two phases generally called \"Aquascalientes\" and \"Caracoles\".\n",
"The Zapatista Army of National Liberation (\"Ejército Zapatista de Liberación Nacional\", EZLN), often referred to as the Zapatistas , is a far-left libertarian-socialist political and militant group that controls a substantial amount of territory in Chiapas, the southernmost state of Mexico.\n",
"The Zapatista movement and its philosophy tend to not focus on international issues or concepts of international politics, but there have been some statements and opinions on the matter. The Zapatista movement backs the idea of Internationalism as a means to liberate the world from capitalist oppression as they try to do themselves. The Zapatista movement allows for cooperation with other similar movements and sympathizers worldwide, fundraising is often done outside of the Zapatista Chiapas.\n",
"The plan proclaimed the Zapatista demands for \"Reforma, Libertad, Ley y Justicia\" (Reform, Freedom, Law and Justice). Zapata also declared the Maderistas as a counter-revolution and denounced Madero. Zapata mobilized his Liberation Army and allied with former Maderistas Pascual Orozco and Emiliano Vázquez Gómez. Orozco was from Chihuahua, near the U.S. border, and thus was able to aid the Zapatistas with a supply of arms.\n",
"The Ejército Zapatista de Liberación Nacional (EZLN) (Zapatista Army of National Liberation) was founded in the Lacandon Jungle in 1983, initially functioning as a self-defense unit dedicated to protecting Chiapas' Mayan people from evictions and encroachment on their land. While not Mayan himself, Marcos emerged as the group's leader, and when the EZLN – often referred to as Zapatistas – began their rebellion on January 1, 1994, Marcos served as their spokesman.\n",
"The Zapatista movement take various stances on how to change the political atmosphere of capitalism. The Zapatista philosophy on revolution is complicated and extensive. On the issue of voting in capitalist countries' elections, the movement rejects the idea of capitalist voting altogether, instead calling to organize for resistance. They neither ask for people to vote or not to vote, only to organize. The Zapatistas have engaged in armed struggle, specifically in the Chiapas conflict, because they said their peaceful means of protest had failed to achieve results. The Zapatistas consider the Mexican government so out of touch with its people it is illegitimate. Other than violence in the Chiapas conflict the Zapatistas have organized peaceful protests such as The Other Campaign, although some of their peaceful protests have turned violent after police interactions.\n",
"The Zapatista uprising of 1994 was a rebellion in Chiapas, Mexico, coordinated by the Zapatista Army of National Liberation. Launched in response to the implementation of the North American Free Trade Agreement, the rebellion resulted in the San Andrés Accords, granting a number of rights, autonomy, and recognition for the indigenous population of Chiapas. Low-level skirmishes and violent incidences relating to the Zapatista uprising continues to persist in Chiapas.\n"
] |
why does american television show naked babies bottoms, but won't show a grown person's?
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one is sexualized, one isnt. Some people will be aroused by feet anyway, its just how it goes. our society has decided baby butts are ok as long as they arent used in a sexual theme. If the watcher wants to find it sexual, thats their business.
with that said, you can find plenty of adult butts on tv, I recall NYPD Blue made headlines some 20 years ago with the first butt on network television.
|
[
"\"I never treated them as though they were in swaddling clothes,\" he said many years later of his young viewers. \"Most kid shows regard young viewers as babies. I wanted to treat them as their parents might if they were on TV.\"\n",
"Although child-sized bikinis appeared in the 1950s, in many European countries, swimsuits below size 11 are commonly not sold with a separate top, but in the United States, Britain, and Canada, it has often been considered unacceptable for girls in late childhood (ages 7–11) to go topless. Several incidents of families being evicted from public pools due to their child being topless have been reported. In 2002, clothing retailer Abercrombie & Fitch came under criticism for selling child-sized thong bikinis and underwear.\n",
"They are dressed in revealing clothes or evening gowns, and some children wear high heels. Children are in “Child Beauty Pageants” only because of their age. These children are judged along the same criteria as an adult pageant woman would be judged on. Stated by Laura Pappano, in a New York Times featuring child pageants, \"beauty pageants in particular blur the lines between what is cute and what is sensual. \"This is not about cutest baby contests, which most people would see as harmless enough, but rather about adult-like competitions featuring kids pretending to be sexy adults\". \n",
"The spokesman quoted Dr. Brian Young of Exeter University as saying \"parents may feel awkward but I don't think children see the dolls as sexy. They just think they're pretty.\" Isaac Larian, in comments given to the BBC, voiced the opinion that the report was a \"bunch of garbage\" and that the people who wrote it were acting irresponsibly.\n",
"In actuality, when the show aired in the UK, few parents intervened even when their babies were extremely upset, and the nannies gave controversial advice, including letting babies \"cry it out\". One older baby was refused a clean nappy because he had been potty-trained before the show started.\n",
"As a consequence of the public and media reaction to the incident, major networks edited some of their shows. CBS removed a shot of a naked man from \"Without a Trace\", while NBC deleted a two-second shot of an elderly woman's breast from \"ER\". Subsequently, prime time television networks became more reluctant to show even non-explicit nudity in their TV shows. In the current climate, nudity is almost unknown on any broadcast television show — with the exception being animated series such as \"The Simpsons\" and \"Family Guy\" (which spoofed the conservative phase of American television in the episode \"PTV\").\n",
"There are differences of opinion as to whether, and if so to what extent, parents should appear naked in front of their children. Gordon and Schroeder report that parental nudity varies considerably from family to family. They say that \"there is nothing inherently wrong with bathing with children or otherwise appearing naked in front of them\", noting that doing so may provide an opportunity for parents to provide important information. They note that by ages five to six, children begin to develop a sense of modesty, and recommend to parents who wish to be sensitive to their children's wishes that they limit such activities from that age onwards. Bonner recommends against nudity in the home if children exhibit sexual play of a type that is considered problematic.\n"
] |
Why do the Indian and Chinese depictions of Buddha differ so much?
|
Are you referring to the fat Chinese Buddha? He's just a folklore deity named [Budai](_URL_2_), not a depiction of Siddhartha Gautama.
[This is one of the largest Buddha statue in Sichuan, China](_URL_1_), [here's a Buddha statue in Shaolin Temple](_URL_0_), and [here's a generic mass-produced Buddha statue](_URL_3_) from China, they are not that different from Indian ones.
|
[
"Although India had a long sculptural tradition and a mastery of rich iconography, the Buddha was never represented in human form, but only through Buddhist symbolism. This period may have been aniconic.\n",
"Although India had a long sculptural tradition and a mastery of rich iconography, the Buddha was never represented in human form before this time, but only through some of his symbols. This may be because Gandharan Buddhist sculpture in modern Afghanistan displays Greek and Persian artistic influence. Artistically, the Gandharan school of sculpture is said to have contributed wavy hair, drapery covering both shoulders, shoes and sandals, acanthus leaf decorations, etc.\n",
"Buddha images are not intended to be naturalistic representations of what Gautama Buddha looked like. There are no contemporary images of him, and the oldest Buddha images date from 500 to 600 years after his lifetime. But Buddhists believe that Buddha images represent an ideal reality of the Buddha, and that every Buddha image stands at the end of a succession of images reaching back to the Buddha himself.\n",
"Native Chinese religions do not usually use cult images of deities, or even represent them, and large religious sculpture is nearly all Buddhist, dating mostly from the 4th to the 14th century, and initially using Greco-Buddhist models arriving via the Silk Road. Buddhism is also the context of all large portrait sculpture; in total contrast to some other areas in medieval China even painted images of the emperor were regarded as private. Imperial tombs have spectacular avenues of approach lined with real and mythological animals on a scale matching Egypt, and smaller versions decorate temples and palaces. Small Buddhist figures and groups were produced to a very high quality in a range of media, as was relief decoration of all sorts of objects, especially in metalwork and jade. Sculptors of all sorts were regarded as artisans and very few names are recorded.\n",
"The anthropomorphic representation of the Buddha is totally absent from Indo-Greek coinage. This could suggest that the Indo-Greek kings respected the Indian aniconic rule for Buddhist depictions, limiting themselves to Buddhist symbolism only (the dharma wheel, the seated lion). According to this perspective, the actual depiction of the Buddha would be a later phenomenon, usually dated to the 1st century CE, emerging from the sponsorship of the Indo-Scythians, Indo-Parthians and Kushans and executed by Greek, and, later, Indian and possibly Roman artists. Datation of Greco-Buddhist statues is generally uncertain, but they are at least firmly established from the 1st century CE.\n",
"The anthropomorphic representation of the Buddha is absent from Indo-Greek coinage, suggesting that the Indo-Greek kings may have respected the Indian an-iconic rule for depictions of the Buddha, limiting themselves to symbolic representation only. Consistently with this perspective, the actual depiction of the Buddha would be a later phenomenon, usually dated to the 1st century, emerging from the sponsorship of the syncretic Kushan Empire and executed by Greek, and, later, Indian and possibly Roman artists. Datation of Greco-Buddhist statues is generally uncertain, but they are at least firmly established from the 1st century.\n",
"Native Chinese religions do not usually use cult images of deities, or even represent them, and large religious sculpture is nearly all Buddhist, dating mostly from the 4th to the 14th century, and initially using Greco-Buddhist models arriving via the Silk Road. Buddhism is also the context of all large portrait sculpture; in total contrast to some other areas, in medieval China even painted images of the emperor were regarded as private. Imperial tombs have spectacular avenues of approach lined with real and mythological animals on a scale matching Egypt, and smaller versions decorate temples and palaces.\n"
] |
how are dubbing voices replaced without messing with background noises?
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Basically, all the footage and sound effects are kept as separate files. These days there’s software that you can load these files into and then arrange and edit, and then the software will compile it all into the video that’s actually distributed to tv networks, streaming sites, or movie theaters. Different audio is typically recorded separately, so voice acting and sound effects are stored in different files - even different lines likely are stored as separate files. This makes dubbing largely just a matter loading a different set of voice files into the software. If it’s animated, they might also edit the facial animations.
The exact process can vary depending on techniques used, but that’s the basic idea
|
[
"Dubbing is occasionally used on network television broadcasts of films that contain dialogue that the network executives or censors have decided to replace. This is usually done to remove profanity. In most cases, the original actor does not perform this duty, but an actor with a similar voice reads the changes. The results are sometimes seamless, but, in many cases, the voice of the replacement actor sounds nothing like the original performer, which becomes particularly noticeable when extensive dialogue must be replaced. Also, often easy to notice, is the sudden absence of background sounds in the movie during the dubbed dialogue. Among the films considered notorious for using substitute actors that sound very different from their theatrical counterparts are the \"Smokey and the Bandit\" and the \"Die Hard\" film series, as shown on broadcasters such as TBS. In the case of \"Smokey and the Bandit\", extensive dubbing was done for the first network airing on ABC Television in 1978, especially for Jackie Gleason's character, Buford T. Justice. The dubbing of his phrase \"sombitch\" (son of a bitch) became \"scum bum,\" which became a catchphrase of the time.\n",
"In the traditional subtitling countries, dubbing is generally regarded as something strange and unnatural and is only used for animated films and TV programs intended for pre-school children. As animated films are \"dubbed\" even in their original language and ambient noise and effects are usually recorded on a separate sound track, dubbing a low quality production into a second language produces little or no noticeable effect on the viewing experience. In dubbed live-action television or film, however, viewers are often distracted by the fact that the audio does not match the actors' lip movements. Furthermore, the dubbed voices may seem detached, inappropriate for the character, or overly expressive, and some ambient sounds may not be transferred to the dubbed track, creating a less enjoyable viewing experience.\n",
"The process usually takes place on a dub stage. After sound editors edit and prepare all the necessary tracks – dialogue, automated dialogue replacement (ADR), effects, Foley, music – the dubbing mixers proceed to balance all of the elements and record the finished soundtrack. Dubbing is sometimes confused with ADR, also known as \"additional dialogue replacement\", \"automated dialogue recording\" and \"looping\", in which the original actors re-record and synchronize audio segments.\n",
"Initially, dubbing and doing voice-overs was a performance of actors who used only their voice, who were called . For convenience, the term was shortened to a new compound consisting of the first and last kanji to make .\n",
"In sound recording, dubbing is the transfer or copying of previously recorded audio material from one medium to another of the same or a different type. It may be done with a machine designed for this purpose, or by connecting two different machines: one to play back and one to record the signal. The purpose of dubbing may be simply to make multiple copies of audio programs, or it may be done to preserve programs on old media which are deteriorating and may otherwise be lost. \n",
"Dubbing is commonly used in science fiction television, as well. Sound generated by effects equipment such as animatronic puppets or by actors' movements on elaborate multi-level plywood sets (for example, starship bridges or other command centers) will quite often make the original character dialogue unusable. \"Stargate\" and \"Farscape\" are two prime examples where ADR is used heavily to produce usable audio.\n",
"Scenes where dialogue is replaced using dubbing also feature Foley sounds. Automatic dialogue replacement (ADR) is the process in which voice sounds are recorded in post production. This is done by a machine that runs the voice sounds with the film forward and backward to get the sound to run with the film. The objective of the ADR technique is to add sound effects into the film after filming, so the voice sounds are synchronized. Many sounds are not added at the time of filming, and microphones might not capture a sound the way the audience expects to hear it. The need for Foley rose dramatically when studios began to distribute films internationally, dubbed in other languages. As dialogue is replaced, all sound effects recorded at the time of the dialogue are lost as well.\n"
] |
why are people with a latex allergy also allergic to bananas? what's the connection?
|
The banana contains a protein which is very similar in chemical structure to latex. So if you're sensitive to one, there's about a 50% chance that you're sensitive to the other as well.
_URL_0_
|
[
"People who have latex allergy also may have or develop an allergic response to some plants and/or products of these plants such as fruits. This is known as the \"latex-fruit syndrome\". Fruits (and seeds) involved in this syndrome include banana, pineapple, avocado, chestnut, kiwi fruit, mango, passionfruit, fig, strawberry, papaya, apple, melon, celery, potato, tomato, carrot, and soy. Some, but not all of these fruits contain a form of latex.\n",
"Latex and banana sensitivity may cross-react. Furthermore, those with latex allergy may also have sensitivities to avocado, kiwifruit, and chestnut. These people often have perioral itching and local urticaria. Only occasionally have these food-induced allergies induced systemic responses. Researchers suspect that the cross-reactivity of latex with banana, avocado, kiwifruit, and chestnut occurs because latex proteins are structurally homologous with some other plant proteins.\n",
"Some people have allergic reactions to avocado. There are two main forms of allergy: those with a tree-pollen allergy develop local symptoms in the mouth and throat shortly after eating avocado; the second, known as latex-fruit syndrome, is related to latex allergy and symptoms include generalised urticaria, abdominal pain, and vomiting and can sometimes be life-threatening.\n",
"People suffering from allergies may suffer from a hypersensitivity to the allergic food, which is what causes the allergic reaction. Most fruit allergies are oral syndrome allergies because they are consumed but may also be an external allergy if the fruit touches the skin.\n",
"There are many different types of fruits that people have been shown to react allergically such as mangoes and bananas. Some foods are clearly more allergenic than others. In adults, peanuts, tree nuts, finned fish, crustaceans, fruit, and vegetables account for 85% of the food-allergic reactions(O'Neil, Zanovec and Nickla).\n",
"Allergic reactions to fruit and vegetables are usually mild and often just affect the mouth, causing itching, a rash, or blisters where the food touches the lips and mouth. This is called oral allergy syndrome. A number of people who react in this way to fruit or vegetables will also react to pollen from some trees and weeds. So, for example, people who are allergic to birch pollen are also likely to be allergic to apples.\n",
"One form of apple allergy, often found in northern Europe, is called birch-apple syndrome and is found in people who are also allergic to birch pollen. Allergic reactions are triggered by a protein in apples that is similar to birch pollen, and people affected by this protein can also develop allergies to other fruits, nuts, and vegetables. Reactions, which entail oral allergy syndrome (OAS), generally involve itching and inflammation of the mouth and throat, but in rare cases can also include life-threatening anaphylaxis. This reaction only occurs when raw fruit is consumed—the allergen is neutralized in the cooking process. The variety of apple, maturity and storage conditions can change the amount of allergen present in individual fruits. Long storage times can increase the amount of proteins that cause birch-apple syndrome.\n"
] |
How does x-ray powder diffraction work (specifically as applied to mineralogy)?
|
A powdered sample is still crystalline, and will still diffract x-rays to specific angles based on the lattice spacing. The size of the powder particles are still huge compared to the wavelength of x-rays. What powdering does is randomize your sample, so that all the different possible crystal faces of the material are all oriented along the surface of the sample. Then what you do is rotate the x-ray detector around the sample and measure the intensity of x-rays as a function of the rotation angle. You can then correlate that to the lattice spacing and piece together what crystal structure you have (or look it up in a table).
You can learn more about it in most solid state physics books, like Ashcroft and Mermin or Blakemore, or more rigorously in a proper XRD material science book. I would check out Dover editions because they are considerably cheaper and just as good with the theory.
Edit: You rotate the x-ray detector, not the x-ray source. This is just one method for powder diffraction.
|
[
"Typically, powder X-ray diffraction (XRD) is an average of randomly oriented microcrystals that should equally represent all crystal orientation if a large enough sample is present. X-rays are directed at the sample while slowly rotated which produce a diffraction pattern which show intensity of x-rays collected at different angles. \n",
"Most geology departments have X-ray powder diffraction equipment to analyze the crystal structures of minerals. X-rays have wavelengths that are the same order of magnitude as the distances between atoms. Diffraction, the constructive and destructive interference between waves scattered at different atoms, leads to distinctive patterns of high and low intensity that depend on the geometry of the crystal. In a sample that is ground to a powder, the X-rays sample a random distribution of all crystal orientations. Powder diffraction can distinguish between minerals that may appear the same in a hand sample, for example quartz and its polymorphs tridymite and cristobalite.\n",
"Additionally, X-rays cause fluorescence in most materials, and these emissions can be analyzed to determine the chemical elements of an imaged object. Another use is to generate diffraction patterns, a process used in X-ray crystallography. By analyzing the internal reflections of a diffraction pattern (usually with a computer program), the three-dimensional structure of a crystal can be determined down to the placement of individual atoms within its molecules. X-ray microscopes are sometimes used for these analyses because the samples are too small to be analyzed in any other way.\n",
"Additionally, X-rays cause fluorescence in most materials, and these emissions can be analyzed to determine the chemical elements of an imaged object. Another use is to generate diffraction patterns, a process used in X-ray crystallography. By analyzing the internal reflections of a diffraction pattern (usually with a computer program), the three-dimensional structure of a crystal can be determined down to the placement of individual atoms within its molecules. X-ray microscopes are sometimes used for these analyses because the samples are too small to be analyzed in any other way.\n",
"Although it is possible to solve crystal structures from powder X-ray data alone, its single crystal analogue is a far more powerful technique for structure determination. This is directly related to the fact that information is lost by the collapse of the 3D space onto a 1D axis. Nevertheless, powder X-ray diffraction is a powerful and useful technique in its own right. It is mostly used to characterize and identify \"phases\", and to refine details of an already known structure, rather than solving unknown structures.\n",
"X-ray diffraction is a non destructive method of characterization of solid materials. When X-rays are directed at solids they scatter in predictable patterns based on the internal structure of the solid. A crystalline solid consists of regularly spaced atoms (electrons) that can be described by imaginary planes. The distance between these planes is called the d-spacing. \n",
"Usually X-ray diffraction in spectrometers is achieved on crystals, but in Grating spectrometers, the X-rays emerging from a sample must pass a source-defining slit, then optical elements (mirrors and/or gratings) disperse them by diffraction according to their wavelength and, finally, a detector is placed at their focal points.\n"
] |
What's the difference between a tribe and an organized government in the medieval period? Why do we talk about the "Kingdom of Lombardy" or the "Duchy of Normandy", but at the same time we talk about the "Avars" or the "Aboriginal australians"?
|
I'm going to give two very short, simple answers and then one somewhat more complex (but still pretty short) answer. First short answer is that we say "Kingdom of Lombardy" and "Ducky or Normandy" because that is what they called themselves. Nine times out of ten the best term to use for a particular state or social group is the one they use to refer to themselves. If we use a term like "Germanic tribe" it is because we don't actually know that term.
Second short and simple answer isn't actually short and simple for you but is for me because it is just a [link to some discussion about the term "tribe"](_URL_1_) which has a pretty fraught history of usage.
The third answer relates to an old but still somewhat useful concept in anthropology of sociopolitical typology, which essentially posits that political configurations can, broadly speaking, be categorized into four types: bands, tribes, chiefdoms and states. I was trying to think of an easy way to explain the difference but to be honest I am a bit at a loss, so I will just link [this handy chart](_URL_0_) (in my defense, this is generally how intro anthro textbooks do it also)[EDIT: changed to an imgur link. The original citation was "based on the typology in Elman R. Service's (1962) Primitive Social Organization: An Evolutionary Perspective" but to be perfectly honest I like most people learned the typology from introductory materials,specifically the excellent lecture series "Peoples and Cultures of the World" by Edward Fischer]. This typology is somewhat out of favor, for reasons that I think motivated your question: how on earth do you classify the Holy Roman Empire? It also implicitly promotes a linear view of human society in which people progress through different "stages" ending in the modern nation-state--actual history is rather more complex. Furthermore, actual political affiliation is often much more complex and multiple, for example one of my favorite groups n history are the Isuarians, who firmly existed within the Roman Empire but also maintained an internal political configuration that can best be described as somewhere between "tribe" and "chiefdom" on that chart. All the terms have a bit of difficulty coming down to the level of the individual.
|
[
"Lombardy is also divided in 1,546 \"comuni\" (municipalities), which have even more history, having been established in the Middle Ages when they were the main places of government. There are twelve provincial capital cities in Lombardy and twenty-four \"comuni\" have more than 40,000 inhabitants, most of which are ruled by the centre-left.\n",
"According to Pliny the Elder, before the arrival of the Romans, A Rúa and the rest of the comarca of Valdeorras was occupied by the Celtiberian Cigurri tribe (also known as the Egurri). The medieval and modern name of the comarca is derived from this tribe meaning \"valley of the Cigurri\" (Val de Geurres) The Cigurri were part of the Cismontani branch of the Asturian people. They spoke the Celtic Gallaecian language. The Romans under Emperor Augustus invaded in 25 BC leading to the Asturian war which lasted until 19 BC, although there were minor rebellions until 16 BC. Near A Rúa and Petín was the location of the Forum Cigurrorum, the political center of the Cigurri, located on the via Nova (via XVIII) between Bracara Augusta and Asturica Augusta.\n",
"During the migration period, the Germanic Visigoths had traveled from their homeland north of the Danube to settle in the Roman province of Hispania, creating a kingdom upon the wreckage of the Western Roman empire. The Visigothic state in Iberia was based around forces raised by the nobility whom the king could call out in the event of war. The king had his \"gardingi\" and \"fideles\" loyal to himself while the nobility had their \"bucellarii\". The Visigoths favored cavalry with their favorite tactics being to repeatedly charge a foe combined with feigned retreats. The Muslim conquest of most of Iberia in less than a decade does suggest serious deficiencies with the Visigothic kingdom, though the limited sources make it difficult to discern the precise reasons for the collapse of the Visigoths.\n",
"Following Frankish custom, the kingdom was partitioned among Clovis' four sons, and over the next century this tradition of partition continued. Even when several Merovingian kings simultaneously ruled their own realms, the kingdom — not unlike the late Roman Empire — was conceived of as a single entity. Externally, the kingdom, even when divided under different kings, maintained unity and conquered Burgundy in 534. After the fall of the Ostrogoths, the Franks also conquered Provence. Internally, the kingdom was divided among Clovis' sons and later among his grandsons which frequently saw war between the different kings, who allied among themselves and against one another. The death of one king created conflict between the surviving brothers and the deceased's sons, with differing outcomes. Due to frequent warfare, the kingdom was occasionally united under one king. Although this prevented the kingdom from being fragmented into numerous parts, this practice weakened royal power, for they had to make concessions to the nobility to procure their support in war.\n",
"After the fall of the Roman Empire, there were a string of invasions and rulers in the region, including the Lombards, Byzantines, Muslims, and Hungarians. Between the 9th and 12th centuries, the region was dominated by the popes. Subsequently, the Normans took over, and Abruzzo became part of the Kingdom of Sicily, later the Kingdom of Naples. Spain ruled the kingdom from the sixteenth to the eighteenth centuries. The French Bourbon dynasty took over in 1815, establishing the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, and ruled until Italian unification (also known as the Risorgimento) in 1860.\n",
"These include the kingdoms of the Visigoths (in Hispania and Gallia Narbonensis), the Ostrogoths (in Italia, Sicilia, Raetia, Noricum, Pannonia, Dalmatia and Dacia), the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms in Sub-Roman Britain and finally the Franks who established the nucleus of the later \"Holy Roman Empire\" in Gallia Aquitania, Gallia Lugdunensis, Gallia Belgica, Germania Superior and Inferior, and parts of the previously unconquered Germania Magna. Additionally, minor Germanic tribes, like the Vandals, the Suebi, and the Visigoths established kingdoms in Hispania.\n",
"In Gaul they were divided into two tribes in widely separated regions, the Arecomici on the east, living among the Ligures, and the Tectosages (whose territory included that of the Tolosates) on the west, living among the Aquitani; the territories were separated by the Hérault (\"Arauris\") or a line between the Hérault and the Orb (\"Orbis\").\n"
] |
can our brain switch it's perception of colors?
|
I dont have an answer, but everytime i get a high fever (102 F+) the way I perceive colors gets screwed up. I.E. I see the red digital numbers on my alarm clock as green.
|
[
"Perception of color depends heavily on the context in which the perceived object is presented. For example, a white page under blue, pink, or purple light will reflect mostly blue, pink, or purple light to the eye, respectively; the brain, however, compensates for the effect of lighting (based on the color shift of surrounding objects) and is more likely to interpret the page as white under all three conditions, a phenomenon known as color constancy.\n",
"The psychological perception of color is commonly thought of as a function of the power spectrum of light frequencies impinging on the photoreceptors of the retina. In the simplest case of pure spectral light (also known as monochromatic), the spectrum of the light has power only in one narrow frequency band peak. For these simple stimuli, there exists a continuum of perceived colors which changes as the frequency of the narrow band peak is changed. This is the well known rainbow spectrum, which ranges from red at one end to blue and violet at the other (corresponding respectively to the long-wavelength and short-wavelength extremes of the visible range of electromagnetic radiation).\n",
"The disorder is often presented as evidence of our incomplete knowledge of color processing. Color vision research is a well-studied field of modern neuroscience and the underlying anatomical processing in the retina have been well categorized. The presence of another factor in the perception of color by humans illustrates the need for more research.\n",
"Neuroscientists Bevil Conway and Jay Neitz believe that the differences in opinions are a result of how the human brain perceives colour, and chromatic adaptation. Conway believes that it has a connection to how the brain processes the various hues of a daylight sky: \"Your visual system is looking at this thing, and you're trying to discount the chromatic bias of the daylight axis... people either discount the blue side, in which case they end up seeing white and gold, or discount the gold side, in which case they end up with blue and black.\" Neitz said:\n",
"There are two possible mechanisms for color constancy. The first mechanism is unconscious inference. The second view holds this phenomenon to be caused by sensory adaptation. Research suggests color constancy to be related changes in retinal cells as well as cortical areas related to vision. This phenomenon is most likely attributed to changes in various levels of the visual system.\n",
"Since the likelihood of response of a given cone varies not only with the \"wavelength\" of the light that hits it but also with its \"intensity\", the brain would not be able to discriminate different colors if it had input from only one type of cone. Thus, interaction between at least two types of cone is necessary to produce the ability to perceive color. With at least two types of cones, the brain can compare the signals from each type and determine both the intensity and color of the light. For example, moderate stimulation of a medium-wavelength cone cell could mean that it is being stimulated by very bright red (long-wavelength) light, or by not very intense yellowish-green light. But very bright red light would produce a stronger response from L cones than from M cones, while not very intense yellowish light would produce a stronger response from M cones than from other cones. Thus trichromatic color vision is accomplished by using combinations of cell responses.\n",
"Attention is captured subconsciously before people can consciously attend to something. Research looking at electroencephalography (EEGs) while people made decisions on color preference found brain activation when a favorite color is present before the participants consciously focused on it. When looking at various colors on a screen people focus on their favorite color, or the color stands out more, before they purposefully turn their attention to it. This implies that products can capture someone's attention based on color, before the person willingly looks at the product.\n"
] |
Map of History
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Is such a thing possible? No, not really. On a smaller scale, such a question has the problem of assuming defined states where there were none or where other arrangements would be more appropriate. On a larger scale, such a map would necessarily impose synchronous borders on areas that experienced consistent flux. Borders in the past were much more porous and flexible than today's nation-states.
Still, there's a guy named [Thomas Lessman](_URL_0_) who is internet-famous for making rough maps of historical boundaries. They should not be taken as absolute truths, however, but as approximations. They're like Wikipedia (which Lessman draws on heavily): a good place to start, but a terrible place to finish.
|
[
"Historical Atlas of the World is a historical atlas that contains 108 color maps showing religious boundaries, countries, cities, buildings army movements and expeditions. It contains an index to place, peoples, historical and military events and explorers. Covers the span from 3000 BC to ~1970 (Rhodesia, not Zimbabwe; Pakistan, not Bangladesh; North \"and\" South Vietnam)\n",
"The earliest reference to a map in Chinese history can be found in Volume 86 of the historical text \"Records of the Grand Historian\" (\"Shi Ji\"). This volume recorded an incident in 227 BC during the late Warring States period in which a map is mentioned. Crown Prince Dan of the Yan state sent Jing Ke to assassinate the King of the Qin state, so as to prevent Qin from conquering Yan. Jing Ke pretended to be an emissary from Yan, and said he wanted to present the King of Qin with a map of Dukang, a fertile region in Yan which would be ceded to Qin in exchange for peace between the two states. The map, which was rolled up and held in a case, had a poison-coated dagger hidden in it. As Jing Ke was showing the King the map, he slowly unrolled the map until the dagger was revealed, and then seized it and tried to stab the King. The King managed to escape unharmed and Jing Ke was killed in his failed assassination attempt. From then on, maps are frequently mentioned in Chinese historical texts.\n",
"The oldest reference to a map in China comes from the 3rd century BC. This was the event of 227 BC where Crown Prince Dan of Yan had his assassin Jing Ke visit the court of the ruler of the State of Qin, who would become Qin Shi Huang (r. 221–210 BC). Jing Ke was to present the ruler of Qin with a district map painted on a silk scroll, rolled up and held in a case where he hid his assassin's dagger. Handing to him the map of the designated territory was the first diplomatic act of submitting that district to Qin rule. Instead he attempted to kill Qin, an assassination plot that failed. From then on maps are frequently mentioned in Chinese sources.\n",
"The earliest extant maps found in archeological sites of China date to the 4th century BC and were made in the ancient State of Qin. The earliest known reference to the application of a geometric grid and mathematically graduated scale to a map was contained in the writings of the cartographer Pei Xiu (224–271). From the 1st century AD onwards, official Chinese historical texts contained a geographical section, which was often an enormous compilation of changes in place-names and local administrative divisions controlled by the ruling dynasty, descriptions of mountain ranges, river systems, taxable products, etc. The ancient Chinese historian Ban Gu (32–92) most likely started the trend of the gazetteer in China, which became prominent in the Northern and Southern dynasties period and Sui dynasty. Local gazetteers would feature a wealth of geographic information, although its cartographic aspects were not as highly professional as the maps created by professional cartographers.\n",
"A History of the World in Twelve Maps is a 2012 book by British historian Jerry Brotton, on the relationship between cartography, history, and geography. The book examines the roles that twelve maps have played in influencing diplomacy, geopolitics and how people view the world.\n",
"In Chinese literature, the oldest reference to a map comes from the year 227 BCE, when the assassin Jing Ke was to present a map to Ying Zheng 嬴政, King of Qin (ruling later as Qin Shi Huang, r. 221–210 BC) on behalf of Crown Prince Dan of Yan. Instead of presenting the map, he pulled out a dagger from his scroll, yet was unable to kill Ying Zheng. The \"Rites of Zhou\" (\"Zhouli\"), compiled during the Han and commented by Liu Xin in the 1st century CE, mentioned the use of maps for governmental provinces and districts, principalities, frontier boundaries, and locations of ores and minerals for mining facilities. The first Chinese gazetteer was written in 52 CE and included information on territorial divisions, the founding of cities, and local products and customs. Pei Xiu (224–271 CE) was the first to describe in detail the use of a graduated scale and geometrically plotted reference grid. However, historians Howard Nelson, Robert Temple, and Rafe de Crespigny argue that there is enough literary evidence that Zhang Heng's now lost work of 116 CE established the geometric reference grid in Chinese cartography (including a line from the \"Book of Later Han\": \"[Zhang Heng] cast a network of coordinates about heaven and earth, and reckoned on the basis of it\"). Although there is speculation fueled by the report in Sima's \"Records of the Grand Historian\" that a gigantic raised-relief map representing the Qin Empire is located within the tomb of Qin Shi Huang, it is known that small raised-relief maps were created during the Han dynasty, such as one made out of rice by the military officer Ma Yuan (14 BCE – 49 CE).\n",
"This concept was first designed by the German scholar Christian Kruse (1753-1827). Kruse, well aware that historical accounts are often biased for geographical, philosophical or political reasons, created a set of sequential maps in order to give a global vision of the successive political situations. Nowadays, the majority of atlases don't use this approach, but are event-based, like the well-known Penguin Atlas of History. The sequential approach intends to make the sequence of maps more neutral and suitable for students, historians and professionals of several fields. Although, this approach has been discussed as it leaves out many important history events that are not reflected on any of the maps because of the century interval.\n"
] |
how does a thermoelectric generator work?
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What is really being asked is how the thermoelectric effect works, so I'll try and explain that. Imagine you had a metal wire that has either end held at a different temperature. The electrons in the metal act similar to a gas, where the electrons at the hotter end are moving faster and spreading out more. This causes a higher concentration of electrons at the cold end, which causes a voltage difference between the two ends of the wire. Note that different materials will generate different voltages, even under identical thermal conditions.
A thermocouple or thermoelectric generator uses two dissimilar materials, with the hot ends attached together. This guarantees that there is a voltage difference between the two cold ends, which can either be used in power production or as a measurement signal.
|
[
"BULLET::::- Thermoelectric generator – (also called thermogenerators) are devices which convert heat (temperature differences) directly into electrical energy, using a phenomenon called the \"Seebeck effect\" (or \"thermoelectric effect\").\n",
"A thermoelectric generator (TEG), also called a Seebeck generator, is a solid state device that converts heat flux (temperature differences) directly into electrical energy through a phenomenon called the Seebeck effect (a form of thermoelectric effect). Thermoelectric generators function like heat engines, but are less bulky and have no moving parts. However, TEGs are typically more expensive and less efficient.\n",
"A thermocouple is a thermoelectric device that can convert thermal energy directly into electrical energy, using the Seebeck effect. It is made of two kinds of metal (or semiconductors) that can both conduct electricity. If they are connected to each other in a closed loop and the two junctions are at different temperatures, an electric current will flow in the loop. Typically a large number of thermocouples are connected in series to generate a higher voltage.\n",
"The basic operation of a thermoelectric power station is quite simple: burning fuel to release heat that transforms water from a liquid state into steam. The steam is then responsible for driving a turbine activating the machine that generates electric power.\n",
"The operating principle of a thermoelectric power station is based on the burning of fuel to produce vapour which then turns an electric current generator. In theory, this is simple to carry out, but in practice it requires a complex combination of machines, circuits and logistics.\n",
"Thermoelectric generators are all solid state devices that do not require any fluids for fuel or cooling, making them non-orientation dependent allowing for use in zero-gravity or deep sea applications. The solid state design is synergistic with existing production methods and allows for operation in severe environments. Thermoelectric generators have no moving parts which produces a more reliable device that does not require maintenance for long periods. The durability and environmental stability have made thermoelectrics a favorite for NASA's deep space explorers among other applications. One of the key advantages of thermoelectric generators outside of such specialized applications is that they can potentially be integrated into existing technologies to boost efficiency and reduce environmental impact by producing usable power from waste heat.\n",
"A thermoelectric module is a circuit containing thermoelectric materials which generates electricity from heat directly. A thermoelectric module consists of two dissimilar thermoelectric materials joined at their ends: an n-type (negatively charged), and a p-type (positively charged) semiconductor. A direct electric current will flow in the circuit when there is a temperature difference between the ends of the materials. Generally, the current magnitude is directly proportional to the temperature difference:\n"
] |
the urge to scratch wounds
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The 'urge' is not evolutionary. It's a biological reaction to the wound.
The scab on the wound could be dry and cause an itch. Or the chemicals secreted by the body during the healing (histamines) could be the reason behind it.
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[
"Itch (also known as pruritus) is a that causes the desire or reflex to scratch. Itch has resisted many attempts to be classified as any one type of sensory experience. Itch has many similarities to pain, and while both are unpleasant sensory experiences, their behavioral response patterns are different. Pain creates a withdrawal reflex, whereas itch leads to a scratch reflex.\n",
"The initial scratch or wound caused by a bite from a carrier rodent results in mild inflammatory reactions and ulcerations. The wounds may heal initially, but reappear with the onset of symptoms. The symptoms include recurring fever, with body temperature 101–104°F (38–40°C). The fever lasts for 2–4 days, but recurs generally at 4–8 weeks. This cycle may continue for months or years. The other symptoms include regional lymphadenitis, malaise, and headache. The complications include myocarditis, endocarditis, hepatitis, splenomegaly, and meningitis.\n",
"Pain and itch have very different behavioral response patterns. Pain evokes a withdrawal reflex, which leads to retraction and therefore a reaction trying to protect an endangered part of the body. Itch in contrast creates a scratch reflex, which draws one to the affected skin site. Itch generates stimulus of a foreign object underneath or upon the skin and also the urge to remove it. For example, responding to a local itch sensation is an effective way to remove insects from one's skin.\n",
"Events of \"contagious itch\" are very common occurrences. Even a discussion on the topic of itch can give one the desire to scratch. Itch is likely to be more than a localized phenomenon in the place we scratch. Results from a study showed that itching and scratching were induced purely by visual stimuli in a public lecture on itching. The sensation of pain can also be induced in a similar fashion, often by listening to a description of an injury, or viewing an injury itself.\n",
"Wound licking is an instinctive response in humans and many other animals to lick an injury. Dogs, cats, small rodents, horses, and primates all lick wounds. Saliva contains tissue factor which promotes the blood clotting mechanism. The enzyme lysozyme is found in many tissues and is known to attack the cell walls of many gram-positive bacteria, aiding in defense against infection. Tears are also beneficial to wounds due to the lysozyme enzyme. However, there are also infection risks due to bacteria in the human mouth.\n",
"Itch is also associated with some symptoms of psychiatric disorders such as tactile hallucinations, delusions of parasitosis, or obsessive-compulsive disorders (as in OCD-related neurotic scratching).\n",
"Bite wounds from other animals (and rarely humans) are a common occurrence. Wounds from objects that the animal may step on or run into are also common. Usually these wounds are simple lacerations that can be easily cleaned and sutured, sometimes using a local anesthetic. Bite wounds, however, involve compressive and tensile forces in addition to shearing forces, and can cause separation of the skin from the underlying tissue and avulsion of underlying muscles. Deep puncture wounds are especially prone to infection. Deeper wounds are assessed under anesthesia and explored, lavaged, and debrided. Primary wound closure is used if all remaining tissue is healthy and free of contamination. Small puncture wounds may be left open, bandaged, and allowed to heal without surgery. A third alternative is delayed primary closure, which involves bandaging and reevaluation and surgery in three to five days.\n"
] |
what is a tree made out of?
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It comes from the air. The tree absorbs carbon dioxide from the air, uses the carbon to build the majority of its mass, and expels oxygen.
|
[
"Wood is a porous and fibrous structural tissue found in the stems and roots of trees and other woody plants. It is an organic material, a natural composite of cellulose fibers that are strong in tension and embedded in a matrix of lignin that resists compression. Wood is sometimes defined as only the secondary xylem in the stems of trees, or it is defined more broadly to include the same type of tissue elsewhere such as in the roots of trees or shrubs. In a living tree it performs a support function, enabling woody plants to grow large or to stand up by themselves. It also conveys water and nutrients between the leaves, other growing tissues, and the roots. Wood may also refer to other plant materials with comparable properties, and to material engineered from wood, or wood chips or fiber.\n",
"\"The Tree\" is a macabre short story by American horror fiction writer H. P. Lovecraft. It was written in 1920, and published in October 1921 in \"The Tryout\". Set in ancient Greece, the story concerns two sculptors who accept a commission with ironic consequences.\n",
"A Tree of Life () is a theme of clay sculpture created in central Mexico, especially in the municipality of Metepec, State of Mexico. The image depicted in these sculptures originally was for the teaching of the Biblical story of creation to natives in the early colonial period. The fashioning of the trees in a clay sculpture began in Izúcar de Matamoros, Puebla but today the craft is most closely identified with Metepec. Traditionally, these sculptures are supposed to consist of certain biblical images, such as Adam and Eve, but recently there have been trees created with themes completely unrelated to the Bible.\n",
"Wood is a vascular material that comes from the trunk, roots, or stems of over 3,000 varieties of plants.. It is a cellular tissue and therefore can be understood by looking into the biological structure. .\n",
"A \"tree of life\" () is a theme of clay sculpture created in central Mexico. The image depicted in these sculptures originally was for the teaching of the Biblical story of creation to natives in the early colonial period. The fashioning of the trees in a clay sculpture began in Izúcar de Matamoros, Puebla but today the craft is most closely identified with Metepec. Traditionally, these sculptures are supposed to consist of certain biblical images, such as Adam and Eve, but other themes such as Christmas, Day of the Dead and even themes unrelated to religion are made. Trees of life can be small or as tall as a person. The figures on the Trees of Life are made by molding and attached to the main tree figure with wires before firing. Most are painted in bright colors but there are versions painted entirely in white with gold touches and others left in their natural reddish clay color.\n",
"The Tree is a 1993 short film that Todd Field created while a fellow at the AFI Conservatory. It is a non-verbal dramatic piece following the life of a boy born at the turn of the century. The single setting, an apple tree set high on a rural ridge, is where we glimpse the boy mature, fall in love, go to war, return with his own son, and finally pay his last respects as a very old man who has seen much change. The set was designed using the tree as a scale foreground visual anchor and employing forced perspective for other items appearing in frame, including distant mountains, a train, and a town in transition. The scene changes from season to season and year to year all achieved practically using trompe-l'œil.\n",
"\"Tree\" is a popular science book, intended to profile the life of single tree using terminology targeted at a general audience. The narrative provides ecological context, describing animals and plants that interact with the tree, as well as historical context. Parallels to the tree's age are made with historical events, like the tree taking root as empirical science was taking root in Europe during the life of 13th century philosopher Roger Bacon. The book is most commonly described, and marketed, as a \"biography\". One reviewer grouped it with the 2005 book \"The Golden Spruce\" as part of a new genre: an \"arbobiography\".\n"
] |
eeg and erp
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First read [this other ELI5-type post](_URL_0_) I wrote about how the brain works a few weeks ago, then come back here...
