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what's actually happening when my eyes get "stuck" for a few seconds, staring at nothing in particular?
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I dont know if you watch Doctor Who. But if you do, it's the silence.
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[
"To some extent, the meaning of a person’s staring behaviour depends upon the attributions made by the observer. Staring often occurs accidentally, when someone appears to be staring into space they may well be lost in thought, or stupefied, or simply unable to see.\n",
"The eyes are never completely at rest. They make fast random jittering movements even when we are fixated on one point. The reason for this random movement is related to the photoreceptors and the ganglion cells. It appears that a constant visual stimulus can make the photoreceptors or the ganglion cells become unresponsive; on the other hand a changing stimulus will not. Therefore, the random eye movement constantly changes the stimuli that fall on the photoreceptors and the ganglion cells, making the image more clear.\n",
"The psychic staring effect (sometimes called scopaesthesia) is a supposed phenomenon in which humans detect being stared at by extrasensory means. The idea was first explored by psychologist Edward B. Titchener in 1898 after students in his junior classes reported being able to \"feel\" when somebody was looking at them, even though they could not see this person. Titchener performed a series of laboratory experiments that found only negative results. The effect has been the subject of contemporary attention from parapsychologists and fringe researchers from the 1980s onwards, most notably Rupert Sheldrake.\n",
"As an example: When we want to explain an event, our understanding is often based on our interpretation (frame). If someone rapidly closes and opens an eye, we react differently based on if we interpret this as a \"physical frame\" (they blinked) or a \"social frame\" (they winked). Them blinking may be due to a speck of dust (resulting in an involuntary and not particularly meaningful reaction). Them winking may imply a voluntary and meaningful action (to convey humor to an accomplice, for example).\n",
"If one closes the right eye and moves close to the stimulus so that the nine-o'clock disc falls in the blind spot, one sees that the movement is no longer smooth. There is a noticeable pause when the disappearance of the disc occurs on the region of the retina having no rods or cones. This suggests there are limits to the filling-in that normally prevents us from noticing a black hole in our visual fields at the location of the blind spot.\n",
"When a person stares at an object, the two eyes converge so that the object appears at the center of the retina in both eyes. Other objects around the main object appear shifted in relation to the main object. In the following example, whereas the main object (dolphin) remains in the center of the two images in the two eyes, the cube is shifted to the right in the left eye's image and is shifted to the left when in the right eye's image.\n",
"Bell's phenomenon (also known as the palpebral oculogyric reflex) is a medical sign that allows observers to notice an upward and outward movement of the eye, when an attempt is made to close the eyes. The upward movement of the eye is present in the majority of the population, and is a defensive mechanism. The phenomenon is named after the Scottish anatomist, surgeon, and physiologist Charles Bell.\n"
] |
an article on _url_0_ states that 96% of space is undiscovered, but how can you give a percentage of something that you can't quantify the full size of?
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You are right, it is a ridiculous thing to say. It is also important to remember two things about people who write these (and any) articles.
1) Their job is to write articles and those articles are products to be consumed. The more readers, the more profitable the site is. This means investing a lot in a few deeply researched and well thought out articles, or cranking out loads of pop science level articles for mass consumption.
2) The authors are not experts on the subject matter. Most don't have advanced degrees or experience in the subject they cover. Spending 15 minutes interviewing an expert doesn't make you an expert.
Being someone who used to follow _URL_0_, I think they fall squarely in the pop sci arena. Many of their articles are non-discovery based and pointless. And it's not their fault, they cover a subject that progresses slowly over years. But as a business they have to "engage" readers multiple times a day. Hence the large amount of fluff.
This is something to consider when reading articles on any site, science, news, food, entertainment, technology, etc. All authors who have a consumer level understanding of the subject and are trying to rush through work to get home to see their families or friends, just like the rest of us.
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[
"The magnitude of such precision (152 decimal places) can be put into context by the fact that the circumference of the largest known object, the observable universe, can be calculated from its diameter (93billion light-years) to a precision of less than one Planck length (at , the shortest unit of length that has real meaning) using expressed to just 62 decimal places.\n",
"Because we cannot observe space beyond the edge of the observable universe, it is unknown whether the size of the Universe in its totality is finite or infinite. Estimates for the total size of the universe, if finite, reach as high as formula_1 megaparsecs, implied by one resolution of the No-Boundary Proposal.\n",
"formula_4 is the largest possible value for \"N\" if all living space in the 'universe' is consumed. The formula_4 limit has no specified upper bounds (to habitable planets in the Galaxy, say) but makes \"N\"’s posterior distribution more tractable:\n",
"Not only is the orbit of \" poorly known, but also the size is largely uncertain. There is no ground-based photometry. Based on the WISE flux, it obtained a size estimate of 2 km, which should be seen as more of an upper limit.\n",
"Several authors have recently identified and pondered the significance of yet another large number, approximately 120 orders of magnitude. This is for example the ratio of the theoretical and observational estimates of the energy density of the vacuum, which Nottale (1993) and Matthews (1997) associated in an LNH context with a scaling law for the cosmological constant. Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker identified 10 with the ratio of the universe's volume to the volume of a typical nucleon bounded by its Compton wavelength, and he identified this ratio with the sum of elementary events or bits of information in the universe.\n",
"While the space-based surveys find a diameter of 12.1 and 13.6 kilometers, respectively, CALL calculates only 7.1 kilometers, as the higher a body's albedo (reflectivity), the smaller its diameter for a certain absolute magnitude.\n",
"Ballard was the principal investigator in 2009's application to use the Spitzer Space Telescope to examine \"The First Exoplanet Smaller than the Earth\". She led the team which very precisely estimated the diameter of Kepler-93b to within 1 percent, using TTV.\n"
] |
how do we know the visible universe is 4% and not more or less?
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The visible universe and the observable universe are two different things. The thing that is 4% is the collective mass of things in the observable universe comprised of ordinary (visible) matter. The other 96% is dark matter and dark energy, which are invisible but whose presence can be roughly detected via gravitational effects. From these gravitational effects, we have determined roughly how much dark matter and dark energy there are in the observable universe, and there's a lot.
Specifically, dark matter impacts rotational velocities of galaxies, and dark matter impacts the rate of expansion of space. Measuring those allowed us to learn how much there is.
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[
"Many secondary sources have reported a wide variety of incorrect figures for the size of the visible universe. Some of these figures are listed below, with brief descriptions of possible reasons for misconceptions about them.\n",
"To show this, we divide the universe into a series of concentric shells, 1 light year thick. A certain number of stars will be in the shell 1,000,000,000 to 1,000,000,001 light years away. If the universe is homogeneous at a large scale, then there would be four times as many stars in a second shell, which is between 2,000,000,000 and 2,000,000,001 light years away. However, the second shell is twice as far away, so each star in it would appear one quarter as bright as the stars in the first shell. Thus the total light received from the second shell is the same as the total light received from the first shell.\n",
"The proper distance—the distance as would be measured at a specific time, including the present—between Earth and the edge of the observable universe is 46 billion light-years (14 billion parsecs), making the diameter of the observable universe about 93 billion light-years (28 billion parsecs). The distance the light from the edge of the observable universe has travelled is very close to the age of the Universe times the speed of light, , but this does not represent the distance at any given time because the edge of the observable universe and the Earth have since moved further apart. For comparison, the diameter of a typical galaxy is 30,000 light-years (9,198 parsecs), and the typical distance between two neighboring galaxies is 3 million light-years (919.8 kiloparsecs). As an example, the Milky Way is roughly 100,000–180,000 light-years in diameter, and the nearest sister galaxy to the Milky Way, the Andromeda Galaxy, is located roughly 2.5 million light-years away.\n",
"Other large numbers, as regards length and time, are found in astronomy and cosmology. For example, the current Big Bang model suggests that the universe is 13.8 billion years (4.355 × 10 seconds) old, and that the observable universe is 93 billion light years across (8.8 × 10 metres), and contains about 5 × 10 stars, organized into around 125 billion (1.25 × 10) galaxies, according to Hubble Space Telescope observations. There are about 10 atoms in the observable universe, by rough estimation.\n",
"In stellar and galactic astronomy, the standard distance is 10 parsecs (about 32.616 light-years, 308.57 petameters or 308.57 trillion kilometres). A star at 10 parsecs has a parallax of 0.1″ (100 milliarcseconds). Galaxies (and other extended objects) are much larger than 10 parsecs, their light is radiated over an extended patch of sky, and their overall brightness cannot be directly observed from relatively short distances, but the same convention is used. A galaxy's magnitude is defined by measuring all the light radiated over the entire object, treating that integrated brightness as the brightness of a single point-like or star-like source, and computing the magnitude of that point-like source as it would appear if observed at the standard 10 parsecs distance. Consequently, the absolute magnitude of any object \"equals\" the apparent magnitude it \"would have\" if it were 10 parsecs away.\n",
"The apparent magnitude of an astronomical object is generally given as an integrated value—if a galaxy is quoted as having a magnitude of 12.5, it means we see the same total amount of light from the galaxy as we would from a star with magnitude 12.5. However, a star is so small it is effectively a point source in most observations (the largest angular diameter, that of R Doradus, is 0.057 ± 0.005 arcsec), whereas a galaxy may extend over several arcseconds or arcminutes. Therefore, the galaxy will be harder to see than the star against the airglow background light. Apparent magnitude is a good indication of visibility if the object is point-like or small, whereas surface brightness is a better indicator if the object is large. What counts as small or large depends on the specific viewing conditions and follows from Ricco's law. In general, in order to adequately assess an object's visibility one needs to know both parameters.\n",
"Research released in 2016 revised the number of galaxies in the observable universe from a previous estimate of 200 billion () to a suggested 2 trillion () or more, containing more stars than all the grains of sand on planet Earth. Most of the galaxies are 1,000 to 100,000 parsecs in diameter (approximately 3000 to 300,000 light years) and separated by distances on the order of millions of parsecs (or megaparsecs). For comparison, the Milky Way has a diameter of at least 30,000 parsecs (100,000 ly) and is separated from the Andromeda Galaxy, its nearest large neighbor, by 780,000 parsecs (2.5 million ly.)\n"
] |
watching the olympics and the shirts for the olympic athlete from russia team literally say "olympic athlete from russia". why is this in english and not russian or korean?
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English is the world's most popular second language. At an international event, you want people from lots of countries to understand your message.
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[
"Despite the \"Olympic Athletes from Russia\" (OAR) designation, many Russian fans still attended the 2018 Games, wearing the Russian colours and chanting \"Russia!\" in unison, in an act of defiance against the ban.\n",
"Most athletes came from Moscow (97). Also many sportspeople represented the Moscow Oblast (38), St. Petersburg (33), Republic of Tatarstan (17) and Krasnodar Krai (16). Russian athletes competed at all sport types, except athletics, as the level of the Russian team would have been too high, according to Vitaly Mutko. The introduction of the team took place on 3 June 2015 at the sports center Ozero Krugloe. The uniform was made by the Russian company Bosco di Ciliegi.\n",
"The popular Russian newspaper \"Komsomolskaya Pravda\" reported that 86% of Russians opposed participating in the Olympics under a neutral flag, and many Russian fans attended the Games wearing the Russian colours and chanting \"Russia!\" in unison, in an act of defiance against the ban. After the games, Russian figure skater Evgenia Medvedeva revealed in an Instagram post that the Russian tricolor was hidden on the OAR medal ceremony uniforms underneath a white fur scarf buttoned on the front of the jacket.\n",
"Olympic Athlete from Russia (OAR) is the International Olympic Committee's (IOC) designation of select Russian athletes permitted to participate in the 2018 Winter Olympics in Pyeongchang, South Korea. The designation was instigated following the suspension of the Russian Olympic Committee after the Olympic doping controversy. This was the first time since the Unified Team of 1992 that Russian athletes had participated under the neutral Olympic flag.\n",
"After the Russian Olympic Committee was barred from competing at the 2018 Winter Olympics, Russian athletes deemed to be clean were allowed to compete under the Olympic flag as an Olympic Athlete from Russia.\n",
"The earliest origin of the sport is debated. Though many Russians see their old countrymen as the creators of the sport – reflected by the unofficial title for bandy, \"Russian hockey\" (русский хоккей) – Russia, England and Holland each had sports or pastimes which can be seen as forerunners of the present sport.\n",
"The Russian Olympic Committee (, \"Olympiyskiy Komitet Rossii, OKR\", Full name: All-Russian united social union 'Olympic Committee of Russia', \"Общероссийский союз общественных объединений «Олимпийский комитет России»\") is the National Olympic Committee representing Russia.\n"
] |
how is new origami created? do they grab paper and just start folding and see what happens, or is there a mathematical/formulaic approach?
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Yes, there is a very mathematical aproach on how to create new and complex models. The easiest one is extending an existing base and adding new details, e.g. toes, mouth etc.. A base being the simplest way of representing a stick figure of the model you want to fold. Next comes circle packing. In it you use the advantage of knowing the correlation between the flat square and the finished model. Each detail represents a circle on the square. So if you add a few squares on a paper and follow the rules on how to combine them, you should get the expected result. Folding in further detail is a challenge to the creator. This works aswell with box packing, replacing the circles by squares, which allows even more complex models like Black Forest Cukkoo Clock or the amazing Ryu-Zin.
The best book to get into creating own origami is Robert J. Langs Origami Design Secrets, though it is very long and still pretty challenging.
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[
"Technical origami, known in Japanese as , is an origami design approach in which the model is conceived as an engineered crease pattern, rather than developed through trial-and-error. With advances in origami mathematics, the basic structure of a new origami model can be theoretically plotted out on paper before any actual folding even occurs. This method of origami design was developed by Robert Lang, Meguro Toshiyuki and others, and allows for the creation of extremely complex multi-limbed models such as many-legged centipedes, human figures with a full complement of fingers and toes, and the like.\n",
"However, a court in Japan has asserted that the folding method of an origami model \"comprises an idea and not a creative expression, and thus is not protected under the copyright law\". Further, the court stated that \"the method to folding origami is in the public domain; one cannot avoid using the same folding creases or the same arrows to show the direction in which to fold the paper\". Therefore, it is legal to redraw the folding instructions of a model of another author even if the redrawn instructions share similarities to the original ones, as long as those similarities are \"functional in nature\". The redrawn instructions may be published (and even sold) without necessity of any permission from the original author. The Japanese decision is arguably in agreement with the U.S. Copyright Office, which asserts that \"copyright does not protect ideas, concepts, systems, or methods of doing something.\"\n",
"Modular origami or unit origami is a paperfolding technique which uses two or more sheets of paper to create a larger and more complex structure than would be possible using single-piece origami techniques. Each individual sheet of paper is folded into a module, or unit, and then modules are assembled into an integrated flat shape or three-dimensional structure by inserting flaps into pockets created by the folding process. These insertions create tension or friction that holds the model together.\n",
"Although Akira Yoshizawa pioneered many different origami techniques, wet-folding is one of his most significant contributions. This technique involves slightly dampening the paper before making a fold. Wet-folding allows the paper to be manipulated more easily, resulting in finished origami models that have a rounder and more sculpted look. The ability to create origami with a more realistic appearance was an important advancement in paper folding, since it took models away from the realm of simple crafts and towards true artistic expression.\n",
"Modern origami has attracted a worldwide following, with ever more intricate designs and new techniques. One of these techniques is 'wet-folding,' the practice of dampening the paper somewhat during folding to allow the finished product to hold shape better. Variations such as modular origami, also known as unit origami, is a process where many origami units are assembled to form an often decorative whole.\n",
"Complex origami models normally require thin, strong paper or tissue foil for successful folding; these lightweight materials allow for more layers before the model becomes impractically thick. Modern origami has broken free from the traditional linear construction techniques of the past, and models are now frequently wet-folded or constructed from materials other than paper and foil. With popularity, a new generation of origami creators has experimented with crinkling techniques and smooth-flowing designs used in creating realistic masks, animals, and other traditional artistic themes.\n",
"The small number of basic origami folds can be combined in a variety of ways to make intricate designs. The best-known origami model is the Japanese paper crane. In general, these designs begin with a square sheet of paper whose sides may be of different colors, prints, or patterns. Traditional Japanese origami, which has been practiced since the Edo period (1603–1867), has often been less strict about these conventions, sometimes cutting the paper or using nonsquare shapes to start with. The principles of origami are also used in stents, packaging and other engineering applications.*\n"
] |
What is in the “smog” that swallows up Los Angeles and surrounding cities?
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It's usually a mix of vehicle exhaust products and water vapor that chemically react to create said smog. Fuels/engines that burn dirty (lots of particulates both burnt and unburnt, sulfur, nOX compounds, etc) obviously provide more material for the production of smog.
What makes it stick to the ground levels though is something called temperature inversion, wherein a layer of warmer air caps the lower cooler layers of air, preventing convection and keeping the smog trapped close to the ground.
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[
"Los Angeles is strongly predisposed to accumulation of smog, because of peculiarities of its geography and weather patterns. The millions of vehicles in the area combined with the additional effects of the Los Angeles/Long Beach complex frequently contribute to further air pollution. Though Los Angeles was one of the best known cities suffering from transportation smog for much of the 20th century, so much so that it was sometimes said that \"Los Angeles\" was a synonym for \"smog\", In particular, the entire area in between Los Angeles Harbor to Riverside has become known as the \"Diesel Death Zone\".\n",
"Because of their locations in low basins surrounded by mountains, Los Angeles and the San Joaquin Valley are notorious for their smog. The over-reliance on vehicles for transportation in these regions, combined with the additional effects of the San Francisco Bay and Los Angeles/Long Beach port complexes, frequently contribute to further air pollution.\n",
"Los Angeles in particular is strongly predisposed to accumulation of smog, because of peculiarities of its geography and weather patterns. Los Angeles is situated in a flat basin with ocean on one side and mountain ranges on three sides. A nearby cold ocean current depresses surface air temperatures in the area, resulting in an inversion layer: a phenomenon where air temperature increases, instead of decreasing, with altitude, suppressing thermals and restricting vertical convection. All taken together, this results in a relatively thin, enclosed layer of air above the city that cannot easily escape out of the basin and tends to accumulate pollution.\n",
"Los Angeles was one of the best known cities suffering from transportation smog for much of the 20th century, so much so that it was sometimes said that \"Los Angeles\" was a synonym for \"smog.\" In 1970, when the Clean Air Act was passed, Los Angeles was the most polluted basin in the country, and California was unable to create a State Implementation Plan that would enable it to meet the new air quality standards. However, ensuing strict regulations by state and federal government agencies overseeing this problem (such as the California Air Resources Board and the United States Environmental Protection Agency), including tight restrictions on allowed emissions levels for all new cars sold in California and mandatory regular emission tests of older vehicles, resulted in significant improvements in air quality. For example, air concentrations of volatile organic compounds declined by a factor of 50 between 1962 and 2012. Concentrations of air pollutants such as nitrous oxides and ozone declined by 70% to 80% over the same period of time.\n",
"The 1966 New York City smog was a major air-pollution episode, during which the city's air reached damaging levels of several toxic pollutants. Smog covered the area from November23 to 26, coinciding with that year's Thanksgiving holiday weekend. It was the third major smog in New York City, following events of similar scale in 1953 and 1963.\n",
"New York City's air pollution was reportedly the worst of any American city. Although the \"persistently glaring\" photochemical smog of Los Angeles was more visible, more \"infamous,\" and received a greater degree of public attention, New York City had more total emissions and many more emissions proportional to its area. Despite its higher emissions, New York City's landscape and weather normally prevented smog from concentrating at high levels, meaning the smog was mostly invisible most of the time. Unlike Los Angeles, which is surrounded by mountains that tend to trap airborne pollutants, New York City's open topography and favorable wind conditions usually dispersed pollutants before they could form concentrated smog. If 1960s New York City had surroundings and a climate like those of Los Angeles, pollutants would not have escaped as easily and smog would have made the city uninhabitable.\n",
"A Gabrielino settlement in the area was called \"iyáangẚ\" (written \"Yang-na\" by the Spanish), which has been translated as \"poison oak place\". \"Yang-na\" has also been translated as \"the valley of smoke\". Owing to geography, heavy reliance on automobiles, and the Los Angeles/Long Beach port complex, Los Angeles suffers from air pollution in the form of smog. The Los Angeles Basin and the San Fernando Valley are susceptible to atmospheric inversion, which holds in the exhausts from road vehicles, airplanes, locomotives, shipping, manufacturing, and other sources. The percentage of small particle pollution (the kind that penetrates into the lungs) coming from vehicles in the city can get as high as 55 percent.\n"
] |
On the ISS do they have to adjust for flatulence because of the closed loop environment?
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No, there are multiple, different types of filters responsible for removing components of the air.
Carbon Dioxide, being the main culprit, is absorbed on a zeolite and dumped overboard (by reheating).
Other minor impurities (such as methane and thiols from your butt) are captured in Carbon filters, which are regularly replaced and disposed of.
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[
"The position of the Space Station in low Earth orbit is effectively just outside of the Earth's appreciable atmosphere, and is therefore an excellent training area in which astronauts can put on space suits, leave the ISS life support systems behind, and conduct spacewalks - or \"Extravehicular activity (EVA).\" An EVA may be undertaken to make repairs, reconfigure the Station to accommodate new modules, deploy new equipment, etc. The ISS orbits high enough to permit an astronaut and their sponsoring nation to gain valuable EVA experience outside of the atmosphere, but it is low enough to avoid the increased radiation exposure and other difficulties associated with climbing further out of Earth's gravity well. (If the Earth is compared to a 16 inch beach ball, the orbit of the ISS would be about half an inch above the beach ball's surface.)\n",
"The Space Station Mobility Trainer or SSMT is a training simulator used to train astronauts who will be staying in space stations. In a space station, there is no gravity, and therefore, there is no difference between up and down. Astronauts need to know where objects should be placed and [oriented] while building a space station. The SSMT rotates the trainee on a single axis in a small loop. Grip tape as used on skateboards or stairwells is placed strategically throughout the loop to prevent slipping. The trainee is strapped into a chair mounted on a rotating axis (vertical) The astronauts \"run\" in this continuous loop and are flipped over repeatedly. Then the trainee stops suddenly, and must figure out where everything is. Trainees on this particular simulator usually will become disoriented.\n",
"The R-bar pitch maneuver (RPM), popularly called the rendezvous pitch maneuver, was a maneuver performed by the Space Shuttle as it rendezvoused with the International Space Station (ISS) prior to docking. The Shuttle performed a backflip that exposed its heat-shield to the crew of the ISS that made photographs of it. Based on the information gathered during the rendezvous pitch maneuver, the mission team could decide that the orbiter was not safe for re-entry. They may have then decided either to wait on the ISS for a rescue mission or attempt extra-vehicular activity to repair the heat shield and secure the safe re-entry of the orbiter. This was a standard procedure for all space shuttles docking to the International Space Station after a damaged heat shield caused the \"Columbia\" disaster.\n",
"Due to the lack of gravity, confusion often occurs. Even though there is no up and down in space, some crew members feel like they are oriented upside down. They may also have difficulty measuring distances. This can cause problems like getting lost inside the space station, pulling switches in the wrong direction or misjudging the speed of an approaching vehicle during docking.\n",
"To prevent some of the effects associated with weightlessness, a treadmill with vibration isolation and stabilization designed for the International Space Station (ISS) was first evaluated during STS-81. Three crew members ran and walked on the device, which floats freely in the micro-gravity experienced during orbit. For the majority of the more than 2 hours of locomotion studied, the treadmill operated well, and vibration transmitted to the vehicle was within the micro-gravity allocation limits that are defined for the ISS. Refinements to the treadmill and harness system, which ultimately led to development of the COLBERT model, were studied after this first flight. One goal of the treadmill design is to offer the possibility of generating 1 g-like loads on the lower extremities while preserving the micro-gravity environment of the ISS for structural safety and vibration free experimental conditions.\n",
"Chiao was the inadvertent developer of the procedure to use the IRED (Interim Resistive Exercise Device) to excite the solar arrays of the ISS. During an exercise session of squats on the ISS, Chiao sent a vibration through the space station that caused the solar arrays to ripple – a low amplitude frequency response. When Chiao did this, the response from Mission Control was \"knock it off.\" However, several years later during an ISS assembly flight in December 2006 (STS-116), German astronaut Thomas Reiter of the European Space Agency was told to do 30 seconds of robust exercise on the bungee-bar IRED machine to help retract ISS solar arrays, specifically to relieve tension in a wire system that was preventing the array from folding up like an accordion. An eventual unplanned spacewalk during the same shuttle mission managed to finally retract the array.\n",
"The principle of neutral buoyancy is used to simulate the weightless environment of space. The suited astronauts are lowered into the pool using an overhead crane and their weight is adjusted by support divers so that they experience no buoyant force and no rotational moment about their center of mass. The suits worn in the NBL are down-rated from fully flight-rated EMU suits like those in use on the space shuttle and International Space Station.\n"
] |
what makes a person a good singer?
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It really is 99% work and practice. The first step is developing an ear for music. Listen to and sing along w/ your favorite artists. Surround yourself w/ music.
A good teacher does wonders. There are plenty of You Tube videos, but since everyone's voice is different, this is an area where personalized instruction is especially important. Voice lessons aren't cheap, but they will give you the techniques you need to sound your best.
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[
"According to him, in some music shows, he tend to sings many genres, which some of them are not his best, in order to entertain the audiences, because \"\"If I don't try many genres, I won't be able to gain many fans and audiences, I won't be able to perform at plenty music shows. Meaning I'm able to sing different genres for being such a talented singer\".\"\n",
"Aspiring singers and vocalists must have musical skill, an excellent voice, the ability to work with people, and a sense of showmanship and drama. Additionally, singers need to have the ambition and drive to continually study and improve,\n",
"A singer will choose a repertoire that suits his or her instrument. Some singers such as Enrico Caruso, Rosa Ponselle, Joan Sutherland, Maria Callas, Ewa Podleś, or Plácido Domingo have voices that allow them to sing roles from a wide variety of types; some singers such as Shirley Verrett or Grace Bumbry change type and even voice part over their careers; and some singers such as Leonie Rysanek have voices that lower with age, causing them to cycle through types over their careers. Some roles as well are hard to classify, having very unusual vocal requirements; Mozart wrote many of his roles for specific singers who often had remarkable voices, and some of Verdi's early works make extreme demands on his singers.\n",
"\"I Am a Singer\" differs from other televised music competitions in that the participants are all veteran musicians who have established music careers varying from mega stardom to relative obscurity. Due to this fact, and because none of the accomplished singers desire to be voted last amongst their peers and eliminated, the level of performance is usually high and acclaimed by critics and viewers alike.\n",
"Amanda Holden said: \"You have the most soulful quality to your voice, and you really sing from your heart. You make me want to listen to what you’re singing about. If you went through to the final, I’d like you to kick it up a bit.\"\n",
"Professional singers continue to seek out vocal coaching to hone their skills, extend their range, and learn new styles. As well, aspiring singers need to gain specialized skills in the vocal techniques used to interpret songs, learn about the vocal literature from their chosen style of music, and gain skills in choral music techniques, sight singing and memorizing songs, and vocal exercises.\n",
"Singing can be formal or informal, arranged or improvised. It may be done as a form of religious devotion, as a hobby, as a source of pleasure, comfort or ritual, as part of music education or as a profession. Excellence in singing requires time, dedication, instruction and regular practice. If practice is done on a regular basis then the sounds can become more clear and strong. Professional singers usually build their careers around one specific musical genre, such as classical or rock, although there are singers with crossover success (singing in more than one genre). They usually take voice training provided by voice teachers or vocal coaches throughout their careers.\n"
] |
In the Middle Ages, most of Western and Northern Europe appeared to use patronymics (Rodrigo Díaz de Vivar, Leif Ericson, Nuno Álvares Pereira, Harold Godwinson, Maurice FitzGerald). These patronymics eventually became frozen into regular surnames. When and why did this happen?
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In the Scandinavian countries the partial abolishment of patronymics was mostly to do with rising populations in and around the early 1900's. There are only so many patronymics available before things just get confusing. This is also why patronymics are still in use in Iceland, because the population is so small. Hopefully /u/Vonadler can provide a better answer for you.
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[
"The use of patronyms died out in the Lowlands after the 15th century, as they became solidified as surnames. It was not until the 18th century that they were given up in the Gaelic-speaking Highlands. As late as the first part of the 18th century, some men were distinguished not only by their father's name, but their grandfather's and great-grandfather's (for example, \"John Roy M'Ean Vc Ewin Vc Dougall Vc Ean\", a man from Lismore recorded in 1585). Patronyms were still common in Shetland in the first half of the 19th century. One of the most common surnames in Scotland is Simpson, which means the son of \"Simon\", in Gaelic the equivalent names are McSymon, and MacSymon.\n",
"In medieval Spain, a patronymic system was used. For example, Álvaro, the son of Rodrigo would be named Álvaro Rodríguez. His son, Juan, would not be named Juan Rodríguez, but Juan Álvarez. Over time, many of these patronymics became family names and are some of the most common names in the Spanish-speaking world. Other sources of surnames are personal appearance or habit, e.g. Delgado (\"thin\") and Moreno (\"dark\"); occupations, e.g. Molinero (\"miller\"), Zapatero (\"shoe-maker\") and Guerrero (\"warrior\"); and geographic location or ethnicity, e.g. Alemán (\"German\").\n",
"In ancient times a patronymic was commonly used — surnames like \"Gonçalves\" (\"son of \"Gonçalo\"\"), \"Fernandes\" (\"son of \"Fernando\"\"), \"Nunes\" (\"son of \"Nuno\"\"), \"Soares\" (\"son of \"Soeiro\"\"), \"Sanches\" (\"son of \"Sancho\"\"), \"Henriques\" (\"son of \"Henrique\"\"), \"Rodrigues\" (\"son of \"Rodrigo\"\") which along with many others are still in regular use as very prevalent family names.\n",
"Some former patronymics are not easily recognized, for two main reasons. Sometimes the given name that was the basis of the patronymic became archaic, such as \"Lopo\" (the basis of \"Lopes\"), \"Mendo\" or \"Mem\" (\"Mendes\"), \"Vasco\" (\"Vasques\"), Soeiro (\"Soares\"), Munio (\"Muniz\"), \"Sancho\" (\"Sanches\"). Also, often the given names or the related patronymic changed through centuries, although always some resemblance can still be noted – such as \"Antunes\" (son of \"Antão\" or \"Antonio\"), \"Peres\" (son of \"Pero\", archaic form of \"Pedro\"), \"Alves\" (from \"Alvares\", son of \"Álvaro\"), and \"Eanes\" (from mediaeval Iohannes, son of \"João\").\n",
"The patronymics such as Munioitz, Santxez or Santxitz, and Diaitz (Spanish spellings: Muñoz, Sánchez, and Díaz) are the most common and ancient. The Basque monarchy, including the first king of Pamplona, Iñigo Iñigitz, or Eneko Aritza, were the first to use this type of surname. Patronymics are by far the most common surnames in the whole of the Basque Autonomic Community and Navarre.\n",
"Alphons (Latinized \"Alphonsus\", \"Adelphonsus\", or \"Adefonsus\") is a male given name recorded from the 8th century (Alfonso I of Asturias, r. 739-757) in the Christian successor states of the Visigothic kingdom in the Iberian peninsula. In the later medieval period it became a standard name in the Hispanic and Portuguese royal families.\n",
"The earliest patronyms recorded in Scotland are written in several different languages. In early Latin documents, such names were formed by the genitive case of the father's name preceded by forms of \"filius\", meaning \"son\" (for example \"Dugaldus filius Nigelli\"); later the \"filius\" was only implied (for example \"Dugaldus Nigelli\"). Other early records show patronyms using forms of the Welsh \"ap\", meaning \"son\"; and the Gaelic \"mac\", meaning son (for example, the names of \"Macrath ap Molegan\", and \"Gilmychel Mac Eth\" appear in the same document).\n"
] |
why do so many asian nationality adjectives end in "ese" (i.e. chinese, japanese, vietnamese, etc.) where so many other nationality adjectives end in "ish" or "an" (i.e. scottish, american, german, egyptian, italian, etc.)? i know there are exceptions, but in general, this seems to be a thing.
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We get our language/nationality names from European explorers who first made contact and had to call them something pronounceable.
Those ending in "ese" were countries first visited by explorers speaking Italian, Portuguese, or a similar language -- this ending is normal in those languages.
Those ending in something else were first visited by explorers speaking other languages.
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[
"\"-ese\" is usually considered proper only as an adjective, or to refer to the entirety. Thus, \"a Chinese person\" is used rather than \"a Chinese\". Often used for East Asian and Francophone locations, from the similar-sounding French suffix \"-ais(e)\", which is originally from the Latin adjectival ending \"-ensis\", designating origin from a place: thus Hispaniensis (Spanish), Danensis (Danish), etc.\n",
"French, German, Italian, Japanese, Hebrew, Arabic, and Russian speakers may use cognates of \"American\" to refer to inhabitants of the Americas or to U.S. nationals. They generally have other terms specific to U.S. nationals, such as the German ', French ', Japanese , Arabic ' ( as opposed to ' ), and Italian \"\". These specific terms may be less common than the term \"American\".\n",
"In other languages, however, there is no possibility for confusion. For example, the Chinese word for \"U.S. national\" is ' () is derived from a word for the United States, ', where ' is an abbreviation for \"Yàměilìjiā\" (\"America\") and ' is \"country\". The name for the American continents is ', from ' plus ' (\"continent\"). Thus, a ' is an American in the continent sense, and a \"\" is an American in the U.S. sense.\n",
"Most Chinese languages, such as Mandarin and Cantonese, pronounce it along the lines of \"cha\", but Hokkien and Teochew Chinese varieties along the Southern coast of China pronounce it like \"teh\". These two pronunciations have made their separate ways into other languages around the world.\n",
"Historically, the Chinese used various words for foreign ethnic groups. They include terms like 夷 \"Yi\", which is often translated as \"barbarians.\" Despite this conventional translation, there are also other ways of translating \"Yi\" into English. Some of the examples include \"foreigners,\" \"ordinary others,\" \"wild tribes,\" \"uncivilized tribes,\" and so forth.\n",
"Chinese has distinct words for American in the continent sense and American in the United States sense. The United States is called (Pinyin: \"měiguó\"; Jyutping: \"mei5 gwok3\") while the continent of America is called (Pinyin: \"měizhōu\"; Jyutping: \"mei5 zau1\"). There are separate demonyms derived from each word and a United States citizen is referred to as (Pinyin: \"měiguó rén\"; Jyutping: \"mei5 gwok3 yan4\").\n",
"International speakers of English generally refer to people from the United States as Americans while equivalent translations of American are used in many other languages, namely French ('), although the term ' derived from ' (United States) in French is also accepted, Dutch ('), Afrikaans ('), Japanese (, rōmaji: \"amerika-jin\"), Filipino ('), Hebrew (), Arabic (), and Russian ().\n"
] |
the legality of pranks.
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The law varies somewhat but in most states it is not legal to make a prank call. Nevada is an exception, so that's where shows like 'Crank Yankers' operated from. But, even they had to get permission from the targets before they could air the phone call.
You can usually videotape people in public. If someone is harmed during a prank then the pranker can be sued, just the same as if someone is harmed during a normal non-prank interaction.
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[
"The pranks are often planned out very well before they are actually done in order to work out details such as not being caught or blamed for the disruption they cause. Often these are harmless and more often hilarious pranks, but sometimes the pranks can be taken too far, causing serious problems such as damage to school property and resulting in arrests and large fines.\n",
"Modern and successful pranks often take advantage of the modernization of tools and techniques. In Canada, engineering students have a reputation for annual pranks; at the University of British Columbia these usually involve leaving a Volkswagen Beetle in an unexpected location (such as suspended from the Golden Gate Bridge and the Lions Gate Bridge). A similar prank was undertaken by engineering students at Cambridge University, England, where an Austin 7 car was put on top of the Senate House building. Pranks can also adapt to the political context of the era. Students at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) are particularly known for their \"hacks\".\n",
"Situationist prank is a term used in the mass media to label a distinctive tactic by the Situationist International, consisting of setting up a subversive political prank, hoax or stunt; In the terminology of the Situationist International, stunts and media pranks are very similar to \"situations\". The \"détournement\" technique, that is \"turning expressions of the capitalist system against itself,\" was the essential element of a situationist prank. The Situationist tactic of using \"détournement\" for subversive pranks is such a distinctive and influential aspect of the Situationist International, that they are sometimes labeled as a group of political \"pranksters\".\n",
"Pranks include a rap battle between two police officers, a child dropping a wallet in front of strangers to see if it is returned, and a blind man dropping his wallet. An extremely long selfie stick was another. Other pranks included 'abusing a transvestite', impersonating traffic wardens and giving tickets to police officers, invading the ring at a WWE SmackDown match, a woman approaching men in public asking for sex and pointing a toy gun at police officers. The video involving Daniel Jarvis handing out parking fines to police, confusing the officers involved, featured on Channel 4's \"Rude Tube\".\n",
"The Prankster is a freedom fighter in a repressive dystopia called Ultrapolis. Here love, laughter, music, art, and every other expression of human dignity can be a crime punishable by death. So the Prankster fights back with bizarre weapons such as laughing gas, a jet-powered hot-air balloon, and a magic flute.\n",
"The expression situationist prankster has been later established as a typical label used on those who perform media pranks or publicity stunts, as in the cases of \"The KLF\", the \"K Foundation\", Genesis P-Orridge, Harun Farocki, and others.\n",
"\"A Prank\" () is a short story by Pu Songling collected in \"Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio\" (1740) that pertains to a prankster whose act goes awry. It was translated into English by John Minford in 2006.\n"
] |
why do people tend to fall backwards and bend over when laughing?