EEG is basically just a way of detecting which parts of the brain are active, moment-to-moment. They place these little "electricity detectors" all over your head. Now imagine that you have a particular neural pathway activated that pulses from your left ear to your right ear inside your brain. Well, those electricity detectors on your scalp that are near the middle-top of your head are going to sense the tiny electrical current that's flowing in that pathway, while the sensors that are far away (like the ones near your eyebrows, or at the back of your neck) are not. Then a computer puts all that information together and generates either a giant set of numbers, or an image for the doctors to look at.
From this information they can tell if you're having a seizure, if you're brain-dead, if you're in a coma, if you're under sufficient anesthesia, if you have brain damage etc....
ERP is like EEG, but instead of just sitting there doing nothing with this thing on your head, you are asked to perform a particular task, like remember a specific set of numbers, or watch a tv screen with a flashing light. Then they observe to see which pathways are being used and if they're "normal" or not. Many diseases like multiple sclerosis and some kinds of dementia show abnormal, or weird neural pathways being used in the brain.
|
[
"ERPs can be measured using electroencephalography (EEG), which uses electrodes placed on the scalp to measure the electrical activity of the brain. The ERP waveform itself is constructed from the averaged results of many trials (100 or more). The average reduces signal noise from random-brain activity, leaving just the ERP. An advantage of ERPs are that they measure processing between stimulus and response continuously. Having this stream of information makes it possible to see where the brain's electrical activity is being affected by specific stimuli.\n",
"EEG, and the related study of ERPs are used extensively in neuroscience, cognitive science, cognitive psychology, neurolinguistics and psychophysiological research, but also to study human functions such as swallowing. Many EEG techniques used in research are not standardised sufficiently for clinical use. But research on mental disabilities, such as auditory processing disorder (APD), ADD, or ADHD, is becoming more widely known and EEGs are used as research and treatment.\n",
"ERPs can be reliably measured using electroencephalography (EEG), a procedure that measures electrical activity of the brain over time using electrodes placed on the scalp. The EEG reflects thousands of simultaneously ongoing brain processes. This means that the brain response to a single stimulus or event of interest is not usually visible in the EEG recording of a single trial. To see the brain's response to a stimulus, the experimenter must conduct many trials and average the results together, causing random brain activity to be averaged out and the relevant waveform to remain, called the ERP.\n",
"Electroencephalography (EEG) is an electrophysiological monitoring method to record electrical activity of the brain. It is typically noninvasive, with the electrodes placed along the scalp, although invasive electrodes are sometimes used, as in electrocorticography. EEG measures voltage fluctuations resulting from ionic current within the neurons of the brain. Clinically, EEG refers to the recording of the brain's spontaneous electrical activity over a period of time, as recorded from multiple electrodes placed on the scalp. Diagnostic applications generally focus either on event-related potentials or on the spectral content of EEG. The former investigates potential fluctuations time locked to an event, such as 'stimulus onset' or 'button press'. The latter analyses the type of neural oscillations (popularly called \"brain waves\") that can be observed in EEG signals in the frequency domain.\n",
"Derivatives of the EEG technique include evoked potentials (EP), which involves averaging the EEG activity time-locked to the presentation of a stimulus of some sort (visual, somatosensory, or auditory). Event-related potentials (ERPs) refer to averaged EEG responses that are time-locked to more complex processing of stimuli; this technique is used in cognitive science, cognitive psychology, and psychophysiological research.\n",
"Neurotherapists use EEG biofeedback when treating addiction, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), learning disability, anxiety disorders (including worry, obsessive-compulsive disorder and posttraumatic stress disorder), depression, migraine, and generalized seizures.\n",
"The EEG is an instrument that can reflect the summed electrical activity of neural cell assemblies in the brain. It was originally used as an attempt to improve medical diagnoses. Later it became a key instrument to psychologists in examining brain activity and it remains a key instrument used in the field today.\n"
] |
how does target make any money off their redcard debit?
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They actually save money by doing so, they don't make money. So when a guest comes in and uses a card, other than a RedCard, the provider (Visa for example) will charge them a fee. By signing up for a card, they can avoid the fee altogether (debit), or reduce it drastically because they made a deal with MasterCard (credit).
|
[
"The Target Red Card program is a great example of how the value proposition works. Consumers enroll with Target, provide their checking account to be debited and receive 5% discount at the register when they use the Red Card to pay. Target saves the fees they would have otherwise paid to the payment networks and banks and gives the savings back to their customers.\n",
"The trading cards were popular outside of the typical \"card collectors\", and they sold quickly. Some stores sold their stock within hours of delivery, and others selling out within a week. Pro Set pledged to donate (the higher of) either $1 million or the entire proceeds from their Desert Storm trading card series to children of Desert Storm veterans, while Topps made unspecified donations, including to the United Service Organizations.\n",
"Financial and Retail Services (FRS) formerly Target Financial Services (TFS): issues Target's credit cards, known as the Target REDcard (formerly the Target Guest Card), issued through Target National Bank (formerly Retailers National Bank) for consumers and through Target Bank for businesses. Target Financial Services also oversees GiftCard balances. Target launched its PIN-x debit card, the Target Check Card, which was later re-branded the Target Debit Card. The Target Debit Card withdraws funds from the customer's existing checking account, and allows for up to $40 \"cash back\". The debit card allows guests to save five percent off each purchase. In late 2017, Target replaced its REDcard slogan \"Save 5% Today, Tomorrow, & Everyday with Target REDcard\" when it rolled out new benefits for REDcard holders by offering exclusive products on Target.com and preorders with \"Everyday Savings. Exclusive Extras.\"\n",
"Clubcard holders receive statements offering discount coupons which can be spent in-store, online or on various Tesco deals. Tesco was cited in a Wall Street Journal article as using the intelligence from the Clubcard to thwart Wal-Mart's initiatives in the UK.\n",
"It is claimed FOBTs are used for money laundering by paying cash into the terminal, making low-risk bets which involve a small relative loss, and withdrawing most of the proceeds as a voucher which is exchanged for cash at the shop counter. Changes in the UKGC regulators code have sought to eradicate the potential for money laundering.\n",
"A spot transaction is a two-day delivery transaction (except in the case of trades between the US dollar, Canadian dollar, Turkish lira, euro and Russian ruble, which settle the next business day), as opposed to the futures contracts, which are usually three months. This trade represents a “direct exchange” between two currencies, has the shortest time frame, involves cash rather than a contract, and interest is not included in the agreed-upon transaction. Spot trading is one of the most common types of forex trading. Often, a forex broker will charge a small fee to the client to roll-over the expiring transaction into a new identical transaction for a continuation of the trade. This roll-over fee is known as the \"swap\" fee.\n",
"The fees charged to merchants for offline debit purchases vs. the lack of fees charged to merchants for processing online debit purchases and paper checks have prompted some major merchants in the U.S. to file lawsuits against debit-card transaction processors, such as Visa and MasterCard. In 2003, Visa and MasterCard agreed to settle the largest of these lawsuits for $2 billion and $1 billion respectively.\n"
] |
how is it physically possible for a mantis shrimp to punch so fast?
|
The punch of a Mantis shrimp really is incredible. There is no way that a mantis shrimp can punch that powerfully by muscle strength. Another mechanism is needed.
This is an ELI5 over-simplification, but the shrimp "cocks" it's specially designed exoskeleton, elastic tissues, and linkage systems and stores energy. It's a lot like how a bow stores energy. You would never be able to throw the arrow as fast as you need to, but you can add energy to a bow over time and save that energy for when you want to release the arrow.
Another example: Do you know how you can curl your finger down and hold it with your thumb and then flick your finger really fast? That's kind of what a Mantis shrimp is doing.
Here is an article that goes into way more detail than I just did:
_URL_0_
|
[
"Zebra mantis shrimp attack with a mean peak speed of 2.3 m/s and with a mean duration of 24.98 ms. This speed is significantly slower than those generated by the smashing mantis shrimp, who's strikes can reach 14-23m/s. However, it is similar to those of other aquatic predators attacking evasive prey. This discrepancy, is because spearing mantis shrimp display displacement amplification whereas smashing mantis shrimp display force amplification. This makes sense given their hunting strategies. “Smashers” need to apply a large amount of force, but easily get close to their sessile, hard-shelled prey. However, for “spearers” like the zebra mantis shrimp, it is more advantageous to have greater reach when targeting prey with their ambush attack strategy. In addition, it has been shown that larger mantis shrimp species strike more slowly, resulting in the slower speeds displayed by \"Lysiosquillina maculata\".\n",
"The mantis shrimp's second pair of thoracic appendages has been adapted for powerful close-range combat with high modifications. The appendage differences divide mantis shrimp into two main types: those that hunt by impaling their prey with spear-like structures and those that smash prey with a powerful blow from a heavily mineralised club-like appendage. A considerable amount of damage can be inflicted after impact with these robust, hammer-like claws. This club is further divided into three subregions: the impact region, the periodic region, and the striated region. Mantis shrimp are commonly separated into two distinct groups determined by the type of claws they possess:\n",
"Harlequin shrimp's only source of nutrition comes from starfish. They are very skilled at flipping over the slow starfish on its back, and eating the tube feet and soft tissues until it reaches the central disk. They, usually one female and one male, use their claws to pierce the tough skin and feeding legs to help them maneuver the starfish. Sometimes the starfish will shed the arm that the shrimp attacked and regrow (the shrimp can then re eat it), but it is usually too wounded to regrow. They may also feed on sea urchins, because they have tube feet as well, but that is rare and only if they're very hungry.\n",
"Pistol shrimp (also called \"snapping shrimp\") produce a type of cavitation luminescence from a collapsing bubble caused by quickly snapping its claw. The animal snaps a specialized claw shut to create a cavitation bubble that generates acoustic pressures of up to 80 kPa at a distance of 4 cm from the claw. As it extends out from the claw, the bubble reaches speeds of 60 miles per hour (97 km/h) and releases a sound reaching 218 decibels. The pressure is strong enough to kill small fish. The light produced is of lower intensity than the light produced by typical sonoluminescence and is not visible to the naked eye. The light and heat produced may have no direct significance, as it is the shockwave produced by the rapidly collapsing bubble which these shrimp use to stun or kill prey. However, it is the first known instance of an animal producing light by this effect and was whimsically dubbed \"shrimpoluminescence\" upon its discovery in 2001. It has subsequently been discovered that another group of crustaceans, the mantis shrimp, contains species whose club-like forelimbs can strike so quickly and with such force as to induce sonoluminescent cavitation bubbles upon impact.\n",
"In general, lobsters are long, and move by slowly walking on the sea floor. However, when they flee, they swim backward quickly by curling and uncurling their abdomens. A speed of has been recorded. This is known as the caridoid escape reaction.\n",
"Rather than using mucus to prevent nematocysts from firing, as is seen in some of the clownfish sheltering among sea anemones, the fish appears to use highly agile swimming to physically avoid tentacles.\n",
"In Cantonese cuisine, the mantis shrimp is known as \"pissing shrimp\" () because of their tendency to shoot a jet of water when picked up. After cooking, their flesh is closer to that of lobsters than that of shrimp, and like lobsters, their shells are quite hard and require some pressure to crack. Usually, they are deep fried with garlic and chili peppers.\n"
] |
how is it possible for some foods to pass through my digestive system and come out whole. i.e. corn and certain small beans
|
The brown (and the yellow in your pee, for that matter) are derived from byproducts of the breakdown of red blood cells in your body.
As far as corn, the outer shell of corn is cellulose, which our body is not good at breaking down. If you don't tear them apart with your teeth, then they can pass relatively unmolested out the back end. I expect you could find more if you sifted your poo, but at that point you're definitely verging on concerning weirdness.
|
[
"The particles are sorted by yet another group of cilia, which send the smaller particles, mainly minerals, to the prostyle so eventually they are excreted, while the larger ones, mainly food, are sent to the stomach's cecum (a pouch with no other exit) to be digested. The sorting process is by no means perfect.\n",
"When food particles are sufficiently reduced in size and composition, they are absorbed by the intestinal wall and transported to the bloodstream. Some food material is passed from the small intestine to the large intestine. In the large intestine, bacteria break down proteins and starches in chyme that were not digested fully in the small intestine.\n",
"From the stomach, food passes to the small intestine, where a battery of digestive enzymes continue the digestive process. The products of digestion are absorbed across the wall of the intestine into the bloodstream. What remains is emptied into the large intestine, where some of the remaining water and minerals are absorbed; here the digestion is intracellular.\n",
"When the digested food particles are reduced enough in size and composition, they can be absorbed by the intestinal wall and carried to the bloodstream. The first receptacle for this chyme is the duodenal bulb. From here it passes into the first of the three sections of the small intestine, the duodenum. (The next section is the jejunum and the third is the ileum). The duodenum is the first and shortest section of the small intestine. It is a hollow, jointed C-shaped tube connecting the stomach to the jejunum. It starts at the duodenal bulb and ends at the suspensory muscle of duodenum. The attachment of the suspensory muscle to the diaphragm is thought to help the passage of food by making a wider angle at its attachment.\n",
"Digestion begins in the mouth with the secretion of saliva and its digestive enzymes. Food is formed into a bolus by the mechanical mastication and swallowed into the esophagus from where it enters the stomach through the action of peristalsis. Gastric juice contains hydrochloric acid and pepsin which would damage the walls of the stomach and mucus is secreted for protection. In the stomach further release of enzymes break down the food further and this is combined with the churning action of the stomach. The partially digested food enters the duodenum as a thick semi-liquid chyme. In the small intestine, the larger part of digestion takes place and this is helped by the secretions of bile, pancreatic juice and intestinal juice. The intestinal walls are lined with villi, and their epithelial cells is covered with numerous microvilli to improve the absorption of nutrients by increasing the surface area of the intestine.\n",
"No stomach is present, with the pharynx connecting directly to a muscleless intestine that forms the main length of the gut. This produces further enzymes, and also absorbs nutrients through its single-cell-thick lining. The last portion of the intestine is lined by cuticle, forming a rectum, which expels waste through the anus just below and in front of the tip of the tail. Movement of food through the digestive system is the result of body movements of the worm. The intestine has valves or sphincters at either end to help control the movement of food through the body.\n",
"Digested food is now able to pass into the blood vessels in the wall of the intestine through either diffusion or active transport. The small intestine is the site where most of the nutrients from ingested food are absorbed. The inner wall, or mucosa, of the small intestine is lined with simple columnar epithelial tissue. Structurally, the mucosa is covered in wrinkles or folds called plicae circulares, which are considered permanent features in the wall of the organ. They are distinct from rugae which are considered non-permanent or temporary allowing for distention and contraction. From the plicae circulares project microscopic finger-like pieces of tissue called villi (Latin for \"shaggy hair\"). The individual epithelial cells also have finger-like projections known as microvilli. The functions of the plicae circulares, the villi, and the microvilli are to increase the amount of surface area available for the absorption of nutrients, and to limit the loss of said nutrients to intestinal fauna.\n"
] |
How did the people of antiquity and medieval era record their music?
|
There's always more to be said on the topic, but while you're waiting check a look at these previous threads:
[*What did Roman music sound like and what form did the written notation take?*](_URL_3_) by u/racecar_ray
[*What do we know about Roman music?*](_URL_2_) by u/casestudyhouse22
[*What is the oldest form of musical notation?*](_URL_0_) and [*How did the modern system of musical notation come into being?*](_URL_1_) by u/erus
|
[
"The earliest Medieval music did not have any kind of notational system. The tunes were primarily monophonic (a single melody without accompaniment) and transmitted by oral tradition. As Rome tried to centralize the various liturgies and establish the Roman rite as the primary church tradition the need to transmit these chant melodies across vast distances effectively was equally glaring. So long as music could only be taught to people \"by ear,\" it limited the ability of the church to get different regions to sing the same melodies, since each new person would have to spend time with a person who already knew a song and learn it \"by ear.\" The first step to fix this problem came with the introduction of various signs written above the chant texts to indicate direction of pitch movement, called \"neumes\".\n",
"The earliest extant music manuscripts written in tablature notation date from the first half of the 15th century, with the oldest example, a German manuscript dating from 1432, containing the earliest known setting of a partial organ mass as well as a piece based on a cantus firmus. These manuscripts used letters (the same as today) to identify pitch, with the upper voice typically written in mensural notation. This style was also present in other German-speaking areas, such as Austria. These manuscripts contain valuable information as to the evolution of the music from the period, with extensive evidence of the influence of vocal, and later dance music, on early instrumental music. This practice which could still be seen in collections from the 16th century eventually led to the full fledged Baroque dance suites of later centuries. Tablature was also featured in some early printed music books, with an example dating from 1512.\n",
"The music of the Middle Ages and Renaissance was often annotated under the assumption of \"musica ficta\", which were particular raisings and lowerings of notes by the interval of a semitone, not written in the music notation. Authentic performance of such music must rely on the best available musicological scholarship to interpret the difficult and obscure rules governing when musica ficta should be introduced. \n",
"During the Medieval Music era (476 to 1400) the plainchant tunes used by monks for religious songs were primarily monophonic (a single melody line, with no harmony parts) and transmitted by oral tradition (\"by ear\"). The earliest Medieval music did not have any kind of notational system for writing down melodies. As Rome tried to centralize the various chants across vast distances of its empire, which stretched from Europe to North Africa, a form of music notation was needed to write down the melodies. So long as the church had to rely on teaching people chant melodies \"by ear\", it limited the number of people who could be taught. As well, when songs are learned by ear, variations and changes naturally slip in.\n",
"The oldest surviving musical setting of the text is as Gregorian chant. A very large number of composers set the text over the centuries: Renaissance composers such as Palestrina, and Byrd, classical composers such as Joseph Leopold Eybler, up to modern composers such as John Scott Whiteley, Gaston Litaize, and Perosi. The most frequently performed, and recorded, setting today is that by John Sheppard (c.1515-c.1559).\n",
"During the medieval music era (476 to 1400) the plainchant tunes used for religious songs were primarily monophonic (a single line, unaccompanied melody). In the early centuries of the medieval era, these chants were taught and spread by oral tradition (\"by ear\"). The earliest Medieval music did not have any kind of notational system for writing down melodies. As Rome tried to standardize the various chants across vast distances of its empire, a form of music notation was needed to write down the melodies. Various signs written above the chant texts, called \"neumes\" were introduced. By the ninth century, it was firmly established as the primary method of musical notation. The next development in musical notation was \"heighted neumes\", in which neumes were carefully placed at different heights in relation to each other. This allowed the neumes to give a rough indication of the size of a given interval as well as the direction.\n",
"Surviving sources indicate that there was a rich and varied musical soundscape in medieval Britain. Historians usually distinguish between ecclesiastical music, designed for use in church, or in religious ceremonies, and secular music for use from royal and baronial courts, celebrations of some religious events, to public and private entertainments of the people. Our understanding of this music is limited by a lack of written sources for much of what was an oral culture.\n"
] |
ramjet
|
Combustion engines need to compress the incoming air before it is burned. This does two things - it fits more air into the combustion chamber so that fuel can be burned at a higher rate, and it raises the temperature at which the combustion takes place, giving higher thermal efficiency.
A turbojet engine has a compressor on the front to compress the incoming air before it passes through the combustion chamber. The compressor is driven by a turbine that extracts power from the exhaust gases as they leave the engine.
A ramjet engine does not have a compressor or a turbine. Instead, it relies on the speed of the aircraft to compress the air. When air coming in at high speed is brought to rest inside the engine, it's pressure increases according to Bernoulli's principle. At sufficiently high speeds, this is sufficient to run the engine without the complexity of a compressor and turbine.
Ramjets can be designed to operate at much higher speeds than a turbine engine - experimental ramjet powered aircraft have achieved speeds as high as five times the speed of sound.
However, you need to get the aircraft up to a very high speed before you can start the ramjet - because it relies on the speed of the incoming air to compress the air, it cannot run if it isn't moving. Therefore, you need a rocket or a conventional turbojet to get the aircraft to the necessary speed before the ramjet can take over.
|
[
"A ramjet is a form of jet engine that contains no major moving parts and can be particularly useful in applications requiring a small and simple engine for high-speed use, such as with missiles. Ramjets require forward motion before they can generate thrust and so are often used in conjunction with other forms of propulsion, or with an external means of achieving sufficient speed. The Lockheed D-21 was a Mach 3+ ramjet-powered reconnaissance drone that was launched from a parent aircraft. A ramjet uses the vehicle's forward motion to force air through the engine without resorting to turbines or vanes. Fuel is added and ignited, which heats and expands the air to provide thrust.\n",
"A ramjet is a form of airbreathing jet engine using the engine's forward motion to compress incoming air, without a rotary compressor. Ramjets cannot produce thrust at zero airspeed and thus cannot move an aircraft from a standstill. Ramjets require considerable forward speed to operate well, and as a class work most efficiently at speeds around Mach 3. This type of jet can operate up to speeds of Mach 6.\n",
"A ramjet, sometimes referred to as a flying stovepipe or an athodyd (aero thermodynamic duct), is a form of airbreathing jet engine that uses the engine's forward motion to compress incoming air without an axial compressor or a centrifugal compressor. Because ramjets cannot produce thrust at zero airspeed, they cannot move an aircraft from a standstill. A ramjet-powered vehicle, therefore, requires an assisted take-off like a rocket assist to accelerate it to a speed where it begins to produce thrust. Ramjets work most efficiently at supersonic speeds around . This type of engine can operate up to speeds of .\n",
"A ramjet is designed around its inlet. An object moving at high speed through air generates a high pressure region upstream. A ramjet uses this high pressure in front of the engine to force air through the tube, where it is heated by combusting some of it with fuel. It is then passed through a nozzle to accelerate it to supersonic speeds. This acceleration gives the ramjet forward thrust.\n",
"Ramjets utilize high-speed characteristics of air to literally 'ram' air through an inlet diffuser into the combustor. At transonic and supersonic flight speeds, the air upstream of the inlet is not able to move out of the way quickly enough, and is compressed within the diffuser before being diffused into the combustor. Combustion in a ramjet takes place at subsonic velocities, similar to turbojets, but the combustion products are then accelerated through a convergent-divergent nozzle to supersonic speeds. As they have no mechanical means of compression, ramjets cannot start from a standstill, and generally do not achieve sufficient compression until supersonic flight. The lack of intricate turbomachinery allows ramjets to deal with the temperature rise associated with decelerating a supersonic flow to subsonic speeds, but this only goes so far: at near-hypersonic velocities, the temperature rise and inefficiencies discourage decelerating the flow to the magnitude found in ramjet engines.\n",
"The Ramjet is a continuous-flow port-injection system. Unlike later fuel injection systems that used electronics, this one is based on purely mechanical principles. The two main sub-assemblies of the system are the air meter and fuel meter. The air meter measures airflow into the engine and manages thermostatic warmup enrichment, fuel shutoff on overrun, and idle settings. These measurements are sent via pressure and vacuum signals to the fuel meter, which contains the high-pressure fuel pump and controls delivery of fuel to the injector nozzles.\n",
"The Rochester Ramjet is an automotive fuel injection system developed by the Rochester Products Division of General Motors and first offered as a high-performance option on the Corvette and GM passenger cars in 1957. It was discontinued partway through 1965 in favor of the Chevrolet Big Block as a performance option. Unlike electronic fuel injection systems that would become common decades later, the Ramjet is purely mechanical and relies on vacuum and pressure signals to measure airflow and meter fuel.\n"
] |
how was the playstation 3 able to perform so well with only 256mb of ram?
|
PC run Windows OS that multipurpose generic OS that will consume 2+ GB of RAM on it's own plus there is other software running at the same time so with 4GB of there is not even 2GB left for the game.
The game on console can be fine tuned to specific configuration of the console. On PC it must be prepared to work with different configurations.
PS3 has lower details. The thing about computational complexity (how it is hard to compute something) doesn't have to be linear.
|
[
"The original Z64 has a hardware set limit of 128 megabits. Because it is not capable of addressing any RAM above 16 megabytes, the user can not upgrade the RAM in order play bigger games. Once 256 megabit games became more prevalent, the parent company released hardware version 2.0 which includes a fully addressable 32 megabyte RAM chip, allowing the larger games to play. The 1.0 units can not be upgraded to 2.0. No further hardware revision has been made to allow for the playing of the few 512 megabit games that were released.\n",
"BULLET::::- RAM: 128 megabits (16 MB) or 256 megabits (32 MB). Original V64 units shipped with 128 megabits of RAM. V64 units started shipping with 256 megabits when developers started using bigger sized memory carts for their games. Users of the time had the option of buying a memory upgrade from Bung and other re-sellers.\n",
"The architecture is not identical to the PlayStation 3. One difference is that the BCU-100 has 1 GB XDR RAM instead of the PlayStation 3's 256 MB. Video RAM is missing in Sony's system diagrams, but it is listed as 256 MB (like the PlayStation 3) further down in the tech specs. The XDR memory is shared by both the Cell and RSX. Sony uses the SCC (Super Companion Chip) to handle I/O tasks (HDD, USB 2.0, Gigabit Ethernet and other unspecified I/O); the SCC has its own dedicated memory of 1GB DDR2 as well as a Memory Extension Adapter connected via PCI Express that can hold up to 8 GB. Another option for the single PCI express slot is a Video Display Board with a DVI-I output.\n",
"\"4 Gb\" (4 × 1024 bit) GDDR5 components became available in the third quarter of 2013. Initially released by Hynix, Micron Technology quickly followed up with their implementation releasing in 2014. On February 20, 2013, it was announced that the PlayStation 4 will use sixteen 4 Gb GDDR5 memory chips for a total of 8 GB of GDDR5 @ 176 Gbit/s (CK 1.375 GHz and WCK 2.75 GHz) as combined system and graphics RAM for use with its AMD-powered system on a chip comprising 8 Jaguar cores, 1152 GCN shader processors and AMD TrueAudio. Product teardowns later confirmed the implementation of 4 Gb based GDDR5 memory in the PlayStation 4.\n",
"The RAM in the Macintosh consisted of sixteen 4164 64k×1 DRAMs. The 68000 and video controller took turns accessing DRAM every four CPU cycles during display of the frame buffer, while the 68000 had unrestricted access to DRAM during vertical and horizontal blanking intervals. Such an arrangement reduced the overall performance of the CPU as much as 35% for most code as the display logic often blocked the CPU's access to RAM. This caused the computer to run slower than several of its competitors, despite the nominally high clock rate.\n",
"A single HGR page occupied 8k of RAM; in practice this meant that the user had to have at least 12k of total RAM to use HGR mode and 32k to use two pages. Early Apple II games from the 1977 to 79 period often ran only in text or low resolution mode to support users with small memory configurations; HGR not being near universally supported by games until 1980.\n",
"This computer has two DDR2 SODIMM slots and can be upgraded to 6GB of RAM, with a set of 2GB and 4GB modules. Both 667Mhz and 800Mhz modules are supported (PC2-5300 or PC2-6400). There's no reliable reference online of anyone properly testing a set of two 4GB modules, so it is unsure whether 8GB total RAM is possible or not. \n"
] |
How far does one blood cell travel with one beat of an average healthy human heart?
|
Let's go with the typical (or not so typical) 70 kg man.
- Blood volume = ~5 liters
- Stroke volume (amount pumped with each beat) = ~70 mL
- Heart rate = ~ 75 bpm
- Cardiac output = ~5 liters/minute
- Height = 1.75 m (5'9")
The entire blood volume is circulated once a minute or so. I'd surmise that blood circulated very near the heart will make it back sooner than blood going to your great toe. Let's say the blood needs to travel half the height of the body and back, or rather, one body height.
- Distance traveled = 1.75 m
- Time = 60 seconds
- Rate = 1.75m/60s = ~3 cm/second
- Heart beat frequency = 1 every 0.8 seconds
**Distance traveled per beat = 2.4 cm**
This is just an estimate but something on this order of magnitude seems reasonable.
Edit: formatting and clarification
|
[
"For a healthy human heart the entire cardiac cycle typically runs less than one second. That is, for a typical heart rate of 75 beats per minute (bpm), the cycle requires 0.3 sec in ventricular systole (contraction)—pumping blood to all body systems from the two ventricles; and 0.5 sec in diastole (dilation), re-filling the four chambers of the heart, for a total time of 0.8 sec to complete the entire cycle.\n",
"A resting heart that beats slower than 60 beats per minute, or faster than 100 beats per minute, is regarded as having an arrhythmia. A heartbeat slower than 60 beats per minute is known as bradycardia, and a heartbeat faster than 100 is known as a tachycardia.\n",
"A normal heart should have a normal sinus rhythm, this rhythm can be identified by a ventricular rate of 60-100 bpm, at a regular rate, with a normal PR interval (0.12 to 0.20 second) and a normal QRS complex (0.12 second and less).\n",
"The human heart begins beating at a rate near the mother’s, about 75-80 beats per minute (BPM). The embryonic heart rate (EHR) then accelerates linearly for the first month of beating, peaking at 165-185 BPM during the early 7th week, (early 9th week after the LMP). This acceleration is approximately 3.3 BPM per day, or about 10 BPM every three days, an increase of 100 BPM in the first month.\n",
"The human heart begins beating at a rate near the mother's, about 75–80 beats per minute (bpm). The embryonic heart rate then accelerates linearly for the first month of beating, peaking at 165–185 bpm during the early 7th week, (early 9th week after the LMP). This acceleration is approximately 3.3 bpm per day, or about 10 bpm every three days, an increase of 100 bpm in the first month.\n",
"The human heart is constantly contracting to move blood throughout the body. Through larger veins and arteries in the body, blood has been found to travel at approximately 0.33 m/s. Though considerable variation exists, and peak flows in the venae cavae have been found between . additionally, the smooth muscles of hollow internal organs are moving. The most familiar would be the occurrence of peristalsis which is where digested food is forced throughout the digestive tract. Though different foods travel through the body at different rates, an average speed through the human small intestine is . The human lymphatic system is also constantly causing movements of excess fluids, lipids, and immune system related products around the body. The lymph fluid has been found to move through a lymph capillary of the skin at approximately 0.0000097 m/s.\n",
"Like all medical tests, what constitutes \"normal\" is based on population studies. The heartrate range of between 60 and 100 beats per minute (bpm) is considered normal since data shows this to be the usual resting heart rate.\n"
] |
Why was there such a push to annex Texas in the 1840's?
|
Let's go back a bit.
The Western Confederacy was beaten in the 1794 Northwest Indian War, and broken during the War of 1812. The Creeks collapsed into a brutal civil war in 1813, and Andrew Jackson razed the strongholds of the Creek and Seminole diehards during his 1816 invasion of Florida. The destruction of Negro Fort during this incursion shattered the black hope of building a refuge outside the United States.
These victories and the relentless growth of the American population led to a flood of settlers. The Indian nations gave up their claims, and the U.S. government, starved of specie and dependent on a trickle of tariffs to fund itself, found itself in undisputed possession of millions of acres of land.
The rich and well-connected grabbed this land at bargain prices and built fortunes parceling it out. The capital this land represented was entered in ledgers and grew into banks. Land was wealth. Land was opportunity. Squatters dragged their families just out of the law's reach, eking out a living on the frontier. Behind them came surveyors, whose chains and stakes laid out new towns. From these raw-timbered towns came a slow, steady stream of mortgage payments, which swelled the coffers of a few satisfied families in New York and Charleston.
This process had a hard, keen edge in the South. The plantation lords were dependent on the land, but just as they understood how fragile their control over their slaves was, they understood how brittle their fortunes were. Cotton, tobacco, indigo; these crops created fortunes but they depleted the ground. Plantations ran down and produced less every year.
Land was, for the slave-owners, more than a desire. It was a matter of life or death. More important than either: a matter of honor.
The Creek Confederacy was consumed quickly. The rich bottomlands of the Delta, where spring floods replenished the soil's nutrients as quickly as cotton drained them, were snapped up. To survive, the slave-owners had to move west.
The grand strategy of the United States in its earliest days involved the constant erosion of European power - and Europe's strategic partners in the Indian confederacies.
The victories of the War of 1812 - and don't let the draw against Britain distract you, the death of Tecumseh and the fall of the Creek diehards made this war one of the greatest victories in American history - incidentally opened the door to unimaginable wealth.
And just as these new lands promised wealth to the slave-owners, they also promised a different kind of security. The Industrial Revolution brought wealth to the North, and a flood of immigrants. The Southerners watched helplessly as the Midwest filled with free states. The writing was on the wall. Only expansion could restore the balance and keep the peace.
|
[
"The annexation of Texas was the chief political issue of the day. Van Buren, initially the leading candidate, opposed immediate annexation because it might lead to a sectional crisis over the status of slavery in the West and lead to war with Mexico. This position cost Van Buren the support of southern and expansionist Democrats; as a result, he failed to win the nomination. The delegates likewise could not settle on Lewis Cass, the former Secretary of War, whose credentials also included past service as a U.S. minister to France.\n",
"During this time, while many Texans hoped to encourage eventual annexation by the United States, some supported waiting for annexation or even remaining independent. The United States, in the late 1830s, was hesitant to annex Texas for fear of provoking a war with Mexico. Jones and others felt that Texas gaining recognition from European states was important, and began to set up trade relations with them, to make annexation of Texas more attractive to the United States, or failing that, to give Texas the strength to remain independent.\n",
"In the July–August 1845 issue of the \"Democratic Review\", O'Sullivan published an essay entitled \"Annexation\", which called on the U.S. to admit the Republic of Texas into the Union. Because of concerns in the Senate over the expansion of the number of slave states and the possibility of war with Mexico, the annexation of Texas had long been a controversial issue. Congress had voted for annexation early in 1845, but Texas had yet to accept, and opponents were still hoping to block the annexation. O'Sullivan's essay urged that \"It is now time for the opposition to the Annexation of Texas to cease.\" O'Sullivan argued that the United States had a divine mandate to expand throughout North America, writing of \"our manifest destiny to overspread the continent allotted by Providence for the free development of our yearly multiplying millions.\" Texas was annexed shortly thereafter, but O'Sullivan's first usage of the phrase \"manifest destiny\" attracted little attention.\n",
"Jackson's successor, President Martin Van Buren, viewed Texas annexation as an immense political liability that would empower the anti-slavery northern Whig opposition – especially if annexation provoked a war with Mexico. Presented with a formal annexation proposal from Texas minister Memucan Hunt, Jr. in August 1837, Van Buren summarily rejected it. Annexation resolutions presented separately in each house of Congress were either soundly defeated or tabled through filibuster. After the election of 1838, new Texas president Mirabeau B. Lamar withdrew his republic's offer of annexation over these failures. Texans were at an annexation impasse when John Tyler entered the White House in 1841.\n",
"Before James Polk took office in 1845, the United States Congress approved the annexation of Texas. Polk wished to gain control of a portion of Texas, which had declared independence from Mexico in 1836, but was still being claimed by Mexico. This paved the way for the outbreak of the Mexican–American War on April 24, 1846. With American success on the battlefield, by the summer of 1847 there were calls for the annexation of \"All Mexico\", particularly among Eastern Democrats, who argued that bringing Mexico into the Union was the best way to ensure future peace in the region.\n",
"In 1843, U.S. President John Tyler, then unaligned with any political party, decided independently to pursue the annexation of Texas in a bid to gain a base of popular support for another four years in office. His official motivation was to outmaneuver suspected diplomatic efforts by the British government for emancipation of slaves in Texas, which would undermine slavery in the United States. Through secret negotiations with the Houston administration, Tyler secured a treaty of annexation in April 1844. When the documents were submitted to the U.S. Senate for ratification, the details of the terms of annexation became public and the question of acquiring Texas took center stage in the presidential election of 1844. Pro-Texas-annexation southern Democratic delegates denied their anti-annexation leader Martin Van Buren the nomination at their party's convention in May 1844. In alliance with pro-expansion northern Democratic colleagues, they secured the nomination of James K. Polk, who ran on a pro-Texas Manifest Destiny platform.\n",
"However, in August 1837, Memucan Hunt, Jr., the Texan minister to the United States, submitted the first official annexation proposal to the Van Buren administration (the first American-led attempts to take over Mexican Texas by filibustering date back to 1819 and by separatist settlers since 1826).\n"
] |
you spray an ant with raid (or a similar product), what is actually happening to it while it is dying?
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Different products contain different chemicals, but the active ingredient in normal Raid interferes with sodium channels. It prevents nerve cells from building up electrical charge by "breaking" the mechanism they use to transport electrically-charged particles, therefore causing paralysis and potentially "brain" damage as well... though the distinction between a bug's "brain" from the rest of the "nervous system" is not as obvious or well-defined as it is in humans.
The immobile/"brain-dead" bug can either be considered dead already (because it won't do anything), or will have other biological functions shut down as it does not eat, drink, etc anymore.
|
[
"Insecticides may be repellent or non-repellent. Social insects such as ants cannot detect non-repellents and readily crawl through them. As they return to the nest they take insecticide with them and transfer it to their nestmates. Over time, this eliminates all of the ants including the queen. This is slower than some other methods, but usually completely eradicates the ant colony.\n",
"Its defensive behaviours include self-destruction by autothysis, a term coined by Maschwitz and Maschwitz (1974). Two oversized, poison-filled mandibular glands run the entire length of the ant's body. When combat takes a turn for the worse, the worker ant violently contracts its abdominal muscles to rupture its gaster at the intersegmental fold, which also bursts the mandibular glands, thereby spraying a sticky secretion in all directions from the anterior region of its head. The glue, which also has corrosive properties and functions as a chemical irritant, can entangle and immobilize all nearby victims.\n",
"Currently Raid Ant & Roach Killer contains pyrethroids, piperonyl butoxide, and permethrin; other products contain tetramethrin, cypermethrin and imiprothrin as active ingredients. Raid Flying Insect Killer, a spray, uses prallethrin and D-phenothrin.\n",
"Although crazy ants do not bite or sting, they spray formic acid as a defence mechanism and to subdue their prey. In areas of high ant density, the movement of a land crab disturbs the ants and, as a result, the ants instinctively spray formic acid as a form of defence. The high levels of formic acid at ground level eventually overwhelms the crabs, and they are usually blinded then eventually die from dehydration (while attempting to flush out the formic acid) and exhaustion. As the dead crabs decay, the protein becomes available to the ants.\n",
"Insect repellent, referred to as \"bug spray\", comes in a plastic bottle or aerosol can. Applied to clothing, arms, legs, and other extremities, the use of these products will tend to ward off nearby insects. This is not an insecticide.\n",
"An insect repellent (also commonly called \"bug spray\") is a substance applied to skin, clothing, or other surfaces which discourages insects (and arthropods in general) from landing or climbing on that surface. Insect repellents help prevent and control the outbreak of insect-borne (and other arthropod-bourne) diseases such as malaria, Lyme disease, dengue fever, bubplague, river blindness and West Nile fever. Pest animals commonly serving as vectors for disease include insects such as flea, fly, and mosquito; and the arachnid tick .\n",
"\"O. glaber\" is viewed as a pest. Although it does not sting, it bites and, when crushed, produces a strong odour. It enters human homes to gather food, tracking across ceilings, beams and joists and drops ant debris onto surfaces below. The ant can also quickly spread because of its high reproduction and dispersal potential.\n"
] |
li5: could you please explain the phrase 'deus ex machina'?
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It comes from when they used statues to represent gods in plays a long time ago. The machine part is because they were often lowered onto the stage with ropes and pulleys. They would often bring these onto the stage when the plot got stuck. The god would do something magic that solved a problem or moved the plot on.
It's generally considered bad to use it in fiction these days, as it means the writer hasn't thought of a better way to move the plot along.
It isn't really used much in everyday situations, but people might mention it when something very unlikely happens that solves a problem someone has.
|
[
"Deus ex machina (: or ; plural: \"dei ex machina\"; English ‘god from the machine’) is a plot device whereby a seemingly unsolvable problem in a story is suddenly and abruptly resolved by an unexpected and seemingly unlikely occurrence, typically so much as to seem contrived. Its function can be to resolve an otherwise irresolvable plot situation, to surprise the audience, to bring the tale to a happy ending, or act as a comedic device.\n",
"\"Deus ex machina\" is a Latin term meaning \"god from the machine.\" It refers to an unexpected, artificial or improbable character, device or event introduced suddenly in a work of fiction to resolve a situation or untangle a plot. In Ancient Greek theater, the \"deus ex machina\" ('ἀπὸ μηχανῆς θεός') was the character of a Greek god literally brought onto the stage via a crane (μηχανῆς—\"mechanes\"), after which a seemingly insoluble problem is brought to a satisfactory resolution by the god's will. The term is now used pejoratively for any improbable or unexpected contrivance by which an author resolves the complications of the plot in a play or novel, and which has not been convincingly prepared for in the preceding action; the discovery of a lost will was a favorite resort of Victorian novelists.\n",
"The title of the episode \"Ex Deus Machina\" is a hyperbaton of \"deus ex machina\" (literally \"God out of a Machine\", meaning \"God appearing on a crane\", a literary device for a kind of turn of events) after he jokingly suggested to his writing partners a plot about Ba'al working undercover as a mechanic on Earth. The title also makes a reference to Ba'al as an ex-deus (a former god).\n",
"The Latin phrase \"deus ex machina\" has its origins in the conventions of Greek tragedy, and refers to situations in which a mechane (crane) was used to lower actors playing a god or gods onto the stage at the end of a play.\n",
"Machiavelli used those words, \"fortuna\" and \"virtù\", literally and figuratively in both pieces to demonstrate that immorality is acceptable when the ends justify the means. In \"Mandragola\", Machiavelli dramatically portrays these ideas by making the protagonist boast \"virtù\" and his leading lady encompass \"fortuna\". The protagonist Callimaco is the virtuous prince that Machiavelli alludes to in \"The Prince\"; he has the fervent aspiration, but also the willingness to endanger his life that make him deserving of his love Lucrezia and worthy of authority. Opposedly, the antagonist Nicia who already holds power, like an inherited prince, owes himself to \"Fortuna\" and loses her because of his passiveness. By having the characters overstep each other to better themselves, Machiavelli uses \"commedia dell'arte\" (artful comedy) to portray recent Florentine political events. Therefore, each character is representative of a political figurehead, again reiterating ideas from \"The Prince\" with the help of masks and stock figures.\n",
"\"Deus ex machina\" is a Latin calque . The term was coined from the conventions of ancient Greek theater, where actors who were playing gods were brought onto stage using a machine. The machine could be either a crane (\"mechane\") used to lower actors from above or a riser which brought them up through a trapdoor. Aeschylus introduced the idea, and it was used often to resolve the conflict and conclude the drama. The device is associated mostly with Greek tragedy, although it also appeared in comedies.\n",
"Machiavelli notes that Rome's actions as recounted by Livy proceeded either by \"public counsel\" or by \"private counsel,\" and that they concerned either things inside the city or things outside the city, yielding four possible combinations. He says that he will restrict himself in Book I to those things that occurred inside the city and by public counsel (I 1.6)\n"
] |
if men's body temperature is slightly higher than women's, why are men hairier?
|
Women don't actually have a lower body temperature than men - the heat is just distributed differently. Women's bodies are better at maintaining core body temperature at the expense of body temperature in the extremities.
Temperature also doesn't have much to do with hair. Human hair simply isn't effective insulation. Consider how hair patterns break down by geography. East Asians tend not to have much body hair - despite the fact that places like Korea and Japan are actually quite cold. In contrast, Indian men tend to have glorious amounts of hair, despite the fact that much of India has an equatorial climate.
No one knows for sure why men are hairier, but it's likely for the same reason that male lions have manes: as a secondary sex characteristic that indicates virility.
|
[
"Modern men generally have more body hair than women, due to higher levels of androgens. However, both genders have less hair in the current era than they once had, due to evolutionary changes. Three different types of hair are present on the human body. Body hair, or androgenic hair, is the terminal hair that develops on the human body during and after puberty. It is differentiated from the head hair and less visible vellus hair, which is much finer and lighter in color. The growth of androgenic hair is related to the level of androgens and the density of androgen receptors in the dermal papillae. Both must reach a threshold for the proliferation of hair follicle cells.\n",
"On average, males have more body hair than females. Males have relatively more of the type of hair called terminal hair, especially on the face, chest, abdomen and back. In contrast, females have more vellus hair. Vellus hairs are smaller and therefore less visible.\n",
"Male skin is more prone to reddening and oilier than female skin. Females have a thicker layer of fat under the skin and female skin constricts blood vessels near the surface (vasoconstriction) in reaction to cold to a greater extent than men's skin, both of which help women to stay warm and survive lower temperatures than men. As a result of greater vasoconstriction, while the surface of female skin is colder than male skin, the deep-skin temperature in women is higher than in men.\n",
"Studies based in the United States, New Zealand, and China have shown that women rate men with no trunk (chest and abdominal) hair as most attractive, and that attractiveness ratings decline as hairiness increases. Another study, however, found that moderate amounts of trunk hair on men was most attractive, to the sample of British and Sri Lankan women. Further, a degree of hirsuteness (hairiness) and a waist-to-shoulder ratio of 0.6 is often preferred when combined with a muscular physique.\n",
"Another hypothesis for the thick body hair on humans proposes that Fisherian runaway sexual selection played a role (as well as in the selection of long head hair), (see types of hair and vellus hair), as well as a much larger role of testosterone in men. Sexual selection is the only theory thus far that explains the sexual dimorphism seen in the hair patterns of men and women. On average, men have more body hair than women. Males have more terminal hair, especially on the face, chest, abdomen, and back, and females have more vellus hair, which is less visible. The halting of hair development at a juvenile stage, vellus hair, would also be consistent with the neoteny evident in humans, especially in females, and thus they could have occurred at the same time. This theory, however, has significant holdings in today's cultural norms. There is no evidence that sexual selection would proceed to such a drastic extent over a million years ago when a full, lush coat of hair would most likely indicate health and would therefore be more likely to be selected \"for\", not against, and not all human populations today have sexual dimorphism in body hair.\n",
"Body hair (on the chest, shoulders, back, abdomen, buttocks, thighs, tops of hands, and tops of feet) turns, over time, from terminal (\"normal\") hairs to tiny, blonde vellus hairs. Arm, perianal, and perineal hair is reduced but may not turn to vellus hair on the latter two regions (some cisgender women also have hair in these areas). Underarm hair changes slightly in texture and length, and pubic hair becomes more typically female in pattern. Lower leg hair becomes less dense. All of these changes depend to some degree on genetics.\n",
"Like much of the hair on the human body, leg, arm, chest, and back hair begin as vellus hair. As people age, the hair in these regions will often begin to grow darker and more abundantly. This will typically happen during or after puberty. Men will often have more abundant, coarser hair on the arms and back, while women tend to have a less drastic change in the hair growth in these areas but do experience a significant change in thickness of hairs. However, some women will grow darker, longer hair in one or more of these regions.\n"
] |
how do airport scans actually work?
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Congratulations on making it onto a watch list! Without saying anything too classified, density. Density of materials is almost like a finger print.
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[
"Airport Surface Surveillance Capability (ASSC) is a runway-safety tool that displays aircraft and ground vehicles on the airport surface, as well as aircraft on approach and departure paths within a few miles of the airport. The tool allows air traffic controllers and air crew in cockpits equipped with Automatic Dependent Surveillance-Broadcast (ADS-B) to detect potential runway conflicts by providing detailed coverage of movement on runways and taxiways. By collecting and fusing data from a variety of sources, ASSC is able to track vehicles and aircraft on airport surfaces and obtain identification information from aircraft ADS-B transponders.\n",
"One detection system in use at airports involves analysis of swab samples obtained from passengers and their baggage. Whole-body imaging scanners that use radio-frequency electromagnetic waves, low-intensity X-rays, or T-rays of terahertz frequency that can detect objects hidden under clothing are not widely used because of cost, concerns about the resulting traveler delays, and privacy concerns.\n",
"Surveillance cameras are placed strategically around airports to ensure the safety of everyone. An increase in camera surveillance then calls for an increase amount of personally stored data. A human machine interface is controlled by a person who operates the surveillance system to assess a situation. The operator is in control of the cameras and determines where the person will appear on the next camera. Facial recognition is an emerging technology measure for airport security. Facial recognition has made its way to camera surveillance. A study done at The Palm Beach airport showed that the false alarm rate of face recognition surveillance was fairly low and had a success rate of almost 50% when it came to matching. The use of facial recognition during the Super Bowl brought up concerns in connection to the Fourth Amendment.\n",
"Depending on the complexity of the airport, the traffic densities, and weather conditions, it might be preferable to complement the optical images with an advanced surface movement guidance and control system (A-SMGCS) with signal inputs from surface movement radar (SMR) and/or Local Area Multilateration (LAM).\n",
"An airport surveillance radar (ASR) is a radar system used at airports to detect and display the presence and position of aircraft in the \"terminal area\", the airspace around airports. It is the main air traffic control system for the airspace around airports. At large airports it typically controls traffic within a radius of 60 miles (96 km) of the airport below an elevation of 25,000 feet. The sophisticated systems at large airports consist of two different radar systems, the \"primary\" and \"secondary\" surveillance radar. The primary radar typically consists of a large rotating parabolic antenna dish that sweeps a vertical fan-shaped beam of microwaves around the airspace surrounding the airport. It detects the position and range of aircraft by microwaves reflected back to the antenna from the aircraft's surface. In the US the primary radar operates at a frequency of 2.7 - 2.9 GHz in the S band with a peak radiated power of 25 kW and an average power of 2.1 kW. The secondary surveillance radar consists of a second rotating antenna, often mounted on the primary antenna, which interrogates the transponders of aircraft, which transmits a radio signal back containing the aircraft's identification, barometric altitude, and an emergency status code, which is displayed on the radar screen next to the return from the primary radar. It operates at a frequency of 1.03 - 1.09 GHz in the L band with peak power of 160 - 1500 W.\n",
"Surveillance displays are also available to controllers at larger airports to assist with controlling air traffic. Controllers may use a radar system called secondary surveillance radar for airborne traffic approaching and departing. These displays include a map of the area, the position of various aircraft, and data tags that include aircraft identification, speed, altitude, and other information described in local procedures. In adverse weather conditions the tower controllers may also use surface movement radar (SMR), surface movement guidance and control systems (SMGCS) or advanced SMGCS to control traffic on the manoeuvring area (taxiways and runway).\n",
"All Air Route Traffic Control Centers (ARTCC) have the capability to recall recorded radar data. The National Track Analysis Program (NTAP) can identify and track targets which are at a sufficient altitude to be tracked by radar whether or not they are being \"controlled\" by the ARTCC. NTAPs requested by the AFRCC have proven to be very helpful during an aircraft search by providing the route of flight and last radar position of an aircraft being searched for.\n"
] |
In several of his books journalist Mark Kurlansky claims that the Basques might have discovered America before Columbus. Is there any truth to this?
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I will quote a [post](_URL_0_) I wrote where I touched on Kurlansky's work:
>
> Mark Kurlansky in his pop-history (non-academic with no citations or references) works Cod and Basque History of the World for some reason strongly proposes the theories of Basque knowledge of North America, himself confesses the following in Basque History of the World:
>
> > The two leading arguments for placing the Basques in pre- Columbian America are both based on deductive reasoning.
>
> and
>
> > But no physical evidence has been found of the Basques in North America before Cabot. Historians and archeologists who have searched for it and failed insist that the rumors are false. But the search for pre-Columbian Basques in America has yielded ample evidence of a surprisingly large-scale Basque presence in Newfoundland and Labrador soon after Cabot. The remains of extensive Basque whaling stations dating to 1530 have been found.
>
> As we see, he admits that there is no physical evidence and proceedes to demonstrate his case on deductive reasoning, and honestly, it rests on some really eager jumps to conclusions and some really bad historical premises. For example he says:
>
> > But the Basques chased whales that traveled to subarctic waters and then dropped down along both the European and American coastlines.
>
> But to quote an academic work about the Newfoundland fisheries "The Basque Whaling Establishments in Labrador 1536-1632 —A Summary" by Selma Huxley Barkham:
>
> > Contrary to the spurious claims of writers on the history of whaling who have based their findings on secondary evidence, the Basques never, at any point, chased whales further and further out into the Atlantic until they collided with North America. This ridiculous legend must be laid to rest once and for all.
>
> Kurlansky book has some other mistakes and misleading statements in that chapter that would warrant a good badhistory post for itself
So in short, Kurlansky's argument rest on no evidence whatsoever, but mainly "deducing" from various other information, and even that is based on some faulty premises and reasoning
|
[
"One primary criticism of this theory is that if either a Sinclair or a Templar voyage reached the Americas, they did not, unlike Columbus, return with a historical record of their findings. In fact, there is no known published documentation from that era to support the theory that such a voyage took place. The physical evidence relies on speculative reasoning to support the theory, and all of it can be interpreted in other ways. For example, according to one historian, the carvings in Rosslyn Chapel may not be of American plants at all but are nothing more than stylized carvings of wheat and strawberries.\n",
"There has been a Basque presence in the Americas from the age of Columbus. Basques under the crown of Castile were among the explorers, priests and Conquistadors of the Spanish Empire. Placenames like Durango, Colorado, Trepassey, Biscayne Cove and Biscayne Bay remember their foundations. Basques began to come to English-speaking America during the 1848 California Gold Rush. The first wave of Basques were already part of the diaspora who were living in Chile and Argentina and came when they heard word of the discovery of gold. When the gold rush did not pan out for most Basque immigrants, the majority turned to ranching and sheep-herding in California's Central Valley, and later in northern Nevada and southern Idaho. Many more Basques arrived from the Basque Country upon hearing of the success of their comrades in America.\n",
"Indeed, any of those stories are widely regarded as false, and it is believed that the one about Alonso Sanchez was probably spread either by Pinzón brothers to discredit Columbus in his later years, or by political enemies of Columbus' family during the first years of Spanish settlement in America. Several authors, including Father Bartolomé de las Casas, took notice of rumors and stories similar to those of Alonso Sánchez, although it was not until 1602 when Inca Garcilaso de la Vega (1539-1616) named the purported discoverer \"Alonso Sánchez\", claiming that he had heard Alonso's story from some old conquistadores still alive in Garcilaso's youth.\n",
"Many Basques found in the Castilian-Spanish Empire an opportunity to promote their social position and venture to America to make a living and sometimes amass a little fortune that spurred the foundation of the present-day baserris. Basques serving under the Spanish flag became renowned sailors, and many of them were among the first Europeans to reach America. For example, Christopher Columbus's first expedition to the \"New World\" was partially manned by Basques, the Santa Maria vessel was made in Basque shipyards, and the owner, Juan de la Cosa, may have been a Basque.\n",
"Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo y Valdés records several such legends in his \"General y natural historia de las Indias\" of 1526, which includes biographical information on Columbus. He discusses the then-current story of a Spanish caravel that was swept off its course while on its way to England, and wound up in a foreign land populated by naked tribesmen. The crew gathered supplies and made its way back to Europe, but the trip took several months and the captain and most of the men died before reaching land. The ship's pilot, a man called Alonso Sánchez, and very few others finally made it to Portugal, but all were very ill. Columbus was a good friend of the pilot, and took him to be treated in his own house, and the pilot described the land they had seen and marked it on a map before dying. People in Oviedo's time knew this story in several versions, though Oviedo himself regarded it as a myth.\n",
"During her extensive research in the archives she discovered documents which convinced her that America might have been discovered a long time before Columbus by Arab-andalusian or Moroccan sailors trading with ports in Brazil, Guayana and Venezuela and she published her views in \"No fuimos nosotros\" (\"It wasn't us\") and \"África versus América\".\n",
"Historian Johann Christoph Wagenseil claimed in 1682 that Behaim had discovered America before Columbus. Other authors say that Behaim at least gave Columbus the idea of sailing west. There is no evidence that Behaim ever sailed west on a voyage of discovery and although it is possible that Behaim and Columbus met in Lisbon, neither Behaim or Columbus ever referenced such a meeting.\n"
] |
why don't countries invade other countries to take over land anymore?
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What do you mean by 'anymore'?
The USSR was a little grabby and Russia continues to be.
Iraq invaded Kuwait in 1990, the Iran-Iraq war prior that was a pretty fucking big war.
India and Pakistan skirmish for land presently.
Israel continues to fight the Palestinians as well as an entire region, although not in an all out-war.
North and South Korea just have an armistice.
Eritrea v. Ethiopia in the late 90s.
Recently Cambodia and Thailand. South Sudan and Sudan.
It's not that countries don't fight over land it's that the big countries haven't fought over land for a couple decades. Mainly that's due to the expense of war and new paradigm of controlling the world around you. They work through proxies and posturing. Instead of adding a country to your empire you add it to your sphere of influence. Instead of having a direct war you agitate and cajole and force treaties.
|
[
"BULLET::::- Invading nations that are close to you carries a higher chance of success. The battlefields are close to your own country, thus it is easier for your troops to get supplies and to defend the conquered land. Make allies with nations far away from you, as it is unwise to invade them.\n",
"Others did accept a limited right for military intervention in foreign countries, but nevertheless opposed the invasion on the basis that it was conducted without United Nations' approval and was hence a violation of international law. According to this position, adherence by the United States and the other great powers to the UN Charter and to other international treaties is a legal obligation; exercising military power in violation of the UN Charter undermines the rule of law and is illegal vigilantism on an international scale.\n",
"Territorial disputes are a major cause of wars and terrorism as states often try to assert their sovereignty over a territory through invasion, and non-state entities try to influence the actions of politicians through terrorism. International law does not support the use of force by one state to annex the territory of another state. The UN Charter says: \"\"All Members shall refrain in their international relations from the threat or use of force against the territorial integrity or political independence of any state, or in any other manner inconsistent with the Purposes of the United Nations.\"\"\n",
"Russia, clear on the other side of the map, takes time to get going, but once it does, it is very hard to stop. Invaders will tend to stay out of Russia, especially early on thanks to Russia's attrition rule, which can cause invading armies to take casualties by remaining in Russia for too long. Use this to fortify yourself accordingly, and when the time is right, spill out of Russia and with the aid of either Prussia, Austria, and/or the Ottomans, move westward and grab any land you can. Do not draw yourself too far out, though, and always have troops guarding Moscow and St. Petersburg. Your navy will be minor at best, so it is best to use this force to guard the port at St. Petersburg from invading armies.\n",
"A number of states have laid claim to territories, which they allege were removed from them as a result of colonialism. This is justified by reference to Paragraph 6 of UN Resolution 1514(XV), which states that any attempt \"aimed at partial or total disruption of the national unity and the territorial integrity of a country is incompatible with the purposes and principles of the Charter\". This, it is claimed, applies to situations where the territorial integrity of a state had been disrupted by colonisation, so that the people of a territory subject to a historic territorial claim are prevented from exercising a right to self-determination. This interpretation is rejected by many states, who argue that Paragraph 2 of UN Resolution 1514(XV) states that \"all peoples have the right to self-determination\" and Paragraph 6 cannot be used to justify territorial claims. The original purpose of Paragraph 6 was \"to ensure that acts of self-determination occur within the established boundaries of colonies, rather than within sub-regions\". Further, the use of the word \"attempt\" in Paragraph 6 denotes future action and cannot be construed to justify territorial redress for past action. An attempt sponsored by Spain and Argentina to qualify the right to self-determination in cases where there was a territorial dispute was rejected by the UN General Assembly, which re-iterated the right to self-determination was a universal right.\n",
"The resolution concluded by asking states not to allow their territory to be used by armed groups for attacks on others, to tackle the cross-border movements of arms and armed groups and to co-operate in the repatriation of foreign groups.\n",
"Once political boundaries and military lines have been breached, pacification of the region is the final, and arguably the most important, goal of the invading force. After the defeat of the regular military, or when one is lacking, continued opposition to an invasion often comes from civilian or paramilitary resistance movements. Complete pacification of an occupied country can be difficult, and usually impossible, but popular support is vital to the success of any invasion.\n"
] |
differences between catholic and episcopalian.
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Episcopalian, barring from the basic beliefs (Belief in Jesus as God, Jesus will save you, Heaven and Hell) in general are very liberal.
Things such as: The Bible was written "under influence of God" rather than direct words, leaving room for context and interpretation.
Gays and women are allowed to be ordained, as they are seen as equal, and being made by God.
Slavery is bad, and that everyone should receive equal compensation within the church, and pushes toward higher minimum wages and better working conditions.
Open in it's support for anti-racism, gay rights, gender equality, and rich/poor disparity.
As someone put it: "I used to be Episcopalian, and now I am atheist. Not much has changed." In regards to daily life, and morality, and general views.
|
[
"The Episcopal Church follows the \"via media\" or \"middle way\" between Protestant and Roman Catholic doctrine and practices: that is both Catholic and Reformed. Although many Episcopalians identify with this concept, those whose convictions lean toward either evangelicalism or Anglo-Catholicism may not.\n",
"While the personal ordinariates preserve a certain corporate identity of Anglicans received into the Catholic Church, they are canonically within the Latin Church and share the same theological emphasis and in this way differ from the Eastern Catholic churches, which are autonomous particular churches.\n",
"\"Anglican ordinariates\" is often used by newspapers, such as the \"Church of England Newspaper\" and the Canadian \"Catholic Register\". It is also often used by communities belonging to the ordinariates. The name does not imply that the members of an ordinariate are still Anglicans. While those who have been Anglicans \"bring with them, into the full communion of the Catholic Church in all its diversity and richness of liturgical rites and traditions, aspects of their own Anglican patrimony and culture which are consonant with the Catholic Faith\", they are \"Catholics of the Latin Rite, within the full communion of the Catholic Church ... no longer part of any other communion\".\n",
"The word \"Episcopal\" is preferred in the title of the Episcopal Church (the province of the Anglican Communion covering the United States) and the Scottish Episcopal Church, though the full name of the former is \"The Protestant Episcopal Church of the United States of America\". Elsewhere, however, the term \"Anglican Church\" came to be preferred as it distinguished these churches from others that maintain an episcopal polity.\n",
"Anglican theology and ecclesiology has thus come to be typically expressed in three distinct, yet sometimes overlapping manifestations: Anglo-Catholicism (often called \"high church\"), Evangelical Anglicanism (often called \"low church\"), and Latitudinarianism (\"broad church\"), whose beliefs and practices fall somewhere between the two. Though all elements within the Anglican Communion recite the same creeds, Evangelical Anglicans generally regard the word \"catholic\" in the ideal sense given above. In contrast, Anglo-Catholics regard the communion as a component of the whole Catholic Church, in spiritual and historical union with the Roman Catholic, Old Catholic and several Eastern churches. Broad Church Anglicans tend to maintain a mediating view, or consider the matter one of \"adiaphora\". These Anglicans, for example, have agreed in the Porvoo Agreement to interchangeable ministries and full eucharistic communion with Lutherans.\n",
"Some of the writers who draw a contrast between \"Roman Catholics\" and \"Eastern Catholics\" may perhaps be distinguishing Eastern Catholics not from Latin or Western Catholics in general, but only from those (the majority of Latin Catholics) who use the Roman liturgical rite. Adrian Fortescue explicitly made this distinction, saying that, just as \"Armenian Catholic\" is used to mean a Catholic who uses the Armenian rite, \"Roman Catholic\" could be used to mean a Catholic who uses the Roman Rite. In this sense, he said, an Ambrosian Catholic, though a member of the Latin or Western Church, is not a \"Roman\" Catholic. He admitted, however, that this usage is uncommon.\n",
"Some have drawn parallels with the Eastern Catholic Churches. However, although there are some commonalities, Anglican ordinariates are part of the Latin Church sui iuris within the Catholic Church, as they had been before the breach with Rome following the reign of Mary I of England, and their Anglican Use liturgy is a use (variation) of the Roman Rite.\n"
] |
why do we experience discomfort/pain when we are exposed to light after waking up in the morning?
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It's because of our pupils. Your eyes, even if they were closed while you were asleep, got used to the dark, so the pupils got big to allow more light in the event that you woke up in the dark, you could see better.
Well if you wake up to bright lights, that's a TON of light coming in and you can see ALL of it. So it's super overwhelming and painful to absorb all that light before your eyes can properly adjust.
|
[
"The proper exposure to light has become an accepted way to alleviate some of the effects of SAD. In addition exposure to light in the morning has been shown to assist Alzheimer patients in regulating their waking patterns.\n",
"Starting about two hours before an individual's regular bedtime, exposure of the eyes to light will delay the circadian phase, causing later wake-up time and later sleep onset. The delaying effect gets stronger as evening progresses; it is also dependent on the wavelength and illuminance (\"brightness\") of the light. The effect is small in dim indoor lighting.\n",
"Light to the eyes, primarily blue-wavelength light, is important for the entrainment and maintenance of robust circadian rhythms. Exposure to sunlight in the morning is particularly effective; it leads to earlier melatonin onset in the evening and makes it easier to fall asleep. Bright morning light has been shown to be effective against insomnia, premenstrual syndrome and seasonal affective disorder (SAD).\n",
"BULLET::::- “Small-fibre polyneuropathy can interfere with the ability to feel pain or changes in temperature”. For some individuals, neuropathic pain can be more prominent at night, which makes it harder to sleep and thus rest and recovery in order to rehabilitate nerve damage can be difficult. This may be a result of spontaneous stimulation in pain receptors or difficulties with signal processing, therefore resulting in light touches that are normally experienced as painless, to cause severe pain.\n",
"Light is the strongest stimulus for realigning a person's sleep–wake schedule, and careful control of exposure to and avoidance of bright light to the eyes can speed adjustment to a new time zone. The hormone melatonin is produced in dim light and darkness in humans, and it is eliminated by light.\n",
"BULLET::::- Adenosine levels in the brain progressively increase with sleep deprivation, and return to normal during sleep. Upon awakening with sleep deprivation, high amounts of adenosine will be bound to receptors in the brain, neural activity slows down, and a feeling of tiredness will result\n",
"Medical research on the effects of excessive light on the human body suggests that a variety of adverse health effects may be caused by light pollution or excessive light exposure, and some lighting design textbooks use human health as an explicit criterion for proper interior lighting. Health effects of over-illumination or improper spectral composition of light may include: increased headache incidence, worker fatigue, medically defined stress, decrease in sexual function and increase in anxiety. Likewise, animal models have been studied demonstrating unavoidable light to produce adverse effect on mood and anxiety. For those who need to be awake at night, light at night also has an acute effect on alertness and mood.\n"
] |
why do people hate country music with a passion?
|
largely uncreative (not a large variety of topics), over produced, and i think most people hate the fans more than the music - similar to the emo hate.
|
[
"The country and western field of music is peculiarly for and about people and its music tells about people and their feelings. In the words of a famous critic: \"\"If a country singer can't feel what his audience is feeling, he's neither a country singer, nor a singer.\"\" The popularity of country music is, and has been, expanding every year. Through the medium of radio, country music reached into the city and the country. Country music is more and more finding hefty sells in markets. All of this is because country music is universal and country music is universal and country artists with their fellow man on all levels.\n",
"The ironic thing is that we grew up listening to primarily American music and fell in love with American music. I love country music. I grew up with George Jones and Charley Pride and Jim Reeves. All that stuff was playing in the house. That's what I wanted to seek out. That's what I wanted to play. Carol was into Tammy Wynette. Trev Warner is Kym's dad, and he was the first person to bring bluegrass music to Australia.\n",
"BULLET::::- The classic country fan, frequently over the age of 50, who—with a few exceptions—often dislikes country music produced after 1990, when the genre began incorporating more rock influence. Such fans often bemoan the electrification of popular country music with the addition of heavier guitars, Hard Rock influenced voices and harder percussion (for example, the music of Brantley Gilbert and some of Jason Aldean's discography), and in more recent years even hip hop influences. Other complaints from this era include the increased cliché-driven songwriting (\"Achy Breaky Heart\" by Billy Ray Cyrus, one of the biggest country hits of the 1990s, was notorious in this respect, as was the fad of bro-country in the early 2010s) and, although pop/country crossover complaints have occurred since even the late 1940s with artists such as Eddy Arnold and Elvis Presley, the marketing of pop songs with little or even no country influence as \"country\" songs solely because the artists have previously performed country songs (something \"Billboard\" eventually confessed in 2019; modern examples of this include Taylor Swift and Carrie Underwood).\n",
"Country has continued to maintain its popularity both as a radio format and in retail; this is attributed both to the faithfulness of country fans and to a rise in popularity of the genre. The most popular country acts during this decade have been Zac Brown Band, Carrie Underwood, Miranda Lambert, Taylor Swift, Jason Aldean, The Band Perry, Keith Urban, Luke Bryan, Blake Shelton, Lady Antebellum, Tim McGraw, Kenny Chesney, Florida Georgia Line, Brantley Gilbert, Eric Church, Dierks Bentley, Brad Paisley, Thomas Rhett, Cole Swindell, Rascal Flatts, Kacey Musgraves, Jake Owen, Dustin Lynch, Kip Moore, Little Big Town, Chris Young, Hunter Hayes, Cam, Sam Hunt, Lee Brice, Eli Young Band, Darius Rucker, Randy Houser, Kelsea Ballerini, Maren Morris, Billy Currington, Tyler Farr, Brett Eldredge, Sturgill Simpson, Chris Stapleton, Luke Combs, and Kane Brown.\n",
"Owen told \"Nash Country Weekly\" magazine that \"“I think my fans have come to expect a certain kind of music from me; songs that are fun, energetic and just make you feel good. ‘American Country Love Song’ has the feeling of freedom and being young and adventurous...The single is a broad-spectrum glance in a three-minute song that describes a couple of kids living that American country love song...[b]ut, it’s also a much larger celebration of the love story that is America itself, from cowboys and cowgirls to cheerleaders and quarterbacks in small towns and big cities.\"\n",
"Country rock is a genre that started in the 1960s but became prominent in the 1970s. The late 1960s in American music produced a unique blend as a result of traditionalist backlash within separate genres. In the aftermath of the British Invasion, many desired a return to the \"old values\" of rock n' roll. At the same time there was a lack of enthusiasm in the country sector for Nashville-produced music. What resulted was a crossbred genre known as country rock. Early innovators in this new style of music in the 1960s and 1970s included Bob Dylan, who was the first to revert to country music with his 1967 album \"John Wesley Harding\" (and even more so with that album's follow-up, \"Nashville Skyline\"), followed by Gene Clark, Clark's former band The Byrds (with Gram Parsons on \"Sweetheart of the Rodeo\") and its spin-off The Flying Burrito Brothers (also featuring Gram Parsons), guitarist Clarence White, Michael Nesmith (The Monkees and the First National Band), the Grateful Dead, Neil Young, Commander Cody, The Allman Brothers, The Marshall Tucker Band, Poco, Buffalo Springfield, and Eagles, among many, even the former folk music duo Ian & Sylvia, who formed Great Speckled Bird in 1969. The Eagles would become the most successful of these country rock acts, and their compilation album \"Their Greatest Hits (1971–1975)\" remains the second best-selling album of all time in the US with 29 million copies sold. The Rolling Stones also got into the act with songs like \"Dead Flowers\" and a country version of \"Honky Tonk Women\".\n",
"Hunt told \"Taste of Country\" that he does not write his songs with a specific genre in mind, but rather follows his instinct. \"I want to sound different than everybody else,\" said Hunt talking about his musical style. \"To use a football phrase, I try to zig when other people zag.\" Commenting on his interpretation of country music, he told \"Rolling Stone Country\", \"I think country songs are truthful songs about life written by country people, but the beats and sounds will continue to evolve.\" Billy Dukes of \"Taste of Country\", on observing \"Break Up in a Small Town\", referred the song as \"likely the wordiest song of 2015\" and Hunt's \"most genre-bending release to country radio\", adding \"Any talk of which genre Hunt belongs in misses the point. His story hits hard. It's deep and emotional and sincere and all the things we expect from a great country song.\"\n"
] |
why did the eli5 subreddit start off being full of extremely dumbed down, easy to digest, concise explanations when it started. now all the answers are like i'm reading doctoral thesis? what happened?
|
Several things to consider.
1) The easy and obvious questions have been asked to death. Simple questions are greeted by answers to just Google it.
2) The expanding user base has brought in experts in many fields. These people are able to provide much more accurate answers, at a reading comprehension level that fits better with the rules of the sub. These experts don't write answers for literal 5 year olds.
3) The automod is a little overzealous sometimes when it comes to deleting short posts.
4) A good question shouldn't have a very simple answer, as there are always matters of opinion buried within the OP's question.
|
[
"In April 2013, the subreddit was threatened with a shutdown by Reddit admins after r/MensRights subscribers gathered personal information on a supposed blogger of feminist issues, and the subreddit's moderators advised members of the subreddit on how to proceed with this 'doxing' without running afoul of site rules. Later on it was discovered that they had identified the wrong woman, and it has been reported that many death threats had been sent to her school and employment. Georgetown University confirmed that she was not the same person as the blog's author after receiving threatening messages.\n",
"As of May 3, 2018, Answers.com abandoned their wiki format, according to Chris Hawkins, Vice President, Business Operations. The entire user database was purged, and users can no longer edit questions or answers on the site.\n",
"\"The Best Page in the Universe\" originated from a text document that Maddox wrote in 1996 aptly named \"fifty things that piss me off!\" He gave the list to several people on EFnet's #coders, and the positive response led him to create the website.\n",
"As a result of media scrutiny relating to Internet child predators and a lack of significant ad revenues, Yahoo!'s \"user created\" chatrooms were closed down in June 2005. Yahoo! News' message board section was closed December 19, 2006, due to the trolling phenomenon. In addition, in mid-October, 2008, Yahoo! deleted all information in millions of user profiles with no advance notice and little explanation.\n",
"The Internet Oracle has spawned a sub-breed of question-answer website exemplified by the Conversatron, and the now defunct Forum 2000, Forum3000 and TrueMeaningOfLife.com, among many others. These share the following characteristics:\n",
"On June 12, 2016, the day of the 2016 Orlando nightclub shooting, moderators of the r/news subreddit began to remove many comments from its megathread pertaining to the shooting, leading to accusations of censorship. On that day, r/The_Donald was featured in 13 of the top 25 posts on r/all, and gained over 16,000 subscribers during the weekend of the shooting. Meanwhile, r/news lost more than 85,000 subscribers. Due to deliberate manipulation by the forum's moderators and active users, the algorithm that dictated what content reached the r/all page of Reddit resulted in a significant portion of the page being r/The_Donald content. In response, Reddit administrators made changes to its algorithms on June 15, 2016, in an attempt to preserve the variety of r/all. In April 2016, u/jcm267, the founder of the subreddit, attributed the popularity of the subreddit to moderator u/CisWhiteMaelstrom. u/jcm267 told MSNBC that u/CisWhiteMaelstrom told him \"we'd have hundreds of thousands of readers there and I was very skeptical about that, not because I thought Trump can't win, because I think he's the only GOPer with 'landslide victory' potential, but because Reddit is not a conservative place.\" Subsequently, u/CisWhiteMaelstrom deleted his Reddit account. In November 2016, Reddit CEO Steve Huffman reported that the subreddit's moderator team had changed \"at least four times\" due to the community revolting.\n",
"As of August 2009, English Wikipedia used about infobox templates that collectively used more than attributes. Since then, many have been merged, to reduce redundancy. As of June 2013, there were at least transclusions of the parent , used by some, but not all, infoboxes, on articles.\n"
] |
why do duracell and energizer batteries last so much longer than the off brand batteries?
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Nice try, Duracell and Energizer joint venture salesman.
|
[
"Both Eveready and Energizer are marketed as different brands in some markets in Asia. This has led to the availability of both \"Eveready Gold\" Alkaline batteries and Energizer Alkaline batteries on store shelves. However, both are targeted at different market segments and Eveready batteries tend to be marketed for lower end devices while Energizer batteries are marketed for power-hungry devices, and are priced accordingly.\n",
"Aqueous Li-ion batteries have a relatively short battery cycle life, ranging from 50 to 100 cycles. As of 2018, research is being conducted to increase the number of cycles to 500 to 1000 cycles, allowing them to feasibly compete against other types of batteries that have a higher energy density. In addition, issues relating to the manufacturing of the protective HFE coating would need to be resolved before the batteries can be scaled up in production for commercial use.\n",
"Even just a single string of batteries wired in series can have adverse interactions if new batteries are mixed with old batteries. Older batteries tend to have reduced storage capacity, and so will both discharge faster than new batteries and also charge to their maximum capacity more rapidly than new batteries.\n",
"The remaining market experienced increased competition from private- or no-label versions. The market share of the two leading US manufacturers, Energizer and Duracell, declined to 37% in 2012. Along with Rayovac, these three are trying to move consumers from zinc-carbon to more expensive, long-lasting and safer alkaline batteries.\n",
"While the original devices used diodes to charge the two batteries, while keeping them separate from each other, most devices now use other configurations in order to avoid the 0.7V drop which reduces efficiency and increases power dissipation. However the name still remains.\n",
"Some products contain batteries that are not user-replaceable after they have worn down. While such a design can help make the device thinner, it can also make it difficult to replace the battery without sending the entire device away for repairs or purchasing a replacement.\n",
"The cathodes of some early 2007 lithium-ion batteries are made from lithium-cobalt metal oxide. This material is expensive, and cells made with it can release oxygen if overcharged. If the cobalt is replaced with iron phosphates, the cells will not burn or release oxygen under any charge. At early 2007 gasoline and electricity prices, the a break-even point is reached after six to ten years of operation. The payback period may be longer for plug-in hybrids, because of their larger, more expensive batteries.\n"
] |
Why was England so late in setting up colonies in the America's? Was it simple bad luck? Or something more political?
|
What do you mean "so late"? Englands first colonies were only about 100 years after Colombus. When you consider initial voyages took a year to get here and back, that the value of what was here was in doubt(indeed what was here period was unclear), that who owned it was unclear etc. its understandable the English would delay when it appeared the Spanish had gotten the best stuff.
|
[
"England made its first successful efforts at the start of the 17th century for several reasons. During this era, English proto-nationalism and national assertiveness blossomed under the threat of Spanish invasion, assisted by a degree of Protestant militarism and the energy of Queen Elizabeth. At this time, however, there was no official attempt by the English government to create a colonial empire. Rather the motivation behind the founding of colonies was piecemeal and variable. Practical considerations played their parts, such as commercial enterprise, over-crowding, and the desire for freedom of religion. The main waves of settlement came in the 17th century. After 1700, most immigrants to Colonial America arrived as indentured servants, young unmarried men and women seeking a new life in a much richer environment. The consensus view among economic historians and economists is that the indentured servitude occurred largely as \"an institutional response to a capital market imperfection,\" but that it \"enabled prospective migrants to borrow against their future earnings in order to pay the high cost of passage to America.\" Between the late 1610s and the American Revolution, the British shipped an estimated 50,000 to 120,000 convicts to its American colonies.\n",
"In England, a new round of colonial ventures in the New World was fueled by declining economic opportunities at home and growing religious intolerance for more radical Protestants (like the Puritans) who rejected the compromise Protestant theology of the established Church of England. After the demise of the Saint Lucia and Grenada colonies soon after their establishment, and the near-extinction of the English settlement of Jamestown in Virginia, new and stronger colonies were established by the English in the first half of the 17th century, at Plymouth, Boston, Barbados, the West Indian islands of Saint Kitts and Nevis and Providence Island. These colonies would all persevere to become centers of English civilization in the New World.\n",
"Losing most of its North American colonies at the end of the 18th century left Great Britain in need of new markets to supply resources in the early 19th century. In order to solve this problem, Great Britain turned to the Spanish colonies in South America for resources and markets. In 1806 a small British force surprise attacked the capitol of the viceroyalty in Río de la Plata. As a result, the local garrison protecting the capitol was destroyed in an attempt to defend against the British conquest. The British were able to capture large amounts of precious metals, before a French naval force intervened on behalf of the Spanish King and took down the invading force. However, this caused much turmoil in the area as militia took control of the area from the viceroy. The next year the British attacked once again with a much larger force attempting to reach and conquer Montevideo. They failed to reach Montevideo but succeeded in establishing an alliance with the locals. As a result, the British were able to take control of the Indian markets.\n",
"Overall, during this time the English proved to be the better traders and colonizers. They operated independently, while the French government was more directly involved in its colonies. On this note Edmund Burke would later note that English colonists in America would owe their freedom more \"to [the Crown's] carelessness than to its design\". This was a policy referred to as \"salutary neglect\". The distance between the colonies and the home countries meant they could always operated with some freedom. \n",
"The British and colonists triumphed jointly over a common foe. The colonists' loyalty to the mother country was stronger than ever before. However, disunity was beginning to form. British Prime Minister William Pitt the Elder had decided to wage the war in the colonies with the use of troops from the colonies and tax funds from Britain itself. This was a successful wartime strategy but, after the war was over, each side believed that it had borne a greater burden than the other. The British elite, the most heavily taxed of any in Europe, pointed out angrily that the colonists paid little to the royal coffers. The colonists replied that their sons had fought and died in a war that served European interests more than their own. This dispute was a link in the chain of events that soon brought about the American Revolution.\n",
"The British and colonists triumphed jointly over a common foe. The colonists' loyalty to the mother country was stronger than ever before. However, disunity was beginning to form. British Prime Minister William Pitt the Elder had decided to wage the war in the colonies with the use of troops from the colonies and tax funds from Britain itself. This was a successful wartime strategy but, after the war was over, each side believed that it had borne a greater burden than the other. The British elite, the most heavily taxed of any in Europe, pointed out angrily that the colonists paid little to the royal coffers. The colonists replied that their sons had fought and died in a war that served European interests more than their own. This dispute was a link in the chain of events that soon brought about the American Revolution.\n",
"Some colonies, such as Virginia, were founded principally as business ventures. England's success at colonizing what would become the United States was due in large part to its use of charter companies. Charter companies were groups of stockholders (usually merchants and wealthy landowners) who sought personal economic gain and, perhaps, wanted also to advance England's national goals. While the private sector financed the companies, the king also provided each project with a charter or grant conferring economic rights as well as political and judicial authority. The colonies did not show profits, however, and the disappointed English investors often turned over their colonial charters to the settlers. The political implications, although not realized at the time, were enormous. The colonists were left to build their own governments and their own economy.\n"
] |
Why does splashing your eyes with water, when you're sleepy, suddenly makes you more awake?
|
It's just a very minor cold shock response from your body.
|
[
"Water in the eye can alter the optical properties of the eye and blur vision. It can also wash away the tear fluid—along with it the protective lipid layer—and can alter corneal physiology, due to osmotic differences between tear fluid and freshwater. Osmotic effects are made apparent when swimming in freshwater pools, because the osmotic gradient draws water from the pool into the corneal tissue (the pool water is hypotonic), causing edema, and subsequently leaving the swimmer with \"cloudy\" or \"misty\" vision for a short period thereafter. The edema can be reversed by irrigating the eye with hypertonic saline which osmotically draws the excess water out of the eye.\n",
"When the individual is awake, blinking of the eyelid causes rheum to be washed away with tears via the nasolacrimal duct. The absence of this action during sleep, however, results in a small amount of dry rheum accumulating in corners of the eye, most notably in children.\n",
"There may also be a stringy discharge from the eyes. Although it may seem strange, dry eye can cause the eyes to water. This can happen because the eyes are irritated. One may experience excessive tearing in the same way as one would if something got into the eye. These reflex tears will not necessarily make the eyes feel better. This is because they are the watery type that are produced in response to injury, irritation, or emotion. They do not have the lubricating qualities necessary to prevent dry eye.\n",
"At the onset of this condition, fluid outside the cells has an excessively low amount of solutes, such as sodium and other electrolytes, in comparison to fluid inside the cells, causing the fluid to move into the cells to balance its concentration. This causes the cells to swell. In the brain, this swelling increases intracranial pressure (ICP), which leads to the first observable symptoms of water intoxication: headache, personality changes, changes in behavior, confusion, irritability, and drowsiness. These are sometimes followed by difficulty breathing during exertion, muscle weakness & pain, twitching, or cramping, nausea, vomiting, thirst, and a dulled ability to perceive and interpret sensory information. As the condition persists, papillary and vital signs may result including bradycardia and widened pulse pressure. The cells in the brain may swell to the point where blood flow is interrupted resulting in cerebral edema. Swollen brain cells may also apply pressure to the brain stem causing central nervous system dysfunction. Both cerebral edema and interference with the central nervous system are dangerous and could result in seizures, brain damage, coma or death.\n",
"Capsaicin is not soluble in water, and even large volumes of water will not wash it off. In general, victims are encouraged to blink vigorously in order to encourage tears, which will help flush the irritant from the eyes.\n",
"Primary reasons is eye fatigue as a result of excessive pressure on the eyes because of reading, watching TV, computer, poor lighting, etc. Some other reasons are poor posture, poor diet, lack of sleep, etc.\n",
"Water has a significantly different refractive index to air, and this affects the focusing of the eye. Most animals' eyes are adapted to either underwater or air vision, and do not focus properly when in the other environment.\n"
] |
why is the audio in porn videos so often not in sync? (nsfw)
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Or better yet, is there a way to fix it?
|
[
"Porn groove is the music soundtrack to typical pornographic films, or a genre of music that imitates such music. The electric guitar with wah-wah pedal is the most common instrument associated with porn groove, and synonymous with the genre. Simple, often minimalistic-sounding drums, with the rimshot sound being commonly associated with porn groove. In some movies such as the popular and influential \"Deep Throat\", the film is cut with the music in mind, making the thrust in the scenes flow with the music.\n",
"Many viewers have speculated and thought of the video as fake because the audio is not synchronized with the video. Lim later stated to \"The New York Times\" that this had to do with the fact that \"he recorded the audio and video independently and then matched them inexactly.\" The performance itself was recorded in two parts, and edited together. An image of a traffic light was used to make the transition.\n",
"Material is treated as normal video, since the slightly differing frame rates can be problematic for video and audio sync. However, this is not a problem if the video material is merely treated as a carrier for material which is known by the editing system to be \"true\" 24 frame/s, and audio is recorded separately from moving images, as is normal film practice.\n",
"As budgets for pornographic films are often small, compared to films made by major studios, and there is an inherent need to film without interrupting filming, it is common for sex scenes to be over-dubbed. The audio for such over-dubbing is generally referred to as \"the Ms and Gs\", or \"the moans and groans.\"\n",
"Due to the path followed by the video and Hi-Fi audio heads being striped and discontinuous—unlike that of the linear audio track—head-switching is required to provide a continuous audio signal. While the video signal can easily hide the head-switching point in the invisible vertical retrace section of the signal, so that the exact switching point is not very important, the same is obviously not possible with a continuous audio signal that has no inaudible sections. Hi-Fi audio is thus dependent on a much more exact alignment of the head switching point than is required for non-HiFi VHS machines. Misalignments may lead to imperfect joining of the signal, resulting in low-pitched buzzing. The problem is known as \"head chatter\", and tends to increase as the audio heads wear down.\n",
"Due to the path followed by the video and Hi-Fi audio heads being striped and discontinuous—unlike that of the linear audio track—head-switching is required to provide a continuous audio signal. While the video signal can easily hide the head-switching point in the invisible vertical retrace section of the signal, so that the exact switching point is not very important, the same is obviously not possible with a continuous audio signal that has no inaudible sections. Hi-Fi audio is thus dependent on a much more exact alignment of the head switching point than is required for non-HiFi VHS machines. Misalignments may lead to imperfect joining of the signal, resulting in low-pitched buzzing. The problem is known as \"head chatter\", and tends to increase as the audio heads wear down.\n",
"To maximize the use of the tape, the video tracks are recorded very close together to each other. To reduce crosstalk between adjacent tracks on playback, an azimuth recording method is used: The gaps of the two heads are not aligned exactly with the track path. Instead, one head is angled at plus seven degrees from the track, and the other at minus seven degrees. This results, during playback, in destructive interference of the signal from the tracks on either side of the one being played.\n"
] |
My grandfather used to tell a story about WWII I always found interesting, does it have a basis in fact?