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Idk about falling backwards. But bending over when laughing, I believe, is because laughing makes your abdominal muscles contract.
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[
"Hay published a magazine piece entitled \"Philosophy of Laughter\", in which he discussed the psychology of comedy. In the essay he rhetorically asks, \"Why does every one of us laugh at seeing somebody else slapped in the face with a large piece of cold custard pie? Is it because we're all naturally cruel? Or is it because there's something inherently funny in custard pies? Or in faces? Or in throwing things? No. No. and no! The real reason why we laugh is because we are relieved. Because we are released from a sense of fear. Wherever we may happen to be – in the cinema, theatre, or music-hall – we tend to identify with the actors we are watching. So that when a custard pie is thrown we fear for a moment that it has been thrown at us. And then, immediately we realise that it hasn't hit us, we experience a feeling of relief, and we laugh\".\n",
"Laughter is not always a pleasant experience and is associated with several negative phenomena. Excessive laughter can lead to cataplexy, and unpleasant laughter spells, excessive elation, and fits of laughter can all be considered negative aspects of laughter. Unpleasant laughter spells, or \"sham mirth,\" usually occur in people who have a neurological condition, including patients with pseudobulbar palsy, multiple sclerosis and Parkinson's disease. These patients appear to be laughing out of amusement but report that they are feeling undesirable sensations \"at the time of the punch line.\"\n",
"People laugh when they need to project dignity and control during times of stress and anxiety. In these situations, people usually laugh in a subconscious attempt to reduce stress and calm down, however, it often works otherwise. Nervous laughter is often considered fake laughter and even heightens the awkwardness of the situation.\n",
"Relief theory maintains that laughter is a homeostatic mechanism by which psychological tension is reduced. Humor may thus for example serve to facilitate relief of the tension caused by one's fears. Laughter and mirth, according to relief theory, result from this release of nervous energy. Humor, according to relief theory, is used mainly to overcome sociocultural inhibitions and reveal suppressed desires. It is believed that this is the reason we laugh whilst being tickled, due to a buildup of tension as the tickler \"strikes\".\n",
"Paradoxical laughter is an exaggerated expression of humour which is unwarranted by external events. It may be uncontrollable laughter which may be recognised as inappropriate by the person involved. It is associated with altered mental states or mental illness, such as mania, hypomania or schizophrenia, and can have other causes.\n",
"Unhealthy or \"nervous\" laughter comes from the throat. This nervous laughter is not true laughter, but an expression of tension and anxiety. Instead of relaxing a person, nervous laughter tightens them up even further. Much of this nervous laughter is produced in times of high emotional stress, especially during times where an individual is afraid they might harm another person in various ways, such as a person's feelings or even physically.\n",
"Nervous laughter is laughter evoked from an audience's expression of alarm, embarrassment, discomfort or confusion, rather than amusement. Nervous laughter is usually less robust in expression than \"a good belly laugh\", and may be combined with confused glances or awkward silence on the part of others in the audience. Nervous laughter is considered analogous to a courtesy laugh, which may be rendered by more of a conscious effort in an attempt to move a situation along more quickly, especially when the comedian is pausing for laughter.\n"
] |
How much can we learn or know about an unknown creature from just DNA?
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If it were an unknown Earth species, we would eventually be able to determine its most closely-related currently living species or groups of species. Usually when this is done, there is already a pretty good idea of relatedness, so here, considerably more effort would be required. Then we can say "it probably looks a lot like these guys and has features x,y, and z that they all share."
Our knowledge of what specific genes do is very limited. This unknown species may be found to have the gene that codes for a known blue pigment for example, but whether the creature is ever blue is much more complicated. If you'd never seen humans but had a sample of their genome and looked at closely related extant Earth species, you might expect us to have tails.
This is because of the actual processes of which genes are functional, when they're functional, how they interact, and the incredibly complex process of building the organism are not obvious from the genome. The genome doesn't say "make an arm," it says "when this molecule changes to this shape, transcribe this section of DNA to make this molecule."
As for an alien species, we'll probably never know until we find some aliens. It could be most of our knowledge of Earth applies, because the ways in which genetics function on Earth are pretty much the only way to make things work. Perhaps more likely is that big differences in how DNA and the most integral DNA-related molecules and organelles evolved mean that we'd have to learn a new set of molecular biology. For example, DNA could be written in the same base pairs, but in a different "language" of exons, introns, promoters, etc. Assuming they *have* DNA.
Besides all that, due to the building-on-what-worked-before nature of evolution, even if their biochemistry was similar, they'd probably be incredibly weird and not fit into our traditional types of organisms.
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[
"A thorough identification of the species through conventional methods is needed before an attempt at DNA analysis. This DNA can be obtained from practically any part of the insect, including the body, leg, setae, antennae, etc. There are about one million species described in the world and many more that have still not been identified. A project termed \"the barcode of life\" was launched by Dr. Paul D. N. Hebert, where he identified a gene that is used in cellular respiration by all species, but is different in every species. This difference in sequence can help entomologists easily identify two similar species.\n",
"DNA identification of species can be a very useful tool in forensic entomology. Although it does not replace conventional identification of species through visual identification, it can be used to differentiate between two species of very similar or identical physical and behavioral characteristics.\n",
"Analysis of DNA sequences is becoming increasingly standard for species recognition and may in many cases be the only useful method. Different methods are used to analyse such genetic data, for example molecular phylogenetics or DNA barcoding. Such methods have greatly contributed to the discovery of cryptic species, including such emblematic species as the fly agaric or the African elephants.\n",
"With DNA barcoding it is not possible to retrieve information about sex or age of prey species, which can be crucial. This limitation can anyway be overcome with an additional step in the analysis by using microsatellite polymorphism and Y-chromosome amplification. Moreover, DNA provides detailed information of the most recent events (e.g. 24–48 hr) but it is not able to provide a longer dietary prospect unless a continuous sampling is conducted. Additionally, when using generic primers that amplify ‘barcode’ regions from a broad range of food species, the amplifiable host DNA may largely outnumber the presence of prey DNA, complicating prey detection. However, a strategy to prevent the host DNA amplification can be the addition of a predator-specific blocking primer. Indeed, blocking primers for suppressing amplification of predator DNA allows the amplification of the other vertebrate groups and produces amplicon mixes that are predominately food DNA.\n",
"In terms of DNA barcoding, ITS sequences can be used to identify species, where a genetic distance of p≥0.04 can be used to delimit species. A recent study revealed a substantial proportion of dinoflagellate genes encode for unknown functions, and that these genes could be conserved and lineage-specific.\n",
"Stevens suggests that DNA itself can be inspected for the location and transmission of archetypes. As they are co-terminous with natural life they should be expected wherever life is found. He suggests that DNA is the replicable archetype of the species.\n",
"DNA-based identification is fast, reliable and accurate in its characterization across life stages and species. Reference libraries are used to connect barcode sequences to single species and can be used to identify the species present in DNA samples. Libraries of reference sequences are also useful in identifying species in cases of morphological ambiguity, such as with larval stages.\n"
] |
why is it when you quickly touch a hot object and remove your hand it takes a little while for you to feel the burn?
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This is a really fun one! Your spinal cord has its own reflexive system, almost acting like a second brain. When something of 'grave' danger occurs to you, such as putting your hand on a hot stove, cells are dying extremely quickly and your brain is a slow shit compared to your reflexes.
So, the signal of "shit's going down" just hits your spinal cord instead of your brain, which extremely quickly responds with a "get the hell out of there" motor command, rather than waiting for you to make the conscious decision to pull out.
The spinal cord, however, doesn't process pain, your brain does. So the pain signal reaches your brain a little later.
Some people have severe psychological issues that stop all of this. They can't feel pain, and they don't have those reflexes, so they can get horribly injured and not even know about it.
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[
"When a person touches a hot object and withdraws their hand from it without actively thinking about it, the heat stimulates temperature and pain receptors in the skin, triggering a sensory impulse that travels to the central nervous system. The sensory neuron then synapses with interneurons that connect to motor neurons. Some of these send motor impulses to the flexors that lead to the muscles in the arm to contract, while some motor neurons send inhibitory impulses to the extensors so flexion is not inhibited. This is referred to as reciprocal innervation.\n",
"Solid objects that are hot can also cause contact burns, especially by children who intentionally touch things that they are unaware are too hot to touch. Such burns imprinted on the skin usually form a pattern that resembles the object. Sources of burns from solid objects include ashes and coal, irons, soldering equipment, frying pans and pots, oven containers, light bulbs, and exhaust pipes.\n",
"If the arcs from the high voltage terminal strike the bare skin, they can cause deep-seated burns called \"RF burns\". This is often avoided by allowing the arcs to strike a piece of metal held in the hand, or a thimble on a finger, instead. The current passes from the metal into the person's hand through a wide enough surface area to avoid causing burns. Often no sensation is felt, or just a warmth or tingling.\n",
"Burnishing is the plastic deformation of a surface due to sliding contact with another object. It smooths the surface and makes it shinier. Burnishing may occur on any sliding surface if the contact stress locally exceeds the yield strength of the material. The phenomenon can occur both unintentionally as a failure mode, and intentionally as part of a manufacturing process. It is a squeezing operation under cold working.\n",
"Michael Hanlon – who volunteered to experience its effects – described it as \"a bit like touching a red-hot wire, but there is no heat, only the sensation of heat.\" Raytheon says that pain ceases instantly upon removal of the ray; still, Hanlon reported that the finger he subjected \"was tingling hours later.\"\n",
"The most important first action is to stop the burning process. The source of the burn should promptly be removed (or the patient removed from the source). If the person is on fire, he/she must be told to stop, drop and roll, or extinguish the fire by covering them with heavy blanket, wool, coat, or rug. Burning clothing should be removed as should all jewelry that could act as a tourniquet as swelling occurs, but burned clothing stuck to the skin must not be removed. Cooling the burn with cold running water has been shown to be beneficial if accomplished within 30 minutes of the injury. The pain or inflammation can then be effectively treated using acetaminophen (paracetamol), or ibuprofen. Ice, butter, cream and ointment cannot be used since they can worsen the burn.\n",
"Reactions, which vary depending on the severity of the case, include rashes, flared 'bumpy' patches, affected areas being extremely hot to touch, and outbreaks shortly (or within 24 hours) after direct or indirect exposure to UVA and/or UVB light. The skin most likely reacts on the upper chest, hands and face, however it is not unlikely for reactions to happen all over the body. The patient may feel burning, stinging or throbbing sensations in these areas, which causes mild, yet uncomfortable pain in some patients. Others liken the pain and sensation to a chemical burn that doesn't go away. It is a mistake to think that the reaction is like a sunburn, it is far deeper in the skin and often requires the use of ingestible steroids as well as topical steroids in order to alleviate the condition to a degree. The best protection is to be fully covered from sunlight, even when cloudy or hazy. The use of UV-rated clothing is suggested as well as a UV-rated umbrella for outdoors.\n"
] |
What were some of Benjamin Franklins ideas/inventions that were considered radical during the time he was alive but are now acceptable today?
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Not one of his ideas per say - but he was one of the only contemorary suppporters of the [Wave of Light Theory](_URL_0_) - Basically that colors were made up of diffrent wave lenghts of like (like you would see broken down by a prism or rainbow)
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[
"Benjamin Franklin ( April 17, 1790) was an American polymath and one of the Founding Fathers of the United States. Franklin was a leading author, printer, political theorist, politician, Freemason, postmaster, scientist, inventor, humorist, civic activist, statesman, and diplomat. As a scientist, he was a major figure in the American Enlightenment and the history of physics for his discoveries and theories regarding electricity. As an inventor, he is known for the lightning rod, bifocals, and the Franklin stove, among other inventions. He founded many civic organizations, including the Library Company, Philadelphia's first fire department and the University of Pennsylvania.\n",
"BULLET::::- Benjamin Franklin, founder of the above American Philosophical society who contributed important discoveries to physics such as electricity, but was more successful in his practical inventions, such as stoves and lightning rods\n",
"Franklin was a prodigious inventor. Among his many creations were the lightning rod, glass harmonica (a glass instrument, not to be confused with the metal harmonica), Franklin stove, bifocal glasses and the flexible urinary catheter. Franklin never patented his inventions; in his autobiography he wrote, \"... as we enjoy great advantages from the inventions of others, we should be glad of an opportunity to serve others by any invention of ours; and this we should do freely and generously.\"\n",
"In 1743, Franklin founded the American Philosophical Society to help scientific men discuss their discoveries and theories. He began the electrical research that, along with other scientific inquiries, would occupy him for the rest of his life, in between bouts of politics and moneymaking.\n",
"Benjamin Franklin (1706–1790) was an activist and theorist of American philanthropy. He was much influenced by Daniel Defoe's \"An Essay upon Projects\" (1697) and Cotton Mather's \"Bonifacius: an essay upon the good.\" (1710). Franklin attempted to motivate his fellow Philadelphians into projects for the betterment of the city: examples included the Library Company of Philadelphia (the first American subscription library), the fire department, the police force, street lighting and a hospital. A world-class physicist himself, he promoted scientific organizations including the Philadelphia Academy (1751) – which became the University of Pennsylvania – as well as the American Philosophical Society (1743) to enable scientific researchers from all 13 colonies to communicate.\n",
"Benjamin Franklin (voiced by Jim Ward) (17 January 1706 – 17 April 1790) was a Freemason, a noted polymath, and one of the Founding Fathers of the United States. Benjamin wandered around Boston near his store, and was surprised to find Haytham Kenway offer a lending hand, as those living in Boston usually refused to be of any help, and correctly assumed that Kenway was new to Boston. Franklin then charged Kenway with the task of finding stolen pages of his Almanac. Haytham interacted with Franklin, where he proposed his idea of having an older woman as a lover would benefit lives, much to Haytham's amusement. In \"The Tyranny of King Washington\", after gaining control over the area, King Washington put Franklin in charge of running Boston. While under Washington's control, Franklin was still hesitant of the King's decisions, claiming one such order to behead random civilians to be \"rather harsh.\" After being freed from Washington's control by Ratonhnhaké꞉ton, Franklin sought to help the rebellion take down King Washington.\n",
"Thomas Alva Edison (February 11, 1847October 18, 1931) was an American inventor and businessman, who has been described as America's greatest inventor. He developed many devices in fields such as electric power generation, mass communication, sound recording, and motion pictures. These inventions, which include the phonograph, the motion picture camera, and the long-lasting, practical electric light bulb, had a widespread impact on the modern industrialized world. He was one of the first inventors to apply the principles of organized science and teamwork to the process of invention, working with many researchers and employees. He established the first industrial research laboratory.\n"
] |
Was Caesar upset about Ptolemy XIII killing Pompey?
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Plutarch's Life of Julius Caesar notes:
"Arriving at Alexandria just after Pompey's death, he turned away in horror from Theodotus as he presented the head of Pompey, but he accepted Pompey's seal-ring, and shed tears over it."
Remember that Caesar was big on granting clemency to his defeated adversaries as a propaganda move to show both his power (this failed rival of mine could never pose a threat to me again) as well as his own magnanimity. Pardoning the washed-up, geriatric, and totally beaten Pompey the Great into a quiet retirement might defang the threat posed by those still loyal to Pompey (like Pompey's sons, who would bedevil the Caesarians for another 20 years).
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[
"Pompey fled to Egypt, where he was murdered by an officer of King Ptolemy XIII. Caesar pursued the Pompeian army to Alexandria, where he camped and became involved with the Alexandrine Civil War between Ptolemy and his sister, wife, and co-regent, Cleopatra VII. Perhaps as a result of Ptolemy's role in Pompey's murder, Caesar sided with Cleopatra; he is reported to have wept at the sight of Pompey's head, which was offered to him by Ptolemy's chamberlain Pothinus as a gift.\n",
"He pursued Pompey to Alexandria, where Pompey was murdered by a former Roman officer serving in the court of King Ptolemy XIII. Caesar then became involved with the Alexandrine civil war between Ptolemy and his sister, wife, and co-regent queen, the Pharaoh Cleopatra VII. Perhaps as a result of Ptolemy's role in Pompey's murder, Caesar sided with Cleopatra; he is reported to have wept at the sight of Pompey's head, which was offered to him by Ptolemy's chamberlain Pothinus as a gift. In any event, Caesar withstood the Siege of Alexandria and latter he defeated the Ptolemaic forces in 47 BC in the Battle of the Nile and installed Cleopatra as ruler. Caesar and Cleopatra celebrated their victory of the Alexandrine civil war with a triumphant procession on the Nile in the spring of 47 B.C. The royal barge was accompanied by 400 additional ships, introducing Caesar to the luxurious lifestyle of the Egyptian pharaohs.\n",
"Caesar was horrified at the murder of Pompey, and wept for his one-time ally and son-in-law. He demanded the money Ptolemy's father Ptolemy XII Auletes had been lent by Rome and agreed to settle the dispute between Ptolemy and his sister and co-regent Cleopatra VII. Caesar chose to favor Cleopatra over her brother.\n",
"In 48 BC, Pompey's main army confronted that of Julius Caesar and his lieutenant Marc Antony at the battle of Pharsalus. This battle resulted in a decisive defeat for the Pompeian forces. Pompey himself fled to Egypt (where he was immediately beheaded by Egypt's ruler Ptolemy XIII in the mistaken belief this act would please Caesar) and Spinther escaped to Rhodes, where he was at first refused admission, but subsequently given asylum.\n",
"Pompey fled from Pharsalus to Egypt, where he was assassinated on the order of Ptolemy XIII. Ptolemy XIII sent Pompey's head to Caesar in an effort to win his favor, but instead secured him as a furious enemy. Ptolemy, advised by his regent, the eunuch Pothinus, and his rhetoric tutor Theodotus of Chios, had failed to take into account that Caesar was granting amnesty to a great number of those of the senatorial faction in their defeat. Even men who had been bitter enemies were allowed not only to return to Rome but to assume their previous positions in Roman society.\n",
"After the Battle of Pharsalus, between the forces of Caesar and those of Gnaeus Pompey Magnus and the Senate, the majority of the forces commanded by Pompey were scattered or surrendered to Caesar. Pompey, however, escaped via Amphipolis to Egypt, only to be killed upon landing in Egypt by Achillas and Lucius Septimius, former soldiers in his army. The assassination was proposed by the eunuch Pothinus and Theodotus of Chios, advisors of the pharaoh Ptolemy who deemed that Caesar would be pleased by the removal of his adversary.\n",
"When Ptolemy XIII realized that his sister was in the palace consorting directly with Caesar, he attempted to rouse the populace of Alexandria into a riot, but he was arrested by Caesar, who used his oratorical skills to calm the frenzied crowd. Caesar then brought Cleopatra and Ptolemy XIII before the assembly of Alexandria, where Caesar revealed the written will of Ptolemy XII—previously possessed by Pompey—naming Cleopatra and Ptolemy XIII as his joint heirs. Caesar then attempted to arrange for the other two siblings, Arsinoe IV and Ptolemy XIV, to rule together over Cyprus, thus removing potential rival claimants to the Egyptian throne while also appeasing the Ptolemaic subjects still bitter over the loss of Cyprus to the Romans in 58 BC.\n"
] |
Why doesn't the immune system of genetic chiemras attack their body?
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I don't know the answer but if I have to make an educated guess I would have to say that it has to do with Thymic education. If there is genetic chimerism we can assume that the genetically different cells are dispersed throughout the body and that it can be encountered in the Thymic cortex and medulla where positive and negative selection occurs. In the end mature naive T cells that do not interact with either self-antigen MHC residues would be produced which would make them harmless against your own cells. I don't know if this makes sense to you but If you'd like to learn more about the subject I would suggest reading an immunology textbook or read up on T cell development and maturation. It can be a bit daunting at first but it's a very interesting subject.
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[
"Autoimmune disorders are when the body has an immune response to itself, causing an inflammatory reaction to occur within the body. Because autoimmune disorders involve abnormalities in the immune system cells (i.e., B-cells, T-cells). It can be inferred that miRNA are strongly expressed in regions of the body that have to do with the maturation of these T and B lymphocytes, such as in the spleen and lymph nodes. Abnormalities in the miRNA or the function of the miRNA in the post-transcriptional process can result in an increased sensitivity of the lymphocytes. Due to increased sensitivity, these lymphocytes can now target antigens that it could not previously bind, which can allow for these lymphocytes to attack itself, if these antigens happen to naturally occur in cells in the body.\n",
"Affected proteins interfere with the immune system's ability to recognize these cells as normal parts of the body, causing a T-cell-mediated immune response. This response is directed at the complex of urushiol derivatives (namely, pentadecacatechol) bound in the skin proteins, attacking the cells as if they were foreign bodies.\n",
"The specificity of the human immune-cell repertoire is what allows the human body to defend itself from rapidly adapting antigens. However, the immune system is vulnerable to degradation upon the pathogenesis of disease, and because of the critical role that it plays in overall defense, its degradation is often fatal to the organism as a whole. Diseases of hematopoietic cells are diagnosed and classified via a subspecialty of pathology known as hematopathology. The specificity of the immune cells is what allows recognition of foreign antigens, causing further challenges in the treatment of immune disease. Identical matches between donor and recipient must be made for successful transplantation treatments, but matches are uncommon, even between first-degree relatives. Research using both hematopoietic adult stem cells and embryonic stem cells has provided insight into the possible mechanisms and methods of treatment for many of these ailments.\n",
"In 2007, the ATG16L1 gene has been implicated in Crohn's disease, which may induce autophagy and hinder the body's ability to attack invasive bacteria. Another study has theorized that the human immune system traditionally evolved with the presence of parasites inside the body, and that the lack thereof due to modern hygiene standards has weakened the immune system. Test subjects were reintroduced to harmless parasites, with positive response.\n",
"The innate immune system relies on germline encoded pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) to recognize distinct pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs). Upon recognition of a PAMP, PRRs generate signal cascades leading to transcription of genes associated with the immune response. Because all pathogens utilize nucleic acid to propagate, DNA and RNA can be recognized by PRRs to trigger immune activation. In normal cells, DNA is confined to the nucleus or mitochondria. The presence of DNA in the cytosol is indicative of cellular damage or infection and leads to activation of genes associated with the immune response. One way cytosolic DNA is sensed is via the cGAS/STING pathway, specifically by the cyclic-GMP-AMP synthase (cGAS). Upon DNA recognition, cGAS dimerizes and stimulates the formation of cyclic-GMP-AMP (cGAMP). cGAMP then binds directly to stimulator of interferon genes (STING) which triggers phosphorylation/activation of the transcription factor IRF3 via TBK1. IRF3 is able to enter the nucleus to promote transcription of inflammatory genes, such as IFN-β.\n",
"Unchecked or overactive T cell immune responses have the potential to mount unwarranted germinal centers, composed of aberrantly mutated B cells that can drive antibody-mediated autoimmune diseases. Elevated levels of T-like cells can be detected in the blood of a subset of human patients with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) and Sjogren's syndrome. However, scientific evidence suggesting T cells can definitively cause autoimmunity in humans remains incomplete.\n",
"The immune system must recognize millions of potential antigens. There are fewer than 30,000 genes in the human body, so it is impossible to have one gene for every antigen. Instead, the DNA in millions of white blood cells in the bone marrow is shuffled to create cells with unique receptors, each of which can bind to a different antigen. Some receptors bind to tissues in the human body itself, so to prevent the body from attacking itself, those self-reactive white blood cells are destroyed during further development in the thymus, in which iodine is necessary for its development and activity.\n"
] |
what makes gordon ramsay such an incredible chef? wouldn't the skill level of top level culinary artists not vary a lot?
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He's an incredible restauranteur, which is a bit different. He understands the entire business.
Creating top quality food is not actually super difficult. He doesn't do any wacky trendy stuff; just honest high-quality ingredients, fresh food, and good execution. He's particularly good are running a restaurant business, choosing good staff, and setting standards.
|
[
"Ramsay's reputation is built upon his goal of culinary perfection, which is associated with winning three Michelin stars. His mentor, Marco Pierre White noted that he is highly competitive. Since the airing of \"Boiling Point\", which followed Ramsay's quest of earning three Michelin stars, the chef has also become infamous for his fiery temper and use of expletives. Ramsay once famously ejected food critic A. A. Gill, whose dining companion was Joan Collins, from his restaurant, leading Gill to state that \"Ramsay is a wonderful chef, just a really second-rate human being.\" Ramsay admitted in his autobiography that he did not mind if Gill insulted his food, but a personal insult he was not going to stand for. Ramsay has also had confrontations with his kitchen staff, including one incident that resulted in the pastry chef calling the police. A 2005 interview reported Ramsay had retained 85% of his staff since 1993. Ramsay attributes his management style to the influence of previous mentors, notably chefs Marco Pierre White and Guy Savoy, father-in-law, Chris Hutcheson, and Jock Wallace, his manager while a footballer at Rangers.\n",
"Chef Ramsay is closely followed during eight of the most intense months of his life as he opens his first (and now flagship) restaurant in Royal Hospital Road in Chelsea in September 1998. This establishment would ultimately earn him the highly prestigious (and rare) three Michelin Stars. It also covers his participation in the dinner made at the Palace of Versailles on 11 July 1998 to celebrate the closing of the 1998 World Cup and features young chefs Marcus Wareing and Mark Sargeant at the early stages of their careers, as well as mentor Marco Pierre White.\n",
"Gordon James Ramsay (born 8 November 1966) is a British chef, restaurateur, writer, television personality and food critic. Born in Johnstone, Scotland, and raised in Stratford-upon-Avon, England, Ramsay's restaurants have been awarded 16 Michelin stars in total and currently hold a total of seven. His signature restaurant, Restaurant Gordon Ramsay in Chelsea, London, has held three Michelin stars since 2001. Appearing on the British television miniseries \"Boiling Point\" in 1998, by 2004 Ramsay had become one of the best-known and most influential chefs in the UK.\n",
"Gordon Ramsay is a Scottish Chef, restaurateur, writer, television personality and food critic. He has owned and operated a series of restaurants since he first became head chef of Aubergine in 1993. He owned 25% of that restaurant, where he earned his first two Michelin stars. Following the sacking of protege Marcus Wareing from sister restaurant L'Oranger, Ramsay organised a staff walkout from both restaurants and subsequently took them to open up Restaurant Gordon Ramsay, at Royal Hospital Road, London. His self-titled restaurant went on to become his first and only three Michelin star restaurant. Ramsay has become one of the chefs with the most Michelin stars in the world. In 2008, following the awarding of two stars for Gordon Ramsay at The London in New York, he drew with Alain Ducasse as the holder of the most Michelin stars with twelve. However, he has since been overtaken by both Ducasse and Joël Robuchon and currently has eight stars as of the 2014 New York City Michelin Guide.\n",
"Ramsay's Best Restaurant is a television programme featuring British celebrity chef Gordon Ramsay broadcast on Channel 4. During the series restaurants from all over Britain competed in order to win the \"Ramsay's Best Restaurant\" title. The initial 16 restaurants were selected by Ramsay from a pool of some 12,000 entries submitted by Channel 4 viewers.\n",
"Ramsay's flagship restaurant, Restaurant Gordon Ramsay, was voted London's top restaurant in \"Harden's\" for eight years, but in 2008 was placed below Petrus, a restaurant run by former protégé Marcus Wareing. In January 2013, Ramsay was inducted into the Culinary Hall of Fame.\n",
"In 1998, Ramsay opened his own restaurant in Chelsea, Restaurant Gordon Ramsay, with the help of his father-in-law, Chris Hutcheson, and his former colleagues at Aubergine. The restaurant gained its third Michelin star in 2001, making Ramsay the first Scot to achieve that feat. In 2011, \"The Good Food Guide\" listed Restaurant Gordon Ramsay as the second best in the UK, only bettered by The Fat Duck in Bray, Berkshire.\n"
] |
I just read that the space station is not high enough to have escaped the bulk of earth's gravitational pull, and still experiences a full 90% of it. If this is the case, why do they experience weightlessness?
|
Imagine firing a bullet fast enough that it falls toward Earth at the rate the Earth curves beneath it. Its always accelerating towards the center of the Earth but never gets any closer. This is precisely what the ISS and other satellites are doing.
|
[
"Since gravity is inversely proportional to the square of the distance, a space station 400 km above the Earth feels almost the same gravitational force as we do on the Earth's surface. The reason a space station does not plummet to the ground is not that it is not subject to gravity, but that it is in a free-fall orbit.\n",
"Gravity at the altitude of the ISS is approximately 90% as strong as at Earth's surface, but objects in orbit are in a continuous state of freefall, resulting in an apparent state of weightlessness. This perceived weightlessness is disturbed by five separate effects:\n",
"At \"Mir\"'s orbital altitude, the force of Earth's gravity was 88% of sea level gravity. While the constant free fall of the station offered a perceived sensation of weightlessness, the onboard environment was not one of weightlessness or zero gravity. The environment was often described as microgravity. This state of perceived weightlessness was not perfect, being disturbed by five separate effects:\n",
"It is a common misconception that astronauts in orbit are weightless because they have flown high enough to escape the Earth's gravity. In fact, at an altitude of , equivalent to a typical orbit of the ISS, gravity is still nearly 90% as strong as at the Earth's surface. Weightlessness actually occurs because orbiting objects are in free-fall.\n",
"Atmospheric drag exerts a significant effect at the altitudes of space stations, space shuttles and other manned Earth-orbit spacecraft, and satellites with relatively high \"low earth orbits\" such as the Hubble Space Telescope. Space stations typically require a regular altitude boost to counteract orbital decay (see also orbital station-keeping). Uncontrolled orbital decay brought down the Skylab space station, and (relatively) controlled orbital decay was used to de-orbit the Mir space station.\n",
"Particularly questioned was how weightlessness, which would be present in a real space flight, would be handled on a ground-based set. The Cadets were told that they would be in \"near space\" (as opposed to \"outer space\"), causing only a 30% loss of gravity; which was compensated by \"gravity generators\" built into the ship. Due to the Cadet-choosing criteria, this profoundly absurd explanation was believed (any object in orbit of another astronomical object will experience free-fall, and thus weightlessness).\n",
"An example of this is the International Space Station (ISS), which has an operational altitude above Earth's surface of between 330 and 410 km. Due to atmospheric drag the space station is constantly losing orbital energy. In order to compensate for this loss, which would eventually lead to a re-entry of the station, it has from time to time been re-boosted to a higher orbit. The chosen orbital altitude is a trade-off between the average thrust needed to counter-act the air drag and the delta-v needed to send payloads and people to the station. \n"
] |
Has any animal evolved in a way to adapt to the modern human?
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Dogs Decoded is a really good documentary that talks about evolution of dogs. And dogs have adapted to the modern human. One interesting example that i don't see anyone talking about is that dogs read human faces like humans read other humans' faces. They look at the left eye and then to the right and at the nose/mouth area. They do this every time and this is exactly how humans read faces. This is why dogs always seem to know what you are thinking or feeling. They can read your emotions. AND they only do this with humans. They don't do this with other dogs at all. Wolves don't do this to other wolves or to humans either.
Dogs Decoded, watch it.
|
[
"Evolutionary studies have provided explanations of altruistic behaviours in humans and nonhuman animals, and suggest similarities between humans and some nonhumans. Scientists such as Jane Goodall and Richard Dawkins believe in the capacity of nonhuman great apes, humans' closest relatives, to possess rationality and self-awareness.\n",
"Humans also retain a plasticity of behavior that is generally found among animals only in the young. The emphasis on learned, rather than inherited, behavior requires the human brain to remain receptive much longer. These neotenic changes may have disparate roots. Some may have been brought about by sexual selection in human evolution. In turn, they may have permitted the development of human capacities such as emotional communication. However, humans also have relatively large noses and long legs, both peramorphic (not neotenic) traits, though said peramorphic traits that separate modern humans from extant chimpanzees were present in Homo erectus to an even higher degree than in Homo sapiens, keeping general neoteny valid for the erectus to sapiens transition although there were perimorphic changes separating erectus from even earlier hominins such as most Australopithecus. Later research shows that some species of Australopithecus, including Australopithecus sediba, had the non-neotenic traits of Homo erectus to at least the same extent which separate them from other Australopithecus, making it possible that general neoteny applies throughout the evolution of the genus Homo depending on what species of Australopithecus that Homo descended from. The type specimen of sediba had these non-neotenic traits despite being a juvenile, suggesting that the adults may have been less neotenic in these regards than any Homo erectus or other Homo.\n",
"A feature that distinguishes humans from most animals is that we are not born with an extensive repertoire of behavioral programs that would enable us to survive on our own (\"physiological prematurity\"). To compensate for this, we have an unmatched ability to learn, i.e., to consciously acquire such programs by imitation or exploration. Once consciously acquired and sufficiently exercised, these programs can become automated to the extent that their execution happens beyond the realms of our awareness. Take, as an example, the incredible fine motor skills exerted in playing a Beethoven piano sonata or the sensorimotor coordination required to ride a motorcycle along a curvy mountain road. Such complex behaviors are possible only because a sufficient number of the subprograms involved can be executed with minimal or even suspended conscious control. In fact, the conscious system may actually interfere somewhat with these automated programs.\n",
"A feature that distinguishes humans from most animals is that we are not born with an extensive repertoire of behavioral programs that would enable us to survive on our own (\"physiological prematurity\"). To compensate for this, we have an unmatched ability to learn, i.e., to consciously acquire such programs by imitation or exploration. Once consciously acquired and sufficiently exercised, these programs can become automated to the extent that their execution happens beyond the realms of our awareness. Take, as an example, the incredible fine motor skills exerted in playing a Beethoven piano sonata or the sensorimotor coordination required to ride a motorcycle along a curvy mountain road. Such complex behaviors are possible only because a sufficient number of the subprograms involved can be executed with minimal or even suspended conscious control. In fact, the conscious system may actually interfere somewhat with these automated programs.\n",
"Humankind’s closest ancestors, the great apes, have evolved a number of specialized behaviors: orangutans are specialists at climbing trees, while chimpanzees and gorillas have evolved to walk on their knuckles. However, in considering non-behavioral specializations, Penn et al. (2008) argue that the \"profound continuity\" Charles Darwin noted between human and non-human animals in the biological domain is matched by a \"profound discontinuity\" between human and non-human animal minds. In contrast, in addition to cognitive-behavioral adaptations, it is possible that chimpanzees have acquired more socially advanced skills through natural selection, including self-recognition (indicated by chimpanzees' established ability to pass the \"mirror test\"). This task—in which a successful trial is simply one in which an animal recognizes itself in a mirror—is thought to be a basic building block of theory of mind development. Rhesus monkeys have also been shown to realize when they remember certain events and items, which is considered to be an instrumental building block in the formation of social relationships, as one must remember who owes him favors, who he can trust, and who he should avoid in order to prosper in the community.\n",
"Bryan chastised evolution for teaching children that humans were but one of 35,000 types of mammals and bemoaned the notion that human beings were descended \"Not even from American monkeys, but from old world monkeys\".\n",
"The earliest humans must have had and passed on knowledge about animals to increase their chances of survival. This may have included unsystematic knowledge of human and animal anatomy and aspects of animal behavior (such as migration patterns). People learnt more about animals with the Neolithic Revolution about 10,000 years ago. Humans domesticated animals as people became pastoralists and then farmers instead of hunter-gatherers in civilisations such as those of ancient Egypt. \n"
] |
What was the relationship like between the Spanish and their Tlaxcala alllies?
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You may be interested in [my earlier answer on a similar topic](_URL_0_):
- [In the second part](_URL_0_dwj7dmf/) I look at Tlaxcala's "special status", so you can also go straight to this - this focuses more on colonial times and Tlaxcala's rewards for siding with the Spanish
- [This answer to a follow up](_URL_0_dwowehk/) also directly deals with Tlaxcala in more detail (esp. on the 2nd question) - here I look more at Tlaxcala's reasons for forming the alliance in the first place
Hope that's helpful! In case of questions let me know.
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[
"Tacuba was called Tlacopan in the pre-Hispanic period. Tacuba is derived from the former Nahuatl name \"Tlacopan\" and means place of the jarilla plant. It was conquered by Azcapotzalco which placed Totoquihuatzin as governor. When the Tenochtitlan and Texcoco decided to ally against Azcapotzalco, Tlacopan did not resist and for this reason is considered to be the third of the Aztec Triple Alliance. Tacuba’s importance led to the construction of a causeway over the lake linking it with Tenochtitlan. Today, this causeway still exists as a major thoroughfare called Calzada Mexico-Tacuba.\n",
"Tacuba was called Tlacopan in the pre Hispanic period. Tacuba is derived from the former Nahuatl name “Tlacopan” and means place of the jarilla plant. It was conquered by Azcapotzalco which placed Totoquihuatzin as governor. When the Tenochtitlan and Texcoco decided to ally against Azcapotzalco, Tlacopan did not resist and for this reason is considered to be the third of the Aztec Triple Alliance. Tacuba's importance led to the construction of a causeway over the lake linking it with Tenochtitlan. Today, this causeway still exists as a major thoroughfare called Calzada Mexico-Tacuba.\n",
"Unlike the rest of Mexico, Tlaxcala was under the direct protection of the Spanish crown, part of its reward for its support in the Conquest. This shielded the Tlaxcalans from the worst of the oppression of the native peoples, which reached its peak in the 1530s. In fact, Tlaxcalan allegiance to the Spaniards became an enduring partnership. Tlaxcalan forces joined Spanish forces to put down revolts such as the Mixtón Rebellion and accompanied them to conquer places such as Guatemala and northern Mexico.\n",
"Due to protracted warfare between the Aztecs and the Tlaxcala, the Tlaxcala were eager to exact revenge, and soon became loyal allies of the Spanish. Even after the Spanish were expelled from Tenochtitlan, the Tlaxcala continued to support their conquest. Tlaxcala also assisted the Spanish in the conquest of Guatemala.\n",
"Before the arrival of Ferdinand Magellan, the Philippines was split into numerous barangays, which were not unlike the Greek city-states. These barangays warred, made peace, traded and had relations with each other. In Mindanao, Islamic sultanates such as the Sultanate of Sulu and Maguindanao, prospered. Ferdinand Magellan's death in 1521 can be partly attributed to a dispute between Lapu-Lapu and Rajah Humabon for control of Cebu. The Kingdom of Maynila was trading with China and other nearby empires when Miguel Lopez de Legazpi conquered the kingdom in 1565 and assimilated it with the other kingdoms he had conquered nearby to unite the Philippines under Spanish rule.\n",
"By the time of López de Legazpi's death, the parts of the Visayas had passed to Spanish rule. The Spanish met strong resistance from Muslim sultanates on the island of Mindanao, the Zambal tribes of Zambales, and the Igorot of the Cordilleran mountains, as well as some Wokou pirates from China and Japan.\n",
"The navigational error that landed Ferdinand Magellan in Limasawa brought awareness of Europe to the Philippines and opened the door to Spanish colonial incursion. The Spaniards introduced Catholicism and a political system of church-state dichotomy, which encountered fierce resistance in the devastating Moro wars from 1578 to 1899. The Sultanate of Sulu formally recognised Spanish sovereignty in Tawi-Tawi and Sulu in middle of 19th century, but these areas remained partially ruled by the Spanish as their sovereignty was limited to military stations and garrisons and pockets of civilian settlements, until they had to abandon the region as a consequence of their defeat in the Spanish–American War.\n"
] |
if the scotus decided to uphold roe vs. wade back in 1992, how could it be overturned now? can scotus just decide to "change its mind"?
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So, they aren't overturning a previous decision, they are simply taking a different stance with regards to a new case that touches on the same subject but which has slightly different implications to it.
For instance, say in 1990 the Supreme Court ruled to ban all candy. Stores stop selling all sweets, including chocolate. And then in 2000, there was a court case against a supermarket that tried to claim that chocolate doesn't meet the legal definition of candy. The Supreme Court could then rule that yes, chocolate *is not* candy, which would mean that there is a legal precedent for stores to sell chocolate again.
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[
"In 1992's \"Planned Parenthood v. Casey\", Souter wrote that \"Roe v. Wade\" should not be overturned because it would be \"a surrender to political pressure... So to overrule under fire in the absence of the most compelling reason to re-examine a watershed decision would subvert the Court's legitimacy beyond any serious question.\"\n",
"According to Jamal Brown, Biden's press secretary, said that when Biden arrived in the Senate in 1973 he thought \"Roe v. Wade\" was wrongly decided, but now “firmly believes that \"Roe v. Wade\" is the law of the land and should not be overturned,”. In 1981, he voted for a failed constitutional amendment allowing states to overturn \"Roe v. Wade\". In 1982, he voted against the same failed constitutional amendment allowing states to overturn \"Roe v. Wade\". He now says he would consider codifying the \"Roe v. Wade\" precedent into federal law in case the ruling is overturned by the United States Supreme Court. He pledged that he would appoint United States Supreme Court justices who shared his beliefs in upholding \"Roe v. Wade\".\n",
"\"Roe v. Wade\" was pending when Bigelow's appeal first reached the Supreme Court, leading the justices to defer action. After \"Roe\" was decided, the justices remanded \"Bigelow\" to Virginia, but the state court reaffirmed Bigelow's conviction; Bigelow filed a new appeal to the Supreme Court.\n",
"The state had a law on the books in August 2018 that would be triggered if Roe v. Wade was overturned. In mid-May 2019, abortion was banned after week 22. North Dakota HB 1456 was signed into law in March 2013 by Jack Dalrymple, who stated that it was \"a legitimate attempt by a state legislature to discover the boundaries of Roe v. Wade.\" A federal district court found that it clearly violated the constitutional protections afforded in Roe v. Wade and it was quickly blocked. \n",
"\"Roe v. Wade\" reached the Supreme Court on appeal in 1970. The justices delayed taking action on \"Roe\" and a closely related case, \"Doe v. Bolton\", until they had decided \"Younger v. Harris\" (because they felt the appeals raised difficult questions on judicial jurisdiction) and \"United States v. Vuitch\" (in which they considered the constitutionality of a District of Columbia statute that criminalized abortion except where the mother's life or health was endangered). In \"Vuitch\", the Court narrowly upheld the statute, though in doing so, it treated abortion as a medical procedure and stated that physicians must be given room to determine what constitutes a danger to (physical or mental) health. The day after they announced their decision in \"Vuitch\", they voted to hear both \"Roe\" and \"Doe\".\n",
"In a 5–4 decision in 1989's \"Webster v. Reproductive Health Services\", Chief Justice Rehnquist, writing for the Court, declined to explicitly overrule \"Roe\", because \"none of the challenged provisions of the Missouri Act properly before us conflict with the Constitution.\" In this case, the Court upheld several abortion restrictions, and modified the \"Roe\" trimester framework.\n",
"Justices O'Connor and Scalia joined Rehnquist's opinion except for the section on viability testing. Each wrote a separate concurring opinion. Justice O'Connor claimed that narrowing \"Roe v. Wade\" in the context of the \"Webster\" litigation, where upholding Missouri's law could arguably be squared with \"Roe\", would violate an important principle of judicial restraint. She then explained that she voted to uphold Missouri's law because she did not feel that it would place an undue burden on the right to abortion.\n"
] |
if you touch something so hot that it vaporizes your finger would you feel the pain?
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Yes, because something that hot will be heating your arm hot enough to burn you. It doesn't matter if you can get the signal from your finger or not if the rest of your arm and body is on fire.
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[
"Michael Hanlon – who volunteered to experience its effects – described it as \"a bit like touching a red-hot wire, but there is no heat, only the sensation of heat.\" Raytheon says that pain ceases instantly upon removal of the ray; still, Hanlon reported that the finger he subjected \"was tingling hours later.\"\n",
"If the arcs from the high voltage terminal strike the bare skin, they can cause deep-seated burns called \"RF burns\". This is often avoided by allowing the arcs to strike a piece of metal held in the hand, or a thimble on a finger, instead. The current passes from the metal into the person's hand through a wide enough surface area to avoid causing burns. Often no sensation is felt, or just a warmth or tingling.\n",
"There was immediate pain, as if being penetrated by a thorn much larger than the actual sting. The site of the sting felt tight and as if it was burning, although there was little visible inflimation. After approximately an hour, the pain had subsided to the point where I was more aware of a sensation of tingling like when you stick your tongue on a 9V battery. After an additional half hour, the pain and tingling had subsided to the point where my thumb felt like it had a sealed paper cut on it -- where moving my thumb felt odd but keeping it still was without much sensation. Several hours later, this too had subsided and I felt nothing. At no point did I experience any systemic effects, nor did the symptoms extend beyond the initial sting site -- not even as far as my first joint on my thumb.\n",
"When a person touches a hot object and withdraws their hand from it without actively thinking about it, the heat stimulates temperature and pain receptors in the skin, triggering a sensory impulse that travels to the central nervous system. The sensory neuron then synapses with interneurons that connect to motor neurons. Some of these send motor impulses to the flexors that lead to the muscles in the arm to contract, while some motor neurons send inhibitory impulses to the extensors so flexion is not inhibited. This is referred to as reciprocal innervation.\n",
"Tingling, numbness, and/ or a burning sensation in the area of the body affected by the corresponding nerve. These experiences may occur directly following insult or may occur several hours or even days afterwards. Pain is less common than tingling or numbness as a symptom of nerve entrapment, although a burning sensation, if it occurs, may (subjectively) be classified as pain.\n",
"Reactions, which vary depending on the severity of the case, include rashes, flared 'bumpy' patches, affected areas being extremely hot to touch, and outbreaks shortly (or within 24 hours) after direct or indirect exposure to UVA and/or UVB light. The skin most likely reacts on the upper chest, hands and face, however it is not unlikely for reactions to happen all over the body. The patient may feel burning, stinging or throbbing sensations in these areas, which causes mild, yet uncomfortable pain in some patients. Others liken the pain and sensation to a chemical burn that doesn't go away. It is a mistake to think that the reaction is like a sunburn, it is far deeper in the skin and often requires the use of ingestible steroids as well as topical steroids in order to alleviate the condition to a degree. The best protection is to be fully covered from sunlight, even when cloudy or hazy. The use of UV-rated clothing is suggested as well as a UV-rated umbrella for outdoors.\n",
"A case of nerve damage by an exposure to radiation from a malfunctioning 600 watt microwave oven, operated for five seconds with the door open, with both arms and hands exposed, was reported. During exposure, there was a pulsating, burning sensation in all fingers. Erythema appeared on the back sides of both hands and arms. Four years later, denervation of median nerve, ulnar nerve, and radial nerve in both arms was shown on an electromyography test.\n"
] |
is scoliosis genetic? or is it something you can get from say sitting in a crooked chair every day while growing up?
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Scoliosis is a genetic condition. Sitting in a chair that's crooked can give you back aches and spasms, but it cannot give you scoliosis.
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[
"Scoliosis, is a medical condition where a person's spine has several irregular curves that are located between the neck and the pelvis. Symptoms of scoliosis in mild cases usually exhibit abnormal posture, back pain, tingling or numbness in the legs and in worse cases can exhibit breathing problems, fatigue, permanent deformities and in rare cases heart problems.\n",
"Secondary scoliosis due to neuropathic and myopathic conditions can lead to a loss of muscular support for the spinal column so that the spinal column is pulled in abnormal directions. Some conditions which may cause secondary scoliosis include muscular dystrophy, spinal muscular atrophy, poliomyelitis, cerebral palsy, spinal cord trauma, and myotonia. Scoliosis often presents itself, or worsens, during an adolescent's growth spurt and is more often diagnosed in females than males.\n",
"Scoliosis is a common spinal disease in which the spine has a curvature usually in the shape of the letter \"C\" or \"S\". This is most common in girls, but there is no specific cause for scoliosis. Only a few symptoms occur for one with this disease, which include feeling tired in the spinal region or backaches. Generally, if the hips or shoulders are uneven, or if the spine curves, it is due to scoliosis and should be seen by a doctor.\n",
"Monitoring for scoliosis is also important, since weakness of the trunk muscles can lead to deviations in spinal alignment, with resultant compromise of respiratory function. Many patients with congenital myopathies may eventually require surgical treatment of scoliosis.\n",
"Scoliosis is a medical condition in which a person's spine has a sideways curve. The curve is usually \"S\"- or \"C\"-shaped over three dimensions. In some, the degree of curve is stable, while in others, it increases over time. Mild scoliosis does not typically cause problems, but severe cases can interfere with breathing. Typically, no pain is present.\n",
"The cause of most cases is unknown, but it is believed to involve a combination of genetic and environmental factors. Risk factors include other affected family members. It can also occur due to another condition such as muscles spasms, cerebral palsy, Marfan syndrome, and tumors such as neurofibromatosis. Diagnosis is confirmed with X-rays. Scoliosis is typically classified as either structural in which the curve is fixed, or functional in which the underlying spine is normal.\n",
"Scoliosis refers to yet another form of abnormal curvature in which the person’s spine takes an “S” or “C” shape. Scoliosis too has similar forms of treatments available as Kyphosis including bracing, physical therapy and various types of surgeries. Typically, a human spine is straight but in Scoliosis patients; there may be a curve of ten degrees in either direction, left or right.\n"
] |
What are examples of Prophecies that were very influencial in their time, or culture?
|
The [Sybilline Books](_URL_0_) were a series of oracular predictions written in Greek hexameters that were supposedly sold to Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, the last King of Rome by a sibyl.
Basically, the legend goes that the Hellespontine Sibyl (an Oracle of Apollo) wrote them in the lifetime of Cyrus the Great, and they passed down to the Erythraean Sibyl another Apollonian Oracle in Ionia. Lucius Tarquinius Superbus wanted to purchase them but thought that the price she quoted was too high, so she burned 3 and offered to sell the rest for the same price, he still refused, so she burned another 3, and he relented and bought the last 3 for the price all 9 would have been. Tarquinius then had them carefully preserved in a vault below the Capitoline Temple of Jupiter.
Supposedly they predicted the time and nature of several calamities (plagues, hail, earthquakes etc.) and the necessary rites of expiation to avert total disaster (like burying 2 Gauls and 2 Greeks alive after the legions were defeated by Hannibal at Cannae). They remained housed in the Temple of Jupiter (until 87 BC, when the Temple burned down, and the books were replaced with various similar writings collected from Illium, Erythrae, Samos, Sicily, and Africa together with the writings of Roman oracles)
Having been collected in Anatolia and being connected to Greek cult practice they were instrumental in integrating Greek deities and belief systems (more than the Etruscan influence already had) and the Keepers of the Sybilline Books had superintendence over the worship of Apollo, Cybele, and Ceres.
They were kept under tight control by the Roman Senate, first entrusted to 2 patricians, changed to 5 patricians and 5 plebeians in 367 BC, and finally to 15 caretakers (around Sulla's time). They held this office for life and were exempted from all other duties due to the importance of that office. Of course, being in Greek hexameter there were always 2 Greek translators to assist in interpretation. They were consulted whenever the Roman Republic, and later Empire, faced a crisis although it was warned that the interpretation of the necessary form of expiation (but not the oracles themselves oddly enough) could potentially be abused by those appointed to read them.
The Sibylline Books were an important part of Roman legendary tradition, and helped to shape Roman policies and religious practices, being consulted in times of uncertainty to help guide political, religious and sometimes military action and were the reason for the construction of eight temples within the city of Rome, the institution of the Lectisternium ceremony, Megalesia Ludi and the Ludi Florales (a springtime fertility festival associated with flowers and growth), among more political actions like extending friendship to King Ptolemy XII of Egypt but refusing military aid (although he eventually did receive aid from Aulus Gabinius).
However at times the oracles were ignored due to practical necessities, and finally were burned on the orders of Roman general Stilcho as they were being used to attack his government.
Still, several exerpts from the Syballine Books and their translations have survived, although I do not have any links where you can find them.
Sources:
[Livy's History of Rome (5, 7, 10, 13, 27, 28, 31, 47)](_URL_1_)
[Tacitus' *Annals* (Book 6, VI.12)](_URL_4_)
[Lactantius' Institutiones Divinae (I: 6)](_URL_3_)
Ammianus Marcellinus' *History of Rome, XXIII* (1, 7)
[Hermann Diels' *Sibyllinische Blätter*](_URL_5_)
[Eric M. Orlin's *Temples, Religion, and Politics in the Roman Republic* (chapter 3)] (_URL_2_)
Edit: Didn't realise this question was against sub rules. :-/ Hopefully this still helped.
|
[
"The word itself seems to have been coined by the opponents of Louis XIV of France in the 1690s, who applied the term \"despotisme\" to describe their monarch's somewhat free exercise of power. The word is ultimately Greek in origin, and in ancient Greek usage, a despot (\"despótès\") was technically a master who ruled in a household over those who were slaves or servants by nature.\n",
"There is a dichotomy, however, in the individuals used as scapegoats in mythical tales and the ones used in the actual rituals. In mythical tales, it was stressed that someone of high importance had to be sacrificed if the whole society were to benefit from the aversion of catastrophe (usually a king or the king's children). However, since no king or person of importance would be willing to sacrifice himself or his children, the scapegoat in actual rituals would be someone of lower society who would be given value through special treatment such as fine clothes and dining before the sacrificial ceremony.\n",
"Political rumors sometimes centered around sacrifice and in doing so, aimed to liken individuals to barbarians and show that the individual had become uncivilized. Human sacrifice also became a marker and defining characteristic of magic and bad religion.\n",
"Stories of the erotes' mischief or pranks were a popular theme in Hellenistic culture, particularly in the 2nd century BCE. Spells to attract or repel erotes were used, in order to induce love or the opposite. Different erotes represented various facets of love or desire, such as unrequited love (Himeros), mutual love (Anteros) or longing (Pothos).\n",
"They have traditionally been described as troublesome spirits who haunt a particular person instead of a specific location. Such alleged poltergeist manifestations have been reported in many cultures and countries including the United States, Pakistan, India‚ Japan, Brazil, Australia, and most European nations. Early accounts date back to the 1st century. Forms of spiritual harassment became more common in the early 1600s.\n",
"In the 17th century, people began to question such assumptions. In 1646, Sir Thomas Browne published his \"Pseudodoxia Epidemica\" (subtitled \"Enquiries into Very many Received Tenets, and commonly Presumed Truths\"), which was an attack on false beliefs and \"vulgar errors.\" His contemporary, Alexander Ross, erroneously refuted him, stating: \"To question this [spontaneous generation], is to question Reason, Sense, and Experience: If he doubts of this, let him go to \"Ægypt\", and there he will finde the fields swarming with mice begot of the mud of \"Nylus\", to the great calamity of the Inhabitants.\"\n",
"Self-fulfilling prophecies are amongst the most common forms of magic because they are an often used plot device. Often the effort undertaken to avert them brings them about, thus driving the story. It is very rare for a prophecy in a fantasy to be false, although usually, their significance is only clear with hindsight. Quibbles can undermine the clearest appearing prophecies.\n"
] |
Are birth controls pills relate to disease in women?
|
Since no one has given what appears to be an adequate respond to your question, let me answer your question from my perspective as a public health researcher/biostatistician.
Yes, birth control pills are associated with increased risks of blood clots. Any links between birth control pills and other conditions such as cancer, heart disease, and many of the other conditions listed in that article are controversial and unproven. It appears that hormonal birth control can interact with known risk factors such as smoking to further increase risk of certain conditions.
The article is clearly written with an anti-hormonal birth control agenda. They describe PremPro as "arguably... one of the greatest embarrassments in medical history" which simply isn't true. While prempro has been associated with the conditions the article mentioned (in some studies, while others have not reproduced those findings), it is not a birth control pill. It is used for the treatment of menopause.
> HRT is now widely accepted as poison
Note how the article does not actually state who "widely accepts" HRT as poison. It simply isn't by doctors or public health researchers. HRT has been shown to have benefits while the risks of HRT remain controversial. Some studies have found that HRT had a protective effect for the same diseases that other studies say HRT increases risk for. This usually indicates a few possible scenarios:
1. There is some unknown confounder or effect modifier of the association between HRT and these chronic diseases (almost certainly the case)
2. Some of the observed associations occurred due to random chance
> BCP’s have poisoned three generations of women around the world.
This article is littered with hyperbolic statements like this with no evidence or proof. In fact the two cited sources in the article are from ABC News and some place called "_URL_0_" which appears to be a pro-life Christian group's website. Some of these statements are even so ridiculous as to be humorous:
> The fewer chemicals you put in your body, the healthier you are.
> Health is reflective of the number of medications you take. The less medications, the healthier you are.
This article is not credible. It's not scientifically rigorous or well-researched. It uses fear tactics and strong words to scare the readers. Furthermore, chiropractors, to my knowledge, are not experts on sexual health or endocrinology.
|
[
"The most common side effects of birth control pills containing EE and low-dose CMA have been found to include menstrual abnormalities, headache (37%), nausea (23%), breast tenderness (22%), and vaginal discharge (19%) among others. These formulations do not adversely affect sexual desire or function in women and show little or no risk of depression, mood swings, or weight gain. High-dosage CMA is associated with sexual dysfunction (e.g., reduced libido, erectile dysfunction), reduced body hair, adrenal insufficiency, and alterations in carbohydrate metabolism. Conversely, it does not share adverse effects of estrogens such as breast discomfort and gynecomastia. CMA does not increase the risk of venous thromboembolism. There is a case report of autoimmune progesterone dermatitis with CMA. Similarly to other progestins but in contrast to progesterone, CMA has been found to significantly increase the risk of breast cancer when used in combination with an estrogen in menopausal hormone therapy. No abnormalities in liver function tests have been observed in women taking combined birth control pills containing CMA or CPA. Unlike CPA, high-dosage CMA does not seem to be associated with hepatotoxicity.\n",
"Contraindications of combined birth control pills, such as those containing EE and CMA, include known or suspected pregnancy, lactation and breastfeeding, a history of or known susceptibility to thromboembolism, cholestasis (but not liver cirrhosis or chronic hepatitis), and breast cancer among others. CMA is a teratogen in animals and may have the potential to cause fetal harm, such as feminization of male fetuses among other defects.\n",
"Birth control pills come in a variety of formulations. The main division is between combined oral contraceptive pills, containing both estrogens and synthetic progestogens (progestins), and progestogen only pills. Combined oral contraceptive pills also come in varying types, including varying doses of estrogen, and whether the dose of estrogen or progestogen changes from week to week.\n",
"BULLET::::- Birth control pills that consist of an estrogen, usually ethinylestradiol, and a progestin are supported by the evidence. They are functional antiandrogens. In addition, certain birth control pills contain a progestin that also has antiandrogenic activity. Examples include birth control pills containing cyproterone acetate, chlormadinone acetate, drospirenone, and dienogest.\n",
"Birth control pills are the most commonly prescribed hormonal treatment for hirsutism, as they prevent ovulation and decrease androgen production by the ovaries. Additionally, estrogen in the pills stimulates the liver to produce more of a protein that binds to androgens and reduces their activity.\n",
"For individuals with specific health problems, certain forms of birth control may require further investigations. For women who are otherwise healthy, many methods of birth control should not require a medical exam—including birth control pills, injectable or implantable birth control, and condoms. For example, a pelvic exam, breast exam, or blood test before starting birth control pills does not appear to affect outcomes. In 2009, the World Health Organization (WHO) published a detailed list of medical eligibility criteria for each type of birth control.\n",
"Birth control pills containing EV/DNG are associated with a significantly increased risk of venous thromboembolism. However, they are associated with a significantly lower risk of venous thromboembolism than birth control pills containing ethinylestradiol and a progestin.\n"
] |
What happened to King George's copy of the Declaration of Independence?
|
[This](_URL_0_) previous answer by /u/mydearestangelica might answer your question.
|
[
"Introduced to the Royal Archives in 1914, both official and private correspondence of George III and George IV were found in the care of the Duke of Wellington who presented them to George V upon discovery. Although a small amount of the Georgian Papers includes records from George I and George II, most of the collection represents George III and George IV. This collection also includes a sample of essays and other personal writings of George III. Additionally, despite William IV’s official papers being destroyed after his death in 1837, records including personal accounts, military documents, and private correspondence have been preserved in the Royal Archives. As acting Prime Ministers under the reign of William IV and Queen Victoria, Charles Grey, 2 Earl Grey and Lord Melbourne, produced a wealth of official correspondence during their time in service. Known as the Melbourne and Howick Papers, these documents detail noteworthy political and social affairs of the 1830’s.\n",
"BULLET::::- The first version of the Declaration of Independence read by Adams' family was depicted as a printed copy; in reality, it was a copy in Adams' own hand, which led Mrs. Adams to believe that he had written it himself.\n",
"George III's papers do not include a diary. The TV series \"The X-Files\" uses a fictional anecdote that George III's diary entry on July 4, 1776 read: \"Nothing important happened today\", as a plot device and as the title of the ninth-season premiere. (In fact, George could anyway not have been notified of transatlantic events until weeks later).\n",
"The language suggested that the original copy of the proclamation had actually been signed by the Rising's leaders. However no evidence has ever been found, nor do any contemporary records mention, the existence of an \"actually signed\" copy, though had such a copy existed, it could easily have been destroyed in the aftermath of the Rising by someone (in the British military, a member of the public or a Rising participant trying to destroy potentially incriminating evidence) who did not appreciate its historic importance. Molloy claimed in later life to have set the document from a handwritten copy, with signatures on a separate piece of paper which he destroyed by chewing while in prison, but this was disputed by other participants. Molloy also recalled that Connolly had asked for the document to resemble an auctioneer's notice in general design.\n",
"When on January 18, 1777, the Second Continental Congress moved that the Declaration of Independence be widely distributed, Goddard was one of the first to offer the use of her press. This was in spite of the risks of being associated with what was considered a treasonable document by the British. Her copy, the Goddard Broadside, was the second printed, and the first to contain the typeset names of the signatories, including John Hancock.\n",
"On July 4, 1776, when the United States Declaration of Independence was ratified, Duché, meeting with the church's vestry, passed a resolution stating that the name of King George III of Great Britain was no longer to be read in the prayers of the church. Duché complied, crossing out said prayers from his Book of Common Prayer, committing an act of treason against England, an extraordinary and dangerous act for a clergyman who had taken an oath of loyalty to the King. On July 9, Congress elected him its first official chaplain.\n",
"The original document was temporarily made available to the Victorian Government in July 1880 so that a copy could be made for the Crown prosecution case against Kelly during his trial for murder later that year. However, Kelly's defence counsel objected to the copy of the letter being tendered as evidence. The government copy, now held by the Public Record Office Victoria, was the basis for all published versions of the Jerilderie Letter until November 2000 when the original was donated to the State Library of Victoria.\n"
] |
Do large impacts cause nuclear reactions?
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I'm going to go ahead and say that I think it's not possible.
The Chicxulub impactor (the one that we think killed the dinosaurs) was 10 km across, and going 20 km/s. A little Googling tells me people have done lots of simulations of [what this might look like,](_URL_0_) and seem to believe that 10,000 K sounds like a reasonable upperbound for the peak temperature.
This is also way way way smaller than temperatuers where thermonuclear fusion takes place. Think millions or even billions of Kelvin for that.
|
[
"The effects of any nuclear explosion is dependent of a very large number of factors, including but not limited to type of nuclear device, delivery method, explosion type (whether air burst or surface burst), the target's structural anatomy, and atmospheric conditions. To estimate the number of casualties in addition to this poses an even greater challenge.\n",
"The effect of nuclear accidents has been a topic of debate practically since the first nuclear reactors were constructed. It has also been a key factor in public concern about nuclear facilities. Some technical measures to reduce the risk of accidents or to minimize the amount of radioactivity released to the environment have been adopted. Despite the use of such measures, \"there have been many accidents with varying effects as well near misses and incidents\".\n",
"The effect of nuclear accidents has been a topic of debate practically since the first nuclear reactors were constructed. It has also been a key factor in public concern about nuclear facilities. Some technical measures to reduce the risk of accidents or to minimize the amount of radioactivity released to the environment have been adopted. Despite the use of such measures, human error remains, and \"there have been many accidents with varying effects as well near misses and incidents\".\n",
"The Nuclear Regulatory Commission's estimate of the risk each year of an earthquake intense enough to cause core damage to the reactor at Clinton was 1 in 400,000, according to an NRC study published in August 2010.\n",
"The Nuclear Regulatory Commission's estimate of the risk each year of an earthquake intense enough to cause core damage to the reactor at Kewaunee was 1 in 83,333, according to an NRC study published in August 2010.\n",
"Any nuclear attack will have consequences far beyond the area directly affected by the explosion, and the people killed in the nuclear fireball and its immediate radiation. Aside from the political, military and tactical considerations of nuclear attacks on civilians, additional effects include the subsequent nuclear fallout which spreads radioactive particles across large distances, the potential of nuclear winter and other nuclear-related climate change, and the long-term effects of radioactive exposure on human health, such as radiation-induced cancer. If distinguished, this list takes into account immediate deaths and short-term deaths, and not long-term health complications.\n",
"The Nuclear Regulatory Commission's estimate of the risk each year of an earthquake intense enough to cause core damage to the reactor at Summer was 1 in 26,316, according to an NRC study published in August 2010.\n"
] |
how is it possible that a washing machine can spin so quickly (1200 rpm)? that's 20 spins in a second..?
|
> ELI5: How is it possible that a washing machine can spin so quickly (1200 rpm)? That's 20 spins in a second..?
That's not even fast! A blender can spin at 18,000 RPM
All you need is a properly built motor that's strong enough and good bearings. The motor just needs to be able to overcome the drag at that speed and should be built to spin at that speed either by design or with gears to get it there. If you've got good bearings then you don't lose much energy at all each revolution so the motor can keep adding more and more energy and spin it up further so the motor doesn't require too much energy to hit ludicrous speeds.
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[
"These centrifuge machines simply spin their drums much faster than a typical washer could, in order to extract additional water from the load. They may remove more water in two minutes than a heated tumbler dryer can in twenty, thus saving significant amounts of time and energy. Although spinning alone will not completely dry clothing, this additional step saves a worthwhile amount of time and energy for large laundry operations such as those of hospitals.\n",
"If a heated clothes-dryer is used after the wash and spin, energy use is reduced if more water has been removed from clothes. However, faster spinning can crease clothes more. Also, mechanical wear on bearings increases rapidly with rotational speed, reducing life. Early machines would spin at only 300 rpm and, because of lack of any mechanical suspension, would often shake and vibrate.\n",
"During a normal cycle, most Whirlpool-built wig-wag equipped washers will fill, start the motor, then engage the wash solenoid. Upon completion of the wash mode, the wash (agitate) solenoid will be turned off, which will allow the pump to drain the tub. After a minute or two, the timer will then engage the spin wig-wag which will cause the rotation of the tub. This is in contrast to most other top-load washing machines which start spinning and draining simultaneously. There are no pauses between cycles in these machines.\n",
"On the spinning floors, the spinning process required a warm humid environment. George Murray stated that they tried to keep temperatures at around 24°C (75°F). Spinners were regarded as craftsmen, and they were paid by the amount they produced. They were also left to recruit, train and pay their own assistants. These assistants were often children, and consisted of \"piecers\" who rejoined broken threads and mule scavengers who cleaned the machinery. Child labour was generally considered by mill managers to be an important way of securing a skilled adult work force.\n",
"The method of wheel rotation is typically conducted through an electric motor with a \"pinion\" gear or small gear to or in mesh with a rotating \"bull\" gear or large gear. All utilities for blowing containers and for mold cooling are carried through the main shaft or the axle from which the wheel rotates about. These utilities include compressed air and water. Sequencing functions necessary to inflate the parison, hold the container prior to discharge and discharge are completed by mechanical actuation to pneumatic valves – resulting in a high degree of repeatability.\n",
"The modern process of water removal by spinning did not come into use until electric motors were developed. Spinning requires a constant high-speed power source, and was originally done in a separate device known as an \"extractor\". A load of washed laundry would be transferred from the wash tub to the extractor basket, and the water spun out in a separate operation. These early extractors were often dangerous to use, since unevenly distributed loads would cause the machine to shake violently. Many efforts were made to counteract the shaking of unstable loads, such as mounting the spinning basket on a free-floating shock-absorbing frame to absorb minor imbalances, and a bump switch to detect severe movement and stop the machine so that the load could be manually redistributed.\n",
"The centrifugal force generated by spinning the centrifuge rotor creates a pressure gradient within the solvent contained in the tubes or vials, this means that the samples boil from the top down, helping to prevent \"bumping\". The most advanced systems apply the vacuum slowly and run the rotor at speeds of 500 x gravity - this system is proven to prevent bumping and was patented by Genevac in the late 1990s.\n"
] |
zero day exploits and what makes them so rare?
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A zero day is just an exploit that isn't public or out there on the market yet. Basically its a known exploit, its not patched, and its gonna work as you expect. It's a "new" exploit. "Zero" as in zero days out in the public for it to be seen and fixed.
These are rare because first of all, finding any exploit is difficult, a second because exploits often make their way out pretty quickly so they end up getting patched fast. A zero day just means an exploit that is currently unknown by the public or thing its exploiting, and its working.
Having a zero day exploit is a massive prize to nefarious users, as they know its going to work. It may not work for long, but it will work now.
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[
"Much has been said in academia and regular media about the regulation of zero-day exploits in the market. However, it is very difficult to reach a consensus because most definitions for zero-day exploits are rather vague or not applicable, as one can only define the use of certain software as malware after it has been used. In addition, there is a conflict of interest within the operations of the State that could prevent a regulation that can make mandatory the disclosure of zero-days. Governments face a trade-off between protecting their citizens' privacy through the reporting of vulnerabilities to private companies on one hand and undermining the communication technologies used by their targets—who also threaten the security of the public—on the other. The protection of national security through exploitation of software vulnerabilities unknown to both companies and the public is an ultimate resource for security agencies but also compromises the safety of every single user because any third party, including criminal organizations, could be making use of the same resource. Hence, only users and private firms have incentives to minimize the risks associated with zero-day exploits; the former to avoid an invasion of privacy and the latter to reduce the costs of data breaches. These include legal processes, costs related to the development of solutions to fix or \"patch\" the original vulnerability in the software and costs associated with the loss of confidence of clients in the product.\n",
"A zero-day virus (also known as zero-day malware or next-generation malware) is a previously unknown computer virus or other malware for which specific antivirus software signatures are not yet available.\n",
"A zero-day (also known as 0-day) vulnerability is a computer-software vulnerability that is unknown to, or unaddressed by, those who should be interested in mitigating the vulnerability (including the vendor of the target software). Until the vulnerability is mitigated, hackers can exploit it to adversely affect computer programs, data, additional computers or a network. An exploit directed at a zero-day is called a zero-day exploit, or zero-day attack.\n",
"A second alternative explanation that was put forward was that the Equation Group used zero-day exploits against several manufacturers' VPN equipment which were validated by Kaspersky Lab as being tied to the Equation Group and validated by those manufacturers as being real exploits, some of which were zero-day exploits at the time of their exposure. The Cisco PIX and ASA firewalls had vulnerabilities that were used for wiretapping by the NSA.\n",
"Differing ideologies exist relative to the collection and use of zero-day vulnerability information. Many computer security vendors perform research on zero-day vulnerabilities in order to better understand the nature of vulnerabilities and their exploitation by individuals, computer worms and viruses. Alternatively, some vendors purchase vulnerabilities to augment their research capacity. An example of such a program is TippingPoint's Zero Day Initiative. While selling and buying these vulnerabilities is not technically illegal in most parts of the world, there is a lot of controversy over the method of disclosure. A 2006 German decision to include Article 6 of the Convention on Cybercrime and the EU Framework Decision on Attacks against Information Systems may make selling or even manufacturing vulnerabilities illegal.\n",
"Zero-day protection is the ability to provide protection against zero-day exploits. Since zero-day attacks are generally unknown to the public it is often difficult to defend against them. Zero-day attacks are often effective against \"secure\" networks and can remain undetected even after they are launched. Thus, users of so-called secure systems must also exercise common sense and practice safe computing habits.\n",
"\"Zero Days\" covers the phenomenon surrounding the Stuxnet computer virus and the development of the malware software known as \"Olympic Games.\" It concludes with discussion over follow-up cyber plan Nitro Zeus and the Iran Nuclear Deal.\n"
] |
at what point does a fertilized egg or an embryo gain consciousness or awareness that its alive?