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> That always preceded his feelings about the atomic bomb. He felt it was quite likely that he'd have been a part of and died in an invasion of mainland Japan, had it not been used. The implication being, none of us, his children and grandchildren, would have existed had the bomb not been dropped, since he didn't have kids until after the war.
I can't say anything about the former part, but this is an incredibly common sentiment among men of that generation. I've heard it repeated a lot. My maternal grandfather's unit in Europe had received orders to transfer to the Pacific right before the war ended. According to him, he had an overwhelming feeling that those orders would result in his death. He credits the atomic bombs with saving him from that.
|
[
"Piers Brendon has called it \"the most appalling atrocity story\" of World War I, while Phillip Knightley has called it \"the most popular atrocity story of the war.\" After the war John Charteris, the British former Chief of Army Intelligence, allegedly stated in a speech that he had invented the story for propaganda purposes, with the principal aim of getting the Chinese to join the war against Germany. This was widely believed in the 1930s, and was used by the Nazis as part of their own anti-British propaganda.\n",
"While most stories took place during World War II, the settings ranged from the Persian Wars to the present day. Some dealt with historical figures, such as American Revolutionary War general Benedict Arnold and his pre-traitorous victory at the Battle of Saratoga (issue #2, Jan. 1966), while \"Foragers\" (issue #3, April 1966) focused on a fictitious soldier in General William T. Sherman's devastating March to the Sea during the American Civil War. \"Holding Action\" (issue #2), set on the last day of the Korean War, ended with a gung-ho young soldier, unwilling to quit, being escorted over his protests into a medical vehicle. The final panel leaves ambiguous whether the trauma will be temporary or lasting.\n",
"Throughout the short story there are several mentions of the war, although it is not stated which one. Considering the story occurs during the mid-20th century, critics argue it could be either the Korean War or the Second World War.\n",
"World War II ended in August 1945, but several animated shorts released later in that year and into 1946 still contained war-related references. In \"Bacall to Arms\" there is a newsreel featuring \"\"wartime inventions put to peacetime use\"\". The example depicted is that of a married man who uses a radar to receive early warnings for the unannounced visits of his mother-in-law.\n",
"BULLET::::- \"The World at War\" (1974) is a 26-part Thames Television series that covers most aspects of World War II from many points of view. It includes interviews with many key figures (Karl Dönitz, Albert Speer, Anthony Eden etc.) (Imdb link)\n",
"Inevitably the story made its way back to the UK. Publication of the contents of propaganda leaflets dropped by the RAF was not permitted and other stories such as an official statement from the Free French Information Service through the Ministry of Information saying that \"30,000 Germans drowning in an attempted embarkation last September\" were suppressed. Vivid and plausible accounts of a thwarted invasion were published in American newspapers and the rumours spread in Britain and proved persistent. Questions were even asked in parliament. Writing just after the war, the Chief Press Censor, Rear Admiral George Pirie Thomson said that \"... in the whole course of the war there was no story which gave me so much trouble as this one of the attempted German invasion, flaming oil on the water and 30,000 burned Germans.\"\n",
"The story is told in flashback by a villager, played by Mervyn Johns, as though to a person visiting after the war. He recounts: one Saturday during the Second World War, a group of seemingly authentic British soldiers arrive in the small, fictitious English village of Bramley End. It is the Whitsun weekend so life is even quieter than usual and there is almost no traffic of any kind. At first they are welcomed by the villagers, until doubts begin to grow about their true purpose and identity. After they are revealed to be German soldiers intended to form the vanguard of an invasion of Britain, they round up the residents and hold them captive in the local church. The vicar is shot while sounding the church bell in alarm.\n"
] |
how is a degree from a place like harvard or yale any different from a degree in the same subject from somewhere else?
|
For starters, many of these places have good reputations because they have cutting edge research and the best academics who are at the forefront of their respective fields. It should be noted that this doesn't always translate to the best *teaching*, but that might well be beside the point.
Some economic theories of the value of education are that it is a signalling mechanism - that by getting a degree you can prove your competency/commitment to a potential employer (as opposed to actually making you a more valuable employee). With that in mind, a degree from a prestigious university indicates that you achieved their stringent entry requirements and put in the required work.
EDIT: people pointing out the importance of making good connections - definitely should not be underestimated. But the fact is that this is both a cause and an effect of the University's prestigious status. They feed into each other.
|
[
"The degree programs from the school are offered jointly with other schools. Undergraduates can pursue a B.S. degree in Biology/Secondary Education, Physical Education (Teaching Track), or Social Studies Education, as well as a B.A. in Chemistry with Teaching Specialization or in Modern Languages (French, German, or Spanish). Graduate work include degree programs in four concentrations: Counselor, Educational Leadership, Teaching, and STEM as well as two certificate programs.\n",
"The Graduate School is one of twelve constituent schools of Yale University and the only one that awards the degrees of Doctor of Philosophy, Master of Philosophy, Master of Arts, Master of Science, and Master of Engineering. While doctoral programs are also available in five of Yale's professional schools, students are enrolled through the graduate school, which confers their degrees. The school is administered in four divisions—Humanities, Social Sciences, and Biological and Physical Sciences—and its faculty are divided into 52 departments and programs. Nineteen of these programs terminate with the master’s degree.\n",
"There are also joint degree programs with other disciplines at Yale, including the M.D/Juris Doctor (J.D.) in conjunction with Yale Law School; the M.D./Master of Business Administration (M.B.A.) in conjunction with the Yale School of Management; the M.D./Master of Public Health (M.P.H.) in conjunction with the Yale School of Public Health; science or engineering in conjunction with the Yale Graduate School of Arts and Sciences (M.D./Ph.D.); and the M.D./Master of Divinity (M.Div) in conjunction with Yale Divinity School. Students pursuing a tuition-free fifth year of research are eligible for the Master of Health Science degree.\n",
"Universities have both undergraduate and graduate students. Graduate programs grant a variety of Master's degrees including M.B.A.s or M.F.A.s. The highest academic degree is the Doctor of Philosophy or Ph.D. Medical schools award either the M.D. or D.O. degrees while law schools award the J.D. degree. Public and private universities are generally research-oriented institutions that teach both an undergraduate and graduate students.\n",
"The College of Arts and Sciences offers both undergraduate and graduate (through the Graduate School) degrees. The only undergraduate degree is the Bachelor of Arts. However, students may enroll in the dual-degree program, which allows them to pursue programs of study in two colleges and receive two different degrees.\n",
"Depending on country, the final degree (if any) is called Abitur, Artium, Diploma, Matura, Maturita or Student and it usually opens the way to professional schools directly. However, these degrees are occasionally not fully accredited internationally, so students wanting to attend a foreign university often have to submit to further exams to be permitted access to them.\n",
"A number of different master's degrees may be earned at Oxford and Cambridge. The most common, the Master of Philosophy (MPhil), is a two-year research degree. The Master of Science (MSc) and the Master of Studies (MSt) degrees each take one year. They often combine some coursework with research. The Master of Letters (MLitt) is a pure research master's degree. More recently, Oxford and Cambridge offer a Masters of Business Administration. Master's degrees are generally offered without classification, though the top five percent may be deemed worthy of Distinction. Both universities also offer a variety of four-year undergraduate integrated master's degrees such as MEng or MMath.\n"
] |
The brightness of the actual dark side of the moon?
|
Not much darker than a "dark sky" spot on Earth.
The Earth's atmosphere mostly reflects back urban light. But go out in the desert, or out at sea, at least 100 km away from any city and town - it's a pretty dark place. Luna wouldn't be very different - a bit darker maybe, but not much.
Most people have lived in cities their entire lives and have no idea how dark a moonless (and Venus-less) night can be at a dark sky site.
Dark adaptation is very important. When at a very dark site, it takes something like 20 or 30 minutes for the eyes to fully adapt to darkness. Even a short glance at a light annihilates this adaptation.
> could once expect a level of light to at least, say, see enough to not walk into a boulder?
You could avoid big boulders, but there will be plenty of rocks that will twist your ankle - as many astronomers fumbling in the dark around telescopes will attest.
Human eyes in low light have very, very poor resolution. But boulders should be big enough to distinguish, for a dark-adapted pair of eyes. Fist-sized rocks, not so much.
|
[
"The Moon has an exceptionally low albedo, giving it a reflectance that is slightly brighter than that of worn asphalt. Despite this, it is the brightest object in the sky after the Sun. This is due partly to the brightness enhancement of the opposition surge; the Moon at quarter phase is only one-tenth as bright, rather than half as bright, as at full moon. Additionally, color constancy in the visual system recalibrates the relations between the colors of an object and its surroundings, and because the surrounding sky is comparatively dark, the sunlit Moon is perceived as a bright object. The edges of the full moon seem as bright as the centre, without limb darkening, because of the reflective properties of lunar soil, which retroreflects light more towards the Sun than in other directions. The Moon does appear larger when close to the horizon, but this is a purely psychological effect, known as the moon illusion, first described in the 7th century BC. The full Moon's angular diameter is about 0.52° (on average) in the sky, roughly the same apparent size as the Sun (see ).\n",
"The Moon is directly illuminated by the Sun, and the cyclically varying viewing conditions cause the lunar phases. Sometimes the dark portion of the Moon is faintly visible due to earthshine, which is indirect sunlight reflected from the surface of Earth and onto the Moon.\n",
"The following simulation shows the approximate appearance of the Moon passing through Earth's shadow. The Moon's brightness is exaggerated within the umbral shadow. The northern portion of the Moon was closest to the center of the shadow, making it darkest, and most red in appearance.\n",
"As with Uranus, the low light levels cause the major moons to appear very dim. The brightness of Triton at full phase is only −7.11, despite the fact that Triton is more than four times as intrinsically bright as Earth's moon and orbits much closer to Neptune.\n",
"However, the low light levels at such a great distance from the sun ensure that the moons appear very dim; the brightest, Ariel, would shine only at magnitude −7.4, more than 100 times dimmer than the moon as seen from Earth. Meanwhile, the outer large moon Oberon would be only as bright as magnitude −4.9, about the same as Venus despite its proximity.\n",
"BULLET::::- The luminosity of the Moon. Leonardo speculated that the Moon's surface is covered by water, which reflects light from the Sun. In this model, waves on the water's surface cause the light to be reflected in many directions, explaining why the Moon is not as bright as the Sun. Leonardo explained that the pale glow on the dark portion of the crescent Moon is caused by sunlight reflected from the Earth. Thus, he described the phenomenon of planetshine one hundred years before the German astronomer Johannes Kepler proved it.\n",
"Some of the most spectacular moons come during the full moon phase near sunset or sunrise. The moon on the horizon benefits from the moon illusion which makes it appear larger. The light reflected from the moon traveling through the atmosphere also colors the moon orange and/or red.\n"
] |
when that university shooting happened in oregon everyone made a huge deal about not mentioning or even sowing the shooters face, now with the current shootings in sb why is his name and picture all over the nation?
|
I think its partly due to the perpetrators. The main reason they don't like to publicizes school shooters is that the shooters often do it for the personal notoriety. Its looking more and more like the SB attack was an act of terror or something similar so you can argue that the identify of the specific shooter is less likely to incite future attacks.
|
[
"There was a significant national response to the shootings: hundreds of universities, colleges, and high schools closed throughout the United States due to a student strike of 4 million students, and the event further affected public opinion, at an already socially contentious time, over the role of the United States in the Vietnam War.\n",
"As the incident was the third fatal multiple shooting at an American school since October 1997 (following the Pearl High School shooting and the Heath High shooting), then President Clinton ordered Attorney General Janet Reno to organize experts on school violence to analyze the recent incidents, determine what they may have had in common and what steps could be taken to reduce the chance of a similar incident.\n",
"Oregon Governor John Kitzhaber attended a community vigil in Troutdale that evening; he called the shooting \"a senseless act of violence\". President Barack Obama, speaking at a Tumblr-sponsored question-and-answer session the day of the shooting, declared, \"We're the only developed country on earth where this happens.\" Obama further stated that only a massive shift in public opinion could sway Congress to act in favor of greater gun control measures.\n",
"Two handguns and a suicide note were found near the two bodies. Shortly after the shooting, police sources told \"The Los Angeles Times\" that from the appearance of the bodies, a student may have killed a professor. At least three shots were fired in the shooting.\n",
"A shooting took place on campus on November 1, 1991. Six people died in the shooting, including the perpetrator, and one other person was wounded. This was one of the deadliest university campus shootings in United States history.\n",
"On August 30, 2018 a firearm was discharged in the little theatre room when a student was messing around with the firearm that was in his backpack. Four students were arrested, and two were able to return to school. This was labeled as an incident, List of school shootings in the United States \n",
"Speaking at a press conference, Cincinnati mayor John Cranley stated that initial reports appeared to show that the victims were shot at random and that, \"it didn't appear to be a dispute between people.\"\n"
] |
How soon after the Big Bang did stars begin to form?
|
The first stars began to form about [150 million years](_URL_1_) after the Big Bang, during a period known as "reionization." Prior to this period were the "dark ages" where the universe was fairly uniformly filled with neutral hydrogen; since there were basically no charged atoms during this period, photons did not scatter off of the hydrogen much, and the universe was pretty much completely transparent.
Eventually, gravitational attraction began to pull the hydrogen together into the first stars, known as [Population III](_URL_0_) stars for their extremely low metallicity and extremely large mass. Due to the very high mass, these stars were very short-lived (none are around today) and a great many of them exploded as [pair-instability supernovae](_URL_2_), scattering the few heavy elements (which were still pretty light overall, but heavier than hydrogen and helium) manufactured in their cores throughout the cosmos.
The radiation released by these stars re-ionized the hydrogen that had not yet collapsed into stars (hence the name of the era, "reionization"), and the pressure from these early supernovae explosions helped to compress some of the hydrogen out there, triggering the gravitational formation of new stars with higher metal content, known as Population II stars (only a few of which can still be seen today; we know of about a dozen or so), which are also quite massive, but not as much as the first stars, and which manufactured much heavier elements overall (and much more of them) by comparison. Many of these stars also went supernova and scattered their metals throughout, helping lower-mass higher-metallicity Population I stars (i.e. basically all of the stars we see today) form.
So to answer your question, the first stars began to form around 150 million years after the Big Bang.
As for your second question, I don't know the answer so I won't speculate. Perhaps someone more familiar with galaxy formation can shed some light on it.
|
[
"BULLET::::- 5 February – The first generation of stars is now thought to have emerged 560 million years after the Big Bang, according to scientists working on the European Planck satellite. This is 140 million years later than the previous estimate of 420 million years.\n",
"The first generation of stars, known as population III stars, formed within a few hundred million years after the Big Bang. These stars were the first source of visible light in the universe after recombination. Structures may have begun to emerge from around 150 million years, and early galaxies emerged from around 380 to 700 million years. (We do not have separate observations of very early individual stars; the earliest observed stars are discovered as participants in very early galaxies). As they emerged, the Dark Ages gradually ended. Because this process was gradual, the Dark Ages only fully ended around 1 billion (1000 million) years, as the universe took its present appearance.\n",
"The first stars to form after the Big Bang may have been larger, up to 300 or more, due to the complete absence of elements heavier than lithium in their composition. This generation of supermassive, population III stars is long extinct, however, and currently only theoretical.\n",
"The observable universe is currently 1.38 (13.8 billion) years old. This time is in the Stelliferous Era. About 155 million years after the Big Bang, the first star formed. Since then, stars have formed by the collapse of small, dense core regions in large, cold molecular clouds of hydrogen gas. At first, this produces a protostar, which is hot and bright because of energy generated by gravitational contraction. After the protostar contracts for a while, its center will become hot enough to fuse hydrogen and its lifetime as a star will properly begin.\n",
"The system was formed when a spiral galaxy (image right) collided with an elliptical galaxy (image left). The collision produced an expanding wave of star production (shown as bright blue) traveling at an effective speed of ≳100 km s and began some 40 million years ago. The most extreme period of star formation is estimated to have ended 15 million years ago and as the young, super hot stars died (as exploding supernovas) they left behind neutron stars and black holes.\n",
"In the Big Bang model for the formation of the universe, inflationary cosmology predicts that after about 10 seconds the nascent universe underwent exponential growth that smoothed out nearly all irregularities. The remaining irregularities were caused by quantum fluctuations in the inflaton field that caused the inflation event. Long before the formation of stars and planets, the early universe was smaller, much hotter and, starting 10 seconds after the Big Bang, filled with a uniform glow from its white-hot fog of interacting plasma of photons, electrons, and baryons.\n",
"\"Big Bang\" chronicles the history and development of the Big Bang model of the universe, from the ancient Greek scientists who first measured the distance to the sun to the 20th century detection of the cosmic radiation still echoing the dawn of time.\n"
] |
Why did the various revolts of 1840's Europe fail?
|
From Jonathan Sperber 'The European Revolutions, 1848-1851'
-Revolution was heavily romanticized, revolutionary leaders often portrayed doing heroic deeds for the people. Lajos Kossuth from Hungary riding out and rallying peasantry or Giribaldi leading militias into battle.
-Some revolutionaries were incompetent and monarchs did not always take them seriously.
-Failed to establish lasting regimes. Old rulers took back power later on.
|
[
"The Revolution of 1848 had major consequences for all of Europe: popular democratic revolts against authoritarian regimes broke out in Austria and Hungary, in the German Confederation and Prussia, and in the Italian States of Milan, Venice, Turin and Rome. Economic downturns and bad harvests during the 1840s contributed to growing discontent.\n",
"Following the example of resistance, popular uprisings and revolts that marked the nineteenth century and encompassed various parts of Algeria, the resistance of Beni Menaceur, Miliana and Cherchell between July 14 and August 21, 1871 was the One of the links in the chain revolts. Like all revolutions that preceded it, it was underpinned by the causes and circumstances which, although they were mostly particular, remain virtually unchanged. 2 - Because of the resistance of Beni Menaceur Among the main reasons that prompted the outbreak of the revolt, is the policy of colonialism French based on injustice, oppression, repression and the plundering of private and public property, along with the adoption by the French authorities of the policy of \"divide and conquer\" in an attempt to reconcile the benevolence of some families which it entrusted the mission to look after its interests at the expense of the majority of residents. In this region, the colonial authorities were able to create from scratch a conflict between two Algerian families: on the one hand that of Brahim Sa'îd ibn Mohammed El Ghobrini, which was one of the families from the outset collaborated with the authorities Tenure and taken up arms against the Titteri Bey and the Bey Boumezrag and another family of El Berkani whose stronghold was located Miliana and which was headed by Sheikh al Malek ibn al Berkani Sahraoui, nephew Mohammed Ben Aissa el Berkani, khalifa (*) The Emir Abdelkader in Titteri. Following France's policy, the two families went down in a bloody conflict all that the family commissioned an El Berkani eastern part of Beni Menaceur, something that El Ghobrini the family did not accept. To this should be added the suffering of the people of Cherchell Miliana and as a result of the colonial policy based on the forced collection of taxes, which drain resources and damage to their most sacred values in matters of religion. 3 - Steps resistance Beni Ménaceur The first spark of resistance springs on April 30, 1871 when the colonial authorities undertook to provoke the people by ordering gang bosses that they were subjected to collect the taxes without taking into account the tragic conditions of the inhabitants. Residents expressed their refusal by hunting with stones agents of colonialism. -- 1 - First step: The chouyouks (*) of Beni Menaceur found it necessary to hold an extraordinary meeting to discuss the social and economic situation in the region arising from the French policy. On May 6, 1871 was the date fixed for the meeting to kubba (*) of the saint Sidi Ahmed Benyoucef, near the region of Souk el Had.\n",
"Europe also faced a series of revolutionary movements known as the European Revolutions of 1848 which erupted in Sicily and then were further triggered by the French Revolution of 1848. Soon the Revolutions of 1848 in the German states erupted, leading to the Frankfurt Parliament. Ultimately, the rather non-violent \"revolutions\" failed. Disappointed, many Germans immigrated to the Americas and Puerto Rico, dubbed as the Forty-Eighters. The majority of these came from Alsace-Lorraine, Baden, Hesse, Rheinland and Württemberg.\n",
"Several revolutions occurred in Europe following the Napoleonic Wars. The goal of most of these revolutions was to establish some form of democracy in a particular nation. Many were successful for a time, but their effects were often eventually reversed. Examples of this occurred in Spain, Italy, and Austria. Several European nations stood steadfastly against revolution and democracy, including Austria and Russia. Two successful revolts of the era were the Greek and Serbian wars of independence, which freed those nations from Ottoman rule. Another successful revolution occurred in the Low Countries. After the Napoleonic Wars, the Netherlands was given control of modern-day Belgium, which had been part of the Holy Roman Empire. The Dutch found it hard to rule the Belgians, due to their Catholic religion and French language. In the 1830s, the Belgians successfully overthrew Dutch rule, establishing the Kingdom of Belgium. In 1848 a series of revolutions occurred in Prussia, Austria, and France. In France, the king, Louis-Philippe, was overthrown and a republic was declared. Louis Napoleon, nephew of Napoleon I was elected the republic's first president. Extremely popular, Napoleon was made Napoleon III (since Napoleon I's son had been crowned Napoleon II during his reign), Emperor of the French, by a vote of the French people, ending France's Second Republic. Revolutionaries in Prussia and Italy focused more on nationalism, and most advocated the establishment of unified German and Italian states, respectively.\n",
"In Italy, after being conquered by Napoleon's army in the late 18th century, there was a counter-revolution in all the French client republics. The most well-known was the Sanfedismo, reactionary movement led by the cardinal Fabrizio Ruffo, which overthrew the Parthenopean Republic and allowed the Bourbon dynasty to return to the throne of the Kingdom of Naples. A resurgence of the phenomenon happened during the Napoleon's second Italian campaign in the early 19th century. Another example of counter-revolution was the peasants rebellion in Southern Italy after the national unification, fomented by the Bourbon government in exile and the Papal States. The revolt, labelled pejoratively by opponents as brigandage, resulted in a bloody civil war that lasted almost ten years.\n",
"In 1830 a series of revolutions struck Europe: the July Revolution in France, the Belgian Revolution and smaller revolts in Italy threatened to overthrow the framework of European politics established at the Congress of Vienna. As the Russian tsars were among the strongest advocates of that \"status quo\", the uprising in Poland and the ousting of the tsar as the king of Poland by the Sejm and Senate of Poland on 25 January 1831 were considered a serious irritant. Russia could not send its armies to Belgium or France before the rebellion in Poland was quelled. For that reason the capture of Warsaw was Russia's main target in the war from the start of hostilities.\n",
"After the war with Great Britain ended disastrously in 1784, there was growing unrest and a rebellion by the anti-Orangist Patriots. The French Revolution resulted first in the establishment of a pro-French Batavian Republic (1795–1806), then the creation of the Kingdom of Holland, ruled by a member of the House of Bonaparte (1806–1810), and finally annexation by the French Empire (1810–1813).\n"
] |
why can little caesars afford to sell pizzas at a low price while places like papa john's sells their pizzas for about double the price?
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In every business there are some companies that focus on price, others that focus on making a better quality, and others that try to compromise. Little Caesars focus is very strongly on price, and they are willing to buy cheaper ingredients if that's what it takes.
|
[
"\"PMQ Pizza Magazine\" said in December 2016 that the company was the third-largest take-out and pizza delivery restaurant chain in the United States. (According to PMQ, Little Caesars is the third-largest pizza chain; however, it does not deliver.) The company's net profitability though, is far behind its main competitors. In 2014 its net margin was 4.6% of total sales, whereas Domino's Pizza's net margin was 8.2% and Yum! Brands, which owns Pizza Hut, was 7.9%. Company headquarters are in Jeffersontown, Kentucky, a community within the merged government of Louisville. Its slogan is \"Better Ingredients. Better Pizza. Papa John's.\"\n",
"The company is famous for its advertising catchphrase, \"Pizza! Pizza!\" which was introduced in 1979. The phrase refers to two pizzas being offered for the comparable price of a single pizza from competitors. Originally, the pizzas were served in a single long package (a piece of corrugated cardboard in 2-by-1 proportions, with two square pizzas placed side by side, then slid into a form-fitting paper sleeve that was folded and stapled closed). Little Caesars has since discarded the unwieldy packaging in favor of typical pizza boxes. In addition to pizza with \"exotic\" toppings, they served hot dogs, chicken, shrimp, and fish.\n",
"Little Caesar Enterprises Inc. (doing business as Little Caesars) is the third-largest pizza chain in the United States, behind Pizza Hut and Domino's Pizza. It operates and franchises pizza restaurants in the United States and internationally in Asia, the Middle East, Australia, Canada, Latin America and the Caribbean. The company was founded in 1959 and is based in Detroit, Michigan, headquartered in the Fox Theatre building in Downtown. Little Caesar Enterprises, Inc. operates as a subsidiary of Ilitch Holdings, Inc.\n",
"Little Caesars produces a variety of pizzas. Several core menu items are part of the HOT-N-READY menu, designed to make popular items available for immediate carry-out, while others are considered either specialty pizzas or custom pizzas, including the \"ExtraMostBestest\" line of products. Standard pizza options include their Classic Cheese, Pepperoni, Hula Hawaiian Pizza, 3 Meat Treat Pizza, Ultimate Supreme Pizza, and Veggie Pizza. In 2013, they added the Deep!Deep! Dish Pizza, a Detroit-style pizza, to the menu.\n",
"BULLET::::- In March, 1999, Finkbeiner called for a boycott of Little Caesar’s Pizza because of the franchise owners’ involvement in a proposed Rossford sports arena. Some Little Caesar’s stores renamed their Crazy Bread “Carty Bread”.\n",
"Starting in 2004, the chain began offering \"Hot-N-Ready\", a large pepperoni pizza sold for $5. The concept was successful enough to become a permanent fixture of the chain, and Little Caesars' business model has shifted to focus more on carryout.\n",
"The world's most expensive pizza listed by \"Guinness World Records\" is a seafood pizza called the \"C6\" that is prepared at Steveston Pizza Co. restaurant in Steveston, British Columbia (in the Metro Vancouver area) which costs C$450. The pizza includes lobster, caviar, tiger prawns and smoked salmon. Each slice is worth C$45, because it is divided into 10 slices. It has to be pre-ordered one day in advance. The title for world's most expensive pizza was previously held by a C$178 pizza prepared with white truffle by Gordon Ramsay. As of September 2014, Guinness World Records still lists the Gordon Ramsay pizza on their website.\n"
] |
Has there ever been a government system that the majority of the population, across all economic divides, generally approved of?
|
I don't think your question can be answered because it's not clear what data would allow us to answer it.
Prior to modern times, we don't actually have the information to say whether the "majority of the population" "across all economic divides" approved of a particular government. We have information about whether particular groups within society approved, and we have information from which we can infer whether other groups *tolerated* it, but there's no way to know, for example, whether a majority of sixteenth century peasants approved of their government. The recorders of the history of the time didn't gather and maintain that information.
Even in modern times, the question breaks because "across all economic divides" is vague. What level of specificity are you looking for, and which economic divides do you care about?
|
[
"One factor in the social anatomy of these governments was the retention of a very substantial share in political power by the landed elite, the Junkers, resulting from the absence of a revolutionary breakthrough by the peasants in combination with urban areas.\n",
"Historically, most political systems originated as socioeconomic ideologies. Experience with those movements in power and the strong ties they may have to particular forms of government can cause them to be considered as forms of government in themselves.\n",
"Historically, most political systems originated as socioeconomic ideologies. Experience with those movements in power and the strong ties they may have to particular forms of government can cause them to be considered as forms of government in themselves.\n",
"Major political institutions are the monarchy, the cabinet, the States General and the judicial system. There are three other High Colleges of state, which stand on equal foot with parliament but have a less political role, of which the Council of State is the most important. Other levels of government are the municipalities, the water boards and the provinces. Although not mentioned in the Constitution, political parties and the social partners organised in the Social Economic Council are important political institutions as well.\n",
"We do not have one democracy but many democracies in history. We have a plurality of democracies in the international community. What emerged was that a democracy prevailed in different eras depending on the conditions of the time.\n",
"Governments sometimes have a narrow base of support, built upon cronyism and patronage. Fred Cuny pointed out in 1999 that under these conditions: \"The distribution of food within a country is a political issue. Governments in most countries give priority to urban areas, since that is where the most influential and powerful families and enterprises are usually located. The government often neglects subsistence farmers and rural areas in general. The more remote and underdeveloped the area the less likely the government will be to effectively meet its needs. Many agrarian policies, especially the pricing of agricultural commodities, discriminate against rural areas. Governments often keep prices of basic grains at such artificially low levels that subsistence producers cannot accumulate enough capital to make investments to improve their production. Thus, they are effectively prevented from getting out of their precarious situation.\"\n",
"The social democratic governments in the post war period introduced measures of social reform and wealth redistribution through state welfare and taxation policy. For instance the newly elected UK Labour government carried out nationalisations of major utilities such as mines, gas, coal, electricity, rail, iron and steel, and the Bank of England. France claimed to be the most state controlled capitalist country in the world, carrying through many nationalisations. In the UK the National Health Service was established bringing free health care to all for the first time. Social housing for working-class families was provided in council housing estates and university education was made available for working-class people through a grant system.\n"
] |
what are apis and why is "vulkan" apparently the next big thing for gaming?
|
Say you go to a mechanic for an oil change. If the mechanic is any good you don't need to give them step-by-step instructions on how to change the oil. Instead you just tell the mechanic to "change the oil" and trust that the mechanic knows what to do.
In the above example **you are specifying an end result without having to give step-by-step instructions on how to do it.** This is handy because A) it saves time B) they may have handy tools in the garage that make your instructions obsolete. This is a common situation with computer programs. The exact way something gets done changes a bit (usually to make things faster) but the end result is the same. The oil change situation above is an example of an API. An API is just a menu of things that a program can do along with a standard way of asking for that thing.
Moving back to computers, depending on the components (e.g. the processor, display, the operating system, and graphics card) there is a ton of variation on how to get a computer to draw, say, a red 10x20 rectangle in the top left of your screen. This is where Vulkan comes in. **Vulkan is like a standard graphics menu that a bunch of different hardware and software companies have agreed upon.** This means the people making the game don't have to worry about what hardware you are running. Instead they can tell the computer the final result (say a red 10x20 rectangle) and trust everything else involved will do it. Assuming the hardware and software companies stick to the menu, the game makers will not have to make changes for the different hardware and operating systems which makes it easier to release games on a bunch of different platforms.
|
[
"Vulkan is a low-overhead, cross-platform 3D graphics and computing API. Vulkan targets high-performance realtime 3D graphics applications such as video games and interactive media across all platforms. Compared to OpenGL and Direct3D 11, and like Direct3D 12 and Metal, Vulkan is intended to offer higher performance and more balanced CPU/GPU usage. Other major differences from Direct3D 11 (and prior) and OpenGL are Vulkan being a considerably lower level API and offering parallel tasking. Vulkan also has the ability to render 2D graphics applications. In addition to its lower CPU usage, Vulkan is also able to better distribute work among multiple CPU cores. \n",
"The Vulkan API provides the intermediate SPIR-V representation to describe \"both\" Graphical Shaders, and Compute Kernels, in a language independent and machine independent manner. The intention is to facilitate language evolution and provide a more natural ability to leverage GPU compute capabilities, in line with hardware developments such as Unified Memory Architecture and Heterogeneous System Architecture. This allows closer cooperation between a CPU and GPU.\n",
"Vulkan is intended to provide a variety of advantages over other APIs as well as its predecessor, OpenGL. Vulkan offers lower overhead, more direct control over the GPU, and lower CPU usage. The overall concept and feature set of Vulkan is similar to Direct3D 12, Metal and Mantle.\n",
"The Khronos Group officially announced Vulkan API in March 2015, and officially released Vulkan 1.0 on February 16, 2016. Vulkan breaks compatibility with OpenGL and completely abandons its monolithic state machine concept. The developers of Gallium3D called Vulkan to be something along the lines of Gallium3D 2.0 – Gallium3D separates the code that implements the OpenGL state machine from the code that is specific to the hardware.\n",
"BULLET::::- Availability on multiple modern operating systems in contrast to Direct3D 12; like OpenGL, the Vulkan API is not locked to a single OS or device form factor. As of release, Vulkan runs on Android, Linux, Tizen, Windows 7, Windows 8, and Windows 10 (freely licensed third-party support for iOS and macOS is also available)\n",
"Netguru has also built the application Smoke Detector, which takes data of a project captured in the customer relationship platform Salesforce, and with a machine-learning algorithm identifies which projects are likely to have issues, with a potential cause. Additionally, Netguru developers regularly create showcase open-source apps, e.g. a tailor-made talent manager application.\n",
"Vulkan was first announced by the non-profit Khronos Group at GDC 2015. The Vulkan API was initially referred to as the \"next generation OpenGL initiative\", or \"OpenGL next\" by Khronos, but use of those names was discontinued when Vulkan was announced. Vulkan is derived from and built upon components of AMD's Mantle API, which was donated by AMD to Khronos with the intent of giving Khronos a foundation on which to begin developing a low-level API that they could standardize across the industry.\n"
] |
Why is it so difficult to find a unifying theory in physics and why is it necessary? Can't it all work separately?
|
> Why is it so difficult
I could go into details of examples of current difficulties but that would just lead us astray from the real answer, which is: why should it be easy?
> Can't it all work separately?
Often it can in practice. For example you could have a theory that works well for slow speeds but badly at high speeds, and another theory that works well at high speeds but badly at low speeds. So if you are working with slow speeds you can use theory 1 and if you are working with high speeds you can use theory 2. But the problem is that in neither case is the theory *exactly* true. So while each might work OK in practice, we *know* that neither theory is the "right" one. This is partly just a point of intellectual curiosity; there is some correct description of nature out there, and we would like to find it. But it also can have practical consequences. For example maybe the right theory predicts other things besides simply being slightly more accurate. Maybe it presents a totally new perspective on the world.
|
[
"\"Sometimes [...] people say that surely there's no final theory because, after all, every time we've made a step toward unification or toward simplification we always find more and more complexity there. That just means we haven't found it yet. Physicists never thought they had the final theory.\"\n",
"Considering distinct theoretical problems, Dirac in 1963 suggested: \"I believe separate ideas will be needed to solve these distinct problems and that they will be solved one at a time through successive stages in the future evolution of physics. At this point I find myself in disagreement with most physicists. They are inclined to think one master idea will be discovered that will solve all these problems together. I think it is asking too much to hope that anyone will be able to solve all these problems together. One should separate them one from another as much as possible and try to tackle them separately. And I believe the future development of physics will consist of solving them one at a time, and that after any one of them has been solved there will still be a great mystery about how to attack further ones.\"\n",
"The ability to reduce everything to simple fundamental laws does not imply the ability to start from those laws and reconstruct the universe. The constructionist hypothesis breaks down when confronted with the twin difficulties of scale and complexity. At each level of complexity entirely new properties appear. Psychology is not applied biology, nor is biology applied chemistry. We can now see that the whole becomes not merely more, but very different from the sum of its parts .\n",
"When the predictions of different theories appear to contradict each other, this is also resolved by either further evidence or unification. For example, physical theories in the 19th century implied that the Sun could not have been burning long enough to allow certain geological changes as well as the evolution of life. This was resolved by the discovery of nuclear fusion, the main energy source of the Sun. Contradictions can also be explained as the result of theories approximating more fundamental (non-contradictory) phenomena. For example, atomic theory is an approximation of quantum mechanics. Current theories describe three separate fundamental phenomena of which all other theories are approximations; the potential unification of these is sometimes called the Theory of Everything.\n",
"Almost every physical theory, formulated in the most general manner, is rather difficult from a mathematical point of view. Therefore, both at the genesis of the theory and its further development, the simplest limiting cases, which allow analytical solutions, are of particular importance. In those limits, the number of equations usually decreases, their order reduces, nonlinear equations can be replaced by linear ones, the initial system becomes averaged in a certain sense, and so on.\n",
"A Theory of Everything would unify all the fundamental interactions of nature: gravitation, strong interaction, weak interaction, and electromagnetism. Because the weak interaction can transform elementary particles from one kind into another, the TOE should also yield a deep understanding of the various different kinds of possible particles. The usual assumed path of theories is given in the following graph, where each unification step leads one level up:\n",
"It has also been suggested (for example, in Jean Piaget's 1918 work \"Recherche\") that the unity of science can be considered in terms of a circle of the sciences, where logic is the foundation for mathematics, which is the foundation for mechanics and physics, and physics is the foundation for chemistry, which is the foundation for biology, which is the foundation for sociology, the moral sciences, psychology, and the theory of knowledge, and the theory of knowledge is based on logic.\n"
] |
Could the amount of static electricity that shocks humans when they touch a doorknob be enough to kill an insect or other tiny creatures?
|
Static shocks have very high voltage (I remember reading somewhere that if you feel a shock, it's at least 10,000 Volts), but it has very little charge. You can think of it like trying to run a fire hose with an 8 oz glass of water; it might be at super high pressure, but it's not going to last very long. So the question is how much charge can humans deliver with a static shock? Human beings have an estimated capacitance of about 100 picofarads and static discharges have an average voltage of 20,000 to 50,000 Volts, which gives us a charge of 2-5 microcoulombs.
Electric flyswatter circuits I found gave voltages variously between 500 and 1500V, and the main capacitor was between 33 nF to 2 uF, depending on supply voltage. Generally speaking, electric devices like this are regulated to 45 uC for safety reasons, and that apparently is only enough to stun flies rather than kill them (though a fly is usually subjected to multiple shocks). So even in the best case, the static shock a human can give is still about an order of magnitude short of being able to harm a fly.
EDIT: Apparently the 45 uC limit applies to laboratory equipment, not fly swatters. I found a better source from someone who actually took apart a swatter, and the main discharge capacitor is 2 uF at 630 V, which gives a charge of 1,260 microcoulombs, so several hundred times more than what you can deliver with a shag carpet and your finger.
|
[
"Electricity is hazardous: an electric shock from a current as low as 35 milliamps is sufficient to cause fibrillation of the heart in vulnerable individuals. Even a healthy individual is at risk of falling from a high structure due to loss of muscle control. Higher currents can cause respiratory failure and result in extensive and life-threatening burns. The first recorded human fatality occurred in 1879 when a stage carpenter in Lyon, France touched a 250 volt wire. The lack of any visible sign that a conductor is energised, even at high voltages, makes electricity a particular hazard.\n",
"In the electric eel, some 5,000 to 6,000 stacked electroplaques can make a shock up to 600 volts and up to 1 ampere of current. This level of current is reportedly enough to produce a brief and painful numbing shock likened to a stun gun discharge, which due to the voltage can be felt for some distance from the fish; this is a common risk for aquarium caretakers and biologists attempting to handle or examine electric eels.\n",
"Small stray voltages may never be noticed and may only be detected with a voltmeter. Larger voltages may have a range of effects, from barely perceptible to dangerous electric shocks, or unintended electrical heating resulting in fires. Normally, metal electrical equipment cases are bonded to ground to prevent a shock hazard if energized conductors accidentally contact the case. Where this bonding is not provided or has failed, a severe hazard of electric shock or electrocution is presented when circuit conductors contact the case.\n",
"An erroneous explanation for the absence of electric shock that has persisted among Tesla coil hobbyists is that the high frequency currents travel through the body close to the surface, and thus do not penetrate to vital organs or nerves, due to an electromagnetic phenomenon called \"skin effect\".\n",
"1) Noise and crosstalk: All electrical conductors exposed to ambient electromagnetic fields are susceptible to picking up external electrical interference from the environment, in particular when weak analog signals are involved. This type of interference is often experienced as \"hum\" (60 Hz/50 Hz power line frequency), hiss (cosmic/ atmospheric noise), clicks and pops from current spikes generated by nearby man made electrical devices or digital noise from nearby computers.\n",
"A person touching the un-earthed metal casing of an electrical device, while also in contact with a metal object connected to remote earth, is exposed to an electric shock hazard if the device has a fault. If all metal objects are connected, all the metal objects in the building will be at the same potential. It then will not be possible to get a shock by touching two 'earthed' objects at once.\n",
"The feeling of an electric shock is caused by the stimulation of nerves as the neutralizing current flows through the human body. The energy stored as static electricity on an object varies depending on the size of the object and its capacitance, the voltage to which it is charged, and the dielectric constant of the surrounding medium. For modelling the effect of static discharge on sensitive electronic devices, a human being is represented as a capacitor of 100 picofarads, charged to a voltage of 4000 to 35000 volts. When touching an object this energy is discharged in less than a microsecond. While the total energy is small, on the order of millijoules, it can still damage sensitive electronic devices. Larger objects will store more energy, which may be directly hazardous to human contact or which may give a spark that can ignite flammable gas or dust.\n"
] |
If my salt intake is too high, can I just drink a lot of water to cancel it out?
|
Salt (Sodium) makes you retain water.
Adding water to a high salt diet means you'll be retaining lots of water.
This makes you hypertensive.
Hypertension (high blood pressure) is bad for pretty much everything.
Sorry, this turned out more ELI5 than science.
|
[
"Because more water is lost through pouch output, patients can get dehydrated easily and can also suffer salt deficiency. For this reason, some are encouraged to add extra salt to meals. Persistent dehydration is often supplemented with an electrolyte mix drink.\n",
"Too much salt intake in adults can also occur from the drinking of seawater in survival situations or the drinking of soy sauce. Salt poisoning has also been seen in a number of adults with mental health problems.\n",
"Excess sodium consumption can increase blood pressure. Most studies suggest a \"U\" shaped association between salt intake and health, with increased mortality associated with both excessively low and excessively high salt intake.\n",
"However, since this can risk dehydration, an alternative approach is possible of consuming a substantial amount of salt prior to exercise. It is still important not to overconsume water to the extent of requiring urination, because urination would cause the extra salt to be excreted.\n",
"While reduction of sodium intake to less than 2,300 mg per day is recommended by developed countries, one review recommended that sodium intake be reduced to at least 1,200 mg (contained in 3g of salt) per day, as a further reduction in salt intake the greater the fall in systolic blood pressure for all age groups and ethinicities. Another review indicated that there is inconsistent/insufficient evidence to conclude that reducing sodium intake to lower than 2,300 mg per day is either beneficial or harmful.\n",
"Because consuming too much sodium increases risk of cardiovascular diseases, health organizations generally recommend that people reduce their dietary intake of salt. High sodium intake is associated with a greater risk of stroke, total cardiovascular disease and kidney disease. A reduction in sodium intake by 1,000 mg per day may reduce cardiovascular disease by about 30 percent. In adults and children with no acute illness, a decrease in the intake of sodium from the typical high levels reduces blood pressure. A low sodium diet results in a greater improvement in blood pressure in people with hypertension.\n",
"POTS treatment involves using multiple methods in combination to counteract cardiovascular dysfunction, address symptoms, and simultaneously address any associated disorders. For most patients, water intake should be increased, especially after waking, in order to expand blood volume (reducing hypovolemia). Eight to ten cups of water daily are recommended. Increasing salt intake, by adding salt to food, taking salt tablets, or drinking sports drinks and other electrolyte solutions is an effective way to raise blood pressure by helping the body retain water. Different physicians recommend different amounts of sodium to their patients. Salt intake is not appropriate for people with high blood pressure. Combining these techniques with gradual physical training enhances their effect. In some cases, when increasing oral fluids and salt intake is not enough, intravenous saline or the drug desmopressin is used to help increase fluid retention.\n"
] |
Was the Kansas/Missouri border war the start of the Civil War or just a precursor to it?
|
In 1820 the U.S passed the Missouri compromise that stated that slavery could not extend above the 36' 30" line. When Kansas and Nebraska were looking to join the union Stephen Douglas proposed a bill that would allow each state to vote on if they were going to be a slave state or a free state. Nebraska was far enough north that there was never really a question over whether or not it was going to be slave or free. However, Kansas was right next to Missouri, which was a slave state. This lead to a massive amount of people entering the state on the side of slavery from the south and anti-slavery from the north. Many of these people were armed leading to a number of conflicts between the two. Bleeding Kansas was not a fight between Union and Confederate troops. Rather it was fighting between pro-slavery individuals and anti-slavery individuals.
All of this happened in the lead up to the Civil War and not during the war itself. The Confederate States of America were not founded until 1860 when Abraham Lincoln was elected President and bleeding Kansas took place before them. Whenever I have heard people say that Bleeding Kansas was the first battles of the Civil War they have been referring to this point as the point that Civil War becomes inevitable. This was really the first time the U.S had had large conflicts over the matter of slavery. This was really the point where many in the nation saw that the U.S could not continue to expand and be half free and half slave. I hope this helped answer your question.
|
[
"The 160-year-old rivalry between Kansas and Missouri began with open violence that up to the American Civil War known as Bleeding Kansas that took place in the Kansas Territory (Sacking of Lawrence) and the western frontier towns of Missouri throughout the 1850s. The incidents were clashes between pro-slavery factions from both states and anti-slavery Kansans to influence whether Kansas would enter the Union as a free or slave state. In the opening year of the war, six Missouri towns (the largest being Osceola) and large swaths of the western Missouri country side were plundered and burned by guerrilla \"Jayhawkers\" from Kansas. The Sacking of Osceola led to a retaliatory raid on Lawrence, Kansas two years later known as the Lawrence Massacre killing between 185 and 200 men and boys, which in turn led to the infamous General Order No. 11 (1863), the forced depopulation of several western Missouri counties. The raid on Lawrence was led by William Quantrill, a Confederate guerrilla born in Ohio who had formed his bushwhacker group at the end of 1861. At the time the Civil War broke out, Quantrill was a resident of Lawrence, Kansas teaching school.\n",
"The borderlands of Kansas and Missouri were battlegrounds for insurgents during the American Civil War, with raids going back and forth across the border. Bates County is noted as the site for the first combat engagement during the war of African-American soldiers serving with the Union and against Confederate forces, which occurred on October 28–29, 1862. The First Kansas Colored Division (part of the state militia) fought Confederate guerrillas at the Battle of Island Mound four miles north of present-day Rich Hill, Missouri, and the Union forces won.\n",
"The 19th century border wars between Missouri and Kansas have continued as a sports rivalry between the University of Missouri and University of Kansas. The rivalry was chiefly expressed through football and basketball games between the two universities, but since Missouri left the Big 12 Conference in 2012, the teams no longer regularly play one another. It was the oldest college rivalry west of the Mississippi River and the second-oldest in the nation. Each year when the universities met to play, the game was coined the \"Border War.\" An exchange occurred following the game where the winner took a historic Indian War Drum, which had been passed back and forth for decades. Though Missouri and Kansas no longer have an annual game after the University of Missouri moved to the Southeastern Conference, tension still exists between the two schools.\n",
"Missouri stayed in the Union during the Civil War. However, since the city's first settlers had arrived via the Missouri River from the South, considerable tension existed there between pro-Union and pro-Confederate sympathizers. Missourian Sterling Price was to fight battles in the area at the beginning and end of the war, hoping to incite residents to join the Southern cause. Thus, the City of Kansas and its immediate environs became the focus of intense military activity. The First Battle of Independence resulted in a Confederate victory, but the Southerners were not able to follow it up in any meaningful way, as the City of Kansas was occupied by Union troops and proved too heavily fortified for them to assault.\n",
"Many believe the rivalry can trace its history to open violence involving anti-slavery and pro-slavery elements that took place in the Kansas Territory and the western frontier towns of Missouri throughout the 1850s. These incidents were attempts by some Missourians (then a slave state) to influence whether Kansas would enter the Union as a free or slave state. The era of political turbulence and violence has been termed Bleeding Kansas. When the Civil War began, the animosity that developed during the Kansas territorial period erupted in particularly vicious fighting. In the opening year of the war, six Missouri towns (the largest being Osceola) and large swaths of western Missouri were plundered and burned by various forces from Kansas generically termed jayhawkers. These attacks led to a retaliatory raid on Lawrence, Kansas two years later (Lawrence Massacre), which led to General Order No. 11 (1863), the forced depopulation of several western Missouri counties. The raid on Lawrence was led by William Quantrill, a Confederate guerrilla born in Ohio who had formed his bushwhacker group at the end of 1861. Quantrill had earlier been a resident of Lawrence, teaching school there until the school closed in 1860. Quantrill also attacked a nearby town of Olathe causing chaos during the civil war.\n",
"Bleeding Kansas, Bloody Kansas or the Border War was a series of violent civil confrontations in the United States between 1854 and 1861 which emerged from a political and ideological debate over the legality of slavery in the proposed state of Kansas. The conflict was characterized by years of electoral fraud, raids, assaults, and retributive murders carried out in Kansas and neighboring Missouri by pro-slavery \"Border Ruffians\" and anti-slavery \"Free-Staters\".\n",
"During the American Civil War, Missouri was a hotly contested border state populated by both Union and Confederate sympathizers. It sent armies, generals, and supplies to both sides, was represented with a star on both flags, maintained dual governments, and endured a bloody neighbor-against-neighbor intrastate war within the larger national war.\n"
] |
why can we see ultraviolet if it is outside the visible spectrum?
|
You can't.
If you shine UV on some things, like liquid laundry detergent, it makes the substance glow brightly. This is not you seeing UV, it is a substance absorbing UV photons and re-radiating the energy as visible wavelength photons you can see.
|
[
"Above the range of visible light, ultraviolet light becomes invisible to humans, mostly because it is absorbed by the cornea below 360 nm and the internal lens below 400 nm. Furthermore, the rods and cones located in the retina of the human eye cannot detect the very short (below 360 nm) ultraviolet wavelengths and are in fact damaged by ultraviolet. Many animals with eyes that do not require lenses (such as insects and shrimp) are able to detect ultraviolet, by quantum photon-absorption mechanisms, in much the same chemical way that humans detect visible light.\n",
"The human eye can perceive light with wavelengths between roughly 350 (violet) and 700 (red) nanometres. Ultraviolet light has wavelengths between roughly 10 nm and 350 nm. UV light can be harmful to human beings, and is strongly absorbed by the ozone layer. This makes it impossible to observe UV emission from astronomical objects from the ground. Many types of object emit copious quantities of UV radiation, though: the hottest and most massive stars in the universe can have surface temperatures high enough that the vast majority of their light is emitted in the UV. Active Galactic Nuclei, accretion disks, and supernovae all emit UV radiation strongly, and many chemical elements have strong absorption lines in the UV, so that UV absorption by the interstellar medium provides a powerful tool for studying its composition.\n",
"Ultraviolet rays are invisible to most humans. The lens of the human eye blocks most radiation in the wavelength range of 300–400 nm; shorter wavelengths are blocked by the cornea. Humans lack color receptor adaptations for ultraviolet rays. Nevertheless, the photoreceptors of the retina are sensitive to near-UV, and people lacking a lens (a condition known as aphakia) perceive near-UV as whitish-blue or whitish-violet. Under some conditions, children and young adults can see ultraviolet down to wavelengths of about 310 nm. Near-UV radiation is visible to insects, some mammals, and birds. Small birds have a fourth color receptor for ultraviolet rays; this gives birds \"true\" UV vision.\n",
"The lower wavelength limit of human vision is conventionally taken as 400 nm, so ultraviolet rays are invisible to humans, although some people can perceive light at slightly shorter wavelengths than this (see below). Insects, birds, and some mammals can see near-UV (i.e. slightly lower wavelengths than humans can see).\n",
"Humans cannot see ultraviolet light directly because the lens of the eye blocks most light in the wavelength range of 300–400 nm; shorter wavelengths are blocked by the cornea. The photoreceptor cells of the retina are sensitive to near ultraviolet light, and people lacking a lens (a condition known as aphakia) see near ultraviolet light (down to 300 nm) as whitish blue, or for some wavelengths, whitish violet, probably because all three types of cones are roughly equally sensitive to ultraviolet light; however, blue cone cells are slightly more sensitive.\n",
"UV filters are used to block invisible ultraviolet light, to which most photographic sensors and film are at least slightly sensitive. The UV is typically recorded as if it were blue light, so this non-human UV sensitivity can result in an unwanted exaggeration of the bluish tint of atmospheric haze or, even more unnaturally, of subjects in open shade lit by the ultraviolet-rich sky.\n",
"Ultraviolet (UV) designates a band of the electromagnetic spectrum with wavelength from 10 nm to 400 nm, shorter than that of visible light but longer than X-rays. UV radiation is present in sunlight, and contributes about 10% of the total output of the Sun. It is also produced by electric arcs and specialized lights, such as mercury-vapor lamps, tanning lamps, and black lights. Although long-wavelength ultraviolet is not considered an ionizing radiation because its photons lack the energy to ionize atoms, it can cause chemical reactions and causes many substances to glow or fluoresce. Consequently, the chemical and biological effects of UV are greater than simple heating effects, and many practical applications of UV radiation derive from its interactions with organic molecules.\n"
] |
What was the point of the invasion stripes on planes during D-day?
|
They were identification aids for Allied pilots and gunners. Friendly fire was a persistent risk for aircraft, positive recognition being difficult in the heat of battle; the first Fighter Command losses of the war were in the "Battle of Barking Creek" during which two Hurricanes were shot down by Spitfires and the introduction of further combatants and types of aircraft only made the situation more confusing. An early use of black and white stripes was on the wings of Hawker Typhoons in 1942 as they were frequently mistaken for the Focke-Wulf 190. Frank Zeigler, intelligence officer of 609 Squadron, wrote in the RAF Flying Review about the results of the confusion: "Once a gunnery officer, whom I had just 'blitzed' on the phone, actually called back with the request: 'Could you ask your pilots tactfully - very tactfully - did we get anywhere near them?' Sometimes they did. Roy Payne, wading ashore after being hit and crash-landing in shallow water, really lost his temper when the coastguards addressed him in German." See also an [Imperial War Museum photograph](_URL_0_): "A Hawker Typhoon Mk 1B in fighter pen at North West corner of RAF Duxford (...) The black and white stripes painted on the underside of the wings - sometimes referred to as 'Dieppe stripes'- were actually introduced following the failed Dieppe Raid of 19 August 1942. Originally only black stripes were painted on but white stripes were added by December 1942 for greater recognition by other RAF aircraft who had mistaken the Typhoon for the German Focke Wulf 190."
During the 1943 invasion of Sicily C-47 transports suffered particularly badly from friendly anti-aircraft fire, 23 of 144 being shot down on 11th July. As a result during the planning of Operation Overlord a memorandum on "Distinctive Marking - Aircraft" was written:
"1 OBJECT
The object of this memorandum is to prescribe the distinctive markings which will be applied to US and BRITISH aircraft in
order to make them more easily identified as friendly by ground and naval forces and by other friendly aircraft.
(...)
4 DISTINCTIVE MARKINGS
(a) Single engine aircraft. (1) Upper and lower wing surfaces of aircraft listed in paragraph 2g above, will be painted with five
white and black stripes, each eighteen inches wide, parallel to the longitudinal axis of the airplane, arranged in order from center
outward; white, black, white, black, white. Stripes will end six inches inboard of the national markings. (2) Fuselages will be
painted with five parallel white and black stripes, each eighteen inches wide, completely around the fuselage, with the outside
edge of the rearmost band eighteen inches from the leading edge of the tailplane."
(etc)
The order was issued on June 4th, leading to rather frantic painting for the squadrons involved, and can be considered a success, there being no large-scale repeat of the Sicily incident.
Further reading:
*US Army Air Forces Aircraft Markings and Camouflage 1941-1947*, Robert D. Archer
"Fratricide - An Overview of Friendly Fire Incidents in the 20th Century", *RAF Historical Society Journal No. 34*, Wg Cdr C G 'Jeff' Jefford
|
[
"During World War II, \"invasion stripes\" were painted on Allied aircraft to assist identification in preparation for the invasion of Normandy. Similar markings had been used when the Hawker Typhoon was first introduced into use as it was otherwise very similar in profile to a German aircraft. Late in the war the \"protection squadron\" that covered the elite German jet fighter squadron as it landed or took off were brightly painted to distinguish them from raiding Allied fighters.\n",
"Invasion stripes were alternating black and white bands painted on the fuselages and wings of Allied aircraft during World War II to reduce the chance that they would be attacked by friendly forces during and after the Normandy Landings. Three white and two black bands were wrapped around the rear of a fuselage just in front of the empennage (tail) and from front to back around the upper and lower wing surfaces.\n",
"During the invasion of Normandy on June 6, 1944, All Allied aircraft participating in the invasion were marked on the wings and fuselage with \"invasion stripes\" painted with distemper so that trigger-happy naval or ground-based gunners would not mistake them for German planes and fire on them as had happened during the invasion of Sicily in 1943.\n",
"Like all Allied aircraft flying over the continent, the 357th applied alternating , black and white bands, known as \"invasion stripes\", to the rear fuselage and wings of its fighters just prior to D-Day. It retained the lower wing stripes and lower portion of the rear fuselage until the end of 1944, when most invasion stripes were deleted.\n",
"Because of the requirement for absolute radio silence and a study that warned that the thousands of Allied aircraft flying on D-Day would break down the existing system, plans were formulated to mark aircraft including gliders with black-and-white stripes to facilitate aircraft recognition. Air Chief Marshal Sir Trafford Leigh-Mallory, commander of the Allied Expeditionary Air Force, approved the use of the recognition markings on May 17.\n",
"Like all Allied aircraft flying over the continent, the 56th applied alternating black and white bands, known as \"invasion stripes\", to the rear fuselage and wings of its fighters just prior to D-Day. It retained the lower wing stripes and lower portion of the rear fuselage until the end of 1944, when most invasion stripes were deleted.\n",
"One month after D-Day, the stripes were ordered removed from planes' upper surfaces to make them more difficult to spot on the ground at forward bases in France. They were completely removed by the end of 1944 after achieving total air supremacy over France.\n"
] |
why do circuit boards need transistors/what do they do?
|
You are thinking of capacitors.
Capacitors are used to regulate the energy flowing through a board. Rarely will you have a 'clean' energy flow. There will be dips and spikes along the way. The capacitors help smooth that out and provide a little extra juice and buffers to prevent jolts on or off from damaging the system.
|
[
"Bipolar junction transistors offer high speed, high gain, and low output resistance, which are excellent properties for high-frequency analog amplifiers, whereas CMOS technology offers high input resistance and is excellent for constructing simple, low-power logic gates. For as long as the two types of transistors have existed in production, designers of circuits utilizing discrete components have realized the advantages of integrating the two technologies; however, lacking implementation in integrated circuits, the application of this free-form design was restricted to fairly simple circuits. Discrete circuits of hundreds or thousands of transistors quickly expand to occupy hundreds or thousands of square centimeters of circuit board area, and for very high-speed circuits such as those used in modern digital computers, the distance between transistors (and the minimum capacitance of the connections between them) also makes the desired speeds grossly unattainable, so that if these designs cannot be built as integrated circuits, then they simply cannot be built.\n",
"TTL is particularly well suited to bipolar integrated circuits because additional inputs to a gate merely required additional emitters on a shared base region of the input transistor. If individually packaged transistors were used, the cost of all the transistors would discourage one from using such an input structure. But in an integrated circuit, the additional emitters for extra gate inputs add only a small area.\n",
"In contrast, many of the components that make up \"electronic\" circuits, such as diodes, transistors, integrated circuits, and vacuum tubes are nonlinear; that is the current through them is not proportional to the voltage, and the output of two-port devices like transistors is not proportional to their input. The relationship between current and voltage in them is given by a curved line on a graph, their characteristic curve (I-V curve). In general these circuits don't have simple mathematical solutions. To calculate the current and voltage in them generally requires either graphical methods or simulation on computers using electronic circuit simulation programs like SPICE.\n",
"The PLRI circuits are designed to use discrete components and DIP socketed integrated circuits for several reasons. For one thing, these are commonly found in ham operator's \"junk boxes\". Also, discrete transistors are able to sink more current than the tiny surface-mount transistors. Special soldering iron and magnifying glass not required!\n",
"In electronic systems, printed circuit boards are made from epoxy plastic and fibreglass. The nonconductive boards support layers of copper foil conductors. In electronic devices, the tiny and delicate active components are embedded within nonconductive epoxy or phenolic plastics, or within baked glass or ceramic coatings.\n",
"Transistors are commonly used in digital circuits as electronic switches which can be either in an \"on\" or \"off\" state, both for high-power applications such as switched-mode power supplies and for low-power applications such as logic gates. Important parameters for this application include the current switched, the voltage handled, and the switching speed, characterised by the rise and fall times.\n",
"Integrated circuits consist of multiple transistors on one silicon chip, and are the least expensive way to make large number of interconnected logic gates. Integrated circuits are usually interconnected on a printed circuit board which is a board which holds electrical components, and connects them together with copper traces.\n"
] |
why do particles behave so differently at the quantum level?
|
Our universe operates on two scales: macro and micro. We, as humans, sit in an awkward middle ground where both effects can be demonstrated.
There is a scaling effect in physics and engineering, in which mass and momentum increases cubically, while resistance increases to the square -- this is the result of volumetric versus surface areas operations. This principle means devices that operate on macro scales generally cannot be scaled down to micro scales, as the forces will swap their dominance.
Similarly, the world we observe is the result of thousands of quantum events occurring simultaneously. When we begin to observe these effects individually, we see behaviour that doesn't match the large scale -- the macro behaviour is an emergent property of the micro system.
|
[
"The fundamental feature of quantum mechanics that distinguishes it from classical mechanics is that particles of a particular type are indistinguishable from one another. This means that in an assembly consisting of similar particles, interchanging any two particles does not lead to a new configuration of the system (in the language of quantum mechanics: the wave function of the system is invariant up to a phase with respect to the interchange of the constituent particles). In the case of a system consisting of particles of different kinds (for example, electrons and protons), the wave function of the system is invariant up to a phase separately for both assemblies of particles.\n",
"Certain quantum effects appear to be transmitted instantaneously and therefore faster than \"c\", as in the EPR paradox. An example involves the quantum states of two particles that can be entangled. Until either of the particles is observed, they exist in a superposition of two quantum states. If the particles are separated and one particle's quantum state is observed, the other particle's quantum state is determined instantaneously (i.e., faster than light could travel from one particle to the other). However, it is impossible to control which quantum state the first particle will take on when it is observed, so information cannot be transmitted in this manner.\n",
"In October 2018, physicists reported that quantum behavior can be explained with classical physics for a single particle, but not for multiple particles as in quantum entanglement and related nonlocality phenomena.\n",
"In October 2018, physicists reported that quantum behavior can be explained with classical physics for a single particle, but not for multiple particles as in quantum entanglement and related nonlocality phenomena.\n",
"BULLET::::- Many macroscopic properties of a classical system are a direct consequence of the quantum behavior of its parts. For example, the stability of bulk matter (consisting of atoms and molecules which would quickly collapse under electric forces alone), the rigidity of solids, and the mechanical, thermal, chemical, optical and magnetic properties of matter are all results of the interaction of electric charges under the rules of quantum mechanics.\n",
"In quantum mechanics, there can exist indistinguishable particles. Unlike in classical mechanics, where each particle is labeled by a distinct state vector formula_1, and different configurations of the set of formula_1s correspond to different many-body states, in quantum mechanics, the particles are identical, such that exchanging the states of two particles, i.e. formula_3, does not lead to a measurably different many-body quantum state.\n",
"Other, more subtle quantum effects can lead to corrections to equipartition, such as identical particles and continuous symmetries. The effects of identical particles can be dominant at very high densities and low temperatures. For example, the valence electrons in a metal can have a mean kinetic energy of a few electronvolts, which would normally correspond to a temperature of tens of thousands of kelvins. Such a state, in which the density is high enough that the Pauli exclusion principle invalidates the classical approach, is called a degenerate fermion gas. Such gases are important for the structure of white dwarf and neutron stars. At low temperatures, a fermionic analogue of the Bose–Einstein condensate (in which a large number of identical particles occupy the lowest-energy state) can form; such superfluid electrons are responsible for superconductivity.\n"
] |
How advanced was Polynesian navigation compared to other civilizations?
|
They presumably knew a great deal about stars, the movement of ocean currents and wave patterns, the air and sea interference patterns caused by islands and atolls, the flight of birds, the winds, and the weather. However, so did other navigators. It's still unclear how much of their exploration of *new* islands was dependent upon luck.
|
[
"Polynesian navigation used some navigational instruments, which predate and are distinct from the machined metal tools used by European navigators (such as the sextant, first produced in 1730; the sea astrolabe, from around late 15th century; and the marine chronometer, invented in 1761). However, they also relied heavily on close observation of sea sign and a large body of knowledge from oral tradition.\n",
"Knowledge of the traditional Polynesian methods of navigation were largely lost after contact with and colonization by Europeans. This left the problem of accounting for the presence of the Polynesians in such isolated and scattered parts of the Pacific. By the late 19th century to the early 20th century a more generous view of Polynesian navigation had come into favor, perhaps creating a romantic picture of their canoes, seamanship and navigational expertise.\n",
"The Polynesians encountered nearly every island within the vast Polynesian Triangle using outrigger canoes or double-hulled canoes. The double-hulled canoes were two large hulls, equal in length, and lashed side by side. The space between the paralleled canoes allowed for storage of food, hunting materials, and nets when embarking on long voyages. Polynesians used strategic and natural navigation aids such as the stars, ocean currents, and wind patterns.\n",
"By the late 19th century to the early 20th century, a more generous view of Polynesian navigation had come into favor, creating a much romanticized view of their seamanship, canoes, and navigational expertise. Late 19th and early 20th centuries writers such as Abraham Fornander and Percy Smith told of heroic Polynesians migrating in great coordinated fleets from Asia far and wide into present-day Polynesia.\n",
"While the early Polynesians were skilled navigators, most evidence indicates that their primary exploratory motivation was to ease the demands of burgeoning populations. Polynesian mythology does not speak of explorers bent on conquest of new territories, but rather of heroic discoverers of new lands for the benefit of those who voyaged with them.\n",
"Austronesians were the first humans to invent oceangoing sailing technologies, namely the catamaran, the outrigger ship, and the crab claw sail. This allowed them to colonize a large part of the Indo-Pacific region from 3000 to 1500 BC during the Austronesian expansion. Prior to the 16th century Colonial Era, Austronesians were the most widespread ethnolinguistic group, spanning half the planet from Easter Island in the eastern Pacific Ocean to Madagascar in the western Indian Ocean. The crab claw sails and tanja sails of the Austronesians from western Island Southeast Asia possibly influenced the development of the Arab lateen sail. The junk rigs commonly associated with Chinese ships is also believed to be an Austronesian invention which the Chinese encountered and adopted by the 2nd century after contact with Austronesian traders.\n",
"The successful, non-instrument sailing of \"Hōkūle‘a\" to Tahiti in 1976 proved the efficacy of Mau's navigational system to the world. To academia, Mau's achievement provided evidence for intentional two-way voyaging throughout Oceania, supporting a hypothesis that explained the Asiatic origin of Polynesians. The success of the Micronesian-Polynesian cultural exchange, symbolized by \"Hōkūle‘a\", had an impact throughout the Pacific. It contributed to the emergence of the second Hawaiian cultural renaissance and to a revival of Polynesian navigation and canoe building in Hawaii, New Zealand, Rarotonga and Tahiti. It also sparked interest in traditional wayfinding on Mau's home island of Satawal. Later in life, Mau was respectfully known as a grandmaster navigator, and he was called \"Papa Mau\" by his friends with great reverence and affection. He received an honorary degree from the University of Hawaii, and he was honored by the Smithsonian Institution and the Bishop Museum for his contributions to maritime history. Mau's life and work was explored in several books and documentary films, and his legacy continues to be remembered and celebrated by the indigenous peoples of Oceania.\n"
] |
How credible is Noam Chomsky on American History/foreign policy
|
> I know his views on history can be controversial and don't want to discuss them, I'm just wondering if he uses correct info
Perhaps the biggest problem I have with Chomsky is that he's an unreliable source of historical information (and because of what he says about the self-brainwashing of US intellectuals, the reader isn't highly motivated to go look at other sources).
In particular, as a reader, I usually assume that if a writer provides a selective quote from someone else, it should provide a reasonably accurate summary of what the other person said. Chomsky doesn't appear to adhere to this rule.
This means that it's necessary to check his references very carefully. I assume not everyone who reads Chomsky does this.
Orwell describes the phenomenon of extreme partisan writing in his essay [Notes on Nationalism](_URL_1_): "Much of the propagandist writing of our time amounts to plain forgery. Material facts are suppressed, dates altered, **quotations removed from their context and doctored so as to change their meaning**. Events which it is felt ought not to have happened are left unmentioned and ultimately denied."
There's a [February 26, 1970 letter](_URL_3_) to the New York Review of Books by Samuel Huntington, with a response by Chomsky, which gives an example. ("After Pinkville" is reprinted in The Chomsky Reader.)
> In response to "After Pinkville" (January 1, 1970)
> To the Editors:
> In the space of three brief paragraphs in your January 1 issue, Noam Chomsky manages to mutilate the truth in a variety of ways with respect to my views and activities on Vietnam.
> Mr. Chomsky writes as follows:
> "Writing in Foreign Affairs, he [Huntington] explains that the Viet Cong is 'a powerful force which cannot be dislodged from its constituency so long as the constituency continues to exist.' The conclusion is obvious, and he does not shrink from it. We can ensure that the constituency ceases to exist by 'direct application of mechanical and conventional power...on such a massive scale as to produce a massive migration from countryside to city....'"
> It would be difficult to conceive of a more blatantly dishonest instance of picking words out of context so as to give them a meaning directly opposite to that which the author stated. For the benefit of your readers, here is the "obvious conclusion" which I drew from my statement about the Viet Cong:
> "...the Viet Cong will remain a powerful force which cannot be dislodged from its constituency so long as the constituency continues to exist. Peace in the immediate future must hence be based on accommodation."
> By omitting my next sentence--'Peace in the immediate future must hence be based on accommodation'--and linking my statement about the Viet Cong to two other phrases which appear earlier in the article, Mr. Chomsky completely reversed my argument.
Chomsky's response includes the following remarkable sophistry:
> ... I did not say that he "favored" this answer but only that he "outlined" it, "explained" it, and "does not shrink from it," all of which is **literally** true [emphasis added].
Stanley Hoffmann, another critic of the Vietnam War, described Chomsky as having a "tendency to draw from an author’s statements inferences that correspond neither to the author’s intentions nor to the statements’ meaning." [Source](_URL_2_).
I've written up a longer [critical review](_URL_0_) of Chomsky's writings on foreign policy, attempting to be as fair-minded as possible.
|
[
"Noam Chomsky mentioned The Purpose of American Politics during one of his talks criticizing it for a number of things. He cited Morgenthau who calls US intervention in Central America \"isolated forays\" and blames many critics of US historical record for \"committing a fundamental error of logic\" by confusing \"reality,\" by which Morgenthau implies the national purpose as it was intended, with \"abusive reality\" - what actually happened:\"He [Morgenthau] then goes on to say that they're [critiques of US historical record] committing what he calls 'the error of atheism' which has criticized religion on similar grounds. And that's a very astute comment. We should also draw the further conclusion, that in fact, what he and a good deal of academic scholarship is presenting is a kind of religion - the state religion we might call it. That is a set of beliefs that you're just supposed to have if you want to be a civilized and well-behaved person with a good shot at a job. And in fact it \"is\" [Chomsky's emphasize] committing the 'error of atheism' to mix up what really happened with the religious doctrine about that to which we are actually committed.\"Chomsky also cited Morgenthau's concept of \"transcendent purpose\" of a nation as a claim that the United States unlike other nations was the only country which \"came into existence to realize an already existing purpose.\" \n",
"Chomsky's first chapter, \"Priorities and Prospects\", provides an introduction to U.S. global dominance at the start of 2003. He looks at the role of propaganda – employed by government and mass media – in shaping public opinion in both the U.S. and United Kingdom, arguing that it allows a wealthy elite to thrive at the expense of the majority. As evidence for the manner in which the media shapes public opinion on foreign policy, he discusses the role of the U.S. government in protecting its economic interests in Nicaragua, first by supporting the military junta of General Somoza and then by supporting the Contra militias, in both instances leading to mass human rights abuses which were ignored by the mainstream U.S. media.\n",
"Chomsky has been a prominent critic of what he views as American imperialism; he believes that the basic principle of the foreign policy of the United States is the establishment of \"open societies\" that are economically and politically controlled by the United States and where U.S.-based businesses can prosper. He argues that the U.S. seeks to suppress any movements within these countries that are not compliant with U.S. interests and to ensure that U.S.-friendly governments are placed in power. When discussing current events, he emphasizes their place within a wider historical perspective. He believes that official, sanctioned historical accounts of U.S. and British extraterritorial operations have consistently whitewashed these nations' actions in order to present them as having benevolent motives in either spreading democracy or, in older instances, spreading Christianity; criticizing these accounts, he seeks to correct them. Prominent examples he regularly cites are the actions of the British Empire in India and Africa and the actions of the U.S. in Vietnam, the Philippines, Latin America, and the Middle East.\n",
"Helić has advised numerous Conservatives in opposition and government from 1998 building up considerable expertise. She has been described by Matthew D’Ancona as \"one of the most impressive foreign policy experts in the Government.\" Known for her discretion, there is little in the public domain on her personal views, although she is pro-American. According to a leaked dispatch from Richard LeBaron, Deputy Head of the US Mission in London, she shares William Hague's pronounced pro-U.S. views and described the United States as \"the essential country.\"\n",
"I F Stone called Pasvolsky \"Kerensky's gift to American foreign policy and political science\" and considered that the widely used Brookings publications on US foreign policy prepared under his direction reflected \"an ultra-right point of view\".\n",
"Drawing historical examples from 1945 through to 2003, Chomsky looks at the US government's support for regimes responsible for mass human rights abuses —including ethnic cleansing and genocide—namely El Salvador, Colombia, Turkey, Israel, Egypt, South Africa, and Indonesia. He also discusses US support for militant dissident groups widely considered \"terrorists\", particularly in Nicaragua and Cuba, as well as direct military interventions, such as the Vietnam War, NATO bombing of Yugoslavia, Afghan War and Iraq War, to further its power and grasp of resources. He highlights that US foreign policy—whether controlled by Republican or Democratic administrations—pursues the same agenda of gaining access to lucrative resources and maintaining US world dominance.\n",
"He was also involved in debates over U.S.-Soviet relations, Central America policy, the War Powers Act, NATO expansion and the investigation of the Iran-Contra affair, and sponsored the United Nations Reform Act of 2005, a bill that ties payment of U.S. dues for United Nations operations to reform of the institution's management.\n"
] |
What sort of cosmetics did the women of royalty/aristocracy wear during Henry VIII's reign?
|
Fashion, yes! Queen Catherine of Aragon (the first wife) is believed to have started the trend of wearing a farthingale (hoop skirt). The farthingale or verdugados in Spanish had been a staple of Spanish fashion for at least 20 years before Catherine came to England. When she got to England, it took about another 20 years for the trend to catch on there. However, she is credited with starting it.
Anne Boleyn is believed to have [introduced the French Hood](_URL_1_) to the English court. Anne had been away at the French court before coming back to England with the "continental style" of hat.
As for makeup, [there is a great article](_URL_0_) on the various sometimes dangerous items to achieve the beauty ideals of the day. These included white lead and vinegar to give a pale completion and many other recipes in the article from period sources. Not all are Henrician but they are all 16th C English.
|
[
"The ideal standard of beauty for women in the Elizabethan era was to have light or naturally red hair, a pale complexion, and red cheeks and lips. Pale, white skin was desired because Queen Elizabeth was in reign and she had the naturally red hair, pale complexion, and red cheeks and lips. Also, it was to look very English since the main enemy of England was Spain, and in Spain darker hair was dominant.\n",
"By the end of the nineteenth century, the main occasions at which Court dresses were worn were those at which debutantes were presented to the Queen. In the twentieth century (especially following the First World War), occasions for full Court dress diminished. It was still required wear for ladies attending the 1937 Coronation (albeit without trains and veils - and Peeresses were expected to wear tiaras rather than feathers); but in 1953, ladies attending the Coronation were directed to wear 'evening dresses or afternoon dresses, with a light veiling falling from the back of the head. Tiaras may be worn ... no hats'. Court presentations continued, except during wartime, but they gradually became less opulent. In the post-war 1940s evening Courts were replaced with afternoon presentations (for which afternoon dresses were worn); and with that, the donning of full Court dress ceased to be a rite of passage for young women taking their place in society.\n",
"Elizabeth I of England is popularly imagined to have been a notable user. An account stated that after she died and her mask removed, the cosmetics used were revealed. Critics such as Anna Riehl and Kate Maltby have argued that little historical evidence exists to support this claim.\n",
"Maria Coventry, Countess of Coventry (\"née\" Gunning; 1733 – 30 September 1760) was a famous Irish beauty and London society hostess during the reign of King George II. She died at a young age from lead and mercury poisoning, killed by the toxins used in her beauty regimen.\n",
"The queen spent heavily on fashion, luxuries and gambling, though the country was facing a grave financial crisis and the population was suffering. Rose Bertin created dresses for her, and hair styles such as \"pouf\"s, up to three feet (90 cm) high, and the \"panache\" (a spray of feather plumes). She and her court also adopted the English fashion of dresses made of indienne (a material banned in France from 1686 until 1759 in order to protect local French woolen and silk industries), percale and muslin. By the time of the Flour War of 1775, a series of riots (due to the high price of flour and bread) had damaged her reputation among the general public. Eventually, Marie Antoinette's reputation was no better than that of the favorites of previous kings. Many French people were beginning to blame her for the degrading economic situation, suggesting the country’s inability to pay off its debt was the result of her wasting the crown’s money. In her correspondence, Marie Antoinette's mother, Maria Theresa, expressed concern over her daughter's spending habits, citing the civil unrest it was beginning to cause.\n",
"The use of excessive makeup in the Victorian age was seen as too promiscuous and would only be seen on performers or prostitutes. A pure natural face free from blemishes, freckles, or marks was what was considered beautiful. However, that didn't mean that woman did not use secretly concoct their own remedies and cosmetics to enhance features and hide imperfections. Societal women did not want it known that they wore cosmetics and so their beauty rituals were not publicized or discussed. One of the most important features to a woman in the Victorian Era was to have the most translucent, pale complexion as possible. Similar to many other cultures around the world, a woman with a fair and healthy complexion distinguishes her social status. A lady of a higher social standing would use accessories like gloves and umbrellas to help protect her from the environment. The big game changer for the skincare of Victorian women was cold cream. Cold cream is a product of skin care that consists of water, oil, emulsifier, and thickening agent. It is believed that cold cream is beneficial for cleansing the skin and providing a moisturizing effect. This product was essential to Victorian women who wanted to maintain very soft, delicate skin. Cold cream is one of the products used by Victorian women that was fairly safe to use and not looked down upon. The invention of cold cream goes back to antiquity and has stood the test of time and it still used by many modern women.\n",
"Ethel(d)reda Malte (sometimes referred to as Audrey; ) was an English courtier of the Tudor period who was reputed to be an illegitimate daughter of King Henry VIII. She was the wife of poet and writer John Harington, prior to Isabella Markham.\n"
] |
the russian subdivision system?
|
Russia is a union, much like the US is or the Soviet Union was. In fact, the official name of the country is not 'Russia', but the Russian Federation.