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If you're talking about self-awareness, then around the age of two assuming you follow the mirror test as a valid test of self-awareness. Basically, you show the child a mirror. If they think it's another child, it's not self-aware. If it recognizes the image in the mirror as themself, they are self-aware.
|
[
"Other writers apply similar criteria, concluding that the embryo lacks a right to life because it lacks self-consciousness, or rationality and self-consciousness, or \"certain higher psychological capacities\" including \"autonomy\".\n",
"Buddhists believe that life begins (or more technically: a consciousness arises) when the egg is fertilised. That is why some birth control methods, such as the copper IUD, which act by killing the fertilised egg and preventing implantation are unacceptable since they harm the consciousness which has already become embodied.\n",
"An embryo is an early stage of development of a multicellular diploid eukaryotic organism. In general, in organisms that reproduce sexually, an embryo develops from a zygote, the single cell resulting from the fertilization of the female egg cell by the male sperm cell. The zygote possesses half the DNA from each of its two parents. In plants, animals, and some protists, the zygote will begin to divide by mitosis to produce a multicellular organism. The result of this process is an embryo.\n",
"Pseudo-scientific proponents of lotus births view the baby and the placenta as one on a cellular level, as they are from the same source, the egg and sperm conceptus. They also assert that the newborn and the placenta exist within the same quantum field, thus influencing various expressions of quantum mechanics that influence health. They claim transfers of energy & cellular information continue to take place, moving gradually from the tissue of the placenta to the baby during the drying process. Scientists challenge this claim of a metaphysical dimension related to quantum mechanics.\n",
"BULLET::::- Some parties contend that embryos are not humans, believing that the life of \"Homo sapiens\" only begins when the heartbeat develops, which is during the fifth week of pregnancy, or when the brain begins developing activity, which has been detected at 54 days after conception.\n",
"Where Aristotle held that the embryo was formed by a coagulation in the uterus, William Harvey (1578 – 1657) by way of dissection of deer, showed that there was no visible embryo during the first month. Although his work predated the microscope, this led him to suggest that life came from invisible eggs. In the frontispiece of his book \"Exercitationes de Generatione Animalium\" (\"Essays on the Generation of Animals\"), he made an expression of biogenesis: \"omnia ex ovo\" (everything from eggs).\n",
"They think that the structuring of the unconscious psyche starts in the prenatal phase. The fetus already has early, emotionally relevant experiences. They assume the existence of perception in several sense modaliaties, states of asphyxia, fears and stress, which are stored and can be remembered after birth under certain circumstances. With such experiences the baby would be born.\n"
] |
Are any cultures known that did not use fire at the time of first contact?
|
This Smithsonian Article says no : [Why Fire Makes Us Human](_URL_1_)
The only people who were popularly accepted not to have an artificial means of making fire were the Tasmanians, but the claim was probably false. The Tasmanians carried fire sticks that slowly burned and would get fire from other natives when their fire went out. It was sort of like the "Olympic Flame" method, where the fire was never allowed to go out. However, there are other contemporary historical accounts that Tasmanians did know how to make fire. Taking fire from place to place was like having a pilot light on your stove. It was convenient, but if they totally ran out of fire they would bang flint together or use stick friction to make new fire. Here's a link to a scholarly article on Tasmanian fire tech:
[The polemics of making fire in Tasmania:
the historical evidence revisited](_URL_0_)
|
[
"Myths of the origin of fire present a number of interesting types in the Melanesian area. We may begin with the form widely current in British New Guinea. According to a version told by the Motu, the ancestors of the present people had no fire, and ate their food raw or cooked it in the sun until one day they perceived smoke, rising out at sea. A dog, a snake, a bandicoot, a bird, and a kangaroo all saw this smoke and asked, \"Who will go to get fire?\" First the snake said that he would make the attempt, but the sea was too rough, and he was compelled to come back. Then the bandicoot went, but he, too, had to return. One after another, all tried but the dog, and all were unsuccessful. Then the dog started and swam and swam until he reached the island whence the smoke rose. There he saw women cooking with fire, and seizing a blazing brand, he ran to the shore and swam safely back with it to the mainland, where he gave it to all the people.\n",
"BULLET::::- Control of fire by early humans – European and Asian sites dating back 1.5 million years ago seem to indicate controlled use of fire by \"H. erectus\". A northern Israel site from about 690,000 to 790,000 years ago suggests controlled use of fire in a hearth from pre-existing natural fires or embers.\n",
"Fire was used by the Lower Paleolithic hominins \"Homo erectus\" and \"Homo ergaster\" as early as 300,000 to 1.5 million years ago and possibly even earlier by the early Lower Paleolithic (Oldowan) hominin \"Homo habilis\" or by robust \"Australopithecines\" such as \"Paranthropus\". However, the use of fire only became common in the societies of the following Middle Stone Age and Middle Paleolithic. Use of fire reduced mortality rates and provided protection against predators. Early hominins may have begun to cook their food as early as the Lower Paleolithic ( million years ago) or at the latest in the early Middle Paleolithic ( years ago). Some scientists have hypothesized that hominins began cooking food to defrost frozen meat, which would help ensure their survival in cold regions.\n",
"At first, humans relied on natural fires, caused by lightning strikes or other natural occurrences, to provide them with a flame to start their own fires. Since natural fires are not very common, humans learned how to make fires by igniting tinder from sparks caused by striking stones together, or by creating friction using a bow drill.\n",
"Claims for the earliest definitive evidence of control of fire by a member of \"Homo\" range from 1.7 to 0.2 million years ago (Mya). Evidence for the controlled use of fire by \"Homo erectus\", beginning some 1,000,000 years ago, has wide scholarly support. Flint blades burned in fires roughly 300,000 years ago were found near fossils of early but not entirely modern \"Homo sapiens\" in Morocco. Evidence of widespread control of fire by anatomically modern humans dates to approximately 125,000 years ago.\n",
"Fire became a regular technology for many Hominina populations between 400 thousand and 300 thousand years ago; humans have had a relationship with fire for many hundreds of thousands of years. Humans influence the pyrogeographic framework in more ways than in providing an ignition source: our actions and behaviors may also change vegetation, climate, and suppress lightning ignitions, thus significantly affecting fire regimes.\n",
"Many ancient civilizations had a form of organized firefighting. One of the earliest recorded fire services was in Ancient Rome. The Aboriginal Australians had been managing and responding to wildfires for thousands of years, with women being involved.\n"
] |
If a varying electric field produces magnetism, can a varying gravitational field produce an analogous field?
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Yep, it's just really weak.
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[
"The concept of the electric field was introduced by Michael Faraday. An electric field is created by a charged body in the space that surrounds it, and results in a force exerted on any other charges placed within the field. The electric field acts between two charges in a similar manner to the way that the gravitational field acts between two masses, and like it, extends towards infinity and shows an inverse square relationship with distance. However, there is an important difference. Gravity always acts in attraction, drawing two masses together, while the electric field can result in either attraction or repulsion. Since large bodies such as planets generally carry no net charge, the electric field at a distance is usually zero. Thus gravity is the dominant force at distance in the universe, despite being much weaker.\n",
"Non electrostatic electric fields are very much like the electrostatic electric fields, except that their origin is based on electromagnetic induction i.e. time varying magnetic field through a given region of space induces non-electrostatic electric fields. The striking difference between the two kinds of fields is that we cannot associate electric potential with points in such an electric field and that the work done by the electric force in such a field is not zero over a closed loop.\n",
"After Ørsted discovered that electric currents produce a magnetic field and Ampere discovered that electric currents attracted and repelled each other similar to magnets, it was natural to hypothesize that all magnetic fields are due to electric current loops. In this model developed by Ampere, the elementary magnetic dipole that makes up all magnets is a sufficiently small Amperian loop of current I. The dipole moment of this loop is where is the area of the loop.\n",
"Sources of electromagnetic fields consist of two types of charge – positive and negative. This contrasts with the sources of the gravitational field, which are masses. Masses are sometimes described as \"gravitational charges\", the important feature of them being that there are only positive masses and no negative masses. Further, gravity differs from electromagnetism in that positive masses attract other positive masses whereas same charges in electromagnetism repel each other.\n",
"The field can be viewed as the combination of an electric field and a magnetic field. The electric field is produced by stationary charges, and the magnetic field by moving charges (currents); these two are often described as the sources of the field. The way in which charges and currents interact with the electromagnetic field is described by Maxwell's equations and the Lorentz force law. The force created by the electric field is much stronger than the force created by the magnetic field.\n",
"To understand the force between magnets, it is useful to examine the \"magnetic pole model\" given above. In this model, the \"-field\" of one magnet pushes and pulls on \"both\" poles of a second magnet. If this -field is the same at both poles of the second magnet then there is no net force on that magnet since the force is opposite for opposite poles. If, however, the magnetic field of the first magnet is \"nonuniform\" (such as the near one of its poles), each pole of the second magnet sees a different field and is subject to a different force. This difference in the two forces moves the magnet in the direction of increasing magnetic field and may also cause a net torque.\n",
"Meanwhile, the Lorentz force of magnetism was discovered to exist between two electric currents. It has the same mathematical character as Coulomb's Law with the proviso that like currents attract and unlike currents repel. Similar to the electric field, the magnetic field can be used to determine the magnetic force on an electric current at any point in space. In this case, the magnitude of the magnetic field was determined to be\n"
] |
Has a nation ever existed that did not occupy physical land?
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The term for what you're describing is a stateless nation; the term coming from Jacques Lereuz's book about Scotland. Though it was originally about the Scottish, the term was quickly adopted by people with far less of a state.
Groups frequently identified with the term, such as your own, include the Kurds, Catalans (sometimes), Sindhs, and Tauregs, to name a few of the most prominent.
So in other words, yes. By that definition, there are many nations--shared cultural and ancestral bodies of people--that lack states; in fact, you could argue very few nations possess independent states.
But I think you're asking about a state, in addition to a nation. The term for that is the convenient Nation-State; these are the corporate legal entities that are the primary actors on the globe today. And as it stands, according to the general consensus of political science, a state requires territory. This need not be independent--autonomous ethnic enclaves are found around the world, and these are generally considered states.
Today, international law as recognized by the UN considers territory a requirement for statehood.
But you asked about history: Historically, the answer is a little smudgy, and it cuts into multiple fields. It even gets a little philosophical: When can we speak about 'nations?' Because depending on how you define some of these nebulous terms, the answers can vary widely.
For example, not every culture has placed a value, historically, on land ownership, in the legal sense. They might claim hunting rights or have a vague sphere of influence they defend, but for example, Comancheria, the Comanche territories prior to the 1860s or so, had no formal boundaries; it was a largely informal zone that marked where the Comache tribes generally were.
Of course, I'm ignoring the most obvious answer, which are the Jewish people, post diaspora. Despite not possessing a state for most of the last two thousand years, they maintained strong cultural cohesion across dozens of kingdoms and operated networks of mutual aid and commerce that spanned the length of the old world, the most famous being the Radhanites who operated much of the Silk Road during the early middle ages.
What is a nation, to you? Google's definition is quite vague, as the term is more personal than people generally admit. Could the Circassian people organize some kind of transnational society? Of course! I'd expect there is one. Could that society have some kind of political clout? Possibly, though I'd suspect only in places where they could flex the power of their members: Again, think of the Zionist movement in the 20th century. Could they form an administrative unit, though? Without land, I'm not sure how that would work.
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[
"Since the late 19th century, virtually the entirety of the world's inhabitable land has been parcelled up into areas with more or less definite borders claimed by various states. Earlier, quite large land areas had been either unclaimed or uninhabited, or inhabited by nomadic peoples who were not organised as states. However, even within present-day states there are vast areas of wilderness, like the Amazon rainforest, which are uninhabited or inhabited solely or mostly by indigenous people (and some of them remain uncontacted). Also, there are states which do not hold de facto control over all of their claimed territory or where this control is challenged. Currently the international community comprises around 200 sovereign states, the vast majority of which are represented in the United Nations.\n",
"Furthermore there existed immense territories which were not effectively occupied by anyone − except the aboriginal inhabitants − with no obvious or agreed international boundaries. There was a boundary dispute between Brazil and Paraguay; and there were large areas in dispute between Paraguay and Argentina, namely in the Gran Chaco and in the territory of Misiones. At that time there were no obvious and accepted principles according to which they might have been resolved, and no established practice of international arbitration.\n",
"Despite large amounts of arable land south of the Sahara Desert, small, individual land holdings are rare. In many nations, the land is subject to tribal ownership and in others, most of the land is often in the hands of descendants of European settlers of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. For example, according to a 2005 IRIN report, about 82% of the arable land in South Africa is owned by those of European descent. Many nations lack a system of freehold landowning. In others, the laws prevent people from disadvantaged groups from owning land at all. Although often these laws are ignored, and land sales to disadvantaged groups occur, legal title to the land is not assured. As such, rural Africans rarely have clear title to their own land and have to survive as farm laborers. Unused land is plentiful but is often private property. Most African nations have very poor land registration systems, making squatting and land-theft common occurrences. This makes it difficult to get a mortgage or similar loan, as ownership of the property often cannot be established to the satisfaction of financiers.\n",
"Although all the three powers had claims concerning the entirety of the territory, very little of the land had actually been explored. The interior of the island was one of the most inhospitable places on Earth, and the colonial powers confined their settlements primarily to the coastal plains.\n",
"In the larger scheme of things the Nootka Conventions weakened the notion that a country could claim exclusive sovereignty without establishing settlements. It was not enough to claim territory by a grant of the Pope, or by \"right of first discovery\". Claims had to be backed up with some kind of actual occupation.\n",
"The Nootka Conventions undermined the notion that a country could claim exclusive sovereignty without establishing settlements. It was not enough to claim territory by a grant of the Pope, or by \"right of first discovery\". Claims had to be backed up with some kind of actual occupation. This departure from symbolic acts of sovereignty towards physical acts of occupation spelled the end of the era of territorial claims for claims sake, providing that nations had to be physically present in order to claim a territory.\n",
"In Ekta Parishad's experience of campaigning across eight states in India they found that even having a land entitlement did not necessarily equate to possessing land. In fact they found that in around 50% of cases having a land entitlement had not led to possession of the land itself.\n"
] |
How much does ocean water temperature change at the shoreline?
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Short answer: Yes. Wind direction plays an important role in shifting water temperatures.
Calm winds or winds blowing towards shore will generally keep water temperatures warmer as surface water is heated by the air and sun and pushed towards the beach.
Winds blowing off shore (out to sea) will actually cause upwelling near the beach and cause water temperatures to drop. Upwelling occurs because as surface water gets pushed out to sea, colder and more nutrient rich water replaces it from below.
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[
"The surface water temperature varies on the south of the sea from 19 °C in August to 24 °C in February. It is rather warm and stable at 27–28 °С in the north all through the year. Water salinity is 34.5–35.5‰ (parts per thousand). The water is mostly very clear, with the visibility of about 30 metres (100 ft) near the reefs.\n",
"A sign of global warming, the average surface temperature of the water at Scripps Pier in the California Current has increased by almost 3 degrees since 1950, according to scientists at Scripps Institution of Oceanography.\n",
"Although there is a large variation in temperatures at the surface of the water with the changing depths of the thermocline seasonally, the temperatures underneath the thermocline and the waters near the deep sea are relatively constant. There aren’t any changes that are brought about by seasonal effects or annual changes. These temperatures stay in the range of 0-3 °C with the exception of the waters immediately surrounding the hydrothermal vents which can get as high as 407 °C. These waters are prevented from boiling due to the pressure that is acting upon it at those depths.\n",
"The sea water has a stable temperature and is separated into four distinct layers as follows. The top are surface water which has a temperature of in summer and in winter. The next layer is formed by the inflows from the Pacific Ocean and Bering Sea coming through the Bering Strait; it extends up to the North Pole. The warmest, deep Atlantic layer has the temperatures between 0 and 1 °C (32 to 34 °F), and water at the bottom is a bit colder at −0.4 to −0.8 °C (31.3 to 30.6 °F). The average salinity varies between 28‰ and 32‰ (parts per thousand) from south to north. Typical air temperatures (at Tuktoyaktuk) are in January and in July.\n",
"The surface water temperature decreases from south to north. In winter it varies between −0.2 and 0.6 °C at the river deltas and from −1.7 to −1.8 °C in the northern sea part. In summer, it warms to 7–8 °C in the bays and inlets and to 2–3 °C in the ice-free sea zones.\n",
"Sea temperature depends on the amount of solar radiation falling on its surface. In the tropics, with the sun nearly overhead, the temperature of the surface layers can rise to over while near the poles the temperature in equilibrium with the sea ice is about . There is a continuous circulation of water in the oceans. Warm surface currents cool as they move away from the tropics, and the water becomes denser and sinks. The cold water moves back towards the equator as a deep sea current, driven by changes in the temperature and density of the water, before eventually welling up again towards the surface. Deep seawater has a temperature between and in all parts of the globe.\n",
"Water temperatures range greatly, between on the Atlantic Seaboard, to over in False Bay. Average annual Ocean temperatures are between on the Atlantic Seaboard (similar to Californian waters, such as San Francisco or Big Sur), and in False Bay (similar to Northern Mediterranean temperatures, such as Nice or Monte Carlo).\n"
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Did tattoos exist in medieval Europe?
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Side questions: What kind of ink did they use during this period, or before? Also, was there any known medical risks (infections, etc.) associated with getting tattoos during this period?
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[
"The earliest possible evidence for tattooing in Europe appears on ancient art from the Upper Paleolithic period as incised designs on the bodies of humanoid figurines. The Löwenmensch figurine from the Aurignacian culture dates to approximately 40,000 years ago and features a series of parallel lines on its left shoulder. The ivory Venus of Hohle Fels, which dates to between 35,000 and 40,000 years ago also exhibits incised lines down both arms, as well as across the torso and chest.\n",
"The oldest and most famous direct proof of ancient European tattooing appears on the body of Ötzi the Iceman, who was found in the Ötz valley in the Alps and dates from the late 4th millennium BC. Studies have revealed that Ötzi had 61 carbon-ink tattoos consisting of 19 groups of lines simple dots and lines on his lower spine, left wrist, behind his right knee and on his ankles. It has been argued that these tattoos were a form of healing because of their placement, though other explanations are plausible.\n",
"Ahmad ibn Fadlan wrote of his encounter with the Scandinavian Rus' tribe in the early 10th century, describing them as tattooed from \"fingernails to neck\" with dark blue \"tree patterns\" and other \"figures.\" However, this may also have been paint, since the word used can mean both tattoo and painting. During the gradual process of Christianization in Europe, tattoos were often considered remaining elements of paganism and generally legally prohibited.\n",
"Tattooing has been practiced across the globe since at least Neolithic times, as evidenced by mummified preserved skin, ancient art and the archaeological record. Both ancient art and archaeological finds of possible tattoo tools suggest tattooing was practiced by the Upper Paleolithic period in Europe. However, direct evidence for tattooing on mummified human skin extends only to the 4th millennium BC. The oldest discovery of tattooed human skin to date is found on the body of Ötzi the Iceman, dating to between 3370 and 3100 BC. Other tattooed mummies have been recovered from at least 49 archaeological sites, including locations in Greenland, Alaska, Siberia, Mongolia, western China, Egypt, Sudan, the Philippines and the Andes. These include Amunet, Priestess of the Goddess Hathor from ancient Egypt (c. 2134–1991 BC), multiple mummies from Siberia including the Pazyryk culture of Russia and from several cultures throughout Pre-Columbian South America.\n",
"Pre-Christian Germanic, Celtic and other central and northern European tribes were often heavily tattooed, according to surviving accounts, but it may also have been normal paint. The Picts may have been tattooed (or scarified) with elaborate, war-inspired black or dark blue woad (or possibly copper for the blue tone) designs. Julius Caesar described these tattoos in Book V of his \"Gallic Wars\" (54 BC). Nevertheless, these may have been painted markings rather than tattoos.\n",
"Göran Larsson, a Swedish professor in religious studies, states that there are \"both historical and contemporary examples indicating that, at different times and in different places, [tattooing] was practiced by certain Islamic groups.\" Al-Tabari mentions in \"History of the Prophets and Kings\" that the hands of Asma bint Umais were tattooed. Muslims in Africa, Syria, Saudi Arabia, Iran and West Pakistan have used tattoos for beautification, prophylaxis, and the prevention of diseases.\n",
"The significance of tattooing was long open to Eurocentric interpretations. In the mid-19th century, Baron Haussmann, while arguing against painting the interior of Parisian churches, said the practice \"reminds me of the tattoos used in place of clothes by barbarous peoples to conceal their nakedness\".\n"
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how is earth's gravity strong enough to keep the moon in orbit but not strong enough to pull the iss or satellites back to the ground?
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The ISS is travelling at just the right speed and is falling towards the earth but the earth , as the ISS travels forward, curves away under the ISS , this curvature matches exactly the free fall distance that the ISS falls during any period and therefore ISS maintains the same distance from the earth and as there is virtually no atmosphere at that height to slow ISS it continues to constantly fall to earth but never reaching it and therefore is in orbit .
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[
"The acceleration due to gravity on the surface of the Moon is about 1.625 m/s, about 16.6% that on Earth's surface or 0.166 . Over the entire surface, the variation in gravitational acceleration is about 0.0253 m/s (1.6% of the acceleration due to gravity). Because weight is directly dependent upon gravitational acceleration, things on the Moon will weigh only 16.6% (≈ 1/6) of what they weigh on the Earth.\n",
"For man-made spacecraft orbiting the Earth at comparatively low altitudes the deviations from a Kepler orbit are much larger than for the Moon. The approximation of the gravitational force of the Earth to be that of a homogeneous sphere gets worse the closer one gets to the Earth surface and the majority of the artificial Earth satellites are in orbits that are only a few hundred kilometers over the Earth surface. Furthermore, they are (as opposed to the Moon) significantly affected by the solar radiation pressure because of their large cross-section-to-mass ratio; this applies in particular to 3-axis stabilized spacecraft with large solar arrays and is allowed for in calculation of graveyard orbits. In addition they are significantly affected by rarefied air below 800–1000 km. The air drag at high altitudes is also dependent on solar activity.\n",
"The Earth's relatively strong gravity and relatively thick atmosphere make such an installation difficult, thus many proposals feature installing mass drivers on the moon, where the lower gravity and lack of atmosphere greatly reduce the required velocity to reach lunar orbit.\n",
"The primary non-gravitational force acting on satellites in low Earth orbit is atmospheric drag. Drag will act in opposition to the direction of velocity and remove energy from an orbit. The force due to drag is modeled by the following equation:\n",
"Upon approach of the target moon, a spacecraft will be drawn ever closer to its surface at increasing speeds due to gravity. In order to land intact it must decelerate to less than about and be ruggedized to withstand a \"hard landing\" impact, or it must decelerate to negligible speed at contact for a \"soft landing\" (the only option for humans). The first three attempts by the U.S. to perform a successful hard Moon landing with a ruggedized seismometer package in 1962 all failed. The Soviets first achieved the milestone of a hard lunar landing with a ruggedized camera in 1966, followed only months later by the first uncrewed soft lunar landing by the U.S.\n",
"The pull of gravity in LEO is only slightly less than on the Earth's surface. This is because the distance to LEO from the Earth's surface is far less than the Earth's radius. However, an object in orbit is, by definition, in free fall, since there is no force holding it up. As a result objects in orbit, including people, experience a sense of weightlessness, even though they are not actually without weight.\n",
"If the Moon just revolved around the Earth, there would be no way to tell what fraction of the Moon's or the Earth's gravity was caused by each form of mass, since only the total can be measured. However, the orbit of the Moon is also strongly affected by the gravity of the Sun—in essence, Earth and Moon are in free fall around the Sun. If the energy portion of mass behaves differently from the conventional portion, then the Earth and the Moon will fall differently toward the Sun, and the orbit of the Moon around the Earth will be affected. For example, suppose the energy part of the mass does affect gravity, but does not affect inertia. Then:\n"
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After the Blitz, what happened to people who's homes were bombed or destroyed? Did they rebuild them? Was there a government housing scheme? Etc.
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There's a thread from a few months back that may be of interest: [I am a resident of central London during the Blitz. Am I most likely to own my own home or rent? What happens to me when my home is destroyed by a bomb? Where do I go? Who helps me find a new place to live?] (_URL_0_)
Reposting my first answer from it:
Homelessness was a massive problem during the Blitz; something like one person in six in the London region (1,400,000 people) was homeless at some point over 1940-41. Outright destruction of houses was comparatively rare, though, in the first six weeks of attacks around 16,000 houses were destroyed, 60,000 seriously damaged but repairable, and 130,000 slightly damaged. Unexploded bombs also forced many houses to be evacuated, with over 3,000 UXBs by the end of November 1940 awaiting disposal.
Local authorities were not prepared for the scale of the problem, in part due to pre-war estimates of casualties from bombing raids being far higher than actually transpired. Rest centres had been established for bombing victims, typically in schools, but these were envisaged as a very short term measure, for a matter of hours rather than days, before people made their own arrangements for accommodation. In most cases this was possible; wealthier people could rent a flat in London or a cottage in the home counties, others arranged to stay with family or friends. Some took to 'Trekking', leaving the city entirely at night for camps outside in places such as Epping Forest, or were evacuated to other parts of the country. For some (around one in seven) the rest centres became longer term accommodation; up to 25,000 people were staying in them during the first months. Conditions were extremely poor at first, most rest centres having minimal sanitation facilities and insufficient bedding, but were rapidly improved by both government action and individual volunteers (*Problems of Social Policy* by Richard M. Titmuss includes the account of a "Mrs B", a beetroot seller who took charge of an Islington rest centre to organise the feeding of babies, washing, sweeping, breakfast etc.) Responsibility for assisting the victims of bombing was disjointed, with 96 different authorities concerned with billeting and housing in the London region. Some exhibited posters after attacks with information about the rest centres and other services, but the approach was piecemeal until late 1940, air raid victims could spend much time going from office to office trying to get assistance.
On September 26th 1940 Henry Willink was appointed Special Regional Commissioner for the Homeless. Repair of damaged houses was a priority, as people strongly desired to return to their own homes, or at least neighbourhoods, if at all possible, and by January 1941 80% of the 500,000 damaged houses in London had been repaired, linoleum, cardboard, plasterboard and tarpaulin used for at least temporary repairs if necessary. Local authorities requisitioned empty houses (25,000 by late October 1940), though these still required furniture, bedding and utilities before people could be moved in, and Willink also appointed a permanent staff of social workers for as a Ministry of Health circular put it: "Experience has shown that the rehousing of homeless people involves more than securing simply that there is accommodation in billets or in requisitioned homes for the number of persons involved. "Case-work," taking into account the needs of the individual persons or families affected is also necessary and becomes more important the greater the distance between the original home and the new accommodation". By the middle of 1941, then, the situation was greatly improved. More government administrative centres and information centres had been established, along with assistance from voluntary bodies such as the Women's Voluntary Service. Over the course of the London Blitz around 107,000 people were rehoused, 366,000 were billeted, and 181,000 mothers and children were officially evacuated.
Sources:
*Problems of Social Policy*, Richard M. Titmuss
*The People's War: Britain, 1939-1945*, Angus Calder
*The Bombing War: Europe 1939‑1945*, Richard Overy
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[
"After World War II many European cities remained severely damaged from bombing. London and other British cities which had suffered the Blitz were pock-marked with bombsites, vacant lots covered in the rubble of destroyed buildings. Many postwar children in urban areas shared a common memory of playing their games and riding their bicycles across these desolate environments. There were often abandoned bombshelters of the 'Anderson' type nearby.\n",
"During the Second World War almost four million British homes were destroyed or damaged, and afterwards there was a major boom in council house construction. The bomb damage from the war only worsened the condition of Britain's housing stock, which was in poor condition before its outbreak. Before the war many social housing projects, such as the Quarry Hill Flats (pictured, right) in Leeds were built. However the bomb damage meant that much greater progress had to be made with slum clearance projects. In cities like London, Coventry and Kingston upon Hull, which had been bombed heavily, the redevelopment schemes were often larger and more radical.\n",
"During the Second World War, the blitz had destroyed large urban areas throughout the entire county of London, but particularly the central core. Over 50,000 inner London homes were completely destroyed, while more than 2 million dwellings experienced some form of bomb damage. This presented the London County Council with a unique chance to plan and rebuild vacant tracts of the city on a scale not seen since the Great Fire of London.\n",
"The Government aimed to provide enough homes for each family who required an individual dwelling, which it perceived had been the situation in 1939 prior to the outbreak of war. However, the Blitz had rendered some 450,000 homes either completely destroyed or uninhabitable. A secondary intention of the act was the completion of the pre-war slum clearance project.\n",
"Towards the end of World War II it became clear that to the City Council that a massive programme of house building was needed to replace those homes destroyed by bombing. As part of this programme, land in Paulsgrove was purchased and building began in 1945. The initial housing was prefabricated but later houses were built more conventionally.\n",
"During the First World War, the population took refuge in the network of shelters and tunnels of the town. The destruction sustained on April 12, 1917 left the town completely destroyed, with 768 buildings gone and only 5 left standing.\n",
"Further decline set in as residents moved away during World War II to escape The Blitz and, indeed, one of the buildings at the end of the street was destroyed by bombing, which also damaged numerous other buildings including All Saint's Church.\n"
] |
How were the Maltese actually threated under the rule of the Knights Hospitaller?
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As you know, Malta was ruled by the Knights of St. John for a very long time, specifically and fully up until 1798, and had been so since the 16th Century. As a religious and military order, the government system of feudalism followed all the way up until they were liberated by Napoleon. While I do not know the specifics, I can attest to the state of Malta by the time Napoleon came, who, by the way, faced no resistance since there was a French schism within the order.
In the six days that he was there, he expelled all but fourteen of the knights, replaced the island's medieval administration with a governing council, dissolved the monasteries, introduced street lighting and paving, freed all political prisoners, installed fountains and reformed the hospitals, postal service, and university (which up until this point did not teach science and humanities). He also abolished slavery and ordered the allowance of the Jews to build a synagogue and increased the salaries for librarians and lecturers.
After this change, the island was given back to the Knights in 1803, and then back to the British after Napoleon's defeat. In any case, in light of these reformations conducted by Napoleon, there is some indication that while the rest of the world was in a state of Enlightenment, there was still some kind of social cling to the Feudal and Medieval periods.
Andrew Roberts, *Napoleon: A Life* (2014)
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[
"Catholic Malta and predominantly Muslim North Africa have had troubled relations since at least the Crusades, when Malta became the final stand against the Turks by the Knights Hospitallers. Malta held, and after the Crusades many attacks against Arab and Turkish coastal towns were launched from it. Not all of the Maltese who joined the Knights in these attacks returned home. Some lost their liberty, settling against their will in North Africa.\n",
"Elsewhere in the Mediterranean, when the Knights Hospitallers were re-established as the Knights of Malta in 1530, their actions against Muslim navies quickly drew the ire of the Ottomans, who assembled another massive army in order to dislodge the Knights from Malta. The Ottomans invaded Malta in 1565, undertaking the Great Siege of Malta, which began on 18 May and lasted until 8 September, and is portrayed vividly in the frescoes of Matteo Perez d'Aleccio in the Hall of St. Michael and St. George. At first it seemed that this would be a repeat of the battle on Rhodes, with most of Malta's cities destroyed and half the Knights killed in battle; but a relief force from Spain entered the battle, resulting in the loss of 10,000 Ottoman troops and the victory of the local Maltese citizenry.\n",
"When the Knights first arrived, the natives were apprehensive about their presence and viewed them as arrogant intruders. The Maltese were excluded from serving in the order. The Knights were even generally dismissive of the Maltese nobility. However, the two groups coexisted peacefully, since the Knights boosted the economy, were charitable, and protected against Muslim attacks.\n",
"The Knights Hospitallers made Malta their island-home in 1530 and remained sovereign rulers of the islands until they were expelled by Napoleon in 1798. As a rule, they cared about education and cultivation as much as their military campaigns and their economic welfare. Though they encouraged higher learning by giving protection to the various colleges and universities that were established (especially by Catholic religious orders), they also kept a very strict surveillance on all aspects of scholarship. They certainly did not like being picked on by the Inquisition, which could make them look bad with the Pope in Rome.\n",
"The Maltese acknowledged King Ferdinand of Naples and Sicily as their sovereign, and also appealed to Horatio Nelson for protection. Throughout the rest of the siege, the Maltese insurgents were aided by the British, Neapolitans and Portuguese. In 1799, Czar Paul I of Russia sent a diplomat to the insurgents promising his support and protection.\n",
"In 1530 Charles V of Spain gave Malta to the Knights of Saint John. The Knights ruled the island until 1798; many Sicilian \"conversos\" then moved here remembering the Knights' liberal policy towards the Jews of Rhodes, but they had to continue practicing their religion in secrecy. Jews volunteered for the desperate attempt to relieve Fort St Elmo during the Great Siege \"(No proof of this at source link)\". Following this, there was no free Jewish population in the country during the Knights' reign. The Knights would often take passengers of merchant ships - including numerous Jews - hostage in order to get the ransom and it would be up to Jewish Societies for the Redemption of Captives to raise it. There were therefore many Jewish slaves in Malta during this period and Malta was frequently mentioned for its large enslaved Jewish population in Jewish literature of the period. Free Jews wishing to visit the country could only enter through one port in Valletta, which is still known as the \"Jews' Sallyport\".\n",
"On Malta, the French had rapidly dismantled the institutions of the Knights of St. John, including the Roman Catholic Church. Church property was looted and seized to pay for the expedition to Egypt, an act that generated considerable anger among the deeply religious Maltese population. On 2 September, this anger erupted in a popular uprising during an auction of church property, and within days thousands of Maltese irregulars had driven the French garrison into Valletta. Valletta was surrounded by approximately 10,000 irregular Maltese soldiers led by Emmanuele Vitale and Canon Francesco Saverio Caruana. The Maltese were armed with 23 cannon and a small squadron of coastal gunboats. Although there was intermittent skirmishing between the garrison and the Maltese, the fortress was too strong for the irregulars to assault.\n"
] |
why aren't car windshields covered with hydrophobic coatings in 2015?
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RainX is awesome and in every auto parts store.
They also make a washer fluid that adds the coating and melts ice.
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[
"In addition to these industrial applications, superhydrophobic coatings have potential uses in vehicle windshields to prevent rain droplets from clinging to the glass. The coatings also make removal of salt deposits possible without using fresh water. Furthermore, superhydrophobic coatings have the ability to harvest other minerals from seawater brine with ease. Despite the coating's many applications, safety for the environment and for workers is an issue. The International Maritime Organization has many regulations and policies about keeping water safe from potentially dangerous additives.\n",
"Today's automotive PPF is highly conformable and optically clear and is available in a variety of thicknesses (measured in mil in the US) and colors. New products are multi layered and offer a self-healing top coat capable of reforming itself after being scuffed or scratched, maintaining clarity for more than ten years. Products from some vendors also offer hydrophobic properties, similar to those provided by a ceramic paint coating. Contemporary applications require a slip solution or gel as a barrier keeping the film from adhering to the painted panel. Custom and advanced applicators use steam, heat guns and torches to help apply film to complex surfaces. Pre-stretch and pre-form of films are also used for complex wraps and curves. Paint protection film has many different manufacturers/distributors present in the North American market.\n",
"Water-repellent glass (WRG) is a superhydrophobic coating film that is baked into the factory-fitted glass on the front, rear, and side windows of a vehicle to maintain proper visibility in wet weather. It is produced and patented by Volvo Cars and was first available on late-2005 vehicles. WRG claims to take water in the form of rain, mud, snow, sleet, or ice, and disperse it into tiny droplets that quickly slide off the windows of the car. This feature is indicated on the bottom of the glass by use of a water droplet icon near the laminated company name. The WRG chemical must be replaced on the vehicle after every six years.\n",
"Windshields protect the vehicle's occupants from wind and flying debris such as dust, insects, and rocks, and provide an aerodynamically formed window towards the front. UV coating may be applied to screen out harmful ultraviolet radiation. However, this is usually unnecessary since most auto windshields are made from laminated safety glass. The majority of UV-B is absorbed by the glass itself, and any remaining UV-B together with most of the UV-A is absorbed by the PVB bonding layer.\n",
"The windshield uses double-glazed acoustic glass and the A-pillars have increased insulation. The handbrake is now electronically operated and no longer uses a manual lever. Engine coasting is also now available in both Eco Pro and Comfort modes, and both petrol and diesel models receive engine particulate filters.\n",
"Further changes included the updating to electric windshield wipers (the previous model FB used vacuum wipers). The other changes were more cosmetic. Holden implemented stronger seat material \"ElastoFab\" due to the FB trim splitting at the seams quite easily, with the horizontal mid seat seam trim join. Holden also added a new grille, plenum chamber (Wiper Vent) cover, larger bumper bar over-riders, wider rear-view mirror, different badging and side trim style.\n",
"In aircraft windshields, an electric current is applied through a conducting layer of tin(IV) oxide to generate heat to prevent icing. A similar system for automobile windshields, introduced on Ford vehicles as \"Quickclear\" in Europe (\"InstaClear\" in North America) in the 1980s and through the early 1990s, used this conductive metallic coating applied to the inboard side of the outer layer of glass. Other glass manufacturers utilize a grid of micro-thin wires to conduct the heat especially on the later European Ford Transit vans. These systems are more typically utilized by European auto manufacturers such as Jaguar and Porsche.\n"
] |
Did the Wright Brothers benefit monetarily from their invention of the airplane?
|
Yes, they did gain monetary benefit from their invention. The most obvious source is the Wright Company, founded on the 22 November 1909 by the Wright Brothers and with several prominent industrialists from New York and Detroit. Initially Wilbur and Orville received $100,000 and a third of the shares of stock. (Alongside this money they would have received gain from sales from this company, and royalties from others copying their patent.)
It's also interesting to note that in an interview in 1939, Orville said "If we had been interested in invention with the idea of profit, we most assuredly would have tried something in which the chances for success were brighter. You see, we did not expect in the beginning to go beyond gliding." (Harpers Magazine, “How the Wright Brothers Began,” Fred C. Kelly, October 1939.)
|
[
"The Wrights were glad to be free from the distraction of reporters. The absence of newsmen also reduced the chance of competitors learning their methods. After the Kitty Hawk powered flights, the Wrights made a decision to begin withdrawing from the bicycle business so they could concentrate on creating and marketing a practical airplane. This was financially risky, since they were neither wealthy nor government-funded (unlike other experimenters such as Ader, Maxim, Langley and Alberto Santos-Dumont). The Wright brothers did not have the luxury of being able to give away their invention; it was to be their livelihood. Thus, their secrecy intensified, encouraged by advice from their patent attorney, Henry Toulmin, not to reveal details of their machine.\n",
"Although the Wright brothers made their first successful powered flights in December 1903 and by 1905 were making flights of significant duration, their achievement was largely unknown to the world in general and was widely disbelieved. After their flights in 1905 the Wrights stopped work on developing their aircraft and concentrated on trying to commercially exploit their invention, attempting to interest the military authorities of the United States and then, after being rebuffed, France and Great Britain. Consequently, attempts to achieve powered flight continued, principally in France. To publicize the aeronautical concourse at the upcoming World's Fair in St. Louis, Octave Chanute gave a number of lectures at aero-clubs in Europe, sharing his excitement about flying gliders. He showed slides of his own glider flying experiments as well as some of the Wrights glider flying in 1901 and 1902. All these talks were reproduced in club journals. The lecture to members of the Aéro-Club de France in April 1903 is the best known, and the August 1903 issue of \"l'Aérophile\" carried an article by Chanute that included drawings of his gliders as well as the Wright glider and a description of their approach to the problem, saying \"the time is evidently approaching when, the problem of equilibrium and control having been solved, it will be safe to apply a motor and a propeller\". Chanute's lecture moved Ernest Archdeacon one of the founder members of the Aéro-Club, to conclude his account of the lectures:\n",
"The Wright brothers' status as inventors of the airplane has been subject to counter-claims by various parties. Much controversy persists over the many competing claims of early aviators. Edward Roach, historian for the Dayton Aviation Heritage National Historical Park, argues that they were excellent self-taught engineers who could run a small company, but they did not have the business skills or temperament to dominate the growing aviation industry.\n",
"BULLET::::- Samuel P. Langley’s desire to create the world’s first aircraft was based primarily on his own self-interest rather than to improve humanity. Langley was an astronomer and around the age of 50 he decided that the only way to achieve his goal of becoming one of the great figures in the history of science was to be the first to create the “flying machine”. Eventually, the Wright brothers were able to accomplish this task of creating the first flying machine in 1903. Even they were motivated by the fortune and fame that came with the feat. In this case, the brothers’ self-interest benefited humanity for decades to come.\n",
"With the information contained in Chanute's book, the personal assistance of Chanute himself, and research carried out in their own wind tunnel, the Wright brothers gained enough knowledge of aerodynamics to fly the first powered aircraft on December 17, 1903. The Wright brothers' flight confirmed or disproved a number of aerodynamics theories. Newton's drag force theory was finally proved incorrect. This first widely publicised flight led to a more organized effort between aviators and scientists, leading the way to modern aerodynamics.\n",
"The Wright Company was the commercial aviation business venture of the Wright Brothers, established by them on November 22, 1909, in conjunction with several prominent industrialists from New York and Detroit with the intention of capitalizing on their invention of the practical airplane. The company maintained its headquarters office in New York City and built its factory in Dayton, Ohio.\n",
"Since their success with the first recorded powered flight, the Wright Brothers had patented many of their methods and had sought to enforce their patents through the courts. Most if not all other manufacturers were keen to develop alternative techniques; Pfitzner avoided the Wrights' method of warping the wings to achieve a lift differential between port and starboard wings by using wing extensions (or 'compensators'), described below. In his book “Monoplanes and Biplanes: Their Design, Construction and Operation” (1911), Grover Loening wrote “This aeroplane is a distinct departure from all other monoplanes in the placing of the motor, aviator, and rudders, and in the comparatively simple and efficient method of transverse control by sliding surfaces, applied here for the first time.”. The issue of patent protection was sufficiently in the public eye for \"The New York Times\", in its issue of 16 January 1910, to headline Pfitzner's design as an “Aeroplane Without Patent Drawbacks\". The same article refers to the “Wright suits” and their attempts to “build up their patent fences”; Pfitzner is quoted there as saying that “any one who wants to do so is welcome to use [his] panel invention without cost or fear of injunction”.\n"
] |
Why do galaxies have such childlike names?
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Whimsy is not the property of children.
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[
"In Le Guin's fictional universe, to know the true name of an object or a person is to have power over it. Each child is given a true name when they reach puberty, a name which they share only with close friends. Several of the dragons in the later Earthsea novels, like Orm Embar and Kalessin, are shown as living openly with their names, which do not give anybody power over them. In \"A Wizard of Earthsea\", however, Ged is shown to have power over Yevaud. Cadden writes that this is because Yevaud still has attachment to riches and material possessions, and is thus bound by the power of his name. Wizards exert their influence over the equilibrium through the use of names, thus linking this theme to Le Guin's depiction of a cosmic balance. According to Cummins, this is Le Guin's way of demonstrating the power of language in shaping reality. Since language is the tool we use for communicating about the environment, she argues that it also allows humans to affect the environment, and the wizards' power to use names symbolizes this. Cummins went on to draw an analogy between the a wizard's use of names to change things with the creative use of words in fictional writing. Shippey wrote that Earthsea magic seems to work through what he called the \"Rumpelstiltskin theory\", in which names have power. He argued that this portrayal was part of Le Guin's effort to emphasize the power of words over objects, which, according to Shippey, was in contrast to the ideology of other fantasy writers, such as James Frazer in \"The Golden Bough\". Esmonde argued that each of the first three Earthsea books hinged on an act of trust. In \"A Wizard of Earthsea\", Vetch trusts Ged with his true name when the latter is at his lowest ebb emotionally, thus giving Ged complete power over himself. Ged later offers Tenar the same gift in \"The Tombs of Atuan\", thereby allowing her to learn trust.\n",
"Old Hawaiians coined a new name for each child, with careful thought of its meaning. Names might be revealed in dreams or visions. Children could be named after relatives, but names were not copied from other families. Hawaii was a hierarchical society, and the name had to be suitable to one's social class and family gods. Names beginning with Kelii-(\"the chief\") or ending in -lani (\"sky\") were reserved for chiefs. The lowest social \"kauwā\" (slave) class were only allowed to take simple names from natural objects.\n",
"In Earthsea, one character often has several names. This is because in Earthsea, the true name of a person has power and a wizard can wield total power over someone whose name he knows. Consequently, any person guards his true name closely and only shares it with those whom he or she can totally trust. Through childhood up to puberty, children are known by a child-name; at their rite of Passage, about the age of thirteen, children are given a true name in the Old Speech, usually by a wizard, that they will keep for the rest of their lives. In the Kargad lands this is not done and a name given to a child functions as that person's name for life: it may, or may not, be the person's true name.\n",
"A small number of galaxies or galaxy groups have been named after individual people. In most cases, the named individual was the person who discovered the object, who first brought attention to it, or who first studied it scientifically.\n",
"Very old star names originated among people who lived in the Arabian Peninsula more than a thousand years ago, before the rise of Islam. However, many Arabic language star names sprang up later in history, as translations of ancient Greek language descriptions.\n",
"Throughout the Bible, characters are given names at birth that reflect something of significance or describe the course of their lives. For example: \"Solomon\" meant peace, and the king with that name was the first whose reign was without war. Likewise, Joseph named his firstborn son Manasseh (Hebrew: \"causing to forget\")(Genesis 41:51); when Joseph also said, \"“God has made me forget all my troubles and everyone in my father's family.”\n",
"Young children in Japan commonly refer to themselves by their own name (a habit probably picked up from their elders who would normally refer to them by name). This is due to the normal Japanese way of speaking, in which referring to another in the third person is considered more polite than using the Japanese words for \"you\", like \"Omae\". More explanation given in Japanese pronouns, though as the children grow older they normally switch over to using first person references. Japanese idols also may refer to themselves in the third person so to give off the feeling of childlike cuteness.\n"
] |
Is there anyone who can trace their family tree back to a Roman family?
|
No we can't.
Tracing one's family tree, genealogy, needs records to track relations between individual ( X's father, Y's husband, Z's brother,...Etc ). These records are various, the most common and necessary being birth, marriage, death records but others can be available such as wills, military records,...Etc
THe thing is, records for many countries began to be kept in the late 1500s ( at that date in many countries such as France, priests were asked to keep records about who they baptized, buried,...Etc. The point was to be able to keep en eye on the population so to tax them better ).
So most people can hope to trace back their genealogy to the late 1500s if they are lucky ( that the country search has such early records, that they survived the centuries,...Etc ) and good enough. Some people can be more lucky to find even older records such as wills or land property records but these are now rare and hard to find and even harder to connect to your actual ancestors with certainty.
So no, most people can only hope to be able to trace ancestors back to the 1500s ( which takes years ).
Now indeed as you said, aristocratic families had their family trees made and kept in order ( among other things ) to control who is who as well as succession and heritage matters for example. So we have early " trees " available, some more reliable than others of course. That said, even for some of the greatest families historians are not always sure on who is who or who is the father/mother of X for people having lived around the 1000 A.D. For example, who really are the first members of the great Salian dynasty ? Well it is not sure so if we had to go back to the time of the Romans it would be nothing but presomptions, full of uncertainties and mistakes ( imagine if you make a mistake early in your genealogy, such as your great grand father for example, then everything is wrong ).
There is no families existing at the time of the Roman Republic/Empire that we can assume still exists today.
One thing about genealogy that is funny though :
If you were able to go back at your generation 30, you have 537 millions ancestors and at the 35th, it's around 17 billions ancestors.
You double the number of ancestors at each generation so we all at some point should descend or be related at a famous Roman or a famous tribesmen, we know it with mathematics and statistics but genealogy can't prove it for us.
Anecdote : Mathematicians say that ( you can search the exercise online ) you have 99,999996% chances of having Genghis Khan has an ancestor and only 1 chance on 24 millions of not having Genghis Khan has an ancestor
Hope this helps
|
[
"Some historians trace their origins back to the Roman age, and claim they descend from the emperor Caracalla, however the first historical documents mentioning the family appear in the 10th century only, when Cante Gabrielli was awarded by Pope Stephen VII (according to some genealogists a family member himself), a few castles in central Italy, and especially the castle at Luceoli, which was renamed Cantiano (i.e. belonging to Cante) after him.\n",
"It has one of the oldest family trees in the world, claiming to trace back at least to King David born c. 1037 BCE, as documented by Neil Rosenstein in his book \"The Lurie Legacy\". It contains many famous members such as Karl Marx, Sigmund Freud, Felix Mendelssohn, Martin Buber, Rashi, and Hezekiah.\n",
"The family is mentioned for the first time in 990, when Sergio de Pola donated the property to the monastery of San Michele in Monte near Pula. However, the family refers to the Roman patrician gens Sergius, which lived in Pula in the time of the Roman Empire. The family tree starts in 1180 with Bonifacio Sergi who became the collector of taxes in the March of Istria. His three sons founded two branches of the family in 13th century - the Istrian branch (Galvano) and a branch of Treviso (Nascinguerra I). The family got importance in 1265, when Monfiorito da Pola became the \" Vicarius\" of the counts of Gorzia in Istria.\n",
"Her family tree is one that originates from the west of Ireland and was a wealthy Anglo-Irish family with her grandfather Walter Peter Lambert of Castle Ellen, originally from Yorkshire England, owning over three thousand acres of land in Galway when he was alive. Her father, Charles Lambert and mother, Jane Catherine Irwin had three other daughters and a son, as well as her mother having another two sons in her first marriage who would have been her half-brothers, but there is no documentation of them have a relationship with one another. Her family tree was not extended by O’ Donoghue and her husband but there are some notable relations within the family to be recognised such as her cousin being the mother to Edward Carson who was a unionist politician as well as a noted judge and barrister.\n",
"The tree is largely based on the late 9th-century \"Anglo-Saxon Chronicle\", the West Saxon Genealogical Regnal List (reproduced in several forms, including as a preface to the [B] manuscript of the Chronicle), and Asser's \"Life of King Alfred\". These sources are all closely related and were compiled at a similar date, and incorporate a desire in their writers to associate the royal household with the authority of being a continuation of a unified line of kingship descended from a single original founder.\n",
"His genealogical tree is not well documented. It was first outlined by Karl Hopf in his Chroniques Greco-Romanes (p. 531) and by K. Sathas in the 19th century but a newer study finds that those works have many mistakes and gaps. Hopf's genealogy of the Spata family is \"altogether inaccurate\".\n",
"Of Roman origin, the family has thousand-year roots in Italy, and traditionally asserts a line of descent from the gens Hostilia, whose line took the surname Mancinus, all the way back to Lucius Hostilius Mancinus who was consul in 145 BC and a commander of the Roman fleet during the Third Punic War.\n"
] |
intelligent design
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Intelligent Design was created to try and get around the US Supreme Court ban on the teaching of Creationism as science in publicly funded schools.
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[
"Intelligent design is the argument that an intelligent cause is responsible for the complexity of life and that one can detect that cause empirically. Dembski postulated that probability theory can be used to prove irreducible complexity (IC), or what he called \"specified complexity.\" The scientific community sees intelligent design—and Dembski's concept of specified complexity—as a form of creationism attempting to portray itself as science.\n",
"Intelligent design (ID) is the pseudoscientific view that \"certain features of the universe and of living things are best explained by an intelligent cause, not an undirected process such as natural selection.\" All of its leading proponents are associated with the Discovery Institute, a think tank whose Wedge strategy aims to replace the scientific method with \"a science consonant with Christian and theistic convictions\" which accepts supernatural explanations. It is widely accepted in the scientific and academic communities that intelligent design is a form of creationism, and is sometimes referred to as \"intelligent design creationism.\"\n",
"Intelligent design is an argument for the existence of God, based on the premise that \"certain features of the universe and of living things are best explained by an intelligent cause, not an undirected process such as natural selection.\" Proponents claim that their hypothesis is scientific, that it challenges the dominant scientific model of evolution. This has been dismissed by scientific opposition as pseudoscience, and in the 2005 \"Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District\" federal court case, United States District Judge John E. Jones III ruled that intelligent design is not science and is essentially religious in nature.\n",
"Further criticism stems from the fact that the phrase \"intelligent\" design makes use of an assumption of the quality of an observable intelligence, a concept that has no scientific consensus definition. The characteristics of intelligence are assumed by intelligent design proponents to be observable without specifying what the criteria for the measurement of intelligence should be. Critics say that the design detection methods proposed by intelligent design proponents are radically different from conventional design detection, undermining the key elements that make it possible as legitimate science. Intelligent design proponents, they say, are proposing both searching for a designer without knowing anything about that designer's abilities, parameters, or intentions (which scientists do know when searching for the results of human intelligence), as well as denying the very distinction between natural/artificial design that allows scientists to compare complex designed artifacts against the background of the sorts of complexity found in nature.\n",
"Intelligent design has been presented by its proponents as a \"big tent\" strategy into which several accounts of creation can fit. Were a \"scientific\" version of intelligent design approved for inclusion in public school science curricula, then a path would be opened for discussion of alternatives to not only natural selection but naturalism as well, and eventually religious accounts on the origin of life. The vast majority of scientists reject the concept of intelligent design and an intelligent designer. Instead, the most widely accepted explanation is that physical processes such as natural selection can account for the complexity of life and other phenomena and features of the universe. Attempts to insert theories of intelligent design into public school science curricula fits in with the intelligent design movement's social aims, via the overturning of Western secularism as detailed in the Wedge strategy. The concept of the intelligent designer has been criticised as a God-of-the-gaps argument. Introducing the hypothesis of an intelligent designer introduces the unsolved problem of accounting for the origin of such a designer (first cause).\n",
"Intelligent Design: The Bridge Between Science and Theology is a 1999 book by William A. Dembski, in which the author presents an argument in support of intelligent design. Dembski defines the term \"specified complexity\", and argues that instances of it in nature cannot be explained by Darwinian evolution, but instead are consistent with the intelligent design. He also derives an instance of his self-declared law of conservation of information and uses it to argue against Darwinian evolution. The book is a summary treatment of the mathematical theory he presents in \"The Design Inference\" (1998), and is intended to be largely understandable by a nontechnical audience. Dembski also provides a Christian theological commentary, and analysis of, what he perceives to be the historical and cultural significance of the ideas.\n",
"Critics say that the design detection methods proposed by intelligent design proponents are radically different from conventional design detection, undermining the key elements that make it possible as legitimate science. Intelligent design proponents, they say, are proposing both searching for a designer without knowing anything about that designer's abilities, parameters, or intentions (which scientists do know when searching for the results of human intelligence), as well as denying the very distinction between natural/artificial design that allows scientists to compare complex designed artifacts against the background of the sorts of complexity found in nature.\n"
] |
why do negative prescription glasses require a prescription from a docter and cost hundreds of dollars where positive lens glasses can be bought for $3 with no prescription.
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This isn't exactly true. What you have to look at is what the "negative" and "positive" mean. However, there is a distinction between that and prescription glasses versus non-prescription.
The negative and positive reflect what your eyes need--negative is for people who are near-sighted (can see close, but not far), and positive is for far-sighted (can see far, but not close). The $3 glasses you see over the counter are reading glasses, which basically help people see those things close to them, such as reading material. They are all very weak and generic, not specifically made for a particular person. You can not do this for people who are nearsighted. If you wanted to, you could say that a nearsighted person could buy binoculars over the counter, but they don't actually help that much.
Any person with a more severe sight impairment would need glasses specially tailored to their needs to see properly, and those cost much more money.
|
[
"Although lenses are normally prescribed by optometrists or ophthalmologists, there is evidence from developing countries that allowing people to select lenses for themselves produces good results in the majority of cases and is less than a tenth of the cost of prescription lenses.\n",
"Customers must have a valid prescription prior to purchasing prescription eyeglasses from EyeBuyDirect. The company sells multiple types of lenses, including bifocal, progressive, and Transitions lenses. Instances reported of it and other companies, including some owned by its parent company, selling glasses illegally without a valid prescription.\n",
"Buying prescription drugs from even the most well respected internet pharmacies in Canada often results in a prescription filled from drugs sourced not from Canada but rather Caribbean nations or from eastern Europe. The Canadian online pharmacy that sells the drugs offers a Canadian price but buys at a still cheaper rate from third parties overseas. This has led to problems with prescriptions being filled with counterfeit drugs, which sometimes have no activity whatsoever. Some pharmacists have exited this business because of the ethical problems involved, and some less-established Internet sites may be knowingly selling fake drugs. In 2014, the largest online Canada drug retailer was forbidden by Health Canada from selling wholesale drug. Of the three primary entrepreneurs of online Canadian drugs sold to the United States, one is in jail, one exited the industry entirely, and the third is under investigation for criminal wrongdoing. The same errors have occurred in US pharmacies, notably CVS. For more about this see \"Canada Drugs' history and closure\".\n",
"Prescription drugs can be acquired only if prescribed by a doctor. If prescribed by the family doctor, they are generally subsidized, requiring only a copay that depends on the medicine type and on the patient income (in many regions all the prescribed drugs are free for the poor). Over-the-counter drugs are paid out-of-pocket. Both prescription and over-the-counter drugs can only be sold in specialized shops (\"farmacia\"). In a sample of 13 developed countries, Italy was sixth in its population weighted usage of medication in 14 classes in 2009 and fifth in 2013. The drugs studied were selected on the basis that the conditions treated had a high incidence, prevalence and/or mortality, caused significant long-term morbidity and incurred high levels of expenditure and significant developments in prevention or treatment had been made in the last 10 years. The study noted considerable difficulties in cross-border comparison of medication use.\n",
"Many US citizens purchase prescription drugs from Canada, either over the Internet or by traveling there to buy them in person, because prescription drug prices in Canada are substantially lower than prescription drug prices in the United States; this cross-border purchasing has been estimated at $1 billion annually. Some states like Florida have signed bills to import prescription drugs from Canada but are awaiting federal approval.\n",
"Over the counter medications are those medications that do not require a prescription to purchase in the US. Medications that require a prescription to purchase in the US may be available in other countries without a prescription. The following guidelines are recommended:\n",
"Prescriptions are also used for things that are not strictly regulated as a prescription drug. Prescribers will often give non-prescription drugs out as prescriptions because drug benefit plans may reimburse the patient only if the over-the-counter medication is taken under the direction of a medical practitioner. Conversely, if a medication is available over-the-counter, prescribers may ask patients if they want it as a prescription or purchase it themselves. Pharmacists may or may not be able to price the medication competitively with over-the-counter equivalents. If the patient wants the medication not under prescription, the prescriber is usually careful to give the medication name to the patient on a blank piece of paper to avoid any confusion with a prescription. This is applied to non-medications as well. For example, crutches, and registered massage therapy may be reimbursed under some health plans, but only if given out by a prescriber as a prescription. Some software now requires a prescription.\n"
] |
Why don't Forests and Jungles take over the Savannas and Praries?
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A mixture of grazing animals and moisture availability, and fire.
In North America, the western part of the Great Plains simply doesn't get enough reliable precipitation to support a forest, having a functionally semi-arid climate. This is the short-grass prarie of Oklahoma, Nebraska, and the Dakotas. [This maps shows mostly what I'm talking about.
](_URL_1_)
In the Eastern Part of the Great Plains, the tall-grass prairie was historically maintained by a mix of windthrow, grazing, and natural fires. Since the late 18th century, most of the tall-grass prairie has been converted to agricultural use, and the supression of natural fires and extirpation of large grazing animals has allowed the most of the rest to undergo ecological succession into forests (mostly beech-maple, some maple-pine). Today less than 5% of the original tallgrass prairie remains in it's natural condition.
I'm trying to find the original 2003 paper that explained the dynamics of the tallgrass prairie ecosystems, but I can't find a version that isn't behind a paywall. Instead, here's an university press release the summarizes it rather well: _URL_0_
|
[
"Seasonal cultivation and herding are lifestyles which lead the population of the savanna to overgraze, overharvest the trees for firewood or charcoal and cause fires. This has reduced the woodland considerably. However large areas of unspoilt habitat remain even outside protected areas, especially compared with the more heavily populated West Sudanian Savanna.\n",
"In the African savanna, the larger herbivores, especially the elephants, shape their environment. The elephants destroy trees, making room for the grass species. Without these animals, much of the savanna would turn into woodland.\n",
"The closed forest types such as broadleaf forests and rainforests are usually not grazed owing to the closed structure precluding grass growth, and hence offering little opportunity for grazing. In contrast the open structure of savannas allows the growth of a herbaceous layer and are commonly used for grazing domestic livestock. As a result, much of the world's savannas have undergone change as a result of grazing by sheep, goats and cattle, ranging from changes in pasture composition to woody weed encroachment.\n",
"African savannas occur between forest or woodland regions and grassland regions. Flora includes acacia and baobab trees, grass, and low shrubs. Acacia trees lose their leaves in the dry season to conserve moisture, while the baobab stores water in its trunk for the dry season. Many of these savannas are in Africa.\n",
"Savannas are subject to regular wildfires and the ecosystem appears to be the result of human use of fire. For example, Native Americans created the Pre-Columbian savannas of North America by periodically burning where fire-resistant plants were the dominant species. Pine barrens in scattered locations from New Jersey to coastal New England are remnants of these savannas. Aboriginal burning appears to have been responsible for the widespread occurrence of savanna in tropical Australia and New Guinea, and savannas in India are a result of human fire use. The maquis shrub savannas of the Mediterranean region were likewise created and maintained by anthropogenic fire.\n",
"European settlers cleared much of the savanna for agricultural use. In addition, they suppressed the fire cycle. Thus surviving pockets of savanna typically became less like savannas and more like forests or thickets. Many oak savanna plant and animal species became extinct or rare.\n",
"Active preservation of habitats is required because much of the savanna has been converted to pasture or wheatland. This is particularly so in the Riverina where most has been cleared for wheat planting, a process that is ongoing, while the grasslands are vulnerable to overgrazing, and rivers including the Murray and Murrumbidgee are depleted by being water sources for large irrigation projects. As land is cleared it becomes habitat for invasive species such as noisy miner bird (\"Manorina melanophrys\") and Australian raven (\"Corvus coronoides\"). The main protected area is the steep volcanic outcrops of Warrumbungle National Park. There are small areas of parkland elsewhere and plans to create more, but there are no large areas of original savanna under protection.\n"
] |
Did Diogenes the Cynic and Alexander the Great die on the same day?
|
In fact that's pretty much the only story of his death that Diogenes Laertius *doesn't* report -- that story actually comes from Plutarch. [Diogenes Laertius reports three alternate death stories as follows (6.76-7):](_URL_0_)
> Diogenes is said to have been nearly ninety years old when he died. Regarding his death there are several different accounts. One is that he was seized with colic after eating an octopus raw and so met his end. Another is that he died voluntarily by holding his breath. This account was followed by Cercidas of Megalopolis (or of Crete), who in his meliambics writes thus:
> Not so he who aforetime was a citizen of Sinope,
That famous one who carried a staff, doubled his cloak, and lived in the open air.
But he soared aloft with his lip tightly pressed against his teeth
And holding his breath withal. For in truth he was rightly named
Diogenes, a true-born son of Zeus, a hound of heaven.
> Another version is that, while trying to divide an octopus amongst the dogs, he was so severely bitten on the sinew of the foot that it caused his death. His friends, however, according to Antisthenes in his Successions of Philosophers, conjectured that it was due to the retention of his breath. For he happened to be living in the Craneum, the gymnasium in front of Corinth. When his friends came according to custom and found him wrapped up in his cloak, they thought that he must be asleep, although he was by no means of a drowsy or somnolent habit. They therefore drew aside his cloak and found that he was dead. This they supposed to have been his deliberate act in order to escape thenceforward from life.
When there are this many variants of his death story, there's no way of pinning anything down. Though Plutarch is a tad more discriminating than Diogenes Laertius in his source criticism...
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[
"Plutarch and Diogenes Laërtius report that Alexander and Diogenes died on the same day, in 323 BC. Although this coincidence is suspect (it possibly being an invention), the anecdote, and the relationship between the two people, has been the subject of many literary and artistic works over the centuries, from the writings of Diogenes Laërtius to David Pinski's 1930 dramatic reconstruction of the encounter, \"Aleḳsander un Dyogenes\"; including writings from the Middle Ages, several works of Henry Fielding, and possibly even Shakespeare's \"King Lear\" along the way. The literature and artwork influenced by this story are extensive.\n",
"Pixodarus died — apparently a natural death — some time before the landing of Alexander in Asia, 334 BC: and was succeeded by his son-in-law the Persian Orontobates, who had married his daughter Ada II. Orontobates was soon ousted by Alexander the Great in the Siege of Halicarnassus, and replaced by Princess Ada with the approval of Alexander.\n",
"Cassander's dynasty did not live much beyond his death, with his son Philip dying of natural causes, and his other sons Alexander and Antipater becoming involved in a destructive dynastic struggle along with their mother. When Alexander was ousted as joint king by his brother, Demetrius I took up Alexander's appeal for aid and ousted Antipater II, killed Alexander V and established the Antigonid dynasty. The remaining Antipatrids, such as Antipater Etesias, were unable to re-establish the Antipatrids on the throne.\n",
"In June 323 BCE, Alexander died suddenly, leaving a power vacuum in Macedon, putting all he had worked for at risk. Being that his half-brother Arrhidaeus was unable to rule effectively due to a serious disability, a succession of wars over the rights to his conquests were fought known as the Wars of the Diadochi. Perdiccas, a high-ranking officer of the cavalry, and later Antigonus, the Phrygian satrap, prevailed over the other contenders of Alexander's empire in Asia for a time.\n",
"On June 10, 323 BCE Alexander the Great died leaving behind a huge empire streching from Greece and Macedon in Europe to the Indus valley in India. His death left the Macedonians in a very difficult position. The ruthlessness of Philip and Alexander toward possible rivals had left the Empire without a clear and competent successor. The Argead family was reduced to Alexander's mentally defective half-brother Arrhidaeus, his yet unborn son Alexander IV, and his reputed illegitimate son Heracles, a mere child, and the women of the family, his mother Olympias, his sister Cleopatra, and his half-sisters Thessalonice and Cynane.\n",
"Five months after returning to Alexandria from Nicaea, Alexander died. One source places his death on the 22nd of Baramudah, or April 17. As he was dying, he is said by some to have named Athanasius, his deacon, as his successor.\n",
"Alexander died on June 11, 323 BC, in the early hours of the morning. He had given his signet ring to his second-in-command, Perdiccas, on the previous day, according to the main account, that of Quintus Curtius Rufus, in \"History of Alexander\", which is summarized here. Curtius claims that Alexander predicted his own death, as well as the chaos resulting from it. Modern authorities disagree on whether or not this report is true, but if it is, Alexander's prediction would not have required the gift of clairvoyance and would have been largely stating the obvious; he had been dealing with mutiny among the Macedonian troops since before the expedition to India. At that time he formed a special unit of Persian young men, the Epigoni, to be armed and trained in Macedonian ways. On his return from India he hired them exclusively as his bodyguards. The handful of Macedonian generals officially titled bodyguards he used as senior staff officers. He was covered with old wounds from head to foot. He was seriously ill days before his death.\n"
] |
why do we say 'decimate' when referring to total destruction, when the roman punishment of decimation only reduced the punished group by 10%
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The Romans killed 10% in order to completely break the group/unit. You don't need to kill everyone to break the will of group, that would be pretty silly if they were useful to you. Basically, the idea is that by killing 10% of the group you break 100% of the group to your will, which is total.
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[
"Decimation (; \"decem\" = \"ten\") was a form of military discipline used by senior commanders in the Roman Army to punish units or large groups guilty of capital offences, such as cowardice, mutiny, desertion, and insubordination, and for pacification of rebellious legions. The word \"decimation\" is derived from Latin meaning \"removal of a tenth\".\n",
"Steve Finan of \"Sunday Post\" praised the show for upholding the true meaning of the word 'decimate', which is to reduce by one tenth and is of Latin origin; in Roman times a 'decimatio' was a punishment. Finan wrote that the word had \"been suffering a lingering death\" as a synonym for \"damage, devastate, or ... destroy\", leaving a \"poorer\" vocabulary with no word to \"express a reduction of one in ten\". Finan stated that he was \"indebted\" to the show's host for restoring the word's Roman use and called him a \"swashbuckling warrior on the side of the grammatical good guys\".\n",
"Decimation was still being practised during the time of the Roman Empire, although it was very uncommon. Suetonius records that it was used by Emperor Augustus in 17 BC and later by Galba, while Tacitus records that Lucius Apronius used decimation to punish a full cohort of the III Augusta after their defeat by Tacfarinas in AD 20. G.R. Watson notes that \"its appeal was to those obsessed with \"nimio amore antiqui moris\"\" – that is, an excessive love for ancient customs – and notes, \"Decimation itself, however, was ultimately doomed, for though the army might be prepared to assist in the execution of innocent slaves, professional soldiers could hardly be expected to cooperate in the indiscriminate execution of their own comrades.\" The emperor Macrinus instituted a less harsh \"centesimatio\", the execution of every 100th man.\n",
"According to , the constructions in (10) are analogous to \"the barbarians destroyed Rome\" and \"destruction\" needs to assign theta-roles in line with theta-criterion. It assigns \"agent\" to \"the barbarians\" and \"theme\" to \"Rome\" so (i) is fine. The verb \"destroy\" alone doesn't obligatorily assign theta-role to its subject so (ii) and (iii) is well-formed, too. However, \"destroy\" must assign a \"theme\", so (iv) is ruled out.\n",
"BULLET::::- To reduce something by one tenth is to \"decimate\". (In ancient Rome, the killing of one in ten soldiers in a cohort was the punishment for cowardice or mutiny; or, one-tenth of the able-bodied men in a village as a form of retribution, thus causing a labor shortage and threat of starvation in agrarian societies.)\n",
"Opponents of annihilationism often argue that ceasing to exist is not eternal punishment and therefore conflicts with passages such as Matthew 25:46: \"And these shall go away into everlasting punishment but the righteous into eternal life.\" This argument uses a definition of the word \"punishment\" that must include some form of suffering. However, in common usage, punishment might be described as \"an authorized imposition of deprivations—of freedom or privacy or other goods to which the person otherwise has a right, or the imposition of special burdens—because the person has been found guilty of some criminal violation, typically (though not invariably) involving harm to the innocent\" (according to the \"Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy\"). By this definition, annihilationism is a form of punishment in which deprivation of existence occurs, and the punishment is eternal.\n",
"The animistic fallacy is the informal fallacy of arguing that an event or situation necessarily arose because someone intentionally acted to cause it. While it could be that someone set out to effect a specific goal, the fallacy appears in an argument that states this \"must\" be the case. The name of the fallacy comes from the animistic belief that changes in the physical world are the work of conscious spirits.\n"
] |
why is pencil graphite referred to as lead instead of graphite?
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Before chemistry was really a thing, everyone thought that graphite was a type of lead, probably because it's so soft.
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[
"BULLET::::- The \"lead\" in pencils is made of graphite and clay, not lead; graphite was originally believed to be lead ore, but this is now known not to be the case. The graphite and clay mix is known as \"plumbago\", meaning \"lead ore\" in Latin, and is still known as \"black lead\" in Keswick, Cumbria and elsewhere.\n",
"Historically, graphite was called black lead or plumbago. Plumbago was commonly used in its massive mineral form. Both of these names arise from confusion with the similar-appearing lead ores, particularly galena. The Latin word for lead, \"plumbum\", gave its name to the English term for this grey metallic-sheened mineral and even to the leadworts or plumbagos, plants with flowers that resemble this colour.\n",
"From the 16th century, all pencils were made with leads of English natural graphite, but modern pencil lead is most commonly a mix of powdered graphite and clay; it was invented by Nicolas-Jacques Conté in 1795. It is chemically unrelated to the metal lead, whose ores had a similar appearance, hence the continuation of the name. Plumbago is another older term for natural graphite used for drawing, typically as a lump of the mineral without a wood casing. The term plumbago drawing is normally restricted to 17th and 18th century works, mostly portraits.\n",
"Graphite pencils are made of a mixture of clay and graphite and their darkness varies from light grey to black: the more clay the harder the pencil. There is a wide range of grades available, mainly for artists who are interested in creating a full range of tones from light grey to black. Engineers prefer harder pencils which allow for a greater control in the shape of the lead.\n",
"Contrary to popular belief, pencil leads in wooden pencils have never been made from lead. When the pencil originated as a wrapped graphite writing tool, the particular type of graphite used was named \"plumbago\" (literally, \"act for lead\" or \"lead mockup\").\n",
"However, most modern \"lead pencils\" have a nonpoisonous core of greyish-black graphite mixed with various proportions of clay for consistency, enclosed within an outer wooden casing to protect the fragile graphite from being snapped apart or from leaving marks on the user's hand.\n",
"Abraham Gottlob Werner coined the name \"graphite\" (\"writing stone\") in 1789. He attempted to clear up the confusion between molybdena, plumbago and black lead after Carl Wilhelm Scheele in 1778 proved that there are at least three different minerals. Scheele's analysis showed that the chemical compounds molybdenum sulfide (molybdenite), lead(II) sulfide (galena) and graphite were three different soft black minerals.\n"
] |
why are roads always wet in movies?
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Pretty sure it's called a wet down. It's used to reflect light to make the scene more visible.
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[
"Off the highway, roads are mostly all \"dirt\". They are inaccessible when wet. Although the description by Charles Siringo quoted above of the difficulties with sticky mud in the breaks is over a hundred years old, it is still applicable.\n",
"Compared to a gravel road, a dirt road is not usually graded regularly to produce an enhanced to encourage rainwater to drain off the road, and drainage ditches at the sides may be absent. They are unlikely to have embankments through low-lying areas. This leads to greater waterlogging and erosion, and after heavy rain the road may be impassable even to off-road vehicles. For this reason, in some countries, such as Australia and New Zealand, they are known as \"dry-weather roads\".\n",
"It is considered impassable in wet weather. Many sections traverse ancient seabed deposits of mudstone, silt, and shale. When wet the clay surface becomes exceptionally slick, even four wheel drive is rendered useless. Additionally many drainages cross the road in various locations, and these may wash out during periodic flash flooding, particularly during summer thunderstorms. Even in dry weather the road can be muddy to the point of being impassable in low areas.\n",
"The road is often closed due to flooding during the wet season, which is typically November through March, although delayed openings have been known to happen, frustrating the tourism industry as well as locals who rely on the road. Since the mid-2000s, the road has been upgraded to a formed gravel two-lane road including a few short bitumenised sections, but 4WD vehicles are still recommended due to the water crossings and numerous heavily corrugated sections.\n",
"Most roads are cambered (crowned), that is, made so that they have rounded surfaces, to reduce standing water and ice, primarily to prevent frost damage but also increasing traction in poor weather. Some sections of road are now surfaced with porous bitumen to enhance drainage; this is particularly done on bends. These are just a few elements of highway engineering. As well as that, there are often grooves cut into the surface of cement highways to channel water away, and rumble strips at the edges of highways to rouse inattentive drivers with the loud noise they make when driven over. In some cases, there are raised markers between lanes to reinforce the lane boundaries; these are often reflective. In pedestrian areas, speed bumps are often placed to slow cars, preventing them from going too fast near pedestrians.\n",
"Snow and rain can make the highway slushy or too slippery to travel. Past precipitation can also create travel hazards. Much of Rohtang Pass remains covered by snow even in summer. Adjacent glaciers melt (more so as the day wears on) and water overruns the highway in many places. This water is ice-cold and travellers should avoid situations where they might have to wade through it.\n",
"The roads are unsealed and in the wet season the land may fill with large bodies of water. Large lakes may form that attract an array of wildlife. The region has snakes, kangaroos, bungarras (large lizard/goanna), bush turkeys, donkeys, horses, camels and dingoes.\n"
] |
Portuguese Man O' Wars are a collection of organisms that function as one entity. How do they come together to begin with?
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These guys are really cool! They are part of the class Hydrozoa which is part of the phylum Cnidaria which includes jellyfish and corals etc. All of these types of animals have some sort of life cycle that cycles between two forms. The medusae which are what your traditional jellyfish is and a polyp which is a sessile non mobile form. Then there are inbetween forms. Note that some such as coral only have polyp forms.
Now to the Man o war! The Man o War starts out in a larva stage called a planula. A planula is a small oval shaped organism that will eventually develop into a polyp form. This polyp will eventually reproduce asexually meaning all of the offspring will be genetic clones of that one polyp. But what's interesting in colonial Hydrozoa like the Man o War is that these offspring will only have certain genes turned on making them specialized. Each offspring of that original planula is now specialized to a certain task to help the colony.
These specialized individuals are called zooids. There are really a few main types of zooids. You have the gastrozooids which are specialized for feeding. Gonozooids which are specialized for reproduction and all future offspring will come solely from these individuals. Finally some colonial Hydrozoa such as the Man o War also have dactylozooids which are special individuals which have cnidae cells with nematocysts. These guys are cells that can sting which is what is characteristic of the Cnidaria phylum.
So to summarize: the basic larva form, the planula, does its normal thing and grows into many polyp like forms which differentiate and specialize to certain tasks. We call these specialized individuals zooids. So they don't really "come together" like you might think but rather arise from one organism. You might ask but how do they get that bell-like structure? How is that one organism? And that bell is just one super specialized zooid.