Republics are regions where the majority of the population is (or was, at the time of its creation) not ethnically Russian. They have partial autonomy, and their own constitution and legislature. They are typically created for one of the non-Russian peoples inside the Federation, such as the Sakha Republic where the Yakutic people primarily live. You can compare them to the US Indian Territories.
Oblasts are provinces, sub-state divisions. These have a local government with its own governor and can have local laws, but are not considered autonomous. You can compare them to US States.
Krais are the same as Oblasts functionally, but are named such because they used to be territories on the Russian frontier.
Federal Cities are semi-autonomous cities. Functionally they are also Oblasts.
Autonomous Okrugs are minor regions created for a non-Russian ethnicity (like a Republic), but are too small to be given autonomy. They have very limited self-rule. Another type of 'Indian Territory'.
The Autonomous Oblast is the Jewish region. Technically it is another Okrug (ethnic enclave) but because it was created for religious, not ethnic reasons, it has a special name.
|
[
"In modern Russia, a selsoviet is a type of an administrative division of a district in a federal subject of Russia, which is equal in status to a town of district significance or an urban-type settlement of district significance, but is organized around a rural locality (as opposed to a town or an urban-type settlement). In some federal subjects, selsoviets were replaced with municipal rural settlements, which, in turn, were granted status of administrative-territorial units.\n",
"The municipal divisions in Russia, called the municipal formations (), are territorial divisions of the Russian Federation within which the state governance is augmented with local self-government independent of the state organs of governance within the law, to manage local affairs.\n",
"BULLET::::- Selsoviet, lowest level of administrative division in rural areas in the Soviet Union, preserved as a third tier of administrative-territorial division throughout Ukraine, Belarus and some parts of Russia\n",
"In modern Russia, division into administrative districts largely remained unchanged after the dissolution of the Soviet Union. The term \"district\" (\"raion\") is used to refer to an administrative division of a federal subject or to a district of a big city.\n",
"In Russia, municipal districts are a form of local self-government, and one of the types of municipal formations. They are usually (but not always) formed within the borders of existing administrative districts.\n",
"Selsoviet (; , silrada) is a shortened name for a rural council and for the area governed by such a council (soviet). The full names for the term are, in , , . Selsoviets were the lowest level of administrative division in rural areas in the Soviet Union. After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, they were preserved as a third tier of administrative-territorial division throughout Ukraine, Belarus, and some of the federal subjects of Russia.\n",
"In the spring of 1918, Sovnarkom officially divided Russia into six \"oblasti\", or territorial entities – Moscow, the Urals, North, Northwest, West Siberia, and Central Siberia – each with their own quasi-sovereign status. These \"oblasti\" were governed by socialist intelligentsia, and held their own Congresses of Soviets. In part this division served to facilitate the central control of the various regional soviets, many of which had taken over de facto control of their own areas. The \"oblasti\" in turn were divided into smaller provinces, the \"gubernii\", a number of which proclaimed themselves to be \"republics\", and some of the non-Russian peoples living within Russian territory, such as the Bashkirs and Volga Tatars, formed their own \"national republics\".\n"
] |
Does our brain have a equivalent of binary code or pixels?
|
I'm not quite sure I understand your question. Neuronal firing can be thought of as a digital or binary process - they either fire or they do not. However, the relationship between input and output is non-linear.
|
[
"Most computers manipulate binary data, but it is difficult for humans to work with the large number of digits for even a relatively small binary number. Although most humans are familiar with the base 10 system, it is much easier to map binary to hexadecimal than to decimal because each hexadecimal digit maps to a whole number of bits (4).\n",
"Most digital computers internally represent all of their data as electronic representations of binary numbers, so processing the digits of integer representations by groups of binary digit representations is most convenient. Radix sorts can be implemented to start at either the most significant digit (MSD) or least significant digit (LSD). For example, when sorting the number 1234 into a list, one could start with the 1 or the 4.\n",
"Functional neuroimaging methods such as PET and fMRI are used to study the complex neural mechanisms of the human language systems. Functional neuroimaging is used to determine the most important principles of cerebral language organization in bilingual persons. Based on the evidence we can conclude that the bilingual brain is not the addition of two monolingual language systems, but operates as a complex neural network that can differ across individuals.\n",
"While \"Blue Brain\" is able to represent complex neural connections on the large scale, the project does not achieve the link between brain activity and behaviors executed by the brain. In 2012, project Spaun (Semantic Pointer Architecture Unified Network) attempted to model multiple parts of the human brain through large-scale representations of neural connections that generate complex behaviors in addition to mapping.\n",
"A binary digit, characterized as 0 and 1, is used to represent information in classical computers. A binary digit can represent up to one bit of Shannon information, where a bit is the basic unit of information.\n",
"A binary code represents text, computer processor instructions, or any other data using a two-symbol system. The two-symbol system used is often \"0\" and \"1\" from the binary number system. The binary code assigns a pattern of binary digits, also known as bits, to each character, instruction, etc. For example, a binary string of eight bits can represent any of 256 possible values and can, therefore, represent a wide variety of different items.\n",
"For example, a 24-bit bitmap uses 8 bits to represent each of the three color values (red, green, and blue) of each pixel. The blue alone has 2 different levels of blue intensity. The difference between 11111111 and 11111110 in the value for blue intensity is likely to be undetectable by the human eye. Therefore, the least significant bit can be used more or less undetectably for something else other than color information. If that is repeated for the green and the red elements of each pixel as well, it is possible to encode one letter of ASCII text for every three pixels.\n"
] |
how do we instinctively know if something is good for eating?
|
It's not instinctive at all for humans. Look at babies, they put all sorts of non-edible items in their mouths.
What's good for eating is a learned behavior. We learn from our parents/society what is edible and what isn't.
> Give a dog and deer an apple. The deer will probably eat it as soon as he understand you don't want to hurt him. The dog will simply play with the awesome red ball of fun.
Dogs are omnivores. If my dog is chasing an apple, it's only because it won't sit still long enough for her to take a bite of it.
|
[
"BULLET::::- The safety of the food may be determined by observing whether or not the food taster subsequently becomes ill. However, food tasting is not effective against slow-acting poisons that take a long time to produce visible symptoms.\n",
"\"Our principles are simple: we use the best, nicest ingredients, treat them with respect (we don’t like to mess about with things) and make sure the final product is the very best eating experience we can make.\"\n",
"To confirm OAS, the suspected food is consumed in a normal way. The period of observation after ingestion and symptoms are recorded. If other factors such as combined foods are required, this is also replicated in the test. For example, if the individual always develops symptoms after eating followed by exercise, then this is replicated in the laboratory.\n",
"Once all food chemical sensitivities are identified a dietitian can prescribe an appropriate diet for the individual to avoid foods with those chemicals. Lists of suitable foods are available from various hospitals and patient support groups can give local food brand advice. A dietitian will ensure adequate nutrition is achieved with safe foods and supplements if need be.\n",
"The EAT suffers from the same problems as other self-report inventories, in that scores can be easily exaggerated or minimized by the person completing them. Like all questionnaires, the way the instrument is administered can have an effect on the final score. If a patient is asked to fill out the form in front of other people in a clinical environment, for instance, social expectations have been shown to elicit a different response compared to administration via a postal survey.\n",
"A food taster is a person who ingests food that was prepared for someone else, to confirm it is safe to eat. One who tests drink in this way is known as a cupbearer. The person to whom the food is to be served is usually an important person, such as a monarch or somebody under threat of assassination or harm.\n",
"In Blumenthal's view, experiments such as these show that our appreciation of food is subjective, determined by information sent by the senses to the brain: \"the ways in which we make sense of what we are eating and decide whether we like it or not depend to a large extent on memory and contrast. Memory provides us with a range of references – flavours, tastes, smells, sights, sounds, emotions – that we draw on continually as we eat.\" His dishes, therefore, tend to be designed to appeal to the senses in concert, and through this to trigger memories, associations and emotions. Thus the Nitro-poached Green Tea and Lime Mousse on the Fat Duck menu is served with spritz of ‘lime grove’ scent from an atomiser; and the Jelly of Quail dish includes among its tableware a bed of oak moss, as well as being accompanied by a specially created scent of oak moss that is dispersed at the table by means of dry ice.\n"
] |
how the hell can 700+ people die in a stampede?
|
I was once trapped in a bad situation, a crushing crowd. It was New Years Eve, in Paris. My wife and I were with friends. When it started getting bad, we all held hands, but that wasn’t enough; our friends were slowly ripped away from us and we wouldn’t see them till the next day. My wife and I stayed together by hugging face to face and wrapping our arms around each other.
Nobody died that night. There were injuries, though.
All this happened without there being any reason for panic or urgency. There was no fire, no gate suddenly slammed shut, no bridge swaying dangerously. There was no hill pushing people down. If everybody had just stood still we would have been fine.
Here’s what happened: Everybody wanted to move towards the exits, which were inadequate. The whole crowd moved in that direction but people got squeezed. There were times when my wife and I, our bodies were literally pressed between other people, and we couldn’t do anything but ride it like we were caught in an underwater current. There are times you can’t move your legs, and you could just lift them off the ground and be carried along. Some people started stumbling. When you fall in a situation like that, you may die. When somebody next to you falls in a situation like that, you may not have a choice but to go over them. But you try, right? Somebody next to you falls, you back up to give them a little space. That’s what you do. It’s human nature.
But now you have this point in the crowd where a ring of people have decided to back away from somebody who is vulnerable, somebody who tripped, or a little kid. There were lots of kids that night. And that protective gesture sends ripples and waves throughout the crowd beyond, because it’s so dense. Like ripples and waves in a pond, they can interfere with each other, sometimes adding together to make a more powerful wave. I doubt they ever really cancel each other out, though, because if you were pushed from behind and a split second later pushed from the front, you wouldn’t remain still, you’d stumble, right? And the waves just keep going, magnifying, as a wave makes people stumble, which makes more waves. A wave would hit a wall, and the people who were already pressed against it would be crushed, and then the wave would rebound in a different direction. You can see the waves in the crowd. Or, if you’re not tall (I’m not) you can hear it, hear the screams of people, and try not to freak out when the screams are coming your way.
So even when there was no reason for anybody to panic -- it was just show’s over, time to leave -- there were pockets of sheer terror. The general pressure from the back moving forward to the exits wasn’t the threat -- it was ripples and waves in that dense crowd, running counter and crosswise to the main current.
|
[
"\"If you look at the analysis, I’ve not seen any instances of the cause of mass fatalities being a stampede,\" says Keith Still, professor of crowd science at Manchester Metropolitan University. \"People don't die because they panic. They panic because they are dying.\"\n",
"A human stampede occurred on 30 September 2008, at the Chamunda Devi temple in Jodhpur, Rajasthan, India, in which 224 people were killed and more than 425 injured. The 15th-century temple is dedicated to the goddess Chamunda Devi and is located within the premises of Mehrangarh Fort.\n",
"The stampede began at 21:30 (14:30 UTC) on a bridge across the river, though witnesses said that people had been \"stuck on the bridge\" for several hours before, and victims were not freed until hours after the actual stampede occurred. 347 people died, and upwards of 755 more people were injured, some seriously, and many local hospitals were pushed far beyond capacity by the influx of victims. At one point, the death toll had been listed as being 456, but on 25 November, the government decreased its official death toll to 347, based on the total put forth by Cambodian minister of social affairs Ith Sam Heng.\n",
"At least 1,527 people were injured, including seven who were seriously injured. On 15 June, less than two weeks after the stampede, a 38-year-old woman, Erika Pioletti, died in hospital of her sustained injuries, while another woman, Marisa Amato, became tetraplegic and eventually died in hospital on 25 January 2019.\n",
"The stampede is counted among the twenty deadliest stampedes during the period of 1968-2005. The President of India, A. P. J. Abdul Kalam, condoled the death of the people who lost their lives in the tragedy. On account of the poor lighting and rain, the rescue personnel found it difficult to reach the spot. The crowd did not disperse without understanding the seriousness of the situation and only left after an announcement was made that the distribution would be made at their doors. Umbrellas, footwear and ration cards were strewn all over the place. Sixteen of the injured were admitted to the government hospital and eleven, including six women, were admitted to the Royapettah Government Hospital. The Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu, J. Jayalalithaa visited the injured in the hospital. During her interaction with the media after her hospital visit, she said that this might have been the handiwork of some of the miscreants trying to tarnish the image of the government. She stated that \"There was no need for people to come in so early during the day when it had been announced that relief distribution would begin from 9 am. We had made elaborate arrangement by restricting the number of relief-seekers to 500 at each of the nine counters and deployed heavy security. It was announced that everyone would get relief,\". The Tamil Nadu police said that it was raining heavily during the distribution of relief supplies. The state government also announced a compensation of one lakh for all the victims and 15,000 for the injured. The leader of the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK) party Muthuvel Karunanidhi, accused the government of buying votes by distributing freebies for the forthcoming elections. He also added that it was the poor administration of the government that resulted in the tragedy. His son, M. K. Stalin, an MLA from the DMK party, accused the government of not setting up a committee to monitor the relief measures. As a mark of respect to those who died in the accident, the shops in the area closed at 2 p.m. on the day.\n",
"On November 21, 2014, a stampede occurred at Mbizo Stadium in which killing 11 and injuring 40 people. Reuters reported that around 30,000 people attended a religious service officiated by Walter Magaya. After the service, the crowd left toward a single exit in a stampede, killing four immediately; seven others were pronounced dead at hospital. The Business Standard reported that the stampede was caused by police firing teargas after some of the crowd attempted to break off parts of the stadium wall to exit.\n",
"According to experts, true \"stampedes\" (and \"panics\") rarely occur except when many people are fleeing in fear, such as from a fire, and trampling by people in such \"stampede\" conditions rarely causes fatal injuries.\n"
] |
why do teeth feel a bit loose when not brushing for a couple days?
|
I don't know how old you are, or what dental treatment you have had in the past but here goes:
- As you get older, your gums recede leaving your teeth with less structure around them
- If you smoke or drink alcohol or have an unhealthy diet, this will also cause gum recession
- If you haven't been to the dentist in quite a long time, and you get a clean it will feel like they're loose as anything
- Vitamin C deficiency, genetic disease will also cause a loose feeling
- you need to be brushing your teeth twice a day
- go and see a dentist please
- eating raw, fresh vegetables can assist with your gums coming back as they stimulate blood flow into the gum area and increase your mouth health
|
[
"Brushing teeth properly helps prevent cavities, and periodontal, or gum disease, which causes at least one-third of adult tooth loss. If teeth are not brushed correctly and frequently, it could lead to the calcification of saliva minerals, forming tartar. Tartar hardens (then referred to as 'calculus') if not removed every 24 hours. Poor dental health has been associated with heart disease and shortened life expectancy.\n",
"Daily brushing must include brushing of both the teeth and gums. Effective brushing itself, will prevent progression of both dental decay and gum diseases. Neutralising acids after eating and at least twice a day brushing with fluoridated toothpaste will assist preventing dental decay. Stimulating saliva flow assists in the remineralisation process of teeth, this can be done by chewing sugar free gum. Using an interdental device once daily will assist prevention of gum diseases.\n",
"Tooth brushing is the most common cause of dental abrasion, which is found to develop along the gingival margin, due to vigorous brushing in this area. The type of toothbrush, the technique used and the force applied when brushing can influence the occurrence and severity of resulting abrasion. Further, brushing for extended periods of time (exceeding 2-3 min) in some cases, when combined with medium/hard bristled toothbrushes can cause abrasive lesions.\n",
"There are a number of common oral hygiene misconceptions. It is not correct to rinse the mouth with water after brushing. It is also not recommended to brush immediately after drinking acidic substances, including sparkling water. It is also recommended to floss once a day, with a different piece of floss at each flossing session. The Effectiveness of Tooth Mousse is in debate. Visits to a dentist for a checkup every year at least are recommended.\n",
"The American Dental Association has stated that flossing in combination with tooth brushing can help prevent gum disease and halitosis. A 2011 review of trials concluded that flossing in addition to tooth brushing reduces gingivitis compared to tooth brushing alone. In this review, researchers found \"some evidence from 12 studies that flossing in addition to tooth brushing reduces gingivitis compared to tooth brushing alone\", but only discovered \"weak, very unreliable evidence from 10 studies that flossing plus tooth brushing may be associated with a small reduction in plaque at 1 and 3 months.\"\n",
"General guidelines suggest brushing twice a day: after breakfast and before going to bed, but ideally the mouth would be cleaned after every meal. Cleaning between the teeth is called interdental cleaning and is as important as tooth brushing. This is because a toothbrush cannot reach between the teeth and therefore only removes about 50% of plaque off the surface. There are many tools to clean between the teeth, including floss and interdental brushes; it is up to each individual to choose which tool he or she prefers to use.\n",
"The appearance may vary depending on the cause of abrasion, however most commonly presents in a V-shaped caused by excessive lateral pressure whilst tooth-brushing. The surface is shiny rather than carious, and sometimes the ridge is deep enough to see the pulp chamber within the tooth itself.\n"
] |
why are those red lines on composition notebooks not lined up?
|
The sheets are cut in twos, stacked, folded in half, bound to the cover, and cut to size and uniformity. When the pages are folded, the sheets shift causing the red margin to be in slightly different places on each page
|
[
"The lines are not straight, but askew. The difference of the thickness of ink color shown on drawn letter paper is large, and spots often occur. Even some characters, such as 'day' (日) or 'one' (一), are written reversely, while other letters are not printed out completely. The same typed letters are not shown on the same paper, but the same typed letters appear on other leaves. There are also blurs and spots around the characters.\n",
"noisy, low resolution (dots making up each character are visible), not all can do color, unreliable, color looks faded and streaky, slowness and more prone to jamming - with jams that are more difficult to clear. This is because paper is fed in using two sprockets engaging with holes in the paper. A small tear on the side of a sheet can cause a jam, with paper debris that is tedious to remove.\n",
"Charest previously illustrated on regular illustration board provided by publishers, though he disliked the non-photo blue lines printed on them. By 2000, he switched to Crescent board for all his work, because it does not warp when wet, produces sharper illustrations, and is more suitable for framing because it lacks the non-photo blue lines.\n",
"Notebooks used for drawing and scrapbooking are usually blank. Notebooks for writing usually have some kind of printing on the writing material, if only lines to align writing or facilitate certain kinds of drawing. Inventor's notebooks have page numbers preprinted to support priority claims. They may be considered as grey literature. Many notebooks have graphic decorations. Personal organizers can have various kinds of preprinted pages.\n",
"This type of paper provides an exceptional look to decorative quilling projects. The edges have a solid color that gradually fades to white. When using a graduated paper, a quilling ring begins with a dark shade but ends up being faded to a lighter side. On the contrary, some graduated papers begin as white, or a lighter shade, and then slowly fades into a solid, darker color.\n",
"This embossing is transferred to the pulp fibres, compressing and reducing their thickness in that area. Because the patterned portion of the page is thinner, it transmits more light through and therefore has a lighter appearance than the surrounding paper. If these lines are distinct and parallel, and/or there is a watermark, then the paper is termed \"laid paper\". If the lines appear as a mesh or are indiscernible, and/or there is no watermark, then it is called \"wove paper\". This method is called \"line drawing watermarks.\"\n",
"Sometimes the insertion of a quoted line marker will cause one original line to be folded as two lines in the reply, and the continuation line may not have the proper marker. To avoid ambiguity in such cases, one may consider inserting blank lines after each block of quoted text:\n"
] |
how come my cat can tear up chipmunks and birds and eat them, but if i were to do the same thing, i would probably get very sick?
|
Your kitty cat and you have different tummys. Your kitty gets to eat chipmunks and birds and cat food with its tummy, and you get to eat chocolate and ice cream and human food with your tummy.
|
[
"The cat manages to survive, but he's still out to get Tweety. When he arrives at the bottom of the tree, he becomes a nest. Tweety attempts to get into it, but a hen, laying her eggs, causes him to get off. When she's finished, she flies off. The cat also arrives and his mouth is full of nothing but eggs. He attempts to catch Tweety once again but fails, then Tweety fakes his screaming and sets a hand grenade with its pin pulled next to him. Thinking it was the bird itself, the cat grabs the grenade. The real Tweety says, \"He got it and he can have it.\" The cat blows up and Tweety then confesses, \"You know, I get rid of more putty tats that way!\", then drew a line on the tree of how many cats he got rid of.\n",
"Once inside the cat searches for food in the kitchen, but comes up empty. His luck finally changes when he finds a can of cat food. He quickly opens the can and out of the can pops a mouse who is plopped down onto a dinner plate. The cat is about to dig in with a fork but the mouse puts a quick stop to that. He says that the cat can't eat him because he has already seen the cartoon they are in and that he winds up saving the cat's life later. The feline understands but wants some food as he is starving. The mouse points into the other room and tells him that there is a huge, fat, tasty canary in there. The cat charges out into the other room and stuffs the unseen canary into a sack heading back to the kitchen.\n",
"They plan to get rid of them by scaring them, since cats are scared of dogs. At first they get scared, but then when they realize they're just puppies, they feel less impressed. They want them off Toot, but they refuse saying they need him to collect sardines. They also fret to put them overboard where a shark is, until Salty gives Toot the encouragement he needs to get rid of the dogs. Toot uses his hose on the cats since they also hate water. It works and the cats run away. They then start to clean Toot up until he is ship shape again. Echo returns and tells them that Dogwood is shipwrecked on an island. As Salty goes to collect his most favorite food, Percy's Perfect Purple Pickle Pelican Pellets, while the rest gets bubble gum and ice cream. Claude, the cat leader, vows to get Little Toot to get all the sardines. \n",
"In a garden where cats are to be found, sheltered areas can often reveal the \"wild\" results of kneading: round, cat-sized nests trodden into long grass. Domestic cats also make \"nests\" out of cardboard boxes and other such things. They do this also by kneading with their claws out, in a manner such as to scratch and soften some of the material. This action is different in manner, body language and intent from kneading when they are happy.\n",
"One of the reasons a cat may stop eating is separation anxiety and the emotional stress that results. Moving, gaining or losing housemates or pets, going on vacation, or prolonged boarding are all common situations that pet owners report just prior to the onset of the disease, but it may develop without these conditions existing. Obesity is known to increase the risk of hepatic lipidosis; however, there is no known \"official\" cause of the disease. Severe anorexia usually precedes the onset of the disease. When the cat has no energy from eating, the liver must metabolize fat deposits in the body into usable energy to sustain life. The cat liver, however, is poor at metabolizing fat, causing a buildup of fat in the cells of the liver, leading to fatty liver. At this point the disease can be diagnosed; however, it will often not be diagnosed, and many animals are euthanized due to improper or no diagnosis.\n",
"There are some things that the cats are not able to digest. For example, cats clean themselves by licking their fur with their tongue, which causes them to swallow a lot of fur. This causes a build-up of fur in a cat's stomach and creates a mass of fur. This is often thrown up and is better known as a hair ball.\n",
"Kittens are vulnerable because they like to find dark places to hide, sometimes with fatal results if they are not watched carefully. Cats have a habit of seeking refuge under or inside cars or on top of car tires during stormy or cold weather. This often leads to broken bones, burns, heat stroke, damaged internal organs or death.\n"
] |
why aren't heatsinks entirely made of copper (mostly for cpu's or gpu's)?
|
> To my knowledge pricing cannot be the reason as aluminum and copper are both relatively cheap raw materials.
Copper costs more than three times as much as aluminum.
|
[
"Copper’s antimicrobial properties can enhance the performance of HVAC systems and associated indoor air quality. After extensive testing, copper became a registered material in the U.S. for protecting heating and air conditioning equipment surfaces against bacteria, mold, and mildew. Furthermore, testing funded by the U.S. Department of Defense is demonstrating that all-copper air conditioners suppress the growth of bacteria, mold and mildew that cause odors and reduce system energy efficiency. Units made with aluminium have not been demonstrating this benefit.\n",
"Copper is an important component of solar thermal heating and cooling systems because of its high heat conductivity, resistance to atmospheric and water corrosion, sealing and joining by soldering, and mechanical strength. Copper is used both in receivers and primary circuits (pipes and heat exchangers for water tanks). For the absorber plate, aluminum is sometimes used as it is cheaper, yet when combined with copper piping, there may be problems in regards to allow the absorber plate to transfer its heat to the piping suitably. An alternative material that is currently used is PEX-AL-PEX but there may be similar problems with the heat transfer between the absorber plate and the pipes as well. One way around this is to simply use the same material for both the piping and the absorber plate. This material can be copper off course but also aluminum or PEX-AL-PEX.\n",
"Copper has excellent heat sink properties in terms of its thermal conductivity, corrosion resistance, biofouling resistance, and antimicrobial resistance \"(See also Copper in heat exchangers)\". Copper has around twice the thermal conductivity of aluminium, around 400 W/m•K for pure copper. Its main applications are in industrial facilities, power plants, solar thermal water systems, HVAC systems, gas water heaters, forced air heating and cooling systems, geothermal heating and cooling, and electronic systems.\n",
"Aluminum or copper alone does not work on an induction stove because of the materials’ magnetic and electrical properties. Aluminum and copper cookware are more conductive than steel, but the skin depth in these materials is larger since they are non-magnetic. The current flows in a thicker layer in the metal, encounters less resistance and so produces less heat. The induction cooker will not work efficiently with such pots. However, aluminum and copper are desirable in cookware, since they conduct heat better. Because of this 'tri-ply' pans often have an induction-compatible skin of stainless steel containing a layer of thermally conductive aluminum.\n",
"The combination of these properties enable copper to be specified for heat exchangers in industrial facilities, HVAC systems, vehicular coolers and radiators, and as heat sinks to cool computers, disk drives, televisions, computer monitors, and other electronic equipment. Copper is also incorporated into the bottoms of high-quality cookware because the metal conducts heat quickly and distributes it evenly.\n",
"Due to copper’s strong antimicrobial properties, copper fins can inhibit bacterial, fungal and viral growths that commonly build up in air conditioning systems. Hence, the surfaces of copper-based heat exchangers are cleaner for longer periods of time than heat exchangers made from other metals. This benefit offers a greatly expanded heat exchanger service life and contributes to improved air quality.\n",
"Since copper’s thermal conductivity is higher than aluminium’s, copper has a higher capacity to dissipate heat. By using thinner material gauges in combination with higher fin density, heat dissipation capacity with CuproBraze can be increased with air pressure drops still at reasonable levels.\n"
] |
why is "swatting" so easy? i feel like it shouldn't be that simple.
|
There was a [pretty good AMA](_URL_0_) earlier this week after the Keemstar/SWAT incident which would answer some of your follow-up questions.
A few key points:
Some popular YouTubers will notify their police department of their online presence and give a heads up that they might be a potential target for a SWAT call.
The punishment for calling a false SWAT claim is difficult to enforce for a number of reasons. A caller could claim they heard noise like gunshots coming from a property, and it would be hard to prove they sincerely did not or they mistook it for something else. The caller is frequently from another country or calling through a proxy line. However, if a false caller is caught and admits to his crime, he could face a severe fine and a month jail. It depends on the jurisdiction.
If a SWAT response is determined to be from a false call, the city (taxpayers) replace all damaged property.
If you are the victim of a SWATing, the best course of action is to lay face down on the floor (feet towards the door), and stretch out your arms. Do not get up. Wait for the SWAT team to get to you, and explain it was a "false call."
Protocol for aggressive dogs is to pepper spray them. Not shoot them.
Mustaches are not standard issue. You have to earn it.
|
[
"Swatting is a criminal harassment tactic of deceiving an emergency service (via such means as hoaxing an emergency services dispatcher) into sending a police and emergency service response team to another person's address. This is triggered by false reporting of a serious law enforcement emergency, such as a bomb threat, murder, hostage situation, or other alleged incident. It can also be triggered by a false report of a \"mental health\" emergency, such as reporting that a person is allegedly suicidal or homicidal and may or may not be armed. In the United States, the maximum prison sentence handed down by a court in March 2019 on a swatter was 20 years in jail for a fatal 2017 swatting violation.\n",
"Swatting has origins in prank calls to emergency services. Over the years, callers used increasingly sophisticated techniques to direct response units of particular types. In particular, attempts to have SWAT teams be dispatched to particular locations spawned the term \"swatting\". The term was used by the FBI as early as 2008, and has also entered into Oxford Dictionaries Online in 2015.\n",
"The term derives from the law enforcement unit \"SWAT\" (\"special weapons and tactics\"), a specialized type of police unit in many countries, carrying military-style equipment such as door breaching weapons, submachine guns, automatic rifles, and sniper rifles. A threat may result in the evacuations of schools and businesses. Advocates have called for swatting to be described as terrorism due to its use to intimidate and create the risk of injury or death.\n",
"BULLET::::- Swat: Players are chained by their necks at a table, and have to slap each other in the face with fly swatters (while wearing protective goggles). After multiple rounds of \"swatting\", players have to hold up a bucket filled with dirt with one arm, while continuing to slap their opponent in the face with fly swatters. The opponent wins if a player drops their bucket to the ground.\n",
"Hit-and-run tactics is a tactical doctrine where the purpose of the combat involved is not to seize control of territory; instead, flexible noncommittal attacks are used to inflict damage on a target and immediately exit the area to avoid the enemy's defense and/or retaliation. Such raids can also expose enemy defensive weaknesses and achieve a psychological effect on the enemy's morale.\n",
"Missions can be approached in either \"stealth\" or \"dynamic\" mode. In stealth mode, the SWAT team moves slowly and deliberately, speaking softly and avoiding loud noises (e.g., quietly dismantling a door lock with the multitool rather than noisily destroying it with explosives or a breaching round), and making use of the Opti-Wand. This allows the SWAT team the element of surprise when choosing to engage suspects. In dynamic mode, the team moves quickly, speaks loudly and freely uses breaching munitions and flashbangs in order to clear an area rapidly. The player can freely shift between stealth and dynamic modes. The game automatically shifts from stealth to dynamic when the team is compromised by a loud noise or contact with a suspect.\n",
"SWATS, The S.W.A.T.S. or S.W.A.T.S. (\"Southwest Atlanta, too strong\") is, in street, hip-hop, or local contexts, Southwest Atlanta, plus territory extending into the adjacent cities of College Park and East Point. The term \"SWATS\" came into vogue around 1996 and was initially made popular by LaFace Records groups OutKast and Goodie Mob. This was the same time that \"ATL\" became popular as a nickname for Atlanta as a whole.\n"
] |
why is exercise not enjoyable if it is beneficial?
|
It is enjoyable once you start doing it.
The reason it's found hard to start is because as a rule of thumb, it is evolutionarily beneficial to save energy rather than "wasting" it in superfluous exercise. The problem is that in our society, you can almost get around moving altogether; but that hasn't been going on for too long, so evolution has not "programmed" it into us yet.
|
[
"Benefits of exercise include stress reduction, reduced risk of heart disease, lowers blood pressure, helps control weight and aids insulin in improving management of diabetes. Exercise that is not too strenuous is recommended. Such activities may include walking, swimming, gardening, cycling or golfing.\n",
"Studies have shown that exercise reduces stress. Exercise effectively reduces fatigue, improves sleep, enhances overall cognitive function such as alertness and concentration, decreases overall levels of tension, and improves self-esteem. Because many of these are depleted when an individual experiences chronic stress, exercise provides an ideal coping mechanism. Despite popular belief, it is not necessary for exercise to be routine or intense in order to reduce stress. As little as five minutes of aerobic exercise can begin to stimulate anti-anxiety effects. Further, a 10-minute walk may have the same psychological benefits as a 45-minute workout, reinforcing the assertion that exercise in any amount or intensity will reduce stress.\n",
"Regular exercise makes these systems more efficient by enlarging the heart muscle, enabling more blood to be pumped with each stroke, and increasing the number of small arteries in trained skeletal muscles, which supply more blood to working muscles. Exercise improves not just the respiratory system but the heart by increasing the amount of oxygen that is inhaled and distributed to body tissue. A 2005 Cochrane review demonstrated that physical activity interventions are effective for increasing cardiovascular fitness.\n",
"As a whole, exercise programs can reduce symptoms of depression and risk of cardiovascular and metabolic diseases. Additionally, they can help to improve quality of life, sleeping habits, immune system function, and body composition.\n",
"Developing research has demonstrated that many of the benefits of exercise are mediated through the role of skeletal muscle as an endocrine organ. That is, contracting muscles release multiple substances known as myokines which promote the growth of new tissue, tissue repair, and multiple anti-inflammatory functions, which in turn reduce the risk of developing various inflammatory diseases. Exercise reduces levels of cortisol, which causes many health problems, both physical and mental. Endurance exercise before meals lowers blood glucose more than the same exercise after meals. There is evidence that vigorous exercise (90–95% of VO max) induces a greater degree of physiological cardiac hypertrophy than moderate exercise (40 to 70% of VO max), but it is unknown whether this has any effects on overall morbidity and/or mortality. Both aerobic and anaerobic exercise work to increase the mechanical efficiency of the heart by increasing cardiac volume (aerobic exercise), or myocardial thickness (strength training). Ventricular hypertrophy, the thickening of the ventricular walls, is generally beneficial and healthy if it occurs in response to exercise.\n",
"In most cases, the specific reason that exercise is not tolerated is of considerable significance when trying to isolate the cause down to a specific disease. Dysfunctions involving the pulmonary, cardiovascular or neuromuscular systems have been frequently found to be associated with exercise intolerance, with behavioural causes also playing a part.\n",
"Exercise is used to help individuals alleviate unwanted moods by physically engaging the body to activate endorphins. These endorphins bring about a sense of euphoria and can alleviate undesirable moods by participants that focus on engaging this euphoria. Exercise can also serve to distract individuals by allowing their focus to be on a specific task, such as focusing on lifting weights, or getting across the finish line, allowing less room for rumination on negative thoughts.\n"
] |
Is there a chance abiogenesis occurs all the time, but there's just next to no likelihood of it being observed?
|
The [Miller and Urey experiment](_URL_0_) sought to recreate conditions they think existed on the earth long before life existed here. They succeeded in creating amino acids from inorganic precursors.
They did not create life but showed an important fist step was possible.
On earth now the conditions are not necessarily ripe for producing new life via abiogenesis. Even if such life was spontaneously produced the biological niches on the planet are pretty well filled. Such life would have to out-compete existing life which has a head start on being adept at living in its niche.
In short, if it happens, it'd probably never be witnessed.
|
[
"It has also been noted that arguments against some form of life arising \"by chance\" are really objections to nontheistic abiogenesis, not to evolution. Indeed, arguments against \"evolution\" are based on the misconception that abiogenesis is a component of, or necessary precursor to, evolution. Similar objections sometimes conflate the Big Bang with evolution.\n",
"The exact mechanisms of abiogenesis are unknown: notable hypotheses include the RNA world hypothesis (RNA-based replicators) and the iron-sulfur world hypothesis (metabolism without genetics). The process by which different lifeforms have developed throughout history via genetic mutation and natural selection is explained by evolution. At the end of the 20th century, based upon insight gleaned from the gene-centered view of evolution, biologists George C. Williams, Richard Dawkins, and David Haig, among others, concluded that if there is a primary function to life, it is the replication of DNA and the survival of one's genes. This view has not achieved universal agreement; Jeremy Griffith is a notable exception, maintaining that the meaning of life is to be integrative. Responding to an interview question from Richard Dawkins about \"what it is all for\", James Watson stated \"I don't think we're \"for\" anything. We're just the products of evolution.\"\n",
"Countering this argument is that there is no evidence for abiogenesis occurring more than once on the Earth—that is, all terrestrial life stems from a common origin. If abiogenesis were more common it would be speculated to have occurred more than once on the Earth. Scientists have searched for this by looking for bacteria that are unrelated to other life on Earth, but none have been found yet. It is also possible that life arose more than once, but that other branches were out-competed, or died in mass extinctions, or were lost in other ways. Biochemists Francis Crick and Leslie Orgel laid special emphasis on this uncertainty: \"At the moment we have no means at all of knowing\" whether we are \"likely to be alone in the galaxy (Universe)\" or whether \"the galaxy may be pullulating with life of many different forms.\" As an alternative to abiogenesis on Earth, they proposed the hypothesis of directed panspermia, which states that Earth life began with \"microorganisms sent here deliberately by a technological society on another planet, by means of a special long-range unmanned spaceship\".\n",
"Point mutations may arise from spontaneous mutations that occur during DNA replication. The rate of mutation may be increased by mutagens. Mutagens can be physical, such as radiation from UV rays, X-rays or extreme heat, or chemical (molecules that misplace base pairs or disrupt the helical shape of DNA). Mutagens associated with cancers are often studied to learn about cancer and its prevention.\n",
"Point mutations may arise from spontaneous mutations that occur during DNA replication. The rate of mutation may be increased by mutagens. Mutagens can be physical, such as radiation from UV rays, X-rays or extreme heat, or chemical (molecules that misplace base pairs or disrupt the helical shape of DNA). Mutagens associated with cancers are often studied to learn about cancer and its prevention.\n",
"Although their role as an evolutionary precursor has been superseded, the hypothesis was a catalyst to further investigate other mechanisms that could have brought about abiogenesis, such as the RNA world, PAH world, Iron–sulfur world, and protocell hypotheses.\n",
"It is possible that speciation frequently occurs when a population becomes fixed for one or more chromosomal rearrangements that reduce fitness when they are heterozygous. This theory is lacking in theoretical support because mutations that cause a large reduction in fitness can only be fixed through genetic drift in small, inbred populations, and the effects of chromosomal rearrangements on fitness are unpredictable and vary greatly in plant and animal species. However, a potential mechanism that could promote speciation is that rearrangements reduce gene flow more by suppressing recombination (and extending the effects of linked isolation genes) than by reducing fitness.\n"
] |
what things affect fuel prices?
|
Avalability of oil, political sanctions and teriffs (tax), disputes between the countries providing the oil, and cost of refining to fuel as well as transport.
|
[
"Increases in the price of fuel do not lead to decreases in demand because it is inelastic. Rather, a greater portion of income is spent on fuel, and less is available to purchase other goods. This leads to an overall decrease in consumer spending.\n",
"Rising oil prices cause rising food prices in three ways. First, increased equipment fuel costs drive higher prices. Second, transportation costs increase retail prices. Third, higher oil prices are causing farmers to switch from producing food crops to producing biofuel crops.\n",
"Distortion in fuel prices. The fuel prices that consumers pay do not reflect the social and environmental costs associated with fuel production, distribution and consumption. Consumers tend not to invest on energy efficiency technologies due to this distortion.\n",
"Factors such as pricing of competitors, analysis of current market costs and sales for each grade of fuel are all considerations that affect the outcome of fuel prices. In addition to this, sales by related convenience stores can effectively subsidize the fuel, lowering the price. Some software is designed to integrate with point-of-sale systems, pumps, wetstock systems providers, and electronic price signs to automate instant price changes. This saves store staff the inconvenience of changing gas price signs manually and allows retailers to more responsively post optimal pricing, even monitoring the market in real time.\n",
"The effect of ethanol use on gasoline prices is the source of conflicting opinion from economic studies, further complicated by the non-market forces of tax credits, met and unmet government quotas, and the dramatic recent increase in domestic oil production. According to a 2012 Massachusetts Institute of Technology analysis, ethanol, and biofuel in general, does not materially influence the price of gasoline, while a runup in the price of government mandated Renewable Identification Number credits has driven up the price of gasoline. These in contrast to a May, 2012, Center for Agricultural and Rural Development study which showed a $0.29 to $1.09 reduction in per gallon gasoline price from ethanol use.\n",
"Uncertainty about future fuel prices. There have been great uncertainties with the prices for fuels, such as electricity and petroleum. More stringent environmental regulations and global warming concerns also increase the volatility of fuel prices. These uncertainties prevent consumers from making rational purchase decisions of new energy-using systems.\n",
"Crude oil is the greatest contributing factor when it comes to the price of gasoline. This includes the resources it takes for exploration, to remove it from the ground, and transport it. Between 2004 and 2008, there was an increase in fuel costs due in large part to a worldwide increase in demand for crude oil. Prices leapt from , causing a corresponding increase in gas prices. On the supply side, OPEC (or the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries) has a great deal to do with the price of gasoline, both in the United States and around the world. The speculation of oil commodities can also affect the gasoline market.\n"
] |
how do aimbots work?
|
The bot responds to the "pull trigger" key by twitching the weapon's aimpoint onto the nearest target first. The user kits a key and the game sees a mouse move and key sequence that produces a better score. You have to be pretty close and "target-ness" needs to be well defined, so it's hardly a perfect thing. However, it's clearly cheating.
|
[
"Aimbotting relies on each player's client computer receiving information about all other players, whether they are visible from the player's position or not. Targeting is a matter of determining the location of any opponent relative to the player's location and pointing the player's weapon at the target. This targeting works regardless of whether the opponent is behind walls or too far away to be seen directly.\n",
"An aimbot (sometimes called \"auto-aim\") is a type of computer game bot used in multiplayer first-person shooter games to provide varying levels of automated target acquisition to the player. They are most common in first person shooter games, and are sometimes used along with a TriggerBot, which automatically shoots when an opponent appears within the field-of-view or aiming reticule of the player.\n",
"The iRobot R-Gator is an unmanned robotic platform from iRobot Corporation and John Deere. The robot is built upon Deere's M-Gator currently in use by the US Military. The R-Gator can operate autonomously, performing perimeter patrol and other missions while keeping personnel out of harm's way. It can operate autonomously by following a map or choosing its own waypoints to reach a pre-determined destination. It can also do \"follow the leader\" operations to keep up with troops, be tele-operated, or driven manually if needed. In military exercises, the R-Gator has shown an ability to carry gear for soldiers to lighten their loads. It also demonstrated its capacity to carry and drop off explosive ordnance disposal robots weighing more than 100 pounds. An R-Gator could deploy the smaller machine and provide unmanned perimeter security while the EOD robot dismantles the bomb. The first R-Gator sale to the military was to the U.S. Navy Space and Naval Warfare Systems Command for autonomous perimeter security.\n",
"Laser guidance directs a robotics system to a target position by means of a laser beam. The laser guidance of a robot is accomplished by projecting a laser light, image processing and communication to improve the accuracy of guidance. The key idea is to show goal positions to the robot by laser light projection instead of communicating them numerically. This intuitive interface simplifies directing the robot while the visual feedback improves the positioning accuracy and allows for implicit localization. The guidance system may serve also as a mediator for cooperative multiple robots.\n",
"BULLET::::- Robot programming: The player must create an arrangement of commands (such as \"go forward\" or \"turn right\") to be given to a robot such that the robot will collect all target items on a track in one shot.\n",
"A director, also called an auxiliary predictor, is a mechanical or electronic computer that continuously calculates trigonometric firing solutions for use against a moving target, and transmits targeting data to direct the weapon firing crew.\n",
"The RPO-A is a single-shot, self-contained tube shaped launcher that operates much like some RPG and LAW rocket launchers, a sealed tube, carried in a man-pack in pairs. The same person can remove the tube, place it in firing position, and launch the weapon without assistance. After launch, the tube is discarded. All models are externally similar.\n"
] |
why do computer mice move off the screen on the bottom and right side of the screen? also is there any purpose to this?
|
> Because the pointer is normally at the top left tip, which is the part that is restricted to the screen boundaries. The rest of the cursor is just a graphic that helps in visually locating this tip. This graphic is not restricted, and in fact can't be - if the cursor graphic was trapped you would not be able to click on the very right or bottom edges of the screen.