The Portuguese Man o War is part of what we call Siphonophora which also includes other colonial organisms like Praya which is the longest predator in the world. It is even longer than a blue whale! Fell free to ask more questions and I'll do my best to answer them!
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[
"Being a colonial siphonophore, the Portuguese man o' war is composed of three types of medusoids (gonophores, siphosomal nectophores, and vestigial siphosomal nectophores) and four types of polypoids (free gastrozooids, gastrozooids with tentacles, gonozooids, and gonopalpons), grouped into cormidia beneath the pneumatophore, a sail-shaped structure filled with gas. The pneumatophore develops from the planula, unlike the other polyps. This sail is bilaterally symmetrical, with the tentacles at one end. It is translucent, and is tinged blue, purple, pink, or mauve. It may be long and may extend as much as above the water. The Portuguese man o' war fills its gas bladder with up to 14% carbon monoxide. The remainder is nitrogen, oxygen, and argon—atmospheric gases that diffuse into the gas bladder. Carbon dioxide also occurs at trace levels. The sail is equipped with a siphon. In the event of a surface attack, the sail can be deflated, allowing the colony to temporarily submerge.\n",
"The Portuguese man o' war (\"Physalia physalis\"), also known as the man-of-war, is a marine hydrozoan found in the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific Oceans. It is one of two species in the genus Physalia, along with the Pacific man o' war (or Australian blue bottle), \"Physalia utriculus\". \"Physalia\" is the only genus in the family Physaliidae. Its long tentacles deliver a painful sting, which is venomous and powerful enough to kill fish and even humans. Despite its appearance, the Portuguese man o' war is not a true jellyfish but a siphonophore, which is not actually a single multicellular organism (true jellyfish are single organisms), but a colonial organism made up of many specialized animals of the same species, called zooids or polyps. These polyps are attached to one another and physiologically integrated, to the extent that they cannot survive independently, creating a symbiotic relationship, requiring each polyp to work together and function like an individual animal.\n",
"The Portuguese man o' war is a carnivore. Using its venomous tentacles, a man o' war traps and paralyzes its prey while \"reeling\" it inwards to the digestive polyps. It typically feeds on small marine organisms, such as fish and plankton. \n",
"The Atlantic Portuguese man o' war lives at the surface of the ocean. The gas-filled bladder, or pneumatophore, remains at the surface, while the remainder is submerged. Portuguese men o' war have no means of propulsion, and move driven by the winds, currents, and tides. Although they are most commonly found in the open ocean in tropical and subtropical regions, they have been found as far north as the Bay of Fundy, Cape Breton and the Hebrides.\n",
"Snails is a shooting game by PDAmill for Windows Mobile. There was also a version for Palm OS, now discontinued, and alpha/beta versions for Symbian and Microsoft Windows, which have not been updated in over a year. In the game, you play as a race of snails (Moogums, Lupeez, or Nooginz) planning world conquest (of the planet Schnoogie) in either Missions or Deathmatch modes. In Missions mode, players complete levels to unlock new weapons and the final mission. In Deathmatch mode, players simply fight and kill enemy snails. There are four Deathmatch modes: Human vs. CPU, CPU vs. CPU, Human vs. Human, and Human vs. Human (network play). The game features many destructive weapons, including teargas, which is deadly because the salt from a snail's tears dry out its body.\n",
"\"G. atlanticus\" is able to feed on the Portuguese man o' war due to its immunity to the venomous nematocysts. The slug consumes the entire organism and appears to select and store the most venomous nematocysts for its own use. The nematocysts are collected in specialized sacs (cnidosacs) at the tip of the animal's cerata, the thin feather-like \"fingers\" on its body. Because \"Glaucus\" concentrates the venom, it can produce a more powerful and deadly sting than the Man o' War on which it feeds.\n",
"Battles are a mix of turn-based strategy puzzles on a set map with enemies that can move about, random item nodes and heliports/command nodes, from which the player can summon their own echelons, or call in friendly support echelons, which are echelons that the player's friend sets on their profile to be used by others, and real-time battles with enemy echelons. Battles are for the most part automated, although the player can activate the T-Dolls' special abilities manually if wanted, or order them to different spots in formation (which the player can organise out of battle to be set as the default formation when entering a battle) or to withdraw in order to conserve health or resources). Players also have the option of withdrawing specific echelons from the mission altogether if they wish. \n"
] |
Health wise are you better off drinking a low cal sugar free Gatorade or a diet soda no caffeine?
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Gatorade. The electrolytes are good for you and the acidity of soda is not good for your teeth or the rest of your digestive system for that matter.
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[
"Studies indicate \"soda and sweetened drinks are the main source of calories in [the] American diet\", so most nutritionists advise that Coca-Cola and other soft drinks can be harmful if consumed excessively, particularly to young children whose soft drink consumption competes with, rather than complements, a balanced diet. Studies have shown that regular soft drink users have a lower intake of calcium, magnesium, vitamin C, riboflavin, and vitamin A.\n",
"Diet (alternatively marketed as sugar-free, zero-calorie or low-calorie) drinks are sugar-free, artificially sweetened versions of fizzy beverages with virtually no calories. They are generally marketed toward health-conscious people, diabetics, athletes, and other people who want to lose weight, improve physical fitness, or reduce their sugar intake. However, studies show that the marketed effectiveness of diet soft drinks is questionable. \n",
"A 2009 study from the University of Texas reports that caffeinated energy drinks decrease sporting performance. They found that after drinking an energy drink, 83% of participants improved their physical activity parameters by an average of 4.7%. This was attributed to the effects of caffeine, sucrose and Vitamin B in the drink - however scientific consensus does not support the efficacy of using Vitamin B as a performance enhancer. To explain the performance improvement the writers report an increase in blood levels of epinephrine, norepinephrine and beta-Endorphin. The adenosine receptor antagonism of caffeine accounts for the first two, while the latter is accounted for by the Neurobiological effects of physical exercise.\n",
"Coffee, tea and other naturally caffeinated drinks are usually not considered energy drinks. Other soft drinks such as cola may contain caffeine, but are not considered energy drinks either. Some alcoholic drinks, such as Buckfast Tonic Wine, contain caffeine and other stimulants. According to the Mayo Clinic, it is safe for the typical healthy adult to consume a total of 400 mg of caffeine a day. This has been confirmed by a panel of the European Food Safety Authority, which also concludes that a caffeine intake of up to 400 mg per day does not raise safety concerns for adults. According to the ESFA this is equivalent to 4 cups of coffee (90 mg each) or 2 1/2 standard cans (250 ml) of energy drink (160 mg each/80 mg per serving).\n",
"Many caffeinated drinks also have decaffeinated counterparts, for those who enjoy the taste, but wish to limit their caffeine intake because of its physical effects, or due to religious or medical perceptions of the drug and its effects.\n",
"Eating a diet high in fruits, vegetables, grains, legumes and plant-based beverages has long-term health benefits, but there is no evidence that taking dietary supplements of non-nutrient phytochemicals extracted from plants similarly benefits health. Phytochemical supplements are neither recommended by health authorities for improving health nor approved by regulatory agencies for health claims on product labels.\n",
"Numerous agencies in the United States recommend reducing the consumption of all sugars, including HFCS, without singling it out as presenting extra concerns. The Mayo Clinic cites the American Heart Association's recommendation that women limit the added sugar in their diet to 100 calories a day (~6 teaspoons) and that men limit it to 150 calories a day (~9 teaspoons), noting that there is not enough evidence to support HFCS having more adverse health effects than excess consumption of any other type of sugar. The United States departments of Agriculture and Health and Human Services recommendations for a healthy diet state that consumption of all types of added sugars be reduced.\n"
] |
why does drinking water solve so much?
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Don't think of drinking water as solving problems, think of not drinking enough being a very big problem. Water is essential for almost every bodily function and without it the entire body is worse off
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[
"The quality of drinking water is ensured through a framework of water safety plans that ensures the safe disposal of human waste so that drinking water supplies are not contaminated. Improving the water supply, sanitation, hygiene and management of our water resources could prevent ten percent of total global disease.\n",
"According to Kellogg, water provides remedial properties partly because of vital resistance and partly because of its physical properties. For Kellogg, the medical uses of water begin with its function as a refrigerant, a way to lower body heat by way of dissipating its production as well as by conduction. \"There is not a drug in the whole materia medica that will diminish the temperature of the body so readily and so efficiently as water.\" Water can also serve as a sedative. While other substances serve as sedatives by exerting their poisonous influences on the heart and nerves, water is a gentler and more efficient sedative without any of the negative side-effects seen in these other substances. Kellogg states that a cold bath can often reduce one's pulse by 20 to 40 beats per minute quickly, in a matter of a few minutes. Additionally, water can function as a tonic, increasing both the speed of circulation and the overall temperature of the body. A hot bath accelerates one's pulse from 70 to 150 beats per minute in 15 minutes. Water is also useful as an anodyne since it can lower nervous sensibility and reduce pain when applied in the form of hot fomentation. Kellogg argues that this procedure will often give one relief where every other drug has failed to do so. He also believed that no other treatment could function as well as an antispasmodic, reducing infantile convulsions and cramps, as water. Water can be an effective astringent as, when applied cold, it can arrest hemorrhages. Moreover, it can be very effective in producing bowel movements. Whereas purgatives would introduce \"violent and unpleasant symptoms\", water would not. Although it would not have much competition as an emetic at the time, Kellogg believed no other substance could induce vomiting as well as water did. Returning to one of Kellogg's most admired qualities of water, it can function as a \"most perfect eliminative\". Water can dissolve waste and foreign matter from the blood. These many uses of water led Kellogg to belief that \"the aim of the faithful physician should be to accomplish for his patient the greatest amount of good at the least expence of vitality; and it is an indisputable fact that in a large number of cases water is just the agent with which this desirable end can be obtained.\"\n",
"Symptoms of economic water scarcity include a lack of infrastructure, with people often having to fetch water from rivers or lakes for domestic and agricultural uses (irrigation). Although much emphasis is put on improving water sources for drinking and domestic purposes, evidence suggests that much more water is used for other uses such as bathing, laundry, livestock and cleaning than for drinking and cooking alone. This observation suggests that putting too much emphasis on drinking water needs addresses an insignificant part of the problem of water resources and therefore limits the range of solutions available.\n",
"Water is vital for reducing the global burden of disease and improving the health, welfare and productivity of populations. Today, 2.1 billion people lack access to safely managed drinking water services and 4.5 billion people lack safely managed sanitation services.\n",
"Using water wisely will extend the life of our existing water supplies and their delivery systems, ultimately lowering water costs and the environmental burden of water usage. As a best practice, Health Canada recommends that water used for drinking and cooking be taken from the cold-water tap after the water has been 'run' until cold.\n",
"Household water treatment and safe storage ensure drinking water is safe for consumption. These interventions are part of the approach of self-supply of water for households. Drinking water quality remains a significant problem in developing and in developed countries; even in the European region it is estimated that 120 million people do not have access to safe drinking water. Point-of-use water quality interventions can reduce diarrheal disease in communities where water quality is poor or in emergency situations where there is a breakdown in water supply.\n",
"Drinking water, also known as potable water, is water that is safe to drink or to use for food preparation. The amount of drinking water required to maintain good health varies, and depends on physical activity level, age, health-related issues, and environmental conditions. Americans, on average, drink one litre of water per day and 95% drink less than three litres per day. For those who work in a hot climate, up to 16 litres a day may be required. Liquid water, along with air pressure, nutrients, and solar energy, is essential for life.\n"
] |
Why are second derivatives written in the format d2(f(x))/dx2?
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Really it should be d^2 / (dx)^2, but the parentheses are dropped. This just comes from
(d/dx) (d/dx) ... (d/dx) = (d/dx)^n = d^n / (dx)^n = d^n / dx^n.
It's just convention
|
[
"The mixed partial derivatives of \"f\" are the entries off the main diagonal in the Hessian. Assuming that they are continuous in a neighborhood of a given point, the order of differentiation does not matter (Schwarz's theorem). Thus,\n",
"The partial derivative formula_50 can be seen as another function defined on \"U\" and can again be partially differentiated. If all mixed second order partial derivatives are continuous at a point (or on a set), \"f\" is termed a C function at that point (or on that set); in this case, the partial derivatives can be exchanged by Clairaut's theorem:\n",
"Two types of derivatives are used: Partial derivatives are denoted either by the operator formula_13 or by subscripts preceded by a comma. Covariant derivatives are denoted either by the operator formula_14 or by subscripts preceded by a semicolon.\n",
"is a total time derivative, i.e. a \"divergence\" in the calculus of variations, and thus it gives no contribution to the Euler–Lagrange equations. Thanks to this result the advanced potentials can be eliminated; here the total derivative plays the same role as the \"free field\". The Lagrangian for the \"N\"-body system is therefore\n",
"A related but distinct use of second derivatives is to determine whether a function is concave up or concave down at a point. It does not, however, provide information about inflection points. Specifically, a twice-differentiable function \"f\" is concave up if formula_8 and concave down if formula_9. Note that if formula_19, then formula_20 has zero second derivative, yet is not an inflection point, so the second derivative alone does not give enough information to determine if a given point is an inflection point.\n",
"Some authors prefer to use capital D to indicate the total derivative operator, as in \"D\"/\"Dt\". The total derivative differs from the partial time derivative in that the total derivative accounts for changes in a due to the time variance of the variables \"q\".\n",
"Partial derivatives are generally distinguished from ordinary derivatives by replacing the differential operator \"d\" with a \"∂\" symbol. For example, we can indicate the partial derivative of with respect to \"x\", but not to \"y\" or \"z\" in several ways:\n"
] |
why doesn't google chrome allow unity player anymore?
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The unity player uses a mechanism of integrating with chrome that chrome were no longer willing to support. The 'NPAPI' (Netscape Plugin Application Programming Interface) was how a lot of different browser plugins integrated with both Firefox and Chrome such as Flash (not in Chrome's case which builds flash in), Java, media players like VLC / RealPlayer, etc.
The NPAPI has been around since the Netscape browsers, it's very old, and I think the Chrome/Chromium team didn't want to continue to maintain and support it when the Chrome extension system and HTML 5 cover the vast majority of use cases between them.
Plus getting rid of NPAPI plugins improves security, no more Java for a start - you aren't exposing all the different plugins to the websites you visit that might poentially try to exploit them anymore.
|
[
"Because of Chrome's success, Microsoft created a very similar extension API for its Edge browser, with the goal of making it easy for Chrome extension developers to port their work to Edge. But after three years Edge still had a disappointingly small market share, so in December 2018 Microsoft announced that Edge is being rebuilt as a Chromium-based browser. (Chromium is Google's open-source project that serves as the functional core of Chrome and many other browsers.) This remade Edge should have the same API as Chrome, which will enable users to install extensions directly from the Chrome Web Store.\n",
"While Chrome has the same user interface functionality as Chromium, it changes the color scheme to the Google-branded one. Unlike Chromium, Chrome is not open-source, so its binaries are licensed as freeware under the \"Google Chrome Terms of Service\".\n",
"Microsoft announced Chromeffects as an add-on for Windows 98 to play 3D graphics and video through a web browser or in separate player software, for ads with flashing text and other animation, or to generate user interface enhancements for Web-based applications.\n",
"Ubuntu 11.04 used the Unity user interface instead of GNOME Shell as default. The move to Unity was controversial as some GNOME developers feared it would fracture the community and marginalize GNOME Shell. The GNOME desktop environment is still available in Ubuntu 11.04 under the title Ubuntu Classic as a fallback to Unity.\n",
"All Chrome experiments are browser based, thus all have some relation to HTML, and because of new Canvas element unique to HTML5, nearly all of the paint and design tools on the site along with some games, utilize HTML5 and Canvas 2-D element.\n",
"\"Chrome\" is a first-person shooter, and most of the gameplay involves traversing 3D environments by foot and fighting human enemies with an array of ranged weapons. Occasionally, the player has to solve simple puzzles and find keys that allow to enter new areas. What made \"Chrome\" stand out upon its release was that a large part of the game's action takes place in vast open areas, providing some tactical freedom to the player. The player is also able to utilize six different kinds of vehicles that allow for fast movement and provide protection as well as heavy weaponry in some cases. Another feature that was not common at the time was the ability to slightly zoom in with every kind of weapon.\n",
"GNOME 3 has been the default GUI for Ubuntu Desktop since Ubuntu 17.10, while Unity is still the default in older versions, including all current LTS versions except 18.04 LTS. However, a community-driven fork of Unity 8, called Yunit, has been created to continue the development of Unity. Shuttleworth wrote on 8 April 2017, \"We will invest in Ubuntu GNOME with the intent of delivering a fantastic all-GNOME desktop. We're helping the Ubuntu GNOME team, not creating something different or competitive with that effort. While I am passionate about the design ideas in Unity, and hope GNOME may be more open to them now, I think we should respect the GNOME design leadership by delivering GNOME the way GNOME wants it delivered. Our role in that, as usual, will be to make sure that upgrades, integration, security, performance and the full experience are fantastic.\" Shuttleworth also mentioned that Canonical will cease development for Ubuntu Phone, Tablet, and convergence.\n"
] |
can cigarette companies just remove toxins and carcinogens from their cigarettes to make them still addictive but not as dangerous? why or why not?
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Most of the carcinogens are just byproducts of burning of the dried tobacco leaf. Inhaling smoke is unhealthy, no matter the source.
Some of the carcinogens come from chemicals added to enhance flavor, control the burning and so forth. But removing them would surely help only a little, yet make the smoking process more arduous.
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[
"In October 2012, the World Medical Association released a statement which stated, \"Due to the lack of rigorous chemical and animal studies, as well as clinical trials on commercially available e-cigarettes, neither their value as therapeutic aids for smoking cessation nor their safety as cigarette replacements is established. Lack of product testing does not permit the conclusion that e-cigarettes do not produce any harmful products even if they produce fewer dangerous substances than conventional cigarettes.\"\n",
"A 2014 review found higher levels of carcinogens and toxicants than in an FDA regulated nicotine inhaler, suggesting that regulated FDA devices may deliver nicotine more safely. In 2014, the World Lung Foundation (now known as Vital Strategies) stated that \"Researchers find that many e-cigarettes contain toxins, contaminants and carcinogens that conflict with the industry's portrayal of its products as purer, healthier alternatives. They also find considerable variations in the amount of nicotine delivered by different brands. None of this information is made available to consumers so they really don't know what they are ingesting, or how much.\"\n",
"In 2015 the California Department of Public Health issued a report that found e-cigarettes expose users and bystanders to harmful chemicals, there is no scientific evidence they help smokers quit, they are being heavily marketed, and teen use is growing rapidly.\n",
"The ICC (International Chamber of Commerce) warns counterfeit cigarettes were found to contain unsanitary ingredients (such as human feces, dead flies and mold), as well as a higher dosage of lethal substances in excess of legitimate cigarettes. Illicit cigarettes seized in Canada and the United Kingdom were found to contain five times more cadmium, six times as much lead, 160% more tar, and 133% more carbon dioxide. Consumers are warned to take caution and avoid the temptation to save money by purchasing illegal cigarettes as it poses greater health risks compared to legal cigarettes.\n",
"Many \"modified risk\" nicotine products are actually just as risky as the products they were marketed against. As the long-term harms of cigarette smoking emerge after ~20 years of use, claims of reduced long-term harms for a new product cannot immediately be refuted. Products may become popular on the basis of false health claims before the research is done that proves them false.\n",
"The nicotine industry also promoted \"modified risk\" nicotine products, falsely implied to be less harmful, such as roasted, \"filter\", menthol, and ventilated (\"light\") cigarettes. These products were used to discourage quitting, by offering unwilling smokers an alternative to quitting, and implying that using the alternate product would reduce the hazards of smoking. \"Modified risk\" products also attract new smokers.\n",
"The American Cancer Society argues that the cigarettes are not as safe as the marketing campaign suggests, and that they should be removed from the marketplace: although they produce less tar and produce less second-hand smoke, this leads to a false sense of security, since the cigarette still contains high amounts of carcinogens. Other concerns are that they produce more carbon monoxide than regular cigarettes. R. J. Reynolds has countered by claiming that the company is not trying to market a \"safe\" cigarette, only a better alternative.\n"
] |
why sleeping in the morning and waking up at night is bad for health ?
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The body has something called a circadian rhythm which is correlated to the cycle of night and daylight. This circadian rhythm affects which hormones are released in our body; this is called hormonal homeostasis. Certain hormones are released at different times and the concentrations of such hormones are varied at different times. Sleeping in the morning during daylight and waking up at night in the dark will initially throw this circadian hormonal homeostasis off balance, which could be unhealthy.
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[
"Good sleep hygiene is recommended. This includes blocking out noise and light during sleep, maintaining a regular, predictable sleep routine, avoiding heavy foods and alcohol before sleep, and sleeping in a comfortable, cool environment. Alcohol consumption, caffeine consumption and heavy meals in the few hours before sleep can worsen shift work sleep disorders. Exercise in the three hours before sleep can make it difficult to fall asleep.\n",
"Poor sleep is one of the largest complaints among the elderly, and poor sleep can be linked to a wide variety of problems including increased cardiovascular problems, disruption of endocrine functions, decline of immune functions, stability problems, and poor cognition. Studies have shown that when the elderly are exposed to high circadian light levels during the day and dim circadian levels at night, their sleep duration and efficiency has significantly improved.\n",
"Among lifestyle practices, going to sleep and waking up at the same time each day can create a steady pattern which may help to prevent insomnia. Avoidance of vigorous exercise and caffeinated drinks a few hours before going to sleep is recommended, while exercise earlier in the day may be beneficial. Other practices to improve sleep hygiene may include:\n",
"BULLET::::- Sleep disturbances: Patients who do not sleep well are more tired than others. Cancer patients commonly experience insomnia or hypersomnia. Sleep disturbances may be caused by sleeping too much during the day, by restless leg syndrome, by pain, by anxiety, or by other medical conditions, like obstructive sleep apnea or menopause. Practicing good sleep hygiene may reduce fatigue by improving sleep quality.\n",
"When good sleep hygiene is insufficient, a person's lack of synchronization to night and day can have health consequences. There is some variation within normal chronotypes' entrainment; it is normal for humans to awaken anywhere from about 5 a.m. to 9 a.m. However, patients with DSPD, ASPD and non-24-hour sleep–wake disorder are improperly entrained to light/dark.\n",
"One set of recommendations relates to the timing of sleep. For adults, getting less than 7–8 hours of sleep is associated with a number of physical and mental health deficits, and therefore a top sleep hygiene recommendation is allowing enough time for sleep. Clinicians will frequently advise that these hours of sleep are obtained at night instead of through napping, because while naps can be helpful after sleep deprivation, under normal conditions naps may be detrimental to nighttime sleep. Negative effects of napping on sleep and performance have been found to depend on duration and timing, with shorter midday naps being the least disruptive. There is also focus on the importance of awakening around the same time every morning and generally having a regular sleep schedule.\n",
"Sleep is an essential component to maintaining health. In children, sleep is also vital for growth and development. Ongoing sleep deprivation has been linked to an increased risk for some chronic health problems. In addition, sleep deprivation has been shown to correlate with both increased susceptibility to illness and slower recovery times from illness. In one study, people with chronic insufficient sleep, set as six hours of sleep a night or less, were found to be four times more likely to catch a cold compared to those who reported sleeping for seven hours or more a night. Due to the role of sleep in regulating metabolism, insufficient sleep may also play a role in weight gain or, conversely, in impeding weight loss. Additionally, in 2007, the International Agency for Research on Cancer, which is the cancer research agency for the World Health Organization, declared that \"shiftwork that involves circadian disruption is probably carcinogenic to humans,\" speaking to the dangers of long-term nighttime work due to its intrusion on sleep. In 2015, the National Sleep Foundation released updated recommendations for sleep duration requirements based on age and concluded that \"Individuals who habitually sleep outside the normal range may be exhibiting signs or symptoms of serious health problems or, if done volitionally, may be compromising their health and well-being.\"\n"
] |
How did individuals fund their Hajj?
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I can't give any direct information on this topic, however I do want to point out that the stipulations for making the Hajj state that it should be carried out by Muslims who are able-bodied enough to make the journey and wealthy enough to be able to afford it.
Basically, if you *can* afford the journey and are physically able enough to make it, you should, however it wouldn't be held against you if you were not physically or monetarily able to make the journey.
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[
"The Haj subsidy was a subsidy based on religion that was given to only Indian Muslim Hajj pilgrims by the Government of India in form of discounted air fares, for food, accommodation, and for insurance so that a Muslim can fly to Mecca for Hajj. The program has its origins in British colonial era. In post-colonial era, the secular Government of India expanded the program in 1959 with the Hajj Act. The subsidy initially applied to Indian Muslim pilgrims traveling for religious reasons to Saudi Arabia, Syria, Iraq, Iran and Jordan by road and by sea. Expanded Haj subsidy started in 1954, as an idea initiated by the then government, with flights between Mumbai and Jeddah. Additional flight legs were added over the years, and since 1984, all Hajj traffic has been shared by Air India and Saudia, the national carriers of India and Saudi Arabia. The monopoly of these airlines had proven the most contentious point of the subsidy, with some Muslims objecting to it by claiming falsely that the real beneficiary is Air India as the subsidy is actually a discount on an overpriced air fare. In the past, the Haj board used to call for a bid to fly these muslims to Mecca and for past many years it is Saudia (Saudi Arabian government owned airline) which came as the lowest bidder . There were also requests by Muslims to withdraw subsidy including some Muslim Parliament members as it is against Islam even it was beneficial and millions of muslims used it to fly multiple times and stayed in Mecca and availed these subsidies. Hindus have also questioned about these subsidies provided to only Muslims in a secular country while no other religions have been granted these subsidies and it is paid by the tax payers of India\n",
"The Amana Funds are unique in that they were specifically conceived to meet the needs of Muslim investors. One of the reasons Muslims are motivated to save and invest is to make financial preparations necessary to make the \"Hajj\", a sacred form of a self-presentation before God (Allah in Arabic) that is considered within Islam to be one of life's primary duties. In order to make the \"Hajj\", a Muslim must first get his financial house in order, which presents special challenges if the money is to be invested in compliance \"Shari'ah\"-oriented financial principles. According to Amana's founding chairman Dr. M. Yaqub Mirza,\n",
"The Haj subsidy is a subsidy given to Indian Muslim Hajj pilgrims by the Government of India. The program has its origins in British colonial era. In post-colonial era, the Nehru government expanded the program in 1959 with the Hajj Act. The subsidy and taxpayer funded arrangements initially applied to Muslim Indian pilgrims traveling for religious reasons to Saudi Arabia, Syria, Iraq, Iran and Jordan. Since 1973, pilgrims applying through the Haj Committee of India are offered a concessionary fare on Air India.. The subsidy was withdrawn on January 16, 2018 as per the orders of the Supreme Court of India. \n",
"The Hajj is an Islamic pilgrimage to Mecca and the largest gathering of Muslims in the world every year. It is one of the five pillars of Islam, and a religious duty which must be carried out by every able-bodied Muslim who can afford to do so at least once in his or her lifetime.\n",
"The Hajj is associated with the life of Islamic prophet Muhammad from the 7th century, but the ritual of pilgrimage to Mecca is considered by Muslims to stretch back thousands of years to the time of Abraham. During Hajj, pilgrims join processions of hundreds of thousands of people, who simultaneously converge on Mecca for the week of the Hajj, and perform a series of rituals: Each person walks counter-clockwise seven times around the Kaaba (the cube-shaped building and the direction of prayer for the Muslims), runs back and forth between the hills of Safa and Marwah, drinks from the Zamzam Well, goes to the plains of Mount Arafat to stand in vigil, spends a night in the plain of Muzdalifa, and performs symbolic stoning of the devil by throwing stones at three pillars. After the sacrifice of their animal, the Pilgrims then are required to shave their head. Then they celebrate the three-day global festival of Eid al-Adha.\n",
"The Hajj is an annual Islamic pilgrimage to Mecca, Saudi Arabia, the holiest city for Muslims, and a mandatory religious duty for Muslims that must be carried out at least once in their lifetime by all adult Muslims who are physically and financially capable of undertaking the journey and can support their family during their absence. In Islamic terminology, Hajj is a pilgrimage made to Kaaba, the ‘House of God’, in the sacred city of Mecca in Saudi Arabia. The rites of Hajj begin on the eighth and ending on the thirteenth day of Dhu al-Hijjah, the last month of the Islamic calendar.Ihram is the name given to the special spiritual state in which pilgrims wear two white sheets of seamless cloth and abstain from certain actions.\n",
"Ministry of Hajj and Umrah is a Saudi government ministry which is in charge of handling issues of Hajj and Umrah in the Kingdom. The ministry assures safe arrival and departure of pilgrims and visitors arriving in Saudi Arabia for Hajj or Umrah. The Ministry of Hajj and Umrah is authorized to tackle all Hajj-related issues. It mainly coordinates between different sectors working for Hajj and Umrah operations as well as between different Hajj-related agencies in Muslim countries and worldwide. Moreover, the Ministry is responsible for developing plans, implementing and supervising the services provided to pilgrims and visitors of the Two Holy Mosques. \n"
] |
why do drums sound in key with every song?
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They don't really have a definite pitch. The sounds they produce are too complex and consist of too many pitches for us to be able to pick out a pitch. That's why they sound okay in any key.
This applies to things like snare drums, bass drums, cymbals, etc. Things like timpani have definite pitches, and they have to be in key with the rest of the instruments in the ensemble.
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[
"These are the core instruments of the rhythm section. Musicians recording later tracks use the precise attack of the drum sounds as a rhythmic guide. In some styles, the drums may be recorded for a few bars and then looped. Click (metronome) tracks are also often used as the first sound to be recorded, especially when the drummer is not available for the initial recording, and/or the final mix will be synchronized with motion picture and/or video images. One reason that a band may start with just the drums is because this allows the band to pick the song's key later on. The producer and the musicians can experiment with the song's key and arrangement against the basic rhythm track. Also, though the drums might eventually be mixed down to a couple of tracks, each individual drum and percussion instrument might be initially recorded to its own individual track. The drums and percussion combined can occupy a large number of tracks utilized in a recording. This is done so that each percussion instrument can be processed individually for maximum effect. Equalization (or EQ) is often used on individual drums, to bring out each one's characteristic sound. The last tracks recorded are often the vocals (though a temporary vocal track may be recorded early on either as a reference or to guide subsequent musicians; this is sometimes called a \"Guide Vocal\", \"Ghost Vocal\" or \"Scratch vocal\"). One reason for this is that singers will often temper their vocal expression in accordance with the accompaniment. Producers and songwriters can also use the guide/scratch vocal when they have not quite ironed out all the lyrics or for flexibility based on who sings the lead vocal (as The Alan Parsons Project's Eric Woolfson often did).\n",
"Several factors determine the sound a drum produces, including the type, shape and construction of the drum shell, the type of drum heads it has, and the tension of these drumheads. Different drum sounds have different uses in music. For example, the modern Tom-tom drum. A jazz drummer may want drums that are high pitched, resonant and quiet whereas a rock drummer may prefer drums that are loud, dry and low-pitched. \n",
"BULLET::::- \"I've been asked if people could borrow my drums because they like their sound. What the hell, they think the drums play themselves? I said, 'You really want 'em? Really? Okay. Cost you triple scale and cartage.'\"\n",
"The snare drum is the heart of the drum kit, particularly in rock, due its utility of providing the backbeat. When applied in this fashion, it supplies strong regular accents, played by the left hand (if right handed), and the backbone for many fills. Its distinctive sound can be attributed to the bed of stiff snare wires held under tension to the underside of the lower drum head. When the stiff wires are \"engaged\" (held under tension), they vibrate with the top (snare-side) drum skin (head), creating a snappy, staccato buzzing sound, along with the sound of the stick striking the batter head.\n",
"In many forms of music, the bass drum is used to mark or keep time. The bass drum makes a low, boom sound when the mallet hits the drumhead. In marches, it is used to project tempo (marching bands historically march to the beat of the bass). A basic beat for rock and roll has the bass drum played on the first and third beats of bars in common time, with the snare drum on the second and fourth beats, called backbeats. In jazz, the bass drum can vary from almost entirely being a timekeeping medium to being a melodic voice in conjunction with the other parts of the set.\n",
"A drummer plays the equivalent of a song with a basic groove, variations and fills. Then they often (but not always) play the song at multiple tempos that they feel that groove works at. In this way you get the same basic groove at multiple tempos and the performance sounds more realistic than simply using one performance and time stretching it to speed it up or slow it down. The content is offered as MIDI as well as stereo audio loops and the drummer's drumkit is sampled/recorded for use in DrumCore's virtual MIDI instrument. Songwriters can use these GrooveSets for writing, as they offer enough content to work on a song, which usually requires related beats and transitions to support a verse/chorus type of structure.\n",
"Drummers use a drum key for tuning their drums and adjusting some drum hardware. Besides the basic type of drum key (a T-handled wrench) there are various tuning wrenches and tools. Basic drum keys are divided in three types which allows tuning of three types of tuning screws on drums: square (most used), slotted and hexagonal. Ratchet-type wrenches allow high-tension drums to be tuned easily. Spin keys (utilizing a ball joint) allow rapid head changing. Torque-wrench type keys are available, graphically revealing the torque at each lug. Also, tension gauges, or meters, which are set on the head, aid drummers to achieve a consistent tuning. Drummers can tune drums \"by ear\" or, in the 2010s, use a digital drum tuner, which \"measures tympanic pressure\" on the drumhead to provide accurate tuning.\n"
] |
Skeletal musculature - is it possible to cure/lessen scoliosis through exercise?
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In short: no.
There are three basic types of scoliosis - idiopathic, neuromuscular, and congenital. I'm assuming you have idiopathic as it's the most common. Bracing is the only non-surgical treatment that has any proved efficacy but is used primarily to stop the worsening of scoliosis while someone is still developing, not once they're reached maturity.
The biggest question I'd ask at this point is how bad is the curvature? If you're at 30 degrees or less, more than likely things won't get worse since you've stopped growing, so if you can handle things as they are now, surgery isn't necessarily mandatory. If you're above 30 and especially 45 degrees, you're likely to get worse even if you've reached bone maturity. In that case fusion will likely be needed.
All that being said, strength and stretching exercises won't hurt (as long as you talk to your doctor first to tell him what you'd like to do), but unfortunately can't straighten a scoliotic spine.
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[
"Although the cause of scoliosis can sometimes remain unknown (idiopathic scoliosis) there is treatment available that targets at strengthening the back muscles, for milder cases usually do not require medical attention, more severe cases require either muscle strengthening exercises aimed at the back muscles and even special back braces or surgery can be recommended if the case is extreme. Studies have shown that treatment with a special back brace among children ranging from 10–16 years can be successful and using this method of muscle training scoliosis can be cured with non-surgical treatment.\n",
"One large issue in bracing for scoliosis is patient compliance, as mentioned above. Compliance is often impacted by the other above-mentioned factors (psycho-social comfort, exercise), but there are others also, including ability to eat and move, pain, and physical deformation. Back braces, especially the Boston brace, puts a great deal of pressure on the abdomen and can make digestion uncomfortable. Scoliosis braces, like those used for correcting post-operatively and for fractures, inhibit motion to a large extent, though percentages are difficult to find. Patients frequently complain about the inability to tie their own shoes, sit on the floor, etc. Bracing is also painful, though the body can adapt to tolerate the pain. Braces can also deform the patient's existing bone structures, most notably the hips, though there have been complaints about rib cage deformities as well.\n",
"There are few studies corroborating the effectiveness of exercise for limb-girdle muscular dystrophy. However studies have shown that exercise can, in fact, damage muscles permanently due to intense muscle contraction. Physical therapy may be required to maintain as much muscle strength and joint flexibility as possible. Calipers may be used to maintain mobility and quality of life. Careful attention to lung and heart health is required, corticosteroids in LGMD 2C-F individuals, shows some improvement. Additionally individuals can follow \"management\" that follows:\n",
"Scoliosis braces are usually comfortable for the patient, especially when it is well designed and fit; also after the 7- to 10-day break-in period. A well fit and functioning scoliosis brace provides comfort when it is supporting the deformity and redirecting the body into a more corrected and normal physiological position.\n",
"The cost of scoliosis involves both monetary losses and lifestyle limitations that increase with severity. Respiratory deficiencies may also arise from thoracic deformities and cause abnormal breathing. This directly affects exercise and work capacity, decreasing the overall quality of life.\n",
"Scoliosis braces are usually comfortable, especially when well designed and well fitted, also after the 7- to 10-day break-in period. A well fitted and functioning scoliosis brace provides comfort when it is supporting the deformity and redirecting the body into a more corrected and normal physiological position.\n",
"Disability caused by scoliosis, as well as physical limitations during recovery from treatment-related surgery, often affects an individual’s ability to perform self-care activities. One of the first treatments of scoliosis is the attempt to prevent further curvature of the spine. Depending on the size of the curvature, this is typically done in one of three ways: bracing, surgery, or postural positioning through customized cushioning. Stopping the progression of the scoliosis can prevent the loss of function in many activities of daily living by maintaining range of motion, preventing deformity of the rib cage, and reducing pain during activities such as bending or lifting.\n"
] |
my right in the us when pulled over by a cop seemingly out of nowhere
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Your right to do what? To leave? No, you can't leave, a cop can briefly detain you for committing an infraction or upon reasonable suspicion of a crime. If that reasonable suspicion elevates to probable cause, a cop can order you out of the car and conduct a brief search. If a cop has a reasonable suspicion that you are armed and dangerous, they can also frisk you for weapons.