_URL_0_
|
[
"Nearly all mice now have an integrated input primarily intended for scrolling on top, usually a single-axis digital wheel or rocker switch which can also be depressed to act as a third button. Though less common, many mice instead have two-axis inputs such as a tiltable wheel, trackball, or touchpad.\n",
"A mouse can be used to change the viewing direction or to point at objects; the object under the mouse will be named in the lower-left corner of the screen, along with its horizontal and equatorial coordinates. Clicking with the mouse will re-center the display at that point, and right-clicking will \"lock\" that position or object to the display's center so you can more easily follow it over time changes. (It is also possible to lock objects using keyboard commands.)\n",
"Other uses of the mouse's input occur commonly in special application-domains. In interactive three-dimensional graphics, the mouse's motion often translates directly into changes in the virtual objects' or camera's orientation. For example, in the first-person shooter genre of games (see below), players usually employ the mouse to control the direction in which the virtual player's \"head\" faces: moving the mouse up will cause the player to look up, revealing the view above the player's head. A related function makes an image of an object rotate, so that all sides can be examined. 3D design and animation software often modally chords many different combinations to allow objects and cameras to be rotated and moved through space with the few axes of movement mice can detect.\n",
"A computer mouse, often simply referred to as a mouse, is a hand-held pointing device that detects two-dimensional motion relative to a surface. This motion is typically translated into the motion of a pointer on a display, which allows a smooth control of the graphical user interface. The first public demonstration of a mouse controlling a computer system was in 1968. Originally wired to a computer, many modern mice are cordless, relying on short-range radio communication with the connected system. Mice originally used a ball rolling on a surface to detect motion, but modern mice often have optical sensors that have no moving parts. In addition to moving a cursor, computer mice have one or more buttons to allow operations such as selection of a menu item on a display. Mice often also feature other elements, such as touch surfaces and \"wheels\", which enable additional control and dimensional input.\n",
"The concept is similar to a cursor in a text-based environment. However, when considering a graphical interface, there is also a mouse pointer involved. Moving the mouse will typically move the mouse pointer without changing the focus. The focus can usually be changed by clicking on a component that can receive focus with the mouse. Many desktops also allow the focus to be changed with the keyboard. By convention, the key is used to move the focus to the next focusable component and to the previous one. When graphical interfaces were first introduced, many computers did not have mice, so this alternative was necessary. This feature makes it easier for people that have a hard time using a mouse to use the user interface. In certain circumstances, the arrow keys can also be used to move focus.\n",
"Early types of optical mice have the problem of not working well on transparent or reflective surfaces such as glass or highly polished wood. These surfaces, which often include desk and table surfaces, cause jitter and loss of tracking on the display pointer as the mouse moves over these reflective spots. The use of mousepads with precision surfaces eliminates spot jitter effects of older and/or low-quality optical mice.\n",
"A mouse moves the graphical pointer by being slid across a smooth surface. The conventional roller-ball mouse uses a ball to create this action: the ball is in contact with two small shafts that are set at right angles to each other. As the ball moves these shafts rotate, and the rotation is measured by sensors within the mouse. The distance and direction information from the sensors is then transmitted to the computer, and the computer moves the graphical pointer on the screen by following the movements of the mouse. Another common mouse is the optical mouse. This device is very similar to the conventional mouse but uses visible or infrared light instead of a roller-ball to detect the changes in position.\n"
] |
at a molecular level, why do super hot and super cold objects induce pain when we touch them?
|
On a basic level... The hotter something is, the faster its molecules move.
When you touch a super hot object, it actually damages the cells in the skin because the molecules are excited, and at a certain point, actually begins to overheat the water in the cells. That's what causes burns... As well as actually "cooking" the skin and its cells.
On the opposite, extreme cold kills the feeling that nerve endings give us. The body is designed to operate in a certain temp range. The cold feeling you get, is water molecules in your body beginning to "freeze". That's what frostbite is... When ice actually begins to form under skin. So when something gets colder.... Its molecules begin to slow down. Electrical signals from nerves, as well as cellular respiration begin to slow... Causing damage to the tissue.
|
[
"When a person touches a hot object and withdraws their hand from it without actively thinking about it, the heat stimulates temperature and pain receptors in the skin, triggering a sensory impulse that travels to the central nervous system. The sensory neuron then synapses with interneurons that connect to motor neurons. Some of these send motor impulses to the flexors that lead to the muscles in the arm to contract, while some motor neurons send inhibitory impulses to the extensors so flexion is not inhibited. This is referred to as reciprocal innervation.\n",
"Activation of nociceptors is not necessary to cause the sensation of pain. Damage or injury to nerve fibers that normally respond to innocuous stimuli like light touch may lower their activation threshold needed to respond; this change causes the organism to feel intense pain from the lightest of touch. Neuropathic pain syndromes are caused by lesions or diseases of the parts of the nervous system that normally signal pain. There are four main classes: \n",
"Nociceptive pain is caused by stimulation of sensory nerve fibers that respond to stimuli approaching or exceeding harmful intensity (nociceptors), and may be classified according to the mode of noxious stimulation. The most common categories are \"thermal\" (e.g. heat or cold), \"mechanical\" (e.g. crushing, tearing, shearing, etc.) and \"chemical\" (e.g. iodine in a cut or chemicals released during inflammation). Some nociceptors respond to more than one of these modalities and are consequently designated polymodal.\n",
"The sensitivity of TRPV1 to noxious stimuli, such as high temperatures, is not static. Upon tissue damage and the consequent inflammation, a number of inflammatory mediators, such as various prostaglandins and bradykinin, are released. These agents increase the sensitivity of nociceptors to noxious stimuli. This manifests as an increased sensitivity to painful stimuli (hyperalgesia) or pain sensation in response to non-painful stimuli (allodynia). Most sensitizing pro-inflammatory agents activate the phospholipase C pathway. Phosphorylation of TRPV1 by protein kinase C have been shown to play a role in sensitization of TRPV1. The cleavage of PIP2 by PLC-beta can result in disinhibition of TRPV1 and, as a consequence, contribute to the sensitivity of TRPV1 to noxious stimuli.\n",
"Most of the molecules in the human body interact weakly with electromagnetic fields in the radio frequency or extremely low frequency bands. One such interaction is absorption of energy from the fields, which can cause tissue to heat up; more intense fields will produce greater heating. This can lead to biological effects ranging from muscle relaxation (as produced by a diathermy device) to burns. Many nations and regulatory bodies like the International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection have established safety guidelines to limit EMF exposure to a non-thermal level. This can be defined as either heating only to the point where the excess heat can be dissipated, or as a fixed increase in temperature not detectable with current instruments like 0.1 °C. However, biological effects have been shown to be present for these non-thermal exposures; Various mechanisms have been proposed to explain these, and there may be several mechanisms underlying the differing phenomena observed. Biological effects of weak electromagnetic fields are the subject of study in magnetobiology.\n",
"Friction sensitivity is an approximation of the amount of friction or rubbing a compound can withstand before prematurely exploding. For instance, nitroglycerin has an extremely high sensitivity to friction, meaning that very little rubbing against it could set off a violent explosion. There is no exact determining the amount of friction required to set off a compound, but is rather approximated by the amount of force applied and the amount of time before the compound explodes.\n",
"A heat-conductive surface, such as porcelain or metal, is heated to a temperature that will induce a nociceptive response in an animal subject – normally 50–56 °C. The subject is then placed onto the surface and prevented from leaving the platform by blockades. The latency to pain-reflex behavior is measured. One complication of this assay is its unsuitability for repeated testing. Animals that have been subjected to the hot-plate test in the past display a behavioral tolerance phenomenon, which is characterized by decreased latencies and reduced sensitivities to antinociceptive agents. Another complication of the hot-plate test is determining what constitutes a behavioral pain response; is it the lifting/licking of paws, vocalization, attempting to climb out of the cylinder, etc. Also, delivering the heat stimulus in a controlled fashion presents difficulties due to each section having varying temperatures based upon surface area exposure and whether the animal is moving or not.\n"
] |
What religion did jews and inhabitants of what is today israel and palestine practice before judaism ?
|
There is substantial evidence that the ancestors of those who would call themselves Israelites followed religious practices common in Canaan, and that they themselves were a subgroup of the what would broadly be considered Canaanites. Canaan itself would have been a sort of area between the great bronze-age empires of the day, encompassing modern Israel/Palestine, Lebanon, and Syria.
Canaanite religion centered around two main figures El and Asherah. El is also referred to with other epithets such as Ba'al (who may be identified as the same as El, or as a separate storm god, or as a title given to lesser gods and kings), and was often conflated with, if not considered the same as, Yahweh. There is often inconsistency in naming and even whether a word refers to a god's personal name, attributes, or is used as a title. It can be rather confusing to us but I believe the ancients were generally comfortable with this sort of ambiguity.
El's consort was Asherah, who seems to have been a fertility/mother goddess often worshiped or honored in the form of a live tree or wooden pole. She and El were considered to have been the parents of the numerous lesser gods of the Canaanites.
In the Bible itself, complaints against worship of Asherah and Asherah poles by early Israelites are numerous, as are commands to cut down and burn these poles.
I think its fair to say that identifying Yahweh as a deity distinct from Ba'al or El, and certainly as the only one worth worshipping ("you shall have no other gods before/besides me") were an innovation and were key to the early self-identity of the Israelites. Asherah must have been considered quite a threat to his primacy given the strident admonishments against her worship.
It's interesting to note that even in the name Israel one finds the appellation "El", the term meaning anything from "El is just" to "El strives" or "Triumphant with El" and in Exodus God reveals he had been known as "El Shaddai" but now shall be referred to as Yahweh, or Lord. El and Yahweh may be translated Lord and/or God and El Shaddai as God Almighty - though these names may have been understood differently by different people in their own times.
You can find more information here:
_URL_0_
|
[
"Judaism was practiced widely throughout the European continent within the Roman Empire from the 2nd century. Throughout the Middle Ages, Jews were accused of ritual murder, faced pogroms and legal discrimination.\n",
"BULLET::::- Judaism — the national religion of the Israelites/Hebrews of the Fertile Crescent, or what is now Israel, Palestine, Jordan, Syria, and Lebanon. They eventually evolved into the Jews (particularly Ashkenazi, Sephardic, Mizrahi) and Samaritans of today.\n",
"After the conquest of the Kingdoms of Israel and Judea by the Roman Empire, a Jewish state did not exist until 1948 with the establishment of the State of Israel. For over 1500 years Jewish people lived under pagan, Christian, Muslim, etc. rule. As such Jewish people in some of these states faced persecution. From the pogroms in Europe during the Middle Ages to the establishment of segregated Jewish ghettos during World War II. In the Middle East, Jews were categorised as dhimmi, non- Muslims permitted to live within a Muslim state. Even though given rights within a Muslim state, a dhimmi is still not equal to a Muslim within Muslim society, the same way non-Jewish Israeli citizens are not equal with Jewish citizens in modern-day Israel.\n",
"Jews lived in at least forty-three Jewish communities in Palestine: twelve towns on the coast, in the Negev, and east of the Jordan, and thirty-one villages in Galilee and in the Jordan valley. The persecuted Jews of Palestine revolted twice against their Christian rulers. In the 5th century, the Western Roman Empire collapsed leading to Christian migration into Palestine and development of a Christian majority. Jews numbered 10–15% of the population. Judaism was the only non-Christian religion tolerated, but there were bans on Jews building new places of worship, holding public office or owning slaves. There were also two Samaritan revolts during this period.\n",
"The Jewish world of the first and the second centuries was marked by a large plurality; it sometimes simply explained by geographical reasons: most of the \"Jews\" lived outside of Palestine, until Chine (which also explains the rapid expansion of the Church of the East over there ). What is commonly called \"Judaism\" today is simply the form taken by the communities of Pharisees obedience from the Synod of Yavneh in Galilee, to 95, which form only became majority until much later.\n",
"Judaism has its roots as an organized religion in the Middle East during the Bronze Age. It evolved from ancient Israelite religions around 500 BCE, and is considered one of the oldest monotheistic religions. The Hebrews and Israelites were already referred to as \"Jews\" in later books of the Tanakh such as the Book of Esther, with the term Jews replacing the title \"Children of Israel\". Judaism's texts, traditions and values strongly influenced later Abrahamic religions, including Christianity, Islam and the Baha'i Faith. Many aspects of Judaism have also directly or indirectly influenced secular Western ethics and civil law. Hebraism was just as important a factor in the ancient era development of Western civilization as Hellenism, and Judaism, as the background of Christianity, has considerably shaped Western ideals and morality since Early Christianity.\n",
"While the Jewish population of Palestine waned with the arrival of the Christian Crusaders in the 11th century, by the 16th century, rabbis in Palestine had again made the Land of Israel a centre of Jewish learning. So significant had the Jewish population become, a novel plan to revive the ancient \"ordination\" was attempted. Seen by the Ottoman authorities as a precursor to Jewish self-rule, the scheme did not materialise. Nevertheless, the high calibre of Palestinian rabbinical scholarship ensured that Judaism continued to flourish in the region.\n"
] |
Where did the Imperial Chinese court get its eunuch?
|
Ming is the "golden age" of Chinese eunuchs, that's the period with the most of them running around, so you have made a solid choice! One of the [few good English texts on Chinese eunuchs](_URL_0_) is just about this period.
Eunuchs of this period would have been majority voluntary or semi-voluntary, both adult men who elected to be castrated to join the palace service, and some would be castrated under the auspices of their parents as children for service.
As to why... I know it's insane to think about now. But (assuming you're male, and that you've had sufficient education to type this post, and sufficient privileges in life to find and use a computer) it's just hard for you to imagine this as a very do-able sacrifice for a better life. You have to think outside of your situation a bit. If you were a poor farmer with many sons, castrating 1 or 2 and sending then to the city to find service in a royal family or (with luck!) inside the palace is a reasonable gamble, considering. And if you're an adult, I mean, wouldn't you be tempted if you could be [super rich and powerful?](_URL_2_) It is a more accessible option to a poor and uneducated man than the Imperial examination, which required extensive education. Consider very high ranking eunuchs would outstrip in rank just about everyone, your "career" options are virtually unlimited once you get in the palace, and even if you were just sweeping corridors you would be given food, clothes, money, medicine, and if you were promising, education. If you were an adult man with a wife and children (which did happen) you could send money home. If you were an adult child of poor farmers you could also send money home. Castration is a reasonable choice, which you have few others.
Other than the book I linked above, which is certainly decent but the author doesn't like eunuchs much so I'm not fond if it, there a [very interesting article about Jesuit missionaries observing Chinese eunuchs in the Late Ming period.](_URL_1_)
|
[
"At the end of the Ming dynasty, there were about 70,000 eunuchs (宦官 \"huànguān\", or 太監 \"tàijiàn\") employed by the emperor, with some serving inside the imperial palace. There were 100,000 eunuchs at the height of their numbers during the Ming. In popular culture texts such as Zhang Yingyu's \"The Book of Swindles\" (ca. 1617), eunuchs were often portrayed in starkly negative terms as enriching themselves through excessive taxation and indulging in cannibalism and debauched sexual practices.\n",
"While eunuchs were employed in all Chinese dynasties, their number decreased significantly under the Qing, and the tasks they performed were largely replaced by the Imperial Household Department. At the beginning of the 20th century, there were about 2,000 eunuchs working in the Forbidden City. \n",
"Before the Ming Dynasty, eunuchs had long been a powerful political force in China. In the Tang Dynasty, from 821 until the dynasty's end, eunuchs were \"the real power holders\". They controlled the Imperial Guard and the Palace Secretariat, chose seven out of eight emperors, and possibly killed two emperors.\n",
"The Ten Attendants, also known as the Ten Eunuchs, were a group of influential eunuch-officials in the imperial court of Emperor Ling ( 168–189) in Eastern Han China. Although they are often referred to as a group of 10, there were actually 12 of them and all held the position of \"zhong changshi\" (中常侍; \"Central Regular Attendant\") in Emperor Ling's imperial court.\n",
"Eunuchs have existed in China since about 4,000 years ago, were imperial servants by 3,000 years ago, and were common as civil servants by the time of the Qin dynasty. From those ancient times until the Sui Dynasty, castration was both a traditional punishment (one of the Five Punishments) and a means of gaining employment in the Imperial service. Certain eunuchs gained immense power that occasionally superseded that of even the Grand Secretaries such as the Ming dynasty official Zheng He. Self-castration was a common practice, although it was not always performed completely, which led to its being made illegal.\n",
"In Ming China, the royal palace usually gets eunuchs in two ways: foreign supplies of eunuchs and domestic supplies of eunuchs. On the one hand, the eunuchs in Ming China come from the foreign supplies, the enemies of Ming China are castrated as a mean of punishment when they are captured by Ming army as prisoners. For example, the population of Mongol eunuchs in Nanjing increased significantly during Yongle's reign when there was a war between Ming China and the Mongols. The foreign eunuchs also comes from the tributes from a lot of small countries around China. On the other hand, the eunuchs also came from locals in China. In Ming China, many men castrated themselves in order to be hired in the palace, when the only way for these men to enter privilege was eunuchism. Besides the royal palace, elites such as officials also hired eunuchs to be servants to their family. With the demand, a lot of men were willing to castrate themselves to become eunuchs. \n",
"Eunuchs Lee Suk-gung (Wayne Lai), Dan Tin (Power Chan) and Chan Siu-fung (Raymond Cho) lived a peaceful life serving the Emperor and the royal family in the Forbidden City. Suk-gung worked in the kitchen as a cook and master carver, Tin worked in the Physician quarters and Siu-fung was a beautician who made the ladies in waiting presentable. After the fall of the Qing dynasty and eviction of all eunuchs and servants in the Forbidden City by the last Emperor of China Puyi, for constant theft of valuables, the three Eunuchs band together to survive outside the Forbidden City as civilians in Beijing. Life as civilians is harsh for the three as they face constant prejudice from revolutionists for being associated with China's imperial past while making a meager living working as kitchen help at an alleyway food stall and rent a small room living together in a dingy neighborhood.\n"
] |
Why do I randomly and suddenly run out of breath mid-sentence? It feels similar to a hiccup.
|
Are you forgetting to breathe when you talk? That's not snark, that's an actual question. When you talk, make sure to pause and take a breath. That's also a good time to think about what you're saying.
|
[
"A hiccup (also spelled hiccough) is an involuntary contraction (myoclonic jerk) of the diaphragm that may repeat several times per minute. The hiccup is an involuntary action involving a reflex arc. Once triggered, the reflex causes a strong contraction of the diaphragm followed about a quarter of a second later by closure of the vocal cords, which results in the classic \"hic\" sound.\n",
"Irritation of the phrenic nerve (or the tissues supplied by it) leads to the hiccup reflex. A hiccup is a spasmodic contraction of the diaphragm, which pulls air against the closed folds of the larynx.\n",
"The hypothesis suggests that the air bubble in the stomach stimulates the sensory limb of the reflex at receptors in the stomach, esophagus and along the diaphragm. This triggers the hiccup, which creates suction in the chest, pulling air from the stomach up and out through the mouth, effectively burping the animal.\n",
"In Norwegian, \"uff\" or \"huff\" is an interjection used when something is unpleasant, uncomfortable, hurtful, annoying, sad, or irritating. \"Uff da\" is most often used as a response when hearing something lamentable (but not too serious), and could often be translated as \"Oh, I'm sorry to hear that\".\n",
"Iggy has displayed a number of unique mannerisms; the most notable of which is that his snout twitches when he's lying. This concept draws parallels to Pinocchio, as both characters have involuntary nasal quirks which only occur when they're being dishonest. If his nasal septum gets displaced, Iggy will snore while sleeping, and his snoring can produce a village-wrecking earthquake. Luckily, this only happens in \"I am Iggy, Hear Me Snore\".\n",
"One symptom of gas that is not normally associated with it is the hiccup. Hiccups are harmless and will diminish on their own; they also help to release gas that is in the digestive tract before it moves down to the intestines and causes bloating. Important but uncommon causes of abdominal bloating include ascites and tumors.\n",
"During a family drive, Squee is dropped off at a restaurant to use the restroom. While at the urinal, Squee hears a man in the stall groaning and screaming. As the noise becomes louder and louder, Squee becomes more nervous, until a pool of blood flows out from under the stall and Squee runs out in terror. Later, a man dressed in a large Squee costume appears to Squee on the roof, and claims to be his future self, but before he can say anything noteworthy, the ravages of unperfected time-travel techniques liquefy his spine. That night, Squee dreams he's having a conversation with Shmee, who tells him the nature of his existence, that he acts as a \"trauma-sponge\" for Squee, soaking up all the bad things that happen to him. Grandpa comes for a visit the next day, and attempts to eat Squee to gain vitality.\n"
] |
Is there a link between handwriting and writing abilities?
|
Relevant Studies that investigate correlations between handwriting and personality variables:
_URL_1_
_URL_2_
Maybe the most relevant to your question:
_URL_0_
|
[
"Research in writing development has been limited in psychology. In the research that has been conducted, focus has generally centred on the development of written and spoken language and their connection. Spoken and written skills could be considered linked. Researchers believe that children's spoken language influences their written language. When a child learns to write they need to master letter formation, spelling, punctuation and they also have to gain an understanding of the structure and the organisational patterns involved in written language.\n",
"BULLET::::- Graphology – psychological test based on a belief that personality traits unconsciously and consistently influence handwriting morphology—that certain types of people exhibit certain quirks of the pen. Analysis of handwriting attributes provides no better than chance correspondence with personality, and neuroscientist Barry Beyerstein likened the assigned correlations to sympathetic magic. Graphology is only superficially related to forensic document examination, which also examines handwriting.\n",
"There are a number of different types of writing systems, or orthographies, and they do not necessarily depend on the same neurological skill sets. As a result, certain dyslexic deficits may be more pronounced in some orthographies than in others. For example, in alphabetic languages, phonological awareness is highly predictive of reading ability. But in Chinese (a logographic system), orthographic awareness and motor programming are highly predictive of reading ability.\n",
"A 1980 study found that prestige of research could even be increased by confounding writing style, with research competency being positively correlated to reading difficulty. Anecdotal evidence has since been reported nowadays by researchers.\n",
"\"Handwriting is a psychomotor skill taught by instruction\". Handwriting instruction is a student's primary means of communicating academic progress to teachers, and that is doubly true for cursive handwriting instruction. There are many important aspects of handwriting instruction, the most important items are; age of handwriting instruction, handwriting style, methods of handwriting instruction, handwriting equipment, evaluation, and handwriting difficulties. Legibility is the main determinant in handwriting evaluations, especially cursive handwriting. It is very important that handwriting instruction is taught properly; it is a skill that is very difficult to restore if it is gained incorrectly.\n",
"The handwriting found in New Testament manuscripts varies. One way of classifying handwriting is by formality: book-hand vs. cursive. More formal, literary Greek works were often written in a distinctive style of even, capital letters called book-hand. Less formal writing consisted of cursive letters which could be written quickly. Another way of dividing handwriting is between uncial script (or majuscule) and minuscule. The uncial letters were a consistent height between the baseline and the cap height, while the minuscule letters had ascenders and descenders that moved past the baseline and cap height. Generally speaking, the majuscules are earlier than the minuscules, with a dividing line roughly in the 11th century.\n",
"Even sketchier is information on what types of organization are acquired first, but anecdotal information and research suggests that even young children understand chronological information, making narratives the easiest type of student writing. Persuasive writing usually requires logical thinking and studies in child development indicate that logical thinking is not present until a child is 10–12 years old, making it one of the later writing skills to acquire. Before this age, persuasive writing will rely mostly on emotional arguments.\n"
] |
Did the stereotypical drill sergeant exist before WWII or so?
|
Sorry, we don't allow ["trivia seeking" questions](_URL_0_). These tend to produce threads which are collections of disjointed, partial responses, and not the in-depth discussions about a particular topic we're looking for. If you have a specific question about an historical event, period, or person, please feel free to re-compose your question and submit it again. Alternatively, questions of this type can be directed to more appropriate subreddits, such as /r/history /r/askhistory, or /r/tellmeafact. For further explanation of the rule, feel free to consult [this META thread](_URL_1_).
I would very much suggest to narrow this question down to just the US and post it since it's very interesting.
|
[
"Top Sergeant is a 1942 American military drama film. United States Army Sergeant Rusty Manson (Don Terry) is on maneuvers with slackers Frenchy Devereaux (Leo Carrillo) and Andy Jarrett (Andy Devine) when robbers attack them and kill Manson's brother \n",
"Combat Sergeant is an American television program that originally aired on ABC from June to September 1956. Starring Michael Thomas as Sergeant Nelson, the series was set in Africa during World War II. Actual footage of the war was spliced into episodes. 13 episodes were filmed.\n",
"\"The Sergeant\" is Clarence James \"CJ\" Mahoney, a fictional character created by the author. The series details his adventures and exploits as a U.S. GI, and former US Army Ranger, fighting in France during World War II.\n",
"Sound rangers were used extensively in the Second World War. Many of the officers were former surveyors, estate agents and geographers because of their surveying experience in civilian life. They would be located near the front line but not always among the firing line for their safety.\n",
"Commands were typically issued via voice, (rarely) drum (infantry only), or bugle call. Soldiers were drilled in infantry tactics, usually based upon a manual written before the war by West Point professor William J. Hardee (\"Rifle and Light Infantry Tactics: for the Instruction, Exercise and Maneuver of Riflemen and Light Infantry\", published in 1855). Another treatise commonly used was from Winfield Scott, entitled \"Infantry Tactics, or Rules for Manoeuvers of the United States Infantry\". Originally published in 1835, it was the standard drill manual for the U. S. Army. Other popular instruction manuals were issued early in the Civil War, including \"McClellan's Bayonet Drill\" (1862) and \"Casey's Infantry Tactics\" (1862).\n",
"Technician Fourth Grade (abbreviated as T/4 or TEC4) was one of three United States Army technician ranks established on January 8, 1942, during World War II. Those who held this rank were often addressed as Sergeant. Technicians possessed specialized skills that were rewarded with a higher pay grade. These skills could be directly related to combat, such as those skills possessed by a tank driver or combat engineer, or skills possessed by those in support functions such as cooks or mechanics. Depending on his or her function, he or she might be called upon by an officer to command a group of men for a specific task. They were non-commissioned officers, as were sergeants. Initially, they shared the same insignia but on September 4, 1942, the three technician ranks were distinguished by a block \"T\" imprinted below the standard chevrons. Unofficial insignia using a technical specialty symbol instead of the T was used in some units. Look for Wasco Tokarchick as reference. \n",
"United States military drill originated in 1778, as part of a training program implemented by Baron Friedrich von Steuben to improve the discipline and organisation of soldiers serving in the Continental Army. The following year Baron von Steuben, by then a Major General and the Inspector General of the Continental Army, wrote the Army's first field manual, \"\"The Regulations for the Order and Discipline of the Troops of the United States\"\", which has come to be more commonly known as the \"Blue Book\". The methods of drill that von Steuben initiated remained largely unchanged between their inception and the time of the American Civil War. One major change to come about since that time is that troops now march at a cadence of 120 steps per minute, instead of the original 76 steps per minute at the time of the American Revolution.\n"
] |
exactly how are underwater bodies of water formed (e.g.: underwater waterfall, river, lake, etc.) and why do they occur?
|
The short answer is: Different densities of water and temperature. Salt water meeting fresh water is a great example of this. Check this out ---- > _URL_0_
|
[
"The water in a river is usually in a channel, made up of a stream bed between banks. In larger rivers there is also a wider floodplain shaped by waters over-topping the channel. Flood plains may be very wide in relation to the size of the river channel. Rivers are a part of the hydrological cycle. Water within a river is generally collected from precipitation through surface runoff, groundwater recharge, springs, and the release of water stored in glaciers and snowpacks.\n",
"A river is a natural watercourse, usually freshwater, flowing toward an ocean, a lake, a sea or another river. A few rivers simply flow into the ground and dry up completely before reaching another body of water. \n",
"A lake is an area filled with water, localized in a basin, that is surrounded by land, apart from any river or other outlet that serves to feed or drain the lake. Lakes lie on land and are not part of the ocean, and therefore are distinct from lagoons, and are also larger and deeper than ponds, though there are no official or scientific definitions. Lakes can be contrasted with rivers or streams, which are usually flowing. Most lakes are fed and drained by rivers and streams.\n",
"A lake is an area filled with water, localized in a basin, that is surrounded by land, apart from any river or other outlet that serves to feed or drain the lake. Lakes lie on land and are not part of the ocean, and therefore are distinct from lagoons, and are also larger and deeper than ponds, though there are no official or scientific definitions. Lakes can be contrasted with rivers or streams, which are usually flowing. Most lakes are fed and drained by rivers and streams.\n",
"A lake (from Latin \"lacus\") is a terrain feature, a body of water that is localized to the bottom of basin. A body of water is considered a lake when it is inland, is not part of an ocean, and is larger and deeper than a pond.\n",
"Liquid water is found in bodies of water, such as an ocean, sea, lake, river, stream, canal, pond, or puddle. The majority of water on Earth is sea water. Water is also present in the atmosphere in solid, liquid, and vapor states. It also exists as groundwater in aquifers.\n",
"Lakes also receive waters, often from many different sources with varying qualities. Solids from stream inputs will typically settle near the mouth of the stream and depending on a variety of factors the incoming water may float over the surface of the lake, sink beneath the surface or rapidly mix with the lake water. All of these phenomena can skew the results of any environmental monitoring unless the process are well understood.\n"
] |
What kind of defense against invasion did Great Britain have during WW2?
|
I can't speak to static defenses, but the main deterrent to a cross-Channel invasion were the RAF and the Royal Navy. The Germans had little chance of a cross-channel invasion after they were unable to win the Battle of Britain. Making an amphibious landing without air superiority would have been difficult, particularly because it would mean that the potent British Navy would be able to take part in the defense. Even if the RAF and Navy could be somehow neutralized, the Germans had insufficient landing craft to make the attempt (river barges were considered for transports, but they would have been hideously vulnerable in the Channel). There were also army units waiting for any potential invasion.
But my favorite defense was the tiny [Romney Hythe & Dymchurch light railway coastal armored defense train](_URL_0_). The efficacy of a 15 inch gauge armored train is *highly* questionable. To me, though, it epitomizes the idea of 'British pluck.' The idea being that, hey, we have a tiny railway here. Get me a train and some cars, slap some armor on it, we'll grab some guns, and we'll punch Jerry in the mouth if he has the temerity to cross the Channel. Would a tiny train with a couple machine guns and antitank rifles really have done much? I don't know. But I know that it shows the determination of the British military to resist any such invasion.
Christian Wolmar says only a few words about this train in his book *Engines of War*, but the book is a treat if you're into military history and trains.
Perhaps another of our experts can chime in regarding ground defenses--static and mobile.
|
[
"British anti-invasion preparations of the Second World War entailed a large-scale division of military and civilian mobilisation in response to the threat of invasion by German armed forces in 1940 and 1941. The British army needed to recover from the defeat of the British Expeditionary Force in France, and 1.5 million men were enrolled as part-time soldiers in the Home Guard. The rapid construction of field fortifications transformed much of the United Kingdom, especially southern England, into a prepared battlefield. The German invasion plan, Operation Sea Lion, was never taken beyond the preliminary assembly of forces. Today, little remains of Britain's anti-invasion preparations; only reinforced concrete structures such as pillboxes and anti-tank cubes are commonly found.\n",
"During the First World War, Great Britain's Grand Fleet and Germany's Kaiserliche Marine faced each other in the North Sea, which became the main theatre of the war for surface action. Britain's larger fleet and North Sea Mine Barrage were able to establish an effective blockade for most of the war, which restricted the Central Powers' access to many crucial resources. Major battles included the Battle of Heligoland Bight, the Battle of the Dogger Bank, and the Battle of Jutland.\n",
"During World War II, aircraft also became an effective countermeasure to command of the sea, since ships could not defend themselves well against air attack. The Battle of Britain was largely an attempt by Germany to eliminate the Royal Air Force, so that it would not be able to defend the Royal Navy from air attack and even to allow a maritime invasion of Great Britain proper.\n",
"The question of whether the defences would have been effective in invasion is vexed. In mid-1940, the preparations relied heavily upon field fortifications. The First World War made it clear that assaulting prepared defences with infantry was deadly and difficult, but similar preparations in Belgium had been overrun by well-equipped German Panzer divisions in the early weeks of 1940 and with so many armaments left at Dunkirk, British forces were woefully ill-equipped to take on German armour. On the other hand, while British preparations for defence were \"ad hoc\", so were the German invasion plans: a fleet of 2,000 converted barges and other vessels had been hurriedly made available and their fitness was debatable; in any case, the Germans could not land troops with all their heavy equipment. Until the Germans captured a port, \"both\" armies would have been short of tanks and heavy guns.\n",
"With the Luftwaffe unable to defeat the RAF in the Battle of Britain, the invasion of Great Britain could no longer be thought of as an option. While the majority of the German army was mustered for the invasion of the Soviet Union, construction began on the Atlantic Wall – a series of defensive fortifications along the French coast of the English Channel.These were built in anticipation of an Allied invasion of France.\n",
"Britain invaded to forestall a German occupation, to provide a base for naval and air patrols, and to protect merchant shipping lanes from North America to Europe. In this the invasion and occupation was successful. However, the presence of British, Canadian, and US troops had a lasting impact on the country. Foreign troop numbers over the period of occupation were as follows:\n",
"After the fall of France in mid 1940 and Italian entry into the war on the Axis side, Britain and her commonwealth allies found themselves alone against most of Europe. British strategy was one of survival, defending the British isles directly in the Battle of Britain and indirectly by defeating Germany in the Battle of the Atlantic and the combined Axis powers in the North African Campaign. Through this period, and until the German invasion of the USSR in June 1941, there was no possibility of Britain winning the war alone, and so British Grand Strategy aimed to bring the USA into the war on the allied side. Prime Minister Churchill devoted much of his diplomatic efforts to this goal. In August 1941, at the Atlantic Conference he met US President Roosevelt in the first of many wartime meetings wherein allied war strategy was jointly decided.\n"
] |
in cryptography, how is it that i am able to encrypt something with a public key but then not able to decrypt it?
|
You should watch [THIS VIDEO](_URL_0_).
They liken it to colors - just because you have the ending color doesn't mean you know what the exact original colors were.
|
[
"Encryption in modern times is achieved by using algorithms that have a key to encrypt and decrypt information. These keys convert the messages and data into \"digital gibberish\" through encryption and then return them to the original form through decryption. In general, the longer the key is, the more difficult it is to crack the code. This holds true because deciphering an encrypted message by brute force would require the attacker to try every possible key. To put this in context, each binary unit of information, or bit, has a value of 0 or 1. An 8-bit key would then have 256 or 2^8 possible keys. A 56-bit key would have 2^56, or 72 quadrillion, possible keys to try and decipher the message. With modern technology, cyphers using keys with these lengths are becoming easier to decipher. DES, an early US Government approved cypher, has an effective key length of 56 bits, and test messages using that cypher have been broken by brute force key search. However, as technology advances, so does the quality of encryption. Since World War II, one of the most notable advances in the study of cryptography is the introduction of the asymmetric key cyphers (sometimes termed public-key cyphers). These are algorithms which use two mathematically related keys for encryption of the same message. Some of these algorithms permit publication of one of the keys, due to it being extremely difficult to determine one key simply from knowledge of the other.\n",
"In fact, it is possible to \"decrypt\" out of the ciphertext any message whatsoever with the same number of characters, simply by using a different key, and there is no information in the ciphertext that will allow Eve to choose among the various possible readings of the ciphertext.\n",
"The operation of a cipher usually depends on a piece of auxiliary information, called a key (or, in traditional NSA parlance, a \"cryptovariable\"). The encrypting procedure is varied depending on the key, which changes the detailed operation of the algorithm. A key must be selected before using a cipher to encrypt a message. Without knowledge of the key, it should be extremely difficult, if not impossible, to decrypt the resulting ciphertext into readable plaintext.\n",
"A public-key encryption scheme allows anyone who has the public key of a receiver to encrypt messages to the receiver using the public key in such a way that only the corresponding private key known only to the receiver can decrypt and recover the messages. The public key of a user, therefore, can be published for allowing everyone to use it for encrypting messages to the user while the private key of the user has to be kept secret for the decryption purpose. Both the public key and the corresponding private key of the user are generated by the user in general .\n",
"To encrypt, first choose the plaintext character from the top row of the tableau; call this column P. Secondly, travel down column P to the corresponding key letter K. Finally, move directly left from the key letter to the left edge of the tableau, the ciphertext encryption of plaintext P with key K will be there.\n",
"Mandatory decryption is technically a weaker requirement than key disclosure, since it is possible in some cryptosystems to prove that a message has been decrypted correctly without revealing the key. For example, using RSA public-key encryption, one can verify given the message (plaintext), the encrypted message (ciphertext), and the public key of the recipient that the message is correct by merely re-encrypting it and comparing the result to the encrypted message. Such a scheme is called \"undeniable\", since once the government has validated the message they cannot deny that it is the correct decrypted message.\n",
"Normally, ciphertexts decrypt to a single plaintext that is intended to be kept secret. However, one form of deniable encryption allows its users to decrypt the ciphertext to produce a different (innocuous but plausible) plaintext and plausibly claim that it is what they encrypted. The holder of the ciphertext will not be able to differentiate between the true plaintext, and the bogus-claim plaintext. In general, decrypting one ciphertext to multiple plaintexts is not possible unless the key is as large as the plaintext, so this is not practical for most purposes. However, some schemes allow decryption to decoy plaintexts that are close to the original in some metric (such as edit distance).\n"
] |
How do they know that HPV in men can cause certain types of cancer and genital warts if it is impossible to test men for HPV?