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[
"In \"United States v. Mendenhall\" (1980), the Court held that a person is seized only when, by means of physical force \"or\" show of authority, his freedom of movement is restrained and, in the circumstances surrounding the incident, a reasonable person would believe that he was not free to leave. In \"Florida v. Bostick\" (1991), the Court ruled that as long as the police do not convey a message that compliance with their requests is required, the police contact is a \"citizen encounter\" that falls outside the protections of the Fourth Amendment. If a person remains free to disregard questioning by the government, there has been no seizure and therefore no intrusion upon the person's privacy under the Fourth Amendment.\n",
"In quoting Graham v. Connor, 490 U.S. 386, 396 (1989), \"The right of a law enforcement officer [or a private citizen] to make an arrest necessarily carries with it the right to use some degree of physical coercion or threat thereof to effect it.\"\n",
"When Parks refused to give up her seat, a police officer arrested her. As the officer took her away, she recalled that she asked, \"Why do you push us around?\" She remembered him saying, \"I don't know, but the law's the law, and you're under arrest.\" She later said, \"I only knew that, as I was being arrested, that it was the very last time that I would ever ride in humiliation of this kind. ... \"\n",
"Thornton v. United States, 541 U.S. 615 (2004), was a decision by the United States Supreme Court, which held that when a police officer makes a lawful custodial arrest of an automobile's occupant, the Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution allows the officer to search the vehicle's passenger compartment as a contemporaneous incident of arrest. \"Thornton\" extended \"New York v. Belton\", ruling that it governs even when an officer does not make contact until the person arrested has left the vehicle. \"Thornton\" also suggests a separate justification for an evidentiary search \"when it is reasonable to believe evidence relevant to the crime of arrest might be found in the vehicle.\"\n",
"If officers have probable cause to believe that a traffic violation occurred, they are allowed to stop a vehicle. Because the petitioners sped away at an \"unreasonable\" speed, the officers were given reasonable cause to stop the vehicle. A traffic violation occurred, which made the following search and seizure lawful. The officers did not ignore the danger of a pretextual stop but acted on a crime.\n",
"Lacking reasonable suspicion, police may stop an individual based on a hunch, constituting a \"consensual\" stop. \"United States v. Mendenhall\" found that police are not generally required to advise an individual that he has been stopped on a consensual basis and that he may leave at any time. An individual can typically determine if a stop is consensual by asking, \"Am I free to go?\" If the officer responds in the negative or does not respond, the individual is being detained under a Terry stop; otherwise the individual may leave. \"Mendenhall\" also found that a consensual stop can be converted into an unconstitutional Terry stop by circumstances such as \"the threatening presence of several officers, the display of a weapon by an officer, some physical touching of the person of the citizen, or the use of language or tone of voice indicating that compliance with the officer's request might be compelled.\" Police who conduct an unconstitutional Terry stop can face administrative discipline and a civil suit.\n",
"In the United States, once a person has been charged with a crime, the government may request that a judge either issue a summons for that person or an arrest warrant, which can lead to a perp walk. This decision is largely at the discretion of the prosecutor, with judges often deferring to it.\n"
] |
how does a drug "hang around" in my body for weeks after i have last consumed it? why if it is in my body am i no longer affected by it?
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Well, the drug itself might not. Most chemicals are eliminated from your body through several steps. Alcohol, for example, gets metabolized into a close relative of cyanide (ED: relative of formaldehyde, my mistake), which is one of the reasons it's so awful for you. It's possible a drug test detects the by-products, not the drug itself.
But even if it doesn't, it takes a fairly large amount of a drug to create a noticeable effect to you as a person. Imagine, for example, taking just a dip of coffee. It's not enough caffeine to have any significant effect, but there's still caffeine in your body that can be detected fairly easily.
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[
"BULLET::::- Once a drug enters the body, elimination and distribution begins. Initially the drug present in central compartment (i.e. circulation system) is being distributed into the tissues, and being eliminated\n",
"Compounds begin to break down as soon as they enter the body. The majority of small-molecule drug metabolism is carried out in the liver by redox enzymes, termed cytochrome P450 enzymes. As metabolism occurs, the initial (parent) compound is converted to new compounds called metabolites. When metabolites are pharmacologically inert, metabolism deactivates the administered dose of parent drug and this usually reduces the effects on the body. Metabolites may also be pharmacologically active, sometimes more so than the parent drug (see prodrug).\n",
"Another factor is the duration of exposure. Some drugs or supplements have a slow-release feature in which portions of the medication are metabolized at different times, which changes the impacts the active ingredients have on the body. Some substances are meant to be taken in small doses over large periods of time to maintain a constant level in the body, while others are meant to have a large impact once and be expelled from the body after its work is done. It's entirely dependent on the function of the drug or supplement.\n",
"**The duration of apparent action is usually considerably less than the half-life. With most benzodiazepines, noticeable effects usually wear off within a few hours. Nevertheless, as long as the drug is present it will exert subtle effects within the body. These effects may become apparent during continued use or may appear as withdrawal symptoms when dosage is reduced or the drug is stopped.\n",
"When drugs are taken orally, they enter the gut lumen to be absorbed in the small intestine and sometimes, in the stomach. In order for drugs to be absorbed, they must pass through the epithelial cells that line the lumen wall before they can enter the hepatic portal circulation to be distributed systemically in blood circulation. Drugs are metabolized by drug-specific metabolizing enzymes in the epithelial cells. Metabolizing enzymes transform these drugs into metabolites. The primary purpose for drug metabolism is to detoxify, inactivate, solubilize and eliminate these drugs. As a result, the amount of the drug in its original form that reaches systemic circulation is reduced due to this first-pass metabolism.\n",
"Protein binding can influence the drug's biological half-life. The bound portion may act as a reservoir or depot from which the drug is slowly released as the unbound form. Since the unbound form is being metabolized and/or excreted from the body, the bound fraction will be released in order to maintain equilibrium.\n",
"Determining the substance ingested is often complicated by the body's natural processes (see ADME), as it is rare for a chemical to remain in its original form once in the body. For example: heroin is almost immediately metabolised into another substance and further to morphine, making detailed investigation into factors such as injection marks and chemical purity necessary to confirm diagnosis. The substance may also have been diluted by its dispersal through the body; while a pill or other regulated dose of a drug may have grams or milligrams of the active constituent, an individual sample under investigation may only contain micrograms or nanograms.\n"
] |
Is the lack of hair on our bodies for the purpose of keeping us warm a way we physically adapted to our technology i.e. clothes?
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While the theory presented in this video is not necessarily the most widely-accepted, it is certainly the most compelling case for human ancestry I have encountered. It touches on things like bipedalism, hair, and speech capabilities - all from the standpoint we evolved dwelling on / in rivers.
_URL_0_
Edit: For those who do not want to watch the video, the part on hair basically says that because humans were water dwelling species, we "shed" our hair over evolutionary time to become more streamline. The only mammals that are as hairless as us are either aquatic-dwelling, came from aquatic-dwelling mammals, or is the naked mole rate which spends almost all its time underground. We also have blubber-like reservoirs around internal organs for fat storage instead of a more homogeneous distribution, characteristic of mammals spending most of their time in the water or snowy climates.
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[
"While humans have developed clothing and other means of keeping warm, the hair found on the head serves primarily as a source of heat insulation and cooling (when sweat evaporates from soaked hair) as well as protection from ultra-violet radiation exposure. The function of hair in other locations is debated. Hats and coats are still required while doing outdoor activities in cold weather to prevent frostbite and hypothermia, but the hair on the human body does help to keep the internal temperature regulated. When the body is too cold, the arrector pili muscles found attached to hair follicles stand up, causing the hair in these follicles to do the same. These hairs then form a heat-trapping layer above the epidermis. This process is formally called piloerection, derived from the Latin words 'pilus' ('hair') and 'erectio' ('rising up'), but is more commonly known as 'having goose bumps' in English. This is more effective in other mammals whose fur fluffs up to create air pockets between hairs that insulate the body from the cold. The opposite actions occur when the body is too warm; the arrector muscles make the hair lie flat on the skin which allows heat to leave.\n",
"In order to comprehend why humans are essentially hairless, it is essential to understand that mammalian body hair is not merely an aesthetic characteristic; it protects the skin from wounds, bites, heat, cold, and UV radiation. Additionally, it can be used as a communication tool and as a camouflage. To this end, it can be concluded that benefits stemming from the loss of human body hair must be great enough to outweigh the loss of these protective functions by nakedness.\n",
"The human body, apart from areas of glabrous skin, is covered in follicles which produce thick terminal and fine vellus hair. Most common interest in hair is focused on hair growth, hair types, and hair care, but hair is also an important biomaterial primarily composed of protein, notably alpha-keratin.\n",
"Many industries have requirements for hair being contained to prevent worker injury. This can include people working in construction, utilities, and machine shops of various sorts. Furthermore, many professions require containing the hair for reasons of public health, and a prime example is the food industry. There are also sports that may require similar constraints for safety reasons: to keep hair out of the eyes and blocking one's view, and to prevent being caught in sports equipment or trees and shrubs, or matted hair in severe weather conditions or water. Safety is usually the reason behind not allowing hair to fly loose on the backs of motorcycles and open-topped sports cars for longer tresses.\n",
"P.E. Wheeler of the Department of Biology at Liverpool Polytechnic said quadrupedal savannah mammals of similar volume to humans have body hair to keep warm while only larger quadrupedal savannah mammals lack body hair, because their body volume itself is enough to keep them warm. Therefore, Wheeler said humans who should have body hair based on predictions of body volume alone for savannah mammals evolved no body hair after evolving bipedalism which he said reduced the amount of body area exposed to the sun by 40%, reducing the solar warming effect on the human body.\n",
"Overuse of heat tools can permanently alter the hair's structure. This is known as \"heat damage\". Use of protective sprays or lotions before heat styling may help to prevent heat damage. Once the damage has occurred, it can be disguised using various styling techniques, but not reversed. The only way to repair heat-damaged hair is to cut off the damaged hair and regrow it.\n",
"The evolutionary significance of human underarm hair is still debated. It may naturally wick sweat or other moisture away from the skin, aiding ventilation. Colonization by odor-producing bacteria is thereby transferred away from the skin (see skin flora).\n"
] |
is there any correlation between quick reflexes and fast twitch muscle fibers?
|
Short answer: no, there isn’t.
Long answer: they have nothing to do with each other. Reflexes are by definition responses to a stimulus performed without conscious thought. Typically they shortcut the brain. Think of your nerves as a two way street with the only place for a car to make a u turn being in the spine or brain. A stimulus would be a car, traveling from say your knee up towards your spine and brain. It will turn around in the spine and be sent back down as an order to stretch out your leg.
Fast twitch muscle fibers are the type of muscle fibers used in short but powerful movements. Sprinting vs running a marathon. They exert more easily so your body will usually favor using slow twitch fibers until they become tired and then switches to the fast twitch.
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[
"BULLET::::- Type II, fast twitch muscle, has three major subtypes (IIa, IIx, and IIb) that vary in both contractile speed and force generated. Fast twitch fibers contract quickly and powerfully but fatigue very rapidly, sustaining only short, anaerobic bursts of activity before muscle contraction becomes painful. They contribute most to muscle strength and have greater potential for increase in mass. Type IIb is anaerobic, glycolytic, \"white\" muscle that is least dense in mitochondria and myoglobin. In small animals (e.g., rodents) this is the major fast muscle type, explaining the pale color of their flesh.\n",
"Intermediate fibers, also known as fast oxidative-glycolytic fibers, are fast twitch muscle fibers which have been converted via endurance training. These fibers are slightly larger in diameter, have more mitochondria as well as a greater blood supply and more endurance than typical fast twitch fibers. Most of the body's muscles are composed of these intermediate fibers.\n",
"Fast twitch muscle units and slow twitch muscle units differ in their ability to produce force and resist fatigue. Fast twitch muscle units have the ability to produce great amounts of force but they do not resist fatigue for long periods of time whereas slow twitch muscle units do not produce great amounts of force but can resist fatigue for very long periods of time. Fast twitch muscles include large muscle groups such as the upper thigh and upper arm muscles whereas slow twitch muscles include high endurance muscles such as those used for posture. However, despite their drastic differences in structure and function, studies have shown that these types of muscle show the same trends in plasticity as a result of training and aging.\n",
"Some authors define a fast twitch fiber as one in which the myosin can split ATP very quickly. These mainly include the ATPase type II and MHC type II fibers. However, fast twitch fibers also demonstrate a higher capability for electrochemical transmission of action potentials and a rapid level of calcium release and uptake by the sarcoplasmic reticulum. The fast twitch fibers rely on a well-developed, anaerobic, short term, glycolytic system for energy transfer and can contract and develop tension at 2–3 times the rate of slow twitch fibers. Fast twitch muscles are much better at generating short bursts of strength or speed than slow muscles, and so fatigue more quickly.\n",
"Early experiments showed that adrenaline increases twitch, but not tetanic force and rate of force development in muscles. It is questionable, however, as to whether adrenaline, released from the adrenal medulla into the venous circulation, can reach the muscle quickly enough in order to be able to cause such an effect in the midst of a crisis. It may be that noradrenaline released from sympathetic nerve terminals directly innervating skeletal muscle has more of an effect over the timescale of seconds.\n",
"Long twitch duration is a functional consequence of the macroscopic properties of asynchronous muscle. Because asynchronous muscle can generate power without cycling calcium between contractions, the required rate of calcium regulation is significantly slower. In addition to the reduction in sarcoplasmic reticulum, relatively large myofibril diameters lead to increased diffusion times of Ca.Under isometric twitch experiments, asynchronous muscle in \"Cotinus mutabilis\" were found to have a twitch duration of 125 ms. In the same study, synchronous muscle in \"Schistocerca americana\" had a twitch duration of 40 ms. Therefore, asynchronous muscles respond slowly to neural stimulus. In the case of insect flight, electrical stimulation alone is too slow for muscle control. For \"Cotinus mutabilis\", the twitch duration is ten times as long as a wingbeat period.\n",
"In the laboratory, a nerve from a motor unit that is connected to a slow-twitch muscle fiber was replaced with a nerve that are designated for a fast-twitch fiber. The slow-twitch fiber behaved identically as a fast-twitch fiber. In contrast, if the process was reversed, the fast twitch fiber performed as a slow twitch fiber as well. However, the nerves can not possibly transform from fast motor nerves into slow motor nerves and vice versa.\n"
] |
when you cancel a download where does the data already downloaded go ?
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The space allocated for the entire program, it just becomes unmarked and available for rewriting.
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[
"The data may be bought on tape or downloaded free of charge; one has to specify the intended use and sign a license agreement that allows NLM to use and modify the resulting application. NLM can cancel the agreement at any time, at which point the user has to erase the data files.\n",
"If an external data storage device is unexpectedly disengaged or accidentally removed while copying files onto it, the user is given the chance to retry the operation without restarting that file copy operation from the beginning; this gives the user the chance to reconnect that external data storage device involved and retry the operation.\n",
"Users are recommended to regularly backup their data using both a Memory Stick — for photos and contacts — and using the software MyPhoneExplorer to back up other data to a PC. A startup failure can be predicted when the text message menu can no longer be opened.\n",
"The computer that is attempting to go to that site will be blocked from that site only, but can surf any other site. It is a good idea to either redirect the output into nothingness ( 2/dev/null 1/dev/null) or into a file for later analysis ( file.tcpkill ). By default, it will redirect output to the console.\n",
"The company gave users 23 days to migrate or download their data, or it would be deleted. This move was criticized by many users as not being physically possible at the download rates provided by Bitcasa.\n",
"BULLET::::- support for downloading headers only, then deciding for each message whether to download, delete, or leave for later (\"Selective mail download\"). It is possible to download a message in full without deleting it from the server.\n",
"Following the agreement, Snapchat updated its privacy page to state that the company \"can't guarantee that messages will be deleted within a specific timeframe.\" Even after Snapchat deletes message data from their servers, that same data may remain in backup for a certain period of time. In a public blog post, the service warned that \"If you've ever tried to recover lost data after accidentally deleting a drive or maybe watched an episode of \"CSI\", you might know that with the right forensic tools, it's sometimes possible to retrieve data after it has been deleted.\"\n"
] |
Does Space-time have an elastic modulus?
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The relationship between the bending of space-time and mass-energy, as you say, is that the Ricci tensor minus its trace times the metric (where the metric is a 4x4 matrix that describes the pythagorean theorem through spacetime and the Ricci tensor is a differential function of the metric) is equal to a constant (8 pi G/c^4 ) times the stress energy tensor, which is an extension of the stress tensor from mechanics.
Spacetime does have elastic (and viscous) properties, which are manifested as gravitational radiation. I'm not sure you can easily ascribe a modulus to it, but the shear induced by a change in the distribution of mass is proportional to the second time derivative of the moment of inertia.
|
[
"A principal premise of general relativity is that spacetime can be modeled as a 4-dimensional Lorentzian manifold of signature or, equivalently, . Unlike Riemannian manifolds with positive-definite metrics, an indefinite signature allows tangent vectors to be classified into \"timelike\", \"null\" or \"spacelike\". With a signature of or , the manifold is also locally (and possibly globally) time-orientable (see \"Causal structure\").\n",
"Mathematically, a fractal space-time is defined as a nondifferentiable generalization of Riemannian geometry. Such a fractal space-time geometry is the natural choice to develop this new principle of relativity, in the same way that curved geometries were needed to develop Einstein's theory of general relativity.\n",
"The constant also plays an analogous role in four-dimensional potentials associated with Einstein's equations, a fundamental formula which forms the basis of the general theory of relativity and describes the fundamental interaction of gravitation as a result of spacetime being curved by matter and energy:\n",
"Amrit Sorli and Davide Fiscaletti, founders of the Space Life Institute in Slovenia, argue that time exists independently of space, and that time dilation and length contraction can be better described within the framework of a 3D space, with time as the quantity used to measure change. Sorli and Fiscaletti argue that Minkowski spacetime, and the understanding of time as the fourth dimension, lacks any experimental support. They argue that time dilation experiments, such as demonstrating that clocks run slower in high-speed airplanes, support special relativity and time dilation, but not necessarily Minkowski spacetime or length contraction.\n",
"In relativity theory, the Ricci tensor is the part of the curvature of spacetime that determines the degree to which matter will tend to converge or diverge in time (via the Raychaudhuri equation). It is related to the matter content of the universe by means of the Einstein field equation. In differential geometry, lower bounds on the Ricci tensor on a Riemannian manifold allow one to extract global geometric and topological information by comparison (cf. comparison theorem) with the geometry of a constant curvature space form. If the Ricci tensor satisfies the vacuum Einstein equation, then the manifold is an Einstein manifold, which have been extensively studied (cf. ). In this connection, the Ricci flow equation governs the evolution of a given metric to an Einstein metric; the precise manner in which this occurs ultimately leads to the solution of the Poincaré conjecture.\n",
"Special relativity describes spacetime as a manifold whose metric tensor has a negative eigenvalue. This corresponds to the existence of a \"timelike\" direction. A modified metric with multiple negative eigenvalues would correspondingly imply a number of such timelike directions, but there is no consensus regarding the possible relationships of these extra \"times\" to time as conventionally understood.\n",
"where the Ricci tensor/scalar \"R\" and the metric tensor \"g\" describe the structure of spacetime, the stress–energy tensor \"T\" describes the energy and momentum density and flux of the matter in that point in spacetime, and the universal constants \"G\" and \"c\" are conversion factors that arise from using traditional units of measurement. When \"Λ\" is zero, this reduces to the field equation of general relativity usually used in the mid-20th century. When \"T\" is zero, the field equation describes empty space (the vacuum).\n"
] |
- what is the method for calculating how much sand you need in an hour glass of various sizes and times?
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Though that is needed what’s more important first is the size of the tight canal they have to travel through, and the size of the grain. Then the volume of sand can be calculated
|
[
"An estimated 4.3 × 10 ergs or 4.3 × 10 joules of heat energy went into forming the glass and as the temperature required to melt the sand into the glass form observed was about 1470 Celsius, this was the estimated minimum temperature the sand was exposed to.\n",
"Although vital to navigation, the marine glass was not an accurate instrument to measure the passage of time. The design of the glass affected its accuracy in time measurement; the uniformity in fineness of the sand, the inner diameter of the connecting tube, and design aspects allowing wear that would effect the flow of sand all could contribute. In addition, many shipboard factors could affect the duration of sand's flow and therefore influence the time measured, including the humidity inside the glass, the ability for it to be positioned in a perfectly vertical position, and the acceleration or deceleration of the ship's movements. Finally, the use of short duration glasses to measure long periods of time introduced further error. Marine glass use was supplanted by reliable mechanical timepieces, and by other advances in marine navigation.\n",
"To perform a point count using the Gazzi-Dickinson method, a randomly selected thin section from a sedimentary rock is needed, with a slide advance mechanism that will randomly select points on the slide with a petrographic microscope. A minimum of 300 representative points (preferably 500 points) should be used to perform the count. On each randomly selected point that lands on a sand grain, the operator must determine the make-up of the area chosen, i.e. whether it is a mineral grain that is sand sized (larger than 62.5 micrometers) or a finer-grained fragment of another rock type, called a lithic fragment (e.g. a sand-sized piece of shale). These counts are then converted to percentages and used for compositional comparisons in provenance studies. Typically, only framework (non-matrix) grains are counted, or non-framework grains are counted and then excluded from percentages when using descriptive devices such as QFL triangles. This can create problems with pseudomatrix, which are lithic grains that have been deformed and thus blend in with (or have become) matrix.\n",
"A marine sandglass is a timepiece of simple design that is a relative of the common hourglass, a marine (nautical) instrument known since the 14th century (although reasonably presumed to be of very ancient use and origin). They were employed to measure the time at sea or on a given navigational course, in repeated measures of small time increments (e.g., 30 minutes). Used together with the chip log, smaller marine sandglasses were also used to measure the boat speed through the water in knots.\n",
"For table salt in 0.01 M solution at 25 °C, a typical value of formula_144 is 0.0005636, while a typical value of formula_145 is 7.017, highlighting the fact that, in low concentrations, formula_144 is a target for a zero order of magnitude approximation such as perturbation analysis. Unfortunately, because of the boundary condition at infinity, regular perturbation does not work. The same boundary condition prevents us from finding the exact solution to the equations. Singular perturbation may work, however.\n",
"Measurement of the pH of glass surfaces is particularly important if glass objects have a matte surface, or have been exposed to kaolin or other substances. In the case of extremely small objects such as glass beads, pH measurement may be necessary to determine whether alkaline salts are present and changes in the glass are occurring.\n",
"The surface may be either a horizontal metal plate or a leaf hanging naturally, or a bit of wool or cotton representing a large surface of fine fibres. The unit of time is usually one hour, and the measurement is made in the early morning, before the rising sun evaporates the dew. When the apparatus is made self-registering, the surface, with its accumulating dew, hangs at one end of a delicate balance, or from a delicate spiral metallic spring, and by its gradual sinking moves the index that makes the record on a moving sheet of paper.\n"
] |
Is gravity the only force that can produce a black hole? Could an extremely strong electomagnetic field create one? Also, is there a way to vary the strength of the weak and strong force in the lab? Could these forces be adjusted in a confined area?
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According to the theory of General Relativity, it is mass-energy which warps spacetime, and if that energy comes in the form of photons, it can form an event horizon just like with matter, forming a [kugelblitz](_URL_0_).
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[
"His research now focuses on gravitational self-force, which is the force on a body moving through a gravitational field arising from the mass and energy of the body itself. This self-force is expected to play a crucial role in understanding the motion of a stellar mass black hole orbiting and eventually spiraling into a supermassive black hole such as those that reside at the centers of galaxies. These astronomical systems will be of special interest to space-based gravitational wave detectors such as Laser Interferometer Space Antennae when they are built, because they will allow precision measurements of the gravitational field of a black hole for the first time.\n",
"Black holes are sites of immense gravitational attraction. Classically, the gravitation generated by the gravitational singularity inside a black hole is so powerful that nothing, not even electromagnetic radiation, can escape from the black hole. It is yet unknown how gravity can be incorporated into quantum mechanics. Nevertheless, far from the black hole, the gravitational effects can be weak enough for calculations to be reliably performed in the framework of quantum field theory in curved spacetime. Hawking showed that quantum effects allow black holes to emit exact black-body radiation. The electromagnetic radiation is produced as if emitted by a black body with a temperature inversely proportional to the mass of the black hole.\n",
"The weak field limit of this theory predicts an enhanced gravitational attraction on the boundaries of galaxies, where phenomena related to dark matter use to happen and agrees with General Relativity inward. The behavior of this weak field limit served, for instance, to correctly describe galaxy rotation curves, galactic light bending, and the Bullet Cluster phenomena, without requiring the existence of dark matter. The transition of a standard to enhanced gravitational attraction comes from the interplay between tensor, vector and scalar physical fields. However, this mechanism seems to work solely where gravity is weak. Close to black holes or other compact objects like neutron stars, the gravitational field is very strong and Moffat’s mechanism to retrieve General Relativity breaks.\n",
"Virtual gravitational processes don't conserve anything except gauge charges, because black holes decay into anything with the same charge. So it is difficult to suppress interactions at the gravitational scale. One way to do it is by postulating new gauge symmetries. A different way to suppress these interactions in the context of extra-dimensional models is the \"split fermion scenario\" proposed by Arkani-Hamed and Schmaltz in their paper \"Hierarchies without Symmetries from Extra Dimensions\". In this scenario the wavefunctions of particles that are bound to the brane have a finite width significantly smaller than the extra-dimension, but the center (e.g. of a gaussian wave-packet) can be dislocated along the direction of the extra dimension in what is known as a 'fat brane'. Integrating out the additional dimension(s) to obtain the effective coupling of higher-dimensional operators on the brane, the result is suppressed with the exponential of the square of the distance between the centers of the wave-functions, a factor that generates a suppression by many orders of magnitude already by a dislocation of only a few times the typical width of the wave-function.\n",
"In the last decade or so, a lot of progress has been made in calculating the gravitational self force for EMRIs. Numerical codes are available to calculate the gravitational self force on any bound orbit around a non-rotating (Schwarzschild) black hole. And significant progress has been made for calculating the gravitational self force around a rotating black hole.\n",
"There are several properties that make black holes most promising sources of gravitational waves. One reason is that black holes are the most compact objects that can orbit each other as part of a binary system; as a result, the gravitational waves emitted by such a system are especially strong. Another reason follows from what are called black-hole uniqueness theorems: over time, black holes retain only a minimal set of distinguishing features (these theorems have become known as \"no-hair\" theorems), regardless of the starting geometric shape. For instance, in the long term, the collapse of a hypothetical matter cube will not result in a cube-shaped black hole. Instead, the resulting black hole will be indistinguishable from a black hole formed by the collapse of a spherical mass. In its transition to a spherical shape, the black hole formed by the collapse of a more complicated shape will emit gravitational waves.\n",
"Freeman Dyson and Andrew Lenard did not consider the extreme magnetic or gravitational forces that occur in some astronomical objects. In 1995 Elliott Lieb and coworkers showed that the Pauli principle still leads to stability in intense magnetic fields such as in neutron stars, although at a much higher density than in ordinary matter. It is a consequence of general relativity that, in sufficiently intense gravitational fields, matter collapses to form a black hole.\n"
] |
How does blubber keep mammals warm despite nerves in the skin that sense the extreme cold?
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There is a tolerance system involved. Whales don't dive from land to water so their receptor have time to adjust when they enter cold water(they enter gradually). For seals, bears and other "furry" mammals there is an extra thin layer of air/water that gets trapped in the fur and acts as an insulating layer. Even if they jump into cold water the receptors "get used" to the temperature and their signals get blocked after a while and only get reactivated when their signal changes(water temperature changes).
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[
"Blubber has advantages over fur (as in sea otters) in that, though fur retains heat by holding pockets of air, the air expels under pressure (i.e., when the animal dives). Blubber, however, does not compress under pressure. It is effective enough that some whales can dwell in temperatures as low as . While diving in cold water, blood vessels covering the blubber constrict and decrease blood flow, thus increasing blubber's efficiency as an insulator.\n",
"In addition to behavioral adaptations, physiological adaptations help ectotherms regulate temperature. Diving reptiles conserve heat by heat exchange mechanisms, whereby cold blood from the skin picks up heat from blood moving outward from the body core, re-using and thereby conserving some of the heat that otherwise would have been wasted. The skin of bullfrogs secretes more mucus when it is hot, allowing more cooling by evaporation.\n",
"Glands in the skin discharge mucus which keeps the skin moist, an important factor in skin respiration and thermoregulation. The sticky layer helps protect against bacterial infections and molds, reduces friction when swimming, and makes the animal slippery and more difficult for predators to catch. Granular glands scattered on the upper surface, particularly the head, back, and tail, produce repellent or toxic secretions. Some salamander toxins are particularly potent. The rough-skinned newt (\"Taricha granulosa\") produces the neurotoxin tetrodotoxin, the most toxic nonprotein substance known. Handling the newts does no harm, but ingestion of even a minute fragment of skin is deadly. In feeding trials, fish, frogs, reptiles, birds, and mammals were all found to be susceptible.\n",
"Heat loss is a major threat to smaller creatures, as they have a larger ratio of surface area to volume. Small warm-blooded animals have insulation in the form of fur or feathers. Aquatic warm-blooded animals, such as seals, generally have deep layers of blubber under the skin and any pelage that they might have; both contribute to their insulation. Penguins have both feathers and blubber. Penguin feathers are scale-like and serve both for insulation and for streamlining. Endotherms that live in very cold circumstances or conditions predisposing to heat loss, such as polar waters, tend to have specialised structures of blood vessels in their extremities that act as heat exchangers. The veins are adjacent to the arteries full of warm blood. Some of the arterial heat is conducted to the cold blood and recycled back into the trunk. Birds, especially waders, often have very well-developed heat exchange mechanisms in their legs—those in the legs of emperor penguins are part of the adaptations that enable them to spend months on Antarctic winter ice. In response to cold many warm-blooded animals also reduce blood flow to the skin by vasoconstriction to reduce heat loss. As a result, they blanch (become paler).\n",
"When animals like the leatherback turtle and dolphins are in colder water to which they are not acclimatized, they use this CCHE mechanism to prevent heat loss from their flippers, tail flukes, and dorsal fins. Such CCHE systems are made up of a complex network of peri-arterial venous plexuses, or venae comitantes, that run through the blubber from their minimally insulated limbs and thin streamlined protuberances. Each plexus consists of a central artery containing warm blood from the heart surrounded by a bundle of veins containing cool blood from the body surface. As these fluids flow past each other, they create a heat gradient in which heat is transferred and retained inside the body. The warm arterial blood transfers most of its heat to the cool venous blood now coming in from the outside. This conserves heat by recirculating it back to the body core. Since the arteries give up a good deal of their heat in this exchange, there is less heat lost through convection at the periphery surface.\n",
"Thermoception is the sense of heat and the absence of heat (cold) by the skin and internal skin passages, or, rather, the heat flux (the rate of heat flow) in these areas. There are specialized receptors for cold (declining temperature) and for heat (increasing temperature). The cold receptors play an important part in the animal's sense of smell, telling wind direction. The heat receptors are sensitive to infrared radiation and can occur in specialized organs, for instance in pit vipers. The thermoceptors in the skin are quite different from the homeostatic thermoceptors in the brain (hypothalamus), which provide feedback on internal body temperature.\n",
"Warm and cold sensitive nerve fibers differ in structure and function. The cold-sensitive and warm-sensitive nerve fibers are underneath the skin surface. Terminals of each temperature-sensitive fiber do not branch away to different organs in the body. They form a small sensitive point which are unique from neighboring fibers. Skin used by the single receptor ending of a temperature-sensitive nerve fiber is small. There are 20 cold points per square centimeter in the lips, 4 in the finger, and less than 1 cold point per square centimeter in trunk areas. There are 5 times as many cold sensitive points as warm sensitive points.\n"
] |
what does it imply when i read that "patents will expire"?
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I'm sure some people with patents would like that, but patents are first and foremost a way for *the public to buy inventions*, or rather information about the way inventions work. To get a patent, you have to tell the world how your invention works, and in exchange you get a limited time to be the only one who can market it (or you can license others to use it). After that time, the patented invention is in the public domain, free for anyone to make, use and sell.
|
[
"The term of a patent is the maximum period during which it can be maintained in force. It is usually expressed in a number of years either starting from the filing date of the patent application or from the date of grant of the patent. In most patent laws, renewal annuities or maintenance fees have to be regularly paid in order to keep the patent in force. Otherwise the patent lapses before term.\n",
"n light of those considerations, we conclude that a patentee's use of a royalty agreement that projects beyond the expiration date of the patent is unlawful per se. If that device were available to patentees, the free market visualized for the post-expiration period would be subject to monopoly influences that have no proper place there.\n",
"Consequently, in most patent laws nowadays, the term of patent is 20 years from the filing date of the application. This however does not forbid the states party to the WTO from providing, in their national law, other type of patent-like rights with shorter terms. Utility models are an example of such rights. Their term is usually 6 or 10 years.\n",
"Even if the scope of a patent is narrowed, neither reissue nor reexamination changes the original expiration date. A reissued or reexamined patent expires on the day the original granted patent would have ordinarily expired. Example: The validity of a patent (filing: January 1, 2000; issue: January 1, 2002; end: January 1, 2020) is challenged. The USPTO issues a Certificate of Reexamination on January 1, 2004. The reexamined patent is in force until January 1, 2020, assuming payment of all maintenance fees.\n",
"Patent law is designed to encourage inventors to disclose their new technology to the world by offering the incentive of a limited-time monopoly on the technology. For U.S. utility patents, this limited-time term of patent is 20 years from the earliest patent application filing date (but this term can be extended via patent term adjustment). After the patent term expires, the new technology enters the public domain and is free for anyone to use.\n",
"For almost 100 years, it has been well established that, in the case of an expired patent, the federal patent laws do create a federal right to \"copy and to use.\" \"Sears\" and \"Compco\" extended that rule to potentially patentable ideas which are fully exposed to the public. ... By offering patent-like protection for ideas deemed unprotected under the present federal scheme, the Florida statute conflicts with the \"strong federal policy favoring free competition in ideas which do not merit patent protection.\n",
"By this point, the original patents were approaching their 1995 expiration. P&G lobbied for an extension, which they received in December 1993. This extension lasted until 25 January 1996. With pressure from P&G, the approval was finally granted on 24 January, one day before the patent expired, automatically extending the patent two years.\n"
] |
Why do car horns sound like they do and which car was the first to make the sound we hear today??
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Most modern cars use a dual tone car horn that actually produces two different notes. The interaction of these two frequencies creates harmonics and are easier for humans to distinguish from general noise. Because of historic manufacturing legacies, most car manufacturers have the same tones in all their cars, and depending on the era, most cars of a single country of origin would have tones in the same key. These common horn keys (F, G & C) are all in the middle octaves, probably because it's easy for humans to hear (we've evolved acoustic and mental sensitivities to noises that are similar in tone to our voice). Most modern horns use a vibrating plate of metal to generate its tone, but trains and semi-trucks take advantage of their onboard air compressors to make really loud sounds.
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[
"Oliver Lucas of Birmingham, England, developed a standard electric car horn in 1910. Car horns are usually electric, driven by a flat circular steel diaphragm that has an electromagnet acting on it in one direction and a spring pulling in the opposite direction. The diaphragm is attached to contact points that repeatedly interrupt the current to that electromagnet causing the diaphragm to spring back the other way, which complete the circuit again. This arrangement opens and closes the circuit hundreds of times per second which creates a loud noise like a buzzer or electric bell, which sound enters a horn to be amplified. There is usually a screw to adjust the distance/tension of the electrical contacts for best operation. A spiral exponential horn shape (sometimes called the \"snail\") is cast into the body of the horn, to better match the acoustical impedance of the diaphragm with open air, and thus more effectively transfer the sound energy. Sound levels of typical car horns are approximately 107–109 decibels, and they typically draw 5–6 amperes of current.\n",
"Most modern streetcars, trams and trolley cars including low-floor vehicles around the world also employ horns or whistles as a secondary auditory warning signal in addition to the gong/bell which either use the sound of air horns or electric automobile car horns.\n",
"A horn is a sound-making device that can be equipped to motor vehicles, buses, bicycles, trains, trams (otherwise known as streetcars in North America), and other types of vehicles. The sound made usually resembles a \"honk\" (older vehicles) or a \"beep\" (modern vehicles). The vehicle operator uses the horn to warn others of the vehicle's approach or presence, or to call attention to some hazard. Motor vehicles, ships and trains are required by law in some countries to have horns. Like trams, trolley cars and streetcars, bicycles are also legally required to have an audible warning device in many areas, but not universally, and not always a horn.\n",
"The sound of the carnyx was described as lugubrious and harsh, perhaps due to the loosened tongue of the bell, which shows that the instrument must have been a discrete enhancement of the Etruscan lituus, the sound of which was mostly described as bright and piercing. The carnyx was held vertically so that the sound would travel from more than three meters above the ground. Reconstructions have shown that the instrument's embouchure must have been cut diagonally as an oval opening, so the carnyx could be played in a similar fashion as a modern-day trumpet, i.e. with vibrating lips, however blown from the side. Due to the absence of valves and crooks, melodies were created by producing harmonics with overblowing techniques, as the reconstructional work by John Kenny has convincingly shown (\"see External links for a recording sample\"). The fairly wide bell guaranteed a very high playing volume, and the instrument itself must have had a considerable dynamic range. The best surviving bell of a carnyx was found in North East Scotland as part of the so-called \"Deskford Carnyx\" and featured a movable tongue. In addition the bronze jaw of the animal head may have been loosened as well in order to produce a jarring sound that would surely have been most dreadful when combined with the sound of a few dozen more carnyces in battle. The demoralizing effect of the Gallic battle music must have been enormous: When the Celts advanced on Delphi under Brennus in 279 BC, the unusual echoing effects of the blaring horns completely overawed the Greeks, before even a single fight could commence.\n",
"Many horns have been used as sounding cries by ancient societies. A modern day descendant of the horn, the bugle, is used to call out orders in military camps. The hunting horn was used to communicate on a hunt and is still used today in some places.\n",
"A folk etymology is that it is from white people honking their car horns a lot to get people's attention and perhaps as a metaphor for liberal whites who make a lot of noise (honking) but do not do anything.\n",
"The engine noise in the interior of the car was sometimes criticized; \"Road & Track\" listing noise as one of their biggest complaints about the car, with \"little joy listening to the wheeze of an emission equipment-stifled 4-banger\", and \"Motor\" calling the engine noise a \"raucous cacophony\".\n"
] |
is it possible to freeze fire?
|
As fire is hot gas, freezing it would just give you frozen CO2 and maybe some soot.
|
[
"Frozen Fire is a philosophical thriller about the nature of reality by Tim Bowler. The novel was first published in 2006. It introduces a mysterious boy who wants to escape his unhappy life through suicide, and a fifteen-year-old girl who only wants her brother back from wherever he has disappeared to. Frozen Fire has won several awards.\n",
"Fires start when a flammable or a combustible material, in combination with a sufficient quantity of an oxidizer such as oxygen gas or another oxygen-rich compound (though non-oxygen oxidizers exist), is exposed to a source of heat or ambient temperature above the flash point for the fuel/oxidizer mix, and is able to sustain a rate of rapid oxidation that produces a chain reaction. This is commonly called the fire tetrahedron. Fire cannot exist without all of these elements in place and in the right proportions. For example, a flammable liquid will start burning only if the fuel and oxygen are in the right proportions. Some fuel-oxygen mixes may require a catalyst, a substance that is not consumed, when added, in any chemical reaction during combustion, but which enables the reactants to combust more readily.\n",
"Fires become even more of a hazard during extreme cold. Water mains may break and water supplies may become unreliable, making firefighting more difficult. The air during a cold wave is typically denser and thus contains more oxygen, so when air that a fire draws in becomes unusually cold it is likely to cause a more intense fire. However, snow may stop spreading of fires, especially wildfires.\n",
"The threat of wildfires does not cease after the flames have passed, as smoldering heavy fuels may continue to burn unnoticed for days after flaming. It is during this phase that either the burn area exterior or the complete burn area of a fire is cooled so as to not reignite another fire.\n",
"Wildfire suppression depends on the technologies available in the area in which the wildfire occurs. In less developed nations the techniques used can be as simple as throwing sand or beating the fire with sticks or palm fronds. In more advanced nations, the suppression methods vary due to increased technological capacity. Silver iodide can be used to encourage snow fall, while fire retardants and water can be dropped onto fires by unmanned aerial vehicles, planes, and helicopters. Complete fire suppression is no longer an expectation, but the majority of wildfires are often extinguished before they grow out of control. While more than 99% of the 10,000 new wildfires each year are contained, escaped wildfires under extreme weather conditions are difficult to suppress without a change in the weather. Wildfires in Canada and the US burn an average of per year.\n",
"Leaving a fire unattended can be dangerous. Any number of accidents might occur in the absence of people, leading to property damage, personal injury or possibly a wildfire. Ash is a good insulator, so embers left overnight only lose a fraction of their heat. It is often possible to restart the new day's fire using the embers.\n",
"While an oxygen firebreak / thermal fuse cannot stop the initial ignition, it can limit the potential for whole house fires, more serious injury and death. Firebreaks / thermal fuses can also buy more time for a patient and other individuals in the building to escape, and limit the material cost of fire damage.\n"
] |
What are we to make of the story of the Israelites' slavery in Egypt and subsequent Exodus and its reflection on Ancient Israelite society?
|
As for the consensus, yes. I think this is generally the case that most believe that the Exodus was almost entirely fabricated on the basis of oral tradition. Personally, I’m disinclined from saying it was made up entirely whole cloth. The reason for this sets up the reasons for why I think it was written in the first place.
As you’re already aware, the Exodus narrative is central—and has been central—to Israelite and Jewish identity. In the early stages of state formation, hopeful leaders need narratives they can use to rally support as they approach national identity. (E.g., as stupid as it was, “And who has a better story than Bran” would have worked at the beginning of rallying public support for the creation of Westeros—similar to how Aegon the Conqueror did, but I guess D & D kind of forgot how such things work. But I digress.)
So, why was it written? Ultimately it’s a difficult question to answer, as any honest archaeological work will tell you there’s no proof for the event and so reconstructing such history is nearly impossible beyond being conjectural. So, my theory: there were traditional social memories of *some* kind of relationship between Egypt and what would become Israel. This shouldn’t be surprising, because we do have record of Egyptian involvement in the Levant thanks to the Merneptah Stela (usually cited as 1204 BCE) and the Tale of Wenamun. Merneptah is difficult because we don’t quite fully understand the determinative used with the name Israel. It means “people group,” but it appears in a larger list of cities destroyed by Pharaoh Merneptah. ¯\\\_(ツ)_/¯ It’s possible there was a very small, Proto-Israelite presence in Egypt at some point that would have served as the source of such memories, but we can’t be too certain. These memories were obviously derivative of multiple sources (hence the presence of what we call doublets—two slightly different accounts of the same story; e.g., did Moses receive the Law at Sinai or Horeb? Was his father in law’s name Jethro, Ruel, or Hobab?). These traditions were eventually put into writing, expanded, edited, and redacted to eventually come into their final form as we have it (read: them, there’s no singular source for us for these texts). These exodus traditions were used as a form of social identity construction—an integral part of state formation and preservation. The use of national literature would become far more important in later periods—especially for the Deuteronomist, who ***loved*** to use the Exodus as a central theme for explaining his perspective throughout the Deuteronomistic History (Joshua, Judges, Samuel, Kings).
I don’t think it’s necessarily commentary on Israel’s relationship with Egypt as Egypt kind of falls off pretty significantly after the Iron I. I think it’s national literature, intended to construct social identity by constructing a literary Other. The othering process creates an in/out relationship that early Israelites could identify with—especially in light of the nearby Philistine threat during the Iron I–IIA, eventual Assyrian involvement in the southern Levant in the Iron IIB and later, Babylonian incursions and deportations in the 6th c. BCE, etc.
A couple of sources that might help:
I. Finkelstein, *The Bible Unearthed* — he’s a little over the top with the low chronology, but deals with a lot of important stuff in a very accessible way.
W. Propp’s Exodus commentary is top notch in the Anchor Bible series.
E: fixed a couple of typos.
|
[
"In the Book of Exodus, the Israelites are enslaved in ancient Egypt. Yahweh, the god of the Israelites, appears to Moses in a burning bush and commands Moses to confront Pharaoh. To show his power, Yahweh inflicts a series of 10 plagues on the Egyptians, culminating in the 10th plague, the death of the first-born.\n",
"The lack of historical evidence for the Egyptian slavery and exodus leads most scholars to omit them from comprehensive histories of Israel and consider them as a myth. Scholars disagree as to when the myth took its present form. The archaeological record does not accord with what is expected from the Book of Exodus, and no evidence shows that the Israelites lived in ancient Egypt. The Israelites most likely originated in Canaan.\n",
"The Book of Genesis and Book of Exodus describe a period of Hebrew servitude in ancient Egypt, during decades of sojourn in Egypt, the escape of well over a million Israelites from the Delta, and the three-month journey through the wilderness to Sinai. This episode is not corroborated by any historical evidence and is regarded by scholars to be fictitious. Israelites first appear in the archeological record on the Merneptah Stele from between 1208–3 BCE at the end of the Bronze Age. A reasonably Bible-friendly interpretation is that they were a federation of Habiru tribes of the hill-country around the Jordan River. Presumably, this federation consolidated into the kingdom of Israel, and Judah split from that, during the dark age that followed the Bronze. The Bronze Age term \"Habiru\" was less specific than the Biblical \"Hebrew\". The term referred simply to Levantine nomads, of any religion or ethnicity. Mesopotamian, Hittite, Canaanite, and Egyptian sources describe them largely as bandits, mercenaries, and slaves. Certainly, there were some Habiru slaves in ancient Egypt, but native Egyptian kingdoms were not heavily slave-based. The Exodus story is considered to be historically inaccurate, although important to various religions.\n",
"BULLET::::- In this alternate history, \"The Book of Aaron\" provides the traumatic story of how the Israelite Exodus from Egypt failed: Moses and many of the Israelites drowned, and the remnant—led by Aaron—were fetched back to slavery in Egypt. Later on, however, the Hebrews were freed from bondage, and until the equivalent of the 20th Century remained a distinct religious-ethnic minority in Egypt, practicing a monotheistic religion, of which \"The Book of Aaron\" is a major Scripture.\n",
"Modern archaeologists believe that the Israelites were indigenous to Canaan and were never in ancient Egypt, and if there is any historical basis to the Exodus it can apply only to a small segment of the population of Israelites at large. Nevertheless, there is also a general understanding that something must lie behind the traditions, even if Moses and the Exodus narrative belong to collective cultural memory rather to history. According to Avraham Faust \"most scholars agree that the narrative has a historical core, and that some of the highland settlers came, one way or another, from Egypt.\"\n",
"The Bible tells how the Israelites are enslaved in Egypt and eventually escape under the leadership of Moses. At least two pharaohs are involved, the \"Pharaoh of the Oppression\" who enslaves the Israelites, and the \"Pharaoh of the Exodus\" during whose rule the Israelites escape. The biblical story does not name or give enough information to identify the period in which the events are set. These are some candidates put forward for the role of Pharaoh of the Exodus:\n",
"When Pharaoh enslaved the Children of Israel, the Egyptians appointed conscription officers over the Israelites to crush their spirits with hard labor. The Israelites were to build up the cities of Pithom and Ra'amses as supply centers for Pharaoh. They made the lives of the Israelites miserable with harsh labor involving mortar and bricks, as well as all kinds of work in the field. Then he issued decrees to kill all the Israelite males. God hardened Pharaoh's heart, so that he would not allow the Hebrews to leave, and then God sent various disasters onto the whole of Egypt. Exodus includes the story of the killing of every firstborn child in Egypt as the final punishment for having enslaved the Israelites.\n"
] |
why do all drives or partitions defragment all files, but the system one (c: or other) is always fragmented, even if i just defragmented it?
|
Yes, there are some system files that can't be moved while the system is running. Also, the system partition is used all the time - programs always create and delete temporary files, which usually reside on the system drive.
The same defragmentation software you used has a [boot time defrag](_URL_0_) option.
|
[
" is often simply a directory on the main (or only) hard drive partition. However, it may be a separate partition. A separate partition is generally only used when bootloaders are incapable of reading the main filesystem (e.g. SILO does not recognize XFS) or other problems not easily resolvable by users.\n",
"With DOS, Microsoft Windows, and OS/2, a common practice is to use one primary partition for the active file system that will contain the operating system, the page/swap file, all utilities, applications, and user data. On most Windows consumer computers, the drive letter C: is routinely assigned to this primary partition. Other partitions may exist on the HDD that may or may not be visible as drives, such as recovery partitions or partitions with diagnostic tools or data. (Microsoft drive letters do not correspond to partitions in a one-to-one fashion, so there may be more or fewer drive letters than partitions.)\n",
"A primary partition contains one file system. In DOS and all early versions of Microsoft Windows systems, Microsoft required what it called the system partition to be the first partition. All Windows operating systems from Windows 95 onwards can be located on (almost) any partition, but the boot files (codice_1, codice_2, codice_3, etc.) must reside on a primary partition. However, other factors, such as a PC's BIOS (see Boot sequence on standard PC) may also impose specific requirements as to which partition must contain the primary OS.\n",
"It is often recommended that Windows be installed to the first primary partition. The boot loaders of both Windows and Linux identify partitions with a number derived by counting the partitions. (Note, both Windows and Linux count the partitions according to the ordering of the partitions \"in the partition table\", which may be different from the order of the partitions on the disk.) Adding or deleting a partition at the end of a hard drive will have no effect on any partitions prior to it. However, if a partition is added or deleted at the beginning or middle of a hard drive, the numbering of subsequent partitions may change. If the number of the system partition changes, it requires boot loader reconfiguration in order for an operating system to boot and function properly.\n",
"By default, a computer's disk is partitioned into two partitions: one of limited size for booting, BitLocker and running the Windows Recovery Environment and the second with the operating system and user files.\n",
"External fragmentation tends to be less of a problem in file systems than in primary memory (RAM) storage systems, because programs usually require their RAM storage requests to be fulfilled with contiguous blocks, but file systems typically are designed to be able use any collection of available blocks (fragments) to assemble a file which logically appears contiguous. Therefore, if a highly fragmented file or many small files are deleted from a full volume and then a new file with size equal to the newly freed space is created, the new file will simply reuse the same fragments that were freed by the deletion. If what was deleted was one file, the new file and will be just as fragmented as that old file was, but in any case there will be no barrier to using all the (highly fragmented) free space to create the new file. In RAM, on the other hand, the storage systems used often cannot assemble a large block to meet a request from small noncontiguous free blocks, and so the request cannot be fulfilled and the program cannot proceed to do whatever it needed that memory for (unless it can reissue the request as a number of smaller separate requests).\n",
"When a file system is first initialized on a partition, it contains only a few small internal structures and is otherwise one contiguous block of empty space. This means that the file system is able to place newly created files anywhere on the partition. For some time after creation, files can be laid out near-optimally. When the operating system and applications are installed or archives are unpacked, separate files end up occurring sequentially so related files are positioned close to each other.\n"
] |
How much does color affect temperature? Details in post.
|
Color (or more specifically, frequency and wavelength) are supremely important when it comes to radiation heat transfer. Any time light strikes an object, three things can happen to the light.
* The energy of the light can get absorbed by the surface.
* It can be reflected off of the surface.
* It can be transmitted through the surface.
Any time radiation strikes an object, all three of those effects must add up to the amount of energy the light initially had ([First Law of Thermodynamics](_URL_0_) - Conservation of energy). Now, where it gets interesting is that a material's absorptivity, reflectivity, and transmissivity are unique to each material, but are also specific to the wavelength of the light.
For an example, let's say that you're looking at a small piece of blue glass in a stained glass window. The blue glass is reflecting some of the light back out (the glistening of the sun off the outer surface.) Another portion of the light is getting absorbed by the glass. The portion of light that gets absorbed gets converted to heat (and a portion of this heat gets radiated back out of the material.) Whatever remaining light gets transmitted through the glass. This is the light you'll be seeing on the inside. The fact that the light transmitted through the glass was blue means that of all the light shone at the glass, the blue frequencies of light are allowed to pass through, while the portion of the light that was everything **BUT** blue was the component that was reflected and absorbed.
For this reason, if you wear a black shirt in the sun, the shirt will absorb more light and will reach a higher temperature. While a white shirt will reflect more light than a black shirt would, white shirts have a tendency to become transparent when wet so if you're sweating, your skin will actually be exposed to more radiation in a white shirt than a black shirt even though the temperature of the white shirt will be lower.
|
[
"Color temperature can be indicated in kelvins or mireds (1 million divided by the color temperature in kelvins). The color temperature of a light source is the temperature of a black body that has the same chromaticity (i.e. color) as the light source. A notional temperature, the correlated color temperature, the temperature of a black body which emits light of a hue which to human color perception most closely matches the light from the lamp, is assigned.\n",
"The color temperature of a light source is the temperature of an ideal black-body radiator that radiates light of comparable hue to that of the light source. Color temperature is a characteristic of visible light that has important applications in lighting, photography, videography, publishing, manufacturing, astrophysics, horticulture, and other fields. In practice, color temperature is only meaningful for light sources that do in fact correspond somewhat closely to the radiation of some black body, i.e., those on a line from reddish/orange via yellow and more or less white to blueish white; it does not make sense to speak of the color temperature of, e.g., a green or a purple light. Color temperature is conventionally stated in the unit of absolute temperature, the kelvin, having the unit symbol K.\n",
"The color temperature of a light source is the temperature of an ideal black-body radiator that radiates light of a color comparable to that of the light source. Color temperature is a characteristic of visible light that has important applications in lighting, photography, videography, publishing, manufacturing, astrophysics, horticulture, and other fields. In practice, color temperature is meaningful only for light sources that do in fact correspond somewhat closely to the radiation of some black body, i.e., light in a range going from red to orange to yellow to white to blueish white; it does not make sense to speak of the color temperature of, e.g., a green or a purple light. Color temperature is conventionally expressed in kelvins, using the symbol K, a unit of measure for absolute temperature.\n",
"Color temperature is measured in kelvins. A light's apparent color is determined by its lamp color, the color of any gels in the optical path, its power level, and the color of the material it lights.\n",
"In digital photography, the term color temperature sometimes refers to remapping of color values to simulate variations in ambient color temperature. Most digital cameras and raw image software provide presets simulating specific ambient values (e.g., sunny, cloudy, tungsten, etc.) while others allow explicit entry of white balance values in kelvins. These settings vary color values along the blue–yellow axis, while some software includes additional controls (sometimes labeled \"tint\") adding the magenta–green axis, and are to some extent arbitrary and a matter of artistic interpretation.\n",
"The kelvin is often used as a measure of the colour temperature of light sources. Colour temperature is based upon the principle that a black body radiator emits light with a frequency distribution characteristic of its temperature. Black bodies at temperatures below about appear reddish, whereas those above about appear bluish. Colour temperature is important in the fields of image projection and photography, where a colour temperature of approximately is required to match \"daylight\" film emulsions. In astronomy, the stellar classification of stars and their place on the Hertzsprung–Russell diagram are based, in part, upon their surface temperature, known as effective temperature. The photosphere of the Sun, for instance, has an effective temperature of .\n",
"Color temperature for white light sources also affects their use for certain applications. The color temperature of a white light source is the temperature in kelvins of a theoretical black body emitter that most closely matches the spectral characteristics of the lamp. An incandescent bulb has a color temperature around 2800 to 3000 kelvins; daylight is around 6400 kelvins. Lower color temperature lamps have relatively more energy in the yellow and red part of the visible spectrum, while high color temperatures correspond to lamps with more of a blue-white appearance. For critical inspection or color matching tasks, or for retail displays of food and clothing, the color temperature of the lamps will be selected for the best overall lighting effect. Color may also be used for functional reasons. For example, blue light makes it difficult to see veins and thus may be used to discourage drug use.\n"
] |
Why do plants have longer lifespans than animals?
|
Differences in life spans across species, or even Kingdom, boundaries is a pretty fascinating topic of research. I've had some exposure to a researcher whose done some work with animals, but I'm not very up to date with the current state of the research. But I can talk about plants. One of the big differences between plant and animal cells is totipotency. Plant cells are totipotent, meaning that an individual cell, if isolated and grown on a suitable culture medium, can grow into a plant that is genetically identical to the mother plant. You can't really do that with animal cells. Granted, plant cells in the wild aren't necessarily exposed to some of those same conditions, so perennial plants retain stem-cell like meristematic tissue (e.g. dormant buds) that can be activated in case of damage to the rest of the tree. The ramifications of this for longevity is that any damage done to a plant can be fixed relatively easily. It's not like limb regeneration in some reptiles or other animals, it's like limb substitution. You can see the results after a big storm that removes a lot of limbs from a tree, where the tree then starts to grow very bushy with lots of new stems. The animal equivalent would be like cutting off your arm and having a new one grow out your chest. So damages done to a perennial plant aren't necessarily "fixed", but circumvented through creation of new structure. The other important thing about how plants respond to damage is that they have a sectored vascular system so that part of a tree (or other type of perennial) can survive even if the whole plant can't. If a human's peripheral limbs can't survive, we can amputate and the person will survive, but if any organs can't survive, the human dies.
The other issue for some plants is the ability for clonal growth. A good example is aspen forests, where you might be looking at an entire forest of trees that originated from the same mother tree. If the original tree dies, the same genetic material from that tree persists in genetically identical clones. Some of my genes persist in my daughter, but not all of them, so she's not identical to me in a genetic (or even physical) sense.
Of course, there's other factors that play major roles in determining life span that have to do with metabolism, resistance to factors that affect senescence, etc.
I'm not sure if you can access [this article](_URL_0_), but it describes in pretty basic terms why trees can live so long relative to other organisms
|
[
"Generally, in reference to life-history theory, plants will sacrifice their ability in one regard to improve themselves in another regard, so for polycarpic plants that may strive towards continued reproduction, they might focus less on their growth. However, these aspects may not necessarily be directly correlated and some plants, notably invasive species, do not follow this general trend and actually show a fairly long lifespan with frequent reproduction. To an extent, there does seem to be an importance of the balance of these two traits as one study noted how plants that had a very short lifespan as well as plants that had a very long lifespan and also had little reproductive success were not found in any of the nearly 400 plants included in the study. Due to their reduced development, it has been noted how polycarpic plants have less energy to reproduce than monocarpic plants throughout their lifetimes. In addition, as its lifespan increases, the plant is also subject to more inconveniences due to its age, and thus might focus more towards adapting to it, resulting in less energy the plant is able to spend on reproduction. One trend that has been noticed throughout some studies is how quicker lifespans generally impact how quickly the plants increasingly expend their energy towards reproduction. However, the specific structure of polycarpic strategies depends on the specific plant and all polycarpic plants do not seem to have a uniform pattern of how energy is expended on reproduction. These strategies are not concrete and these strategies are also subject to being impacted by the random environmental factors or other functions of the plant itself.\n",
"Plants—and, by extension, animals—could survive longer by evolving other strategies such as requiring less carbon dioxide for photosynthetic processes, becoming carnivorous, adapting to desiccation, or associating with fungi. These adaptations are likely to appear near the beginning of the moist greenhouse (see further).\n",
"Increased allocation to reproduction early in life generally leads to a decrease in survival later in life (senescence); this occurs in both annual and perennial semelparous plants. Exceptions to this pattern include long-lived clonal (see ramets section below) and long-lived non-clonal perennial species (e.g., bristlecone pine).\n",
"Various species of plants and animals, including humans, have different lifespans. Evolutionary theory states that organisms that, by virtue of their defenses or lifestyle, live for long periods and avoid accidents, disease, predation, etc. are likely to have genes that code for slow aging, which often translates to good cellular repair. One theory is that if predation or accidental deaths prevent most individuals from living to an old age, there will be less natural selection to increase the intrinsic life span. That finding was supported in a classic study of opossums by Austad; however, the opposite relationship was found in an equally prominent study of guppies by Reznick.\n",
"One major difference is the totipotent nature of plant cells, allowing them to reproduce asexually much more easily than most animals. They are also capable of polyploidy – where more than two chromosome sets are inherited from the parents. This allows relatively fast bursts of evolution to occur, for example by the effect of gene duplication. The long periods of dormancy that seed plants can employ also makes them less vulnerable to extinction, as they can \"sit out\" the tough periods and wait until more clement times to leap back to life.\n",
"All of the biological organisms have a limited longevity, and different species of animals and plants have different potentials of longevity. Misrepair-accumulation aging theory suggests that the potential of longevity of an organism is related to its structural complexity. Limited longevity is due to the limited structural complexity of the organism. If a species of organisms has too high structural complexity, most of its individuals would die before the reproduction age, and the species could not survive. This theory suggests that limited structural complexity and limited longevity are essential for the survival of a species.\n",
"Many Earth plants and animals undergo major biochemical changes during their life cycles as a response to changing environmental conditions, for example, by having a spore or hibernation state that can be sustained for years or even millennia between more active life stages. Thus, it would be biochemically possible to sustain life in environments that are only periodically consistent with life as we know it.\n"
] |
why is it so hard to rip open a package with wet hands (even if it has a notch for ripping)?
|
When your hands are wet they are lubricated by the wetness. This reduces friction, which reduces your ability to grab and rip a package open.
|
[
"Roughing cuts are used to remove large amount of material from the starting workpart as rapidly as possible, i.e. with a large Material Removal Rate (MRR), in order to produce a shape close to the desired form, but leaving some material on the piece for a subsequent finishing operation.\n",
"Household scissors or a utility knife are sometimes used to open difficult packaging. Tin snips are effective for tough plastics; the higher mechanical advantage of compound metal snips make it possible to cut such packages open even using little hand strength. Trauma shears have also shown to be effective at opening packaging of this type.\n",
"Wrap rage, also called package rage, is the common name for heightened levels of anger and frustration resulting from the inability to open packaging, particularly some heat-sealed plastic blister packs and clamshells. People can be injured while opening difficult packaging: cutting tools pose a sharp hazard to the person opening the package, as well as its contents. Easy-opening systems are available to improve package-opening convenience.\n",
"In use a seam ripper, the sharp point of the tool is inserted into the seam underneath the thread to be cut. The thread is allowed to slip down into the fork and the tool is then lifted upwards, allowing the blade to rip through the thread. Once the seam has been undone in this way the loose ends can be removed and the seam resewn.\n",
"Tearing is the act of breaking apart a material by force, without the aid of a cutting tool. A tear in a piece of paper, fabric, or some other similar object may be the result of the intentional effort with one's bare hands, or be accidental. Unlike a cut, which is generally on a straight or patterned line controlled by a tool such as scissors, a tear is generally uneven and, for the most part, unplanned. An exception is a tear along a perforated line, as found on a roll of toilet paper or paper towels, which has been previously partially cut, so the effort of tearing will probably produce a straight line.\n",
"Despite the name, neither the media nor the data is damaged after extraction. Ripping is often used to shift formats, and to edit, duplicate or back up media content. A rip is the extracted content, in its destination format, along with accompanying files, such as a cue sheet or log file from the ripping software.\n",
"When the material being ripped is not in the public domain, and the person making the rip does not have the copyright owner's permission, then such ripping may be regarded as copyright infringement. However, some countries either explicitly allow it in certain circumstances, or at least don't forbid it. Some countries also have fair use-type laws which allow unauthorized copies to be made under certain conditions. As mentioned above, circumventing copy protection mechanisms, such as the encryption used on most commercial DVDs, may also be illegal in many countries.\n"
] |
At what point in history were women knowledgeable enough about their cycles to understand when they might be ovulating?
|
Well, of course many of them would not have known before my collection of all the knowledge in the Empire of our beloved emperor Vespasianus, long may he reign, in my well known encyclopaideia, the history of the natural world. In fact, I have gathered many strange and interesting phenomena about the female menstruation! Did you know that menstrual blood can reportedly have the most peculiar effects? It turns new wine sour, it can make crops barren, fruits fall of the trees when touched by it, and even whole hives of bees have been known to die! (see book VII, 15)
I should probably warn you also, if you didn't know this already, that intercourse with a menstruating woman during a solar or lunar eclipse, or when moon and sun are in conjunction, can and probably will kill you (see book XXVIII, 23).
Now, where was I? Ah, yes, conception! Well, it has long been understood that blood is necessary for the generation of new life. Aristotle informs us how the female blood quickened by the male sperm (which is the highest form of blood, cooked to its very essence - which women can't do, owing to their lower body temperature) will bring forth new life. You can read about this in particular in his *Generation of Animals*. Thus, when menstruation stops in their 40th or 50th year, they are no longer fertile.
In any case, almost all my contemporaries agree with me^1 in that the chances for conception are the highest shortly after the beginning and towards the end of the menstrual cycle (book VII, 67).
* 1 This was the state of the ancient medical knowledge on the subject - the real reason was unknown, since the mechanics of conception were viewed from a very idiosyncratic point, with blood and it's derivate sperm at the centre. Views differed about the nature of the female part in this, Aristotles view is of course very passive, while Galenos attributed sperm to the woman as well, having an equal part and thus accounting for the transmission of the mother's characteristics in the following generation. In any case, the circular reoccurence of menstruation and it's connection to fertility was well known at least to the educated circles.
|
[
"In 1905 Theodoor Hendrik van de Velde, a Dutch gynecologist, showed that women only ovulate once per menstrual cycle. In the 1920s, Kyusaku Ogino, a Japanese gynecologist, and Hermann Knaus, from Austria, working independently, each made the discovery that ovulation occurs about fourteen days before the next menstrual period. Ogino used his discovery to develop a formula for use in aiding infertile women to time intercourse to achieve pregnancy.\n",
"He is credited with showing in 1905 that women only ovulate once per menstrual cycle. This contributed to the improvement of calendar-based methods of birth control, and later to the creation of other fertility awareness systems.\n",
"In 1905, Theodoor Hendrik van de Velde, a Dutch gynecologist, showed that women only ovulate once per menstrual cycle. In the 1920s, Kyusaku Ogino, a Japanese gynecologist, and Hermann Knaus, from Austria, working independently, each made the discovery that ovulation occurs about fourteen days before the next menstrual period. Ogino used his discovery to develop a formula for use in aiding infertile women to time intercourse to achieve pregnancy.\n",
"In 1905 Theodoor Hendrik van de Velde, a Dutch gynecologist, showed that women only ovulate once per menstrual cycle. In the 1920s, Kyusaku Ogino, a Japanese gynecologist, and Hermann Knaus, from Austria, independently discovered that ovulation occurs about fourteen days before the next menstrual period. Ogino used his discovery to develop a formula for use in aiding infertile women to time intercourse to achieve pregnancy. In 1930, John Smulders, Roman Catholic physician from the Netherlands, used this discovery to create a method for \"avoiding\" pregnancy. Smulders published his work with the Dutch Roman Catholic medical association, and this was the first formalized system for periodic abstinence: the rhythm method.\n",
"This hypothesis suggests that women concealed ovulation to obtain men's aid in rearing offspring. Schoroder summarizes this hypothesis outlined in Alexander and Noonan's 1979 paper: if women no longer signaled the time of ovulation, men would be unable to detect the exact period in which they were fecund. This led to a change in men's mating strategy: rather than mating with multiple women in the hope that some of them, at least, were fecund during that period, men instead chose to mate with a particular woman repeatedly throughout her menstrual cycle. A mating would be successful in resulting in conception when it occurred during ovulation, and thus, frequent matings, necessitated by the effects of concealed ovulation, would be most evolutionarily successful. A similar hypothesis was proposed by Lovejoy in 1981 that argued that concealed ovulation, reduced canines and bipedalism evolved from a reproductive strategy where males provisioned food resources to his paired female and dependent offspring.\n",
"One of the first modern studies to explore whether women have truly concealed ovulation utilized a simple task: have professional lap dancers record the amount of tips they receive for each day of their ovulatory cycle. The study found that women not using hormonal contraceptives earned significantly more money on the days they were most fertile, compared to other days in the cycle. The researchers suggest that women may be more attractive to men during the fertile window, indicating that women do possess an estrus phase and that their ovulation is not completely concealed.\n",
"It is not known if historical cultures were aware of what part of the menstrual cycle is most fertile. In the year 388, Augustine of Hippo wrote of periodic abstinence. Addressing followers of Manichaeism, his former religion, he said, \"Is it not you who used to counsel us to observe as much as possible the time when a woman, after her purification, is most likely to conceive, and to abstain from cohabitation at that time...?\" If the Manichaieans practiced something like the Jewish observances of menstruation, then the \"time... after her purification\" would have indeed been when \"a woman... is most likely to conceive.\" Over a century previously, however, the influential Greek physician Soranus had written that \"the time directly before and after menstruation\" was the most fertile part of a woman's cycle; this inaccuracy was repeated in the 6th century by the Byzantine physician Aëtius. Similarly, a Chinese sex manual written close to the year 600 stated that only the first five days following menstruation were fertile. Some historians believe that Augustine, too, incorrectly identified the days immediately after menstruation as the time of highest fertility.\n"
] |
Could constant cough lead to emphysema?
|
I am not aware of any studies that show cough alone can cause damage to the alveoli.
I wouldn't expect to see a lot of alveolar damage due to chronic cough alone (in the absence of any kind of obstruction), anyway.
The physical act of coughing is the result of compression of the lungs while holding the only opening (the glottis) shut, and then opening the glottis fast, releasing a blast of air.
This will cause a backpressure in the lungs, but because the source of the compression is outside the lungs, each alveolus will experience pretty much the same pressure. Because neighboring alveoli will have the same pressure, there is no differential, you aren't going to get any tearing.
Also, the violent movement in cough is an exhalation; a shrinking of the lungs. This means that the violent portion of the cough isn't stretching the alveolar walls. If anything, it's compressing them.
HOWEVER...most of the time, chronic cough is just a symptom of something else; typically some kind of chronic obstruction, inflammation, or infection. And those will cause both alveolar damage *and* cough. Also, if there is an obstruction, you may get places where neighboring alveoli *do* have a pressure differential, and the wall can be stressed or rupture.
So although chronic cough is often associated with emphysema, chronic cough is not known to be a cause of emphysema.
|
[
"In people with unexplained cough, gastroesophageal reflux disease should be considered. This occurs when acidic contents of the stomach come back up into the esophagus. Symptoms usually associated with GERD include heartburn, sour taste in the mouth, or a feeling of acid reflux in the chest, although, more than half of the people with cough from GERD don’t have any other symptoms. An esophageal pH monitor can confirm the diagnosis of GERD. Sometimes GERD can complicate respiratory ailments related to cough, such as asthma or bronchitis. The treatment involves anti-acid medications and lifestyle changes with surgery indicated in cases not manageable with conservative measures.\n",
"The complications of coughing can be classified as either acute or chronic. Acute complications include cough syncope (fainting spells due to decreased blood flow to the brain when coughs are prolonged and forceful), insomnia, cough-induced vomiting, rupture of blebs causing spontaneous pneumothorax (although this still remains to be proven), subconjunctival hemorrhage or \"red eye\", coughing defecation and in women with a prolapsed uterus, cough urination. Chronic complications are common and include abdominal or pelvic hernias, fatigue fractures of lower ribs and costochondritis. Chronic or violent coughing can contribute to damage to the pelvic floor and a possible cystocele.\n",
"Long-term coughing and constant irritation of the upper airway can be problematic for individuals that have chronic cough. Due to the consistent coughing, this can interfere with an individual's daily life. This interference can thus cause additional problems such as affecting a person's ability to ensure a consistent sleep, daytime fatigue, difficulty concentrating at work or school, headache, and dizziness. Other more severe but rare complications include fainting, urinary incontinence, and broken ribs, caused by excessive coughing.\n",
"With emphysema the shortness of breath due to effective bronchoconstriction from excessive very thick mucous blockage (it is so thick that great difficulty is encountered in expelling it resulting in near exhaustion at times) can bring on panic attacks unless the individual expects this and has effectively learned pursed lip breathing to more quickly transfer oxygen to the blood via the damaged alveoli resulting from the disease. The most common cause of emphysema is smoking and smoking cessation is mandatory if this incurable disease is to be treated. Prevention of bronchoconstriction by this pathway is vital for emphysema sufferers and there are several anticholinergic medications that can greatly improve the quality of life for these individuals. In combination with mucous thinning agents such as Guaifenesin significant improvement in breathing can be accomplished.\n",
"Cough may also be caused by conditions affecting the lung tissue such as bronchiectasis, cystic fibrosis, interstitial lung diseases and sarcoidosis. Coughing can also be triggered by benign or malignant lung tumors or mediastinal masses. Through irritation of the nerve, diseases of the external auditory canal (wax, for example) can also cause cough. Cardiovascular diseases associated with cough are heart failure, pulmonary infarction and aortic aneurysm. Nocturnal cough is associated with heart failure, as the heart does not compensate for the increased volume shift to the pulmonary circulation, in turn causing pulmonary edema and resultant cough. Other causes of nocturnal cough include asthma, post-nasal drip and gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD). Another cause of cough occurring preferentially in supine position is recurrent aspiration.\n",
"A cough can be the result of a respiratory tract infection such as the common cold, acute bronchitis, pneumonia, pertussis, or tuberculosis. In the vast majority of cases, acute coughs, i.e. coughs shorter than 3 weeks, are due to the common cold. In people with a normal chest X-ray, tuberculosis is a rare finding. Pertussis is increasingly being recognised as a cause of troublesome coughing in adults.\n",
"A persistent dry cough is a relatively common adverse effect believed to be associated with the increases in bradykinin levels produced by ACE inhibitors, although the role of bradykinin in producing these symptoms has been disputed. Patients who experience this cough are often switched to angiotensin II receptor antagonists.\n"
] |
why do nearly all space photographs seem 2d?
|
Pictures create the illusion of depth using one or more of several methods, such as linear perspective, aerial perspective, etc., all of which are pretty impossible in astrophotography.
Another issue is that the image is taken of an object millions of miles away, and the only background are the stars which are also millions of miles away. This makes it very difficult for your brain to even perceive depth or size. The lack of anything in the foreground and the lack of much of a background add to the "flatness" of the image.
|
[
"BULLET::::- 1975: \"Blue Studio: Five Segments\" solo-video collaboration with Cunningham created in such a small space that they choose to superimpose different backgrounds on the image, making the space seem larger than in actuality.\n",
"The director determined that only actual photographs would be used, without hand-drawn or computer-generated images (CGI). This required the use of over 7.5 million separate images, captured in space or by telescopes. To present a 3-dimensional effect, images would be composited and moved using multi-plane animation, but no such animation had ever been attempted on this scale. For example, Walt Disney Studios