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Just because there aren't widely used clinical tests for HPV in men does not mean that we don't have ways of detecting HPV in males. [PCR](_URL_0_), which amplifies DNA, can be used to detect HPV in a variety of locations such as [on the penis](_URL_1_), [in the rectum, and in the mouth](_URL_2_). PCR can also be performed directly on tumors such as is shown in [this paper about penile cancer](_URL_3_). Alternatively, there are histological (under the microscope) methods of identifying cells with HPV infection.
|
[
"HPV is the sexually transmitted virus that is known to be the cause of genital warts. There are currently more than 100 different strains of HPV, half of which can cause genital infections. It is worth noting here that although it is not usually the HPV strains that cause genital warts that are associated with the oropharyngeal cancers, they are transmitted the same way through oral-genital sexual contact, and consumers should protect themselves accordingly and adhere to a routine health and dental screening schedule to monitor and maintain their health status. \n",
"DNA tests are available for diagnosis of high-risk HPV infections. Because genital warts are caused by low-risk HPV types, DNA tests cannot be used for diagnosis of genital warts or other low-risk HPV infections.\n",
"HPV types 6 and 11 are the typical cause of genital warts. It is spread through direct skin-to-skin contact, usually during oral, genital, or anal sex with an infected partner. Diagnosis is generally based on symptoms and can be confirmed by biopsy. The types of HPV that cause cancer are not the same as those that cause warts. \n",
"Human HPV has long been implicated in the pathogenesis of several anogenital cancers including those of the anus, vulva, vagina, cervix, and penis. In 2007 it was also implicated by both molecular and epidemiological evidence in cancers arising outside of the anogenital tract, namely oral cancers. HPV infection is common among healthy individuals, and is acquired largely through sexual contact. Although less data is available, prevalence of HPV infection is at least as common among men as among women, with 2004 estimates of about 27% among US women aged 14–59.\n",
"HPV is a common sexually transmitted virus and the cause of nearly all cervical cancers. However over the past decade head and neck cancer specialists have seen an increase in HPV-related cancers in men. In the UK, between 2002 and 2011, incidence of oropharyngeal (mouth) cancers increased by 101%, with three quarters of cases occurring in men, and more than half being caused by HPV.\n",
"Most people that are infected do not develop symptoms or health problems. In 90% of cases, the body's immune system clears HPV within two years. Sometimes, certain types of HPV can cause genital warts in males and females. Although rare, it may also cause warts to grow in the throat. Other HPV types can cause normal cells in the body to turn abnormal, and might lead to cancer over time such as cervical cancer. The types of HPV that cause warts are not the same types that cause cancer.\n",
"Sexually transmitted HPV is divided into 2 categories: low-risk and high-risk. Low-risk HPVs cause warts on or around the genitals. Type 6 and 11 cause 90% of all genital warts and recurrent respiratory papillomatosis that causes benign tumors in the air passages. High-risk HPVs cause cancer and consist of about a dozen identified types. Type 16 and 18 are two that are responsible for causing most of HPV-caused cancers. These high-risk HPVs cause 5% of the cancers in the world. In the United States, high-risk HPVs cause 3% of all cancer cases in women and 2% in men.\n"
] |
If even light cannot escape the event horizon of a black hole because of the mass of the singularity, how did the universe expand from an infinitely dense singularity in the first place?
|
This question has [already been asked](_URL_0_)
tl;dr — it's not the density that results in black holes, but curvature, and uniformly distributed matter doesn't generate the necessary curvature.
|
[
"With classical-model black holes, objects passing through the event horizon on their way to the singularity are thought to enter a realm of curved spacetime where the escape velocity exceeds the speed of light. It is a realm that is devoid of all structure. Further, at the singularity—the heart of a classic black hole—spacetime is thought to have infinite curvature (that is, gravity is thought to have infinite intensity) since its mass is believed to have collapsed to zero (infinitely small) volume where it has infinite density. Such infinite conditions are problematic with known physics because key calculations are not able to be computed with a divisor of zero. With the fuzzball model, however, the strings comprising an object are believed to simply fall onto and absorb into the surface of the fuzzball, which corresponds to the event horizon—the threshold at which the escape velocity equals the speed of light.\n",
"Once a body collapses to within its Schwarzschild radius it forms what is called a black hole, meaning a space-time region from which not even light can escape. It follows from a theorem of Roger Penrose that the subsequent formation of some kind of singularity is inevitable. Nevertheless, according to Penrose's cosmic censorship hypothesis, the singularity will be confined within the event horizon bounding the black hole, so the space-time region outside will still have a well behaved geometry, with strong but finite curvature, that is expected to evolve towards a rather simple form describable by the historic Schwarzschild metric in the spherical limit and by the more recently discovered Kerr metric if angular momentum is present.\n",
"In the classical theory of general relativity, a gravitational singularity occupying no more than a point will form. There may be a new halt of the catastrophic gravitational collapse at a size comparable to the Planck length, but at these lengths there is no known theory of gravity to predict what will happen. Adding any extra mass to the black hole will cause the radius of the event horizon to increase linearly with the mass of the central singularity. This will induce certain changes in the properties of the black hole, such as reducing the tidal stress near the event horizon, and reducing the gravitational field strength at the horizon. However, there will not be any further qualitative changes in the structure associated with any mass increase.\n",
"It might be thought that a sufficiently massive neutron star could exist within its Schwarzschild radius (1.0 SR) and appear like a black hole without having all the mass compressed to a singularity at the center; however, this is probably incorrect. Within the event horizon, matter would have to move outward faster than the speed of light in order to remain stable and avoid collapsing to the center. No physical force therefore can prevent a star smaller than 1.0 SR from collapsing to a singularity (at least within the currently accepted framework of general relativity; this does not hold for the Einstein–Yang–Mills–Dirac system). A model for nonspherical collapse in general relativity with emission of matter and gravitational waves has been presented.\n",
"In the frame of reference that is co-moving with the collapsing matter, general relativity models without quantum mechanics have all the matter ending up in an infinitely dense singularity at the center of the event horizon. (If one uses the UFT Einstein–Maxwell–Dirac system or its generalizations, then the singularity is avoided and one ends up with a quark star, possibly surrounded by an event horizon.) It is a general result of quantum mechanics that no fermion can be confined in a space smaller than its own wavelength, making such a singularity impossible, unless only bosons are present, but there is no widely accepted theory that combines general relativity and quantum mechanics sufficiently to tell us what the structure inside a black hole might be. If bosons can be conclusively ruled out, one possible theory is that constituent particles decompose into strings, forming a structure called a fuzzball.\n",
"General relativity predicts that any object collapsing beyond a certain point (for stars this is the Schwarzschild radius) would form a black hole, inside which a singularity (covered by an event horizon) would be formed. The Penrose–Hawking singularity theorems define a singularity to have geodesics that cannot be extended in a smooth manner. The termination of such a geodesic is considered to be the singularity.\n",
"In the collapsing star example, since all matter and energy is a source of gravitational attraction in general relativity, the additional angular momentum only pulls the star together more strongly as it contracts: the part outside the event horizon eventually settles down to a Kerr black hole (see No-hair theorem). The part inside the event horizon necessarily has a singularity somewhere. The proof is somewhat constructiveit shows that the singularity can be found by following light-rays from a surface just inside the horizon. But the proof does not say what type of singularity occurs, spacelike, timelike, orbifold, jump discontinuity in the metric. It only guarantees that if one follows the time-like geodesics into the future, it is impossible for the boundary of the region they form to be generated by the null geodesics from the surface. This means that the boundary must either come from nowhere or the whole future ends at some finite extension.\n"
] |
Is it theoretically possible to freeze or preserve a human embryo and then have the child in the future?
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IVF (In Vitro Fertilization) often uses this exact mechanism. (Any professional biologists feel free to chime in and correct me if I slip up somewhere.)
Short and sweet background on IVF:
Potential mothers are given hormones (primarily FSH) for ~3 weeks before the procedure. Around 24 hours before the extraction of the eggs (mature follicles), doses of HCG are administered. During the procedure, a tool (needle) is inserted through the vaginal wall and the ovaries are scanned for mature follicles (which are extracted). These are then mixed with sperm and incubated. Those that are fertilized are kept, and those that are not are discarded.
Of these fertilized eggs, usually two or three will be chosen for implantation into the uterus, often after being screened for diseases. Those that are not implanted are contained in liquid nitrogen almost indefinitely; there are cases of twins being [born years apart.](_URL_1_)
In other words, yes. Hopefully I answered your question.
Here's another resource just for further reading. It's funny you asked this question, because I just finished a unit on human reproduction with a side lesson on IVF. [_URL_0_](_URL_0_)
|
[
"or donating them for use in embryonic stem cell research. Although embryos can, theoretically, survive indefinitely in frozen storage, as a practical reality someone must eventually decide on a permanent disposition for them.\n",
"The Rand Consulting Group has estimated there to be 400,000 frozen embryos in the United States in 2006. The advantage is that patients who fail to conceive may become pregnant using such embryos without having to go through a full IVF cycle. Or, if pregnancy occurred, they could return later for another pregnancy. Spare oocytes or embryos resulting from fertility treatments may be used for oocyte donation or embryo donation to another woman or couple, and embryos may be created, frozen and stored specifically for transfer and donation by using donor eggs and sperm. Also, oocyte cryopreservation can be used for women who are likely to lose their ovarian reserve due to undergoing chemotherapy.\n",
"On April 29, 2015, \"The New York Times\" published an op-ed written by Loeb in which he argued that he should be allowed to unilaterally use the frozen embryos he created via in-vitro fertilization with Vergara, despite having previously signed an agreement stipulating that nothing could be done to the embryos without the consent of both of them stating \"Give them the right to live.\" Vergara's attorney has stated that Vergara wants the embryos to remain frozen. Loeb argues that the agreement – which did not expressly state what would happen to the embryos if the couple separated, a requirement under California law – should be voided. In 2016, Loeb dropped his case, though it was refiled the day after in Louisiana with the embryos as plaintiffs. In August 2017, a Louisiana Judge dismissed the case with the argument that the court had no jurisdiction over the embryos, which were conceived in California.\n",
"Kahn has said that embryos which are kept frozen after in vitro fertilization procedures and will be destroyed anyway should be used for scientific advances, because whether or not the embryo has the potential to be human, at that point its only fate is to be used for research or destruction and its only chance to contribute to a \"human project\" is to help with scientific research. This view (Kahn refers to himself as a humanist) has been viewed by some religious theorists as disrespectful of the embryos.\n",
"BULLET::::6. An excess number of embryos can be preserved by cryopreservation. The frozen embryos are the property of the couple alone and may be transferred to the same wife in a successive cycle, but only during the duration of the marriage contract. Embryo donation is prohibited.\n",
"Embryos can be either “fresh” from fertilized egg cells of the same menstrual cycle, or “frozen”, that is they have been generated in a preceding cycle and undergone embryo cryopreservation, and are thawed just prior to the transfer, which is then termed \"frozen embryo transfer\" (FET). The outcome from using cryopreserved embryos has uniformly been positive with no increase in birth defects or development abnormalities, also between fresh versus frozen eggs used for intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI). In fact, pregnancy rates are increased following FET, and perinatal outcomes are less affected, compared to embryo transfer in the same cycle as ovarian hyperstimulation was performed. The endometrium is believed to not be optimally prepared for implantation following ovarian hyperstimulation, and therefore frozen embryo transfer avails for a separate cycle to focus on optimizing the chances of successful implantation. Children born from vitrified blastocysts have significantly higher birthweight than those born from non-frozen blastocysts. When transferring a frozen-thawed oocyte, the chance of pregnancy is essentially the same whether it is transferred in a natural cycle or one with ovulation induction.\n",
"Several independent studies have provided evidence that frozen embryos stored using slow-freezing techniques may in some ways be 'better' than fresh in IVF. The studies indicate that using frozen embryos and eggs rather than fresh embryos and eggs reduced the risk of stillbirth and premature delivery though the exact reasons are still being explored.\n"
] |
why do starved people (holocaust victims, famine victims and other unlucky people) die if they eat too much food after being rescued or find food?
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After a long period of starvation, the body has learned to not secrete digestive juices. Stomach muscles shrink as they have no work. All the glands are on holiday and don't know when duty again calls. (Without food in the stomach the stomach acid will severely damage the thick stomach lining). Pancreas and liver also go on conservation mode. Then the necessary nutrients are drawn from within the body, mainly from fatty tissues.
The digestive system takes some time to relearn its role and judge the quantity of stomach acid to be secreted, when starvation conditions disappear. The stomach muscles have lost their tone and need to relearn. Think, how you would feed a baby and do somewhat similarly. Start off on water only. After a few hours some quantity of fresh fruit juices. Administration of solid foods in small quantity starts the next day. About 3-4 days should be sufficient to revert to old routine. A medic should preferably be consulted while breaking extended starvation.
|
[
"When food is not sufficient, the elderly are the least likely to survive. In the extreme case of famine, the Inuit fully understood that, if there was to be any hope of obtaining more food, a hunter was necessarily the one to feed on whatever food was left. However, a common response to desperate conditions and the threat of starvation was infanticide. A mother abandoned an infant in hopes that someone less desperate might find and adopt the child before the cold or animals killed it. The belief that the Inuit regularly resorted to infanticide may be due in part to studies done by Asen Balikci, Milton Freeman and David Riches among the Netsilik, along with the trial of Kikkik. Other recent research has noted that \"While there is little disagreement that there were examples of infanticide in Inuit communities, it is presently not known the depth and breadth of these incidents. The research is neither complete nor conclusive to allow for a determination of whether infanticide was a rare or a widely practiced event.\" There is no agreement about the actual estimates of the frequency of newborn female infanticide in the Inuit population. Carmel Schrire mentions diverse studies ranging from 15–50% to 80%.\n",
"Food deprivation leads to malnutrition and ultimately starvation. This is often connected with famine, which involves the absence of food in entire communities. This can have a devastating and widespread effect on human health and mortality. Rationing is sometimes used to distribute food in times of shortage, most notably during times of war.\n",
"Starvation is a significant international problem. Approximately 815 million people are undernourished, and over 16,000 children die per day from hunger-related causes. Food deprivation is regarded as a deficit need in Maslow's hierarchy of needs and is measured using famine scales.\n",
"Victims of starvation are often too weak to sense thirst, and therefore become dehydrated. All movements become painful due to muscle atrophy and dry, cracked skin that is caused by severe dehydration. With a weakened body, diseases are commonplace. Fungi, for example, often grow under the esophagus, making swallowing painful. Vitamin deficiency is also a common result of starvation, often leading to anemia, beriberi, pellagra, and scurvy. These diseases collectively can also cause diarrhea, skin rashes, edema, and heart failure. Individuals are often irritable and lethargic as a result.\n",
"Occasionally, starving people have resorted to cannibalism for survival necessity. Classical antiquity recorded numerous references to cannibalism during siege starvations. More recent well-documented examples include the \"Essex\" sinking in 1820, the Donner Party in 1846 and 1847, and the Uruguayan Air Force Flight 571. Some murderers, such as Albert Fish, Boone Helm, Andrei Chikatilo, and Jeffrey Dahmer, are known to have devoured their victims after killing them. Other individuals, such as artist Rick Gibson and journalist William Seabrook, have legally consumed human flesh out of curiosity, or to attract attention to themselves.\n",
"Foods associated with famine need not be nutritionally deficient, or unsavoury. People who eat famine food in large quantity over a long period of time may become averse to it over time. In times of relative affluence, these foods may become the targets of social stigma and rejection.\n",
"A famine food or poverty food is any inexpensive or readily available food used to nourish people in times of hunger and starvation, whether caused by extreme poverty such as during economic depression; by natural disasters, such as drought; or by war or genocide. \n"
] |
Book Recommendation on Class Analysis of Nazi Germany
|
Part of the problem with your google search might be that "class" is often a highly nebulous term and despite its importance to social historians, it is often highly difficult to nail down.
Most of the works using a socioeconomic lens to examine the Third Reich deal primarily with the issue of the Nazi seizure of power and trying to examine what electoral group bears responsibility for voting for the Nazis. older historiography emphasized that Nazism was a largely middle-class movement, but recent scholarship has qualified this assessment. Both Conan Fischer's *The Rise of the Nazis* and *The Nazi Voter: The Social Foundations of Fascism in Germany, 1919-1933* by Thomas Childers assert that while the lower middle-class was one of the stablest of the Nazi's constituency, they managed to branch out into other groups. Claus-Christian W. Szejnmann's *Nazism in Central Germany: The Brownshirts in 'red' Saxony* largely examines the small but significant inroads the NSDAP made among Saxony's proletariat, which many prior scholars had assumed were immune to the appeal of the NSDAP. *Neighbors and Enemies: The Culture of Radicalism in Berlin, 1929-1933* by Pamela E. Swett is an excellent readable urban study of how violence ensconced itself into Berlin's working class culture and neighborhoods.
For the period 1933-39, a good survey is Richard Evans's *The Third Reich in Power*, which covers more than just class but is a good grounding for understanding this period. lthough it's both old and a biography, Ronald Smelser's *Robert Ley: Hitler's Labor Front Leader* is a good window into both the promise and the shortcomings of the German Labor Front, which the Third Reich intended to be the worker's voice in the new order it was creating. Historians are also increasingly turning less to class as a category or statement of identity and instead examining how class was experienced by people, particularly with their consumption of material goods. Two of the books that typifies this new approach to class is *Strength through Joy: Consumerism and Mass Tourism in the Third Reich* by Shelley Baranowski and *Nazi 'Chic'?: Fashioning Women in the Third Reich* by Irene Gunther. Both historians examine how the Third Reich tried to have its cake and eat it too; it pursued a consumer strategy that promised the good life for all Germans, but then had to both make the dream possible and define it in such a way that it would distinguish itself from both American-style mass consumption and older middle-class patterns of consumerism.
Obviously, this is just scratching the surface of a vast historiography upon the Third Reich and I don't doubt that others on here can weigh in with suggestions.
|
[
"In 1932, Geiger wrote an analysis of the classes in Germany. The analysis was based on an empirical study of social stratification. In his analysis of the data, he classified the population into five groups, more complex than capitalists and proletariat as used by Marx, to determine the objective economic criteria of class. Here, he made the distinction between objective and subjective forms of social class analysis including objective social status and subjective class consciousness, respectively. He distinguishes the \"old\" middle class of farmers, artisans, and merchants from the \"new\" middle class of well trained professionals. Geiger saw the new salary-earning middle class as a sort of evolution of the proletarian class. He also believed that the middle class was more susceptible to new extremist ideologies like Nazism because it has a defensive and vulnerable position due to its lack of secure class identity. He elaborated on these ideas about the middle class in Klassesamfundeti Stobegryden (Class Society in the Melting Pot), after World War II. In London, Geiger and David Glass formed a subcommittee on social stratification and mobility and together they started a comparative study of international mobility and stratification.\n",
"Klaus Fischer says Nazi literature emphasized \"Historic Ethnicity—that is, how a group of people defines itself in a process of historical growth. Writers tried to highlight prominent episodes in the history of the German people; they stressed the German mission for Europe, analyzed the immutable racial essence of Nordic man, and warned against subversive or un-German forces—the Jews, Communists, or Western liberals.\" Prominent writers included: Erwin Guido Kolbenheyer (\"Die Bauhutte: Elemente einer Metaphysik der Gerenwart\"; The building hut: Elements of a contemporary metaphysics, 1925), Alfred Rosenberg (\"Der Mythus des 20.Jahrhunderts\"; The myth of the twentieth century, 1930), Josef Weinheber, Hans Grimm (\"Volk ohne Raum\"; People without living space, 1926), and Joseph Goebbels (\"Michael\", 1929).\n",
"BULLET::::- \"Akademiker\" ('academic') – a member of those professions whose exercise required university study as a prerequisite. The term was avoided because it fostered caste mentality and contradicted the ideal of the Volk community. The proportion of academics from a working-class background increased during the Nazi era, but remained minuscule in actual numbers.\n",
"This article discusses universities in Nazi Germany. In May 1933 books from university libraries which were deemed culturally destructive, mainly due to anti-National Socialist or Jewish themes or authors, were burned by the Deutsche Studentenschaft (German Students' Association) in town squares, e.g. in Berlin, and the curricula were subsequently modified. Martin Heidegger became the rector (and later head) of Freiburg University, where he delivered a number of National Socialist speeches and for example promulgated the \"Führerprinzip\" at the University on August 21, 1933.\n",
"Other books such as \"Rassenkunde des deutschen Volkes\" (Ethnology of German People) by Hans F. K. Günther and \"Rasse und Seele\" (Race and Soul) by Dr. attempt to identify and classify the differences between the German, Nordic, or Aryan type and other supposedly inferior peoples. These books were used as texts in German schools during the Nazi era.\n",
"Negative evaluations by academic reviewers are critical of the book citing Weikart's selective use of primary sources and ignoring a range of developments that shaped Nazi ideology. In 2004, Sander Gliboff, professor of History and Philosophy of Science at Indiana University, criticized the work writing that \"It is dismaying to see such opinions being passed off as results of scholarly research.\" In 2005, Andrew Zimmerman, a professor of German history, reviewed it in the \"American Historical Review\", writing \"Weikart presents an image of Darwinism at once both too narrow and too broad.\" Zimmerman wrote: Weikart replied to Zimmerman's criticism with a letter to the editor to which Zimmerman offered a rebuttal saying Weikart's work \"is anachronistic, projecting present‐day theocratic agendas onto the history of science in Imperial Germany.\"\n",
"The New German Critique is a contemporary academic journal in German studies. It is associated with the Department of German Studies at Cornell University. It \"covers twentieth century political and social theory, philosophy, literature, film, media and art, reading cultural texts in the light of current theoretical debates.\" The executive editors are David Bathrick (Ithaca), Andreas Huyssen (New York), and Anson Rabinbach (Princeton).\n"
] |
why do people hate sarah palin?
|
Because she is incredibly dense. A mixture of her over-friendly non-Canadian Canadian joyfulness pings a bad ring with many people especially with a mix of how she talks about thinks like she knows about things but is sadly mistaken when put to the test.
Also the very idea this woman could have been an American Vice President is a sad reminder of how Democracy can sometimes screw us over.
Also, everyone secretly wants to have sex with her.
|
[
"The Miranda character receives negative comments to her videos from viewers who are fooled by the character and believe that they are watching a serious video by a bad entertainer. Ballinger told \"Backstage\": \"It's sort of like an Andy Kaufman thing. You wouldn't believe the hate mail. ... You would never say that stuff to someone's face, but you can type anything online.\" \"TheaterJones\" commented that \"perhaps because the Internet is some crazy postmodern distortion of reality, people ... felt it was their duty to point out how woefully untalented [Miranda] was, in the most horrific ways. ... Her hate mail, which she reads some of on stage, is an art form all its own.\" Ballinger noted: \"The whole reason Miranda went viral is because people were making fun of how stupid it was. If I didn't get hate mail, I wouldn't have a job.\" The online critics were so harsh that Miranda became a \"hero of the anti-bullying movement\". Her young fans find the character empowering because they see, perhaps selectively, \"a conservatively attired girl who does what she likes, gets lots of attention and has bottomless self-esteem.\" Miranda also teaches that \"Popular girls don’t have to be stylish. ... Fear no one. ... It's [acceptable for girls] to be cranky.\" An article at \"The Conversation\" observed that some YouTubers \"use humour and satire to challenge ideas of popular femininity. ... Miranda Sings... puts on monstrous makeup to perform parody music videos [rejecting] being conventionally pretty.\" Fans of the character who are studying the performing arts say that Miranda is \"a role model and a 'strong woman in comedy'\" that inspires confidence in their performance and social skills.\n",
"In the immediate aftermath of the 2011 Tucson shooting, where Giffords was among those who were shot, Palin was the subject of press and political criticism about her style of political rhetoric, which was disputed by defenders of Palin in the media. Palin removed the controversial graphic from her website, but later restored it. On \"Glenn Beck\", an e-mail said to be from Palin was read, saying \"I hate violence. I hate war. Our children will not have peace if politicos just capitalize on this to succeed in portraying anyone as inciting terror and violence.\" Following the 2011 Tucson shooting, a Palin aide stated that death threats against the former Alaska governor had risen to \"an unprecedented level.\" As more details of the shooting emerged, the \"Christian Science Monitor\" reported: \"The suggestion that the shooting of Rep. Gabrielle Giffords Saturday might have been influenced by political 'vitriol' seems less likely as more becomes known about suspect Jared Loughner.\" Palin released a video denying any link between her rhetoric and the shooting, controversially referring to such suggestions as a blood libel, also saying that, \"Acts of monstrous criminality stand on their own. They begin and end with the criminals who commit them.\"\n",
"Due to her outspokenness, Allen was the subject of many controversies early in her career. Disparaging remarks about musicians Luke Pritchard of The Kooks, Bob Geldof, Amy Winehouse, Kylie Minogue and Katy Perry have all garnered minor press attention. She later said that making fun of other pop stars was a result of a lack of confidence, saying \"I felt like 'Oh God, I'm short, fat, ugly and I hate all these people who flaunt their beauty.'\"\n",
"Palin's positions and policies became the focus of \"intense media attention\" and \"scrutiny\" following her selection. Expectations from her speech at the Republican National Convention was heavily covered by the media. Some Republicans argued that Palin was subjected to unreasonable media coverage, and a Rasmussen survey showed that slightly more than half of Americans believed that the press was \"trying to hurt\" Palin with negative coverage, a sentiment referenced by Palin in her acceptance speech. A poll taken just after the speech found that Palin was then slightly more popular than either Obama or McCain with a 58% favorabilty rating. Palin was also a draw with Catholic voters; the poll found that 54% favor Palin and 42% find her unfavorable, a 12% difference, while Joe Biden was viewed favorable by 49% to 47% unfavorable.\n",
"Palin's positions and policies became the focus of \"intense media attention\" and \"scrutiny\" following her selection. Expectations from her speech at the Republican National Convention was heavily covered by the media. Some Republicans argued that Palin was subjected to unreasonable media coverage, and a Rasmussen survey showed that slightly more than half of Americans believed that the press was \"trying to hurt\" Palin with negative coverage, a sentiment referenced by Palin in her acceptance speech. A poll taken just after the speech found that Palin was then slightly more popular than either Obama or McCain with a 58% favorabilty rating. Palin was also a draw with Catholic voters; the poll found that 54% favor Palin and 42% find her unfavorable, a 12% difference, while Joe Biden was viewed favorable by 49% to 47% unfavorable.\n",
"However, the next day he tweeted that he regretted focusing on criticising PewDiePie in the video saying that he had been \"naive\". In a Tumblr post he said his main regret was not commenting on the mainstream media's reporting of the controversy stating, \"there were some unethical practices at play with the media, a lot of misquoting and misrepresentation.\"\n",
"Dawkins was criticized by atheists and others for his remarks. David Allen Green in \"New Statesman\" wrote that \"One of the many problems here is that Rebecca didn't use her video to downplay the plight of Muslim women from the perspective of an American woman…Just because there is severe misogyny in one context doesn't remove the need to deal rationally and helpfully with its lesser manifestation in other contexts.\" PZ Myers responded by writing, \"This isn't slightly bad. It's very bad. Atheist men are alienating the people we want to work with us on the very same problems…that you cited in your comment.\"\n"
] |
Why doesn't air (Nitrogen, Oxygen, CO2) separate into different layers?
|
[Turbulence keeps gasses mixed in the lower parts of the atmosphere:](_URL_1_)
> The homosphere and heterosphere are defined by whether the atmospheric gases are well mixed. In the homosphere the chemical composition of the atmosphere does not depend on molecular weight because the gases are mixed by turbulence.[11] The homosphere includes the troposphere, stratosphere, and mesosphere. Above the [turbopause](_URL_0_) at about 100 km (62 mi; 330,000 ft) (essentially corresponding to the mesopause), the composition varies with altitude. This is because the distance that particles can move without colliding with one another is large compared with the size of motions that cause mixing. This allows the gases to stratify by molecular weight, with the heavier ones such as oxygen and nitrogen present only near the bottom of the heterosphere. The upper part of the heterosphere is composed almost completely of hydrogen, the lightest element.
|
[
"When air is liquefied the oxygen and nitrogen are condensed simultaneously. However, owing to its greater volatility the latter boils off the more quickly of the two, so that the remaining liquid becomes gradually richer and richer in oxygen.\n",
"An air separation process is used to separate nitrogen from air for downstream use in the ammonia making process. By-products in the form of gaseous and liquid oxygen as well as small quantities of liquid nitrogen are formed. Five basic unit operations make up the air separation process: air compression, air purification, heat exchange, liquefaction and distillation. Nitrogen is compressed to prior to export to the ammonia making plant.\n",
"This layer is mainly composed of extremely low densities of hydrogen, helium and several heavier molecules including nitrogen, oxygen and carbon dioxide closer to the exobase. The atoms and molecules are so far apart that they can travel hundreds of kilometers without colliding with one another. Thus, the exosphere no longer behaves like a gas, and the particles constantly escape into space. These free-moving particles follow ballistic trajectories and may migrate in and out of the magnetosphere or the solar wind.\n",
"In most industrial applications and in fires, air is the source of oxygen (). In the air, each mole of oxygen is mixed with approximately of nitrogen. Nitrogen does not take part in combustion, but at high temperatures some nitrogen will be converted to (mostly , with much smaller amounts of ). On the other hand, when there is insufficient oxygen to completely combust the fuel, some fuel carbon is converted to carbon monoxide and some of the hydrogen remains unreacted. A more complete set of equations for the combustion of a hydrocarbon in the air, therefore, requires an additional calculation for the distribution of oxygen between the carbon and hydrogen in the fuel.\n",
"The most common molecules within Earth's exosphere are those of the lightest atmospheric gases. Hydrogen is present throughout the exosphere, with some helium, carbon dioxide, and atomic oxygen near its base. Because it can be hard to define the boundary between the exosphere and outer space (see \"Upper boundary\" at the end of this section), the exosphere may be considered a part of interplanetary or outer space.\n",
"Mixtures of gases with different molecular masses can be partly separated by sending the mixture through small holes of a thin wall because the numbers of molecules that pass through a hole is proportional to the pressure of the gas and inversely proportional to its molecular mass. The technique has been used to separate isotopic mixtures, such as uranium, using porous membranes, It has also been successfully demonstrated for use in hydrogen production from water.\n",
"Due to the membrane material high permeability for oxygen in contrast to nitrogen, the design of membrane oxygen complexes requires a special approach. Basically, there are two membrane-based oxygen production technologies: compressor and vacuum ones.\n"
] |
how does the picking of world cup teams happen?
|
The countries do send in their best possible premier team, just every country is different. I am assuming you are referring to the comments related to Christiano Ronaldo's club team Real Madrid as opposed to his national team Portugal.
Real Madrid is one of the wealthiest teams in the world and simply buys the top talent available. Essentially that team is comprised of the best players of variety of nations to make a super team.
Portugal can only use Portuguese citizens (FIFA rules for national teams). While Ronaldo is an amazing player, there aren't any other players that are eligible to play on the national team that are as good as him.
|
[
"The first event of the FIFA World Cup starts with a kind of lottery but instead of selecting classified numbers, in this contest a country is selected; most had been made in January of the tournament year until 1982 and since the 1986 World Cup it is held in early December of the year before the start of the tournament. \n",
"Upon starting the game, the player goes into a \"Regional Qualifying Round Final\" against another team from the same region. After beating it, the player's team goes into the World (Cup) Tournament, in which they are grouped with three other countries in a round-robin. After winning against all of them, the team enters an elimination tournament: the quarterfinals, semifinals, and the final for the World Cup. This type of tournament thus is more reminiscent of the real-life World Cup. If a match ends in a draw, the player has the option of replaying a full game, going to the penalty kick tiebreaker, or playing a sudden death (golden goal) game (the golden goal feature was not present in the original Super Sidekicks); however, the arcade version requires an extra credit for these options.\n",
"The World Cup is a round robin format consisting of a number of teams from around the world. Each team plays each other once, then the two teams with the best records play in a one-game, winner-take-all championship. The number of teams has varied, with as few as 4 teams (in 2010) and as many as 14 teams (in 2016).\n",
"Qualifying rounds were first introduced for the 2000 world cup. Rounds take the form of groups of teams from specific continents/regions; Europe, Africa/middle-east, Asia/pacific and the Americas. Teams that automatically qualify are the quarter-finalists from the previous world cup. \n",
"The World Cup was run after seasons 1 and 5. The player would choose sixteen countries to take part, who would then go through various group and knock-out stages in order to determine the Cup Winners.\n",
"The 2019 World Cup will take place across three stages: preliminary rounds, group stages, and playoffs. A country's national ranking will be determined by a point-ranking system based on final placements in the previous World Cups. Any country wishing to participate is eligible to play in the preliminary rounds, a single-elimination, seeded bracket. The top five countries based on their national ranking will not have to play in the preliminary rounds and will have any automatic bye to the group stages. The seeding will be based on the national rankings, and the top five countries from the Preliminary Rounds will move on to the group stages.\n",
"The 2019 World Cup will take place across three stages: preliminary rounds, group stages, and playoffs. A country's national ranking will be determined by a point-ranking system based on final placements in the previous World Cups. Any country wishing to participate is eligible to play in the preliminary rounds, a single-elimination, seeded bracket. The top five countries based on their national ranking will not have to play in the preliminary rounds and will have any automatic bye to the group stages. The seeding will be based on the national rankings, and the top five countries from the Preliminary Rounds will move on to the group stages.\n"
] |
how does the stomach work in space? do astronauts feel constant need to throw up since the contents are bouncing around inside?
|
A stomach is also more a wet bag than a box or bottle. There's no big open space to fill. The contents can slosh around when you fill it up.
You have a sphincter (round muscle like your butthole) that holds things in at each end. There's a lower esophagal sphincter at the top of the stomach that keeps the digesting food down, and a pyloric sphincter at the bottom that lets it into the intestines when it's digested enough to move on.
When that esophagal sphincter gets weak, the result is reflux. It would be very unpleasant to be in space and have that aggravated.
|
[
"Breakfast began at 7 am. Astronauts usually stood to eat, as sitting in microgravity also strained their stomach muscles. They reported that their food—although greatly improved from Apollo—was bland and repetitive, and weightlessness caused utensils, food containers, and bits of food to float away; also, gas in their drinking water contributed to flatulence. After breakfast and preparation for lunch, experiments, tests and repairs of spacecraft systems and, if possible, 90 minutes of physical exercise followed; the station had a bicycle and other equipment, and astronauts could jog around the water tank. After dinner, which was scheduled for 6 pm, crews performed household chores and prepared for the next day's experiments. Following lengthy daily instructions (some of which were up to 15 meters long) sent via teleprinter, the crews were often busy enough to postpone sleep.\n",
"According to Charles Bourland, a consultant for the NASA Food Technology Commercial Space Center, if one burps in outer space, it is usually wet because the liquid and gas do not separate in the stomach like they do on Earth.\n",
"The astronauts did not experience much of an appetite during the mission and averaged about 1000 calories a day, well below the intended 2700 calorie per day food intake. They reported dandruff to be a persistent problem to the point where their loose skin flakes would settle on the Gemini's instrument panel and partially obscure some instrument readouts. This condition was believed to be due to very low ambient humidity in the cabin causing the astronauts' skin to become dry and flaky. Postflight medical examinations showed some loss of red blood cells and plasma. Conrad's circulatory system returned to normal values within two days after the mission while Cooper took over four days.\n",
"One effect of weightlessness on humans is that some astronauts report a change in their sense of taste when in space. Some astronauts find that their food is bland, others find that their favorite foods no longer taste as good (one who enjoyed coffee disliked the taste so much on a mission that he stopped drinking it after returning to Earth); some astronauts enjoy eating certain foods that they would not normally eat, and some experience no change whatsoever. Multiple tests have not identified the cause, and several theories have been suggested, including food degradation, and psychological changes such as boredom. Astronauts often choose strong-tasting food to combat the loss of taste.\n",
"Astronauts in later Mercury missions (1959–1963) disliked the food that was provided. They ate bite-sized cubes, freeze-dried powders, and tubes of semiliquids. The astronauts found it unappetizing, experienced difficulties in rehydrating the freeze-dried foods, and did not like having to squeeze tubes or collect crumbs. Prior to the mission, the astronauts were also fed \"low residual\" launch-day breakfasts, to reduce the chances that they would defecate in flight.\n",
"BULLET::::- Six American pilots, none of them astronauts, completed a 34-day experiment by NASA to study the effects of a month-long confinement during a space mission. The volunteers, officers drawn from the U.S. Navy and the U.S. Marines, \"ate, worked, and slept in pressure suits\" while inside a cylindrical chamber that was pressurized an atmosphere of pure oxygen rather than normal air, ate dehydrated food. One important discovery made from the test, which took place within the Philadelphia Navy Yard, was that the floor was covered with dust from dead skin cells because the men had been unable to bathe, which would be dangerous in a weightless environment. By the time of the launch of the first space station missions, provisions would be made to allow bathing.\n",
"The stomach twists around the longitudinal axis of the digestive tract, also known as \"volvulus\". Gas distension may occur prior to or after the stomach twists. The most common direction for rotation is clockwise, viewing the animal from behind. The stomach can rotate up to 360° in this direction and 90° counterclockwise. If the volvulus is greater than 180°, the esophagus is closed off, thereby preventing the animal from relieving the condition by belching or vomiting. The results of this distortion of normal anatomy and gas distension include hypotension (low blood pressure), decreased return of blood to the heart, ischemia (loss of blood supply) of the stomach, and shock. Pressure on the portal vein decreases blood flow to liver and decreases the ability of that organ to remove toxins and absorbed bacteria from the blood. At the other end of the stomach, the spleen may be damaged if the twisting interrupts its blood supply. If not quickly treated, bloat can lead to blood poisoning, peritonitis and death by toxic shock.\n"
] |
why does my internet go so much faster when downloading from steam or a torrent?
|
Your download speeds depend both on your connection to the server and the server's capacity. If you're connecting to a server on the other side of the world, you'll probably get a crappy download speed, even if both you and the server have a super fast connection to your ISP. Because of this, large networks like Steam have data centres all over the world that replicate the same content. This is called a Content Delivery Network or CDN. This means that you'll always connect to a Steam server that's close to you and that you'll have a good connection.
Regarding BitTorrent, you are always downloading from multiple other users simultaneously. So even if your connection is slow to one peer, you can make parallel connections to other peers. Together a lot of slower speeds can add up to quite a lot. Also you might get someone who is on the same network as you. The speed would be super fast in that case, since there is only minimal routing involved.
|
[
"speeding up the download time, especially for users with faster download than upload speeds. Thus, the more popular a file is, the faster a user will be able to download it, since many people will be downloading it at the same time, and these people will also be uploading the data to other users.\n",
"BULLET::::- Using multi thread download similar to Internet Download Manager, the browser is supposed to download at just the same speed as Internet Download Manager, however there are reports of cases where it failed to perform up to expectation, because the actual acceleration depends on the bandwidth of the Internet, and the speed at which the server sends files.\n",
"Taken together, these differences allow BitTorrent to achieve much lower cost to the content provider, much higher redundancy, and much greater resistance to abuse or to \"flash crowds\" than regular server software. However, this protection, theoretically, comes at a cost: downloads can take time to rise to full speed because it may take time for enough peer connections to be established, and it may take time for a node to receive sufficient data to become an effective uploader. This contrasts with regular downloads (such as from an HTTP server, for example) that, while more vulnerable to overload and abuse, rise to full speed very quickly, and maintain this speed throughout. In the beginning, BitTorrent's non-contiguous download methods made it harder to support \"streaming playback\". However, recently more and more clients are offering streaming options.\n",
"This works faster because the rate at which the file servers upload is finite and download rates are generally faster than upload rates. Therefore, downloading from a single server would create a bottleneck if the server's upload rate does not equal your maximum download rate. So distributing the download across multiple servers allows you to utilize all of your download rate potential.\n",
"Faster website download speeds have been shown to increase visitor retention and loyalty and user satisfaction, especially for users with slow internet connections and those on mobile devices. Web performance also leads to less data travelling across the web, which in turn lowers a website's power consumption and environmental impact. Some aspects which can affect the speed of page load include browser/server cache, image optimization, and encryption (for example SSL), which can affect the time it takes for pages to render. The performance of the web page can be improved through techniques such as multi-layered cache, light weight design of presentation layer components and asynchronous communication with server side components.\n",
"BULLET::::- In the case of One-click hosting websites downloading multiple files from one or several sources can significantly increase download speeds. This is because even if the source(s) provides slow download speeds on individual disks, downloading several disks simultaneously will allow the user to achieve much greater download rates.\n",
"In the past, files were distributed by point-to-point technology: with a central uploader distributing files to downloaders. With these systems, a large number of downloaders for a popular file uses an increasingly larger amount of bandwidth. If there are too many downloads, the server can become unavailable. The opposite is true for peer-to-peer networking; the \"more\" downloaders the \"faster\" the file distribution is. With swarming technology as implemented in file sharing systems like eDonkey2000 or BitTorrent, downloaders help the uploader by picking up some of its uploading responsibilities. There are many sites with links to One-click hosting websites and other sites where one can upload files that contribute to the growing amount of warez.\n"
] |
what does the cdc in america do?
|
As some examples:
CDC tracks the spread of diseases, looking for the source, transmission vector, and that sort of thing.
CDC also maintains the ‘strategic national stockpile’ of medicine, which is basically something from an action move. They can get tons of medical products to basically anywhere in the US in 12 hours (and I mean tons in the literal sense).
> These so-called push packages are warehoused in a dozen, classified, non-descript facilities under 24-hour, contractor armed guard protection. Geographically situated to allow rapid delivery anywhere in the Continental U.S., material will deploy by unmarked trucks and/or airplanes within 12 hours of the receipt of the request by CDC. The U.S. Marshal provides armed security from these federal sites to local destinations.
_URL_0_
How cool is that?
|
[
"The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) is the leading national public health institute of the United States. The CDC is a United States federal agency under the Department of Health and Human Services and is headquartered in Atlanta, Georgia.\n",
"The CDC works with other organizations around the world to address global health challenges and contain disease threats at their source. It works closely with many international organizations such as the World Health Organization (WHO) as well as ministries of health and other groups on the front lines of outbreaks. The agency maintains staff in more than 60 countries, including some from the U.S. but even more from the countries in which it operates. The agency's global divisions include the Division of Global HIV and TB (DGHT), the Division of Parasitic Diseases and Malaria (DPDM), the Division of Global Health Protection (DGHP), and the Global Immunization Division (GID).\n",
"Established in 1982, the San Francisco AIDS Foundation is one of the oldest and largest community-based AIDS service organizations in the United States. The mission of the agency is to end the pandemic and the human suffering caused by HIV.\n",
"The CDC runs a program that protects the public from rare and dangerous substances such as anthrax and the Ebola virus. The program, called the Federal Select Agent Program, calls for inspections of labs in the U.S. that work with dangerous pathogens.\n",
"The CDC's programs address more than 400 diseases, health threats, and conditions that are major causes of death, disease, and disability. The CDC's website has information on various infectious (and noninfectious) diseases, including smallpox, measles, and others.\n",
"Its main goal is to protect public health and safety through the control and prevention of disease, injury, and disability in the US and internationally. The CDC focuses national attention on developing and applying disease control and prevention. It especially focuses its attention on infectious disease, food borne pathogens, environmental health, occupational safety and health, health promotion, injury prevention and educational activities designed to improve the health of United States citizens. In addition, the CDC researches and provides information on non-infectious diseases such as obesity and diabetes and is a founding member of the International Association of National Public Health Institutes.\n",
"The San Francisco AIDS Foundation (SFAF) is a nonprofit organization dedicated to providing services for people with HIV/AIDS, with a mission to end the AIDS epidemic in the United States. They were founded in 1982, at the beginning of the AIDS epidemic. SFAF is one of the largest and oldest community-based AIDS service organizations in the United States. SFAF has an 87.67% overall rating, and a 97% accountability & transparency rating, at Charity Navigator.\n"
] |
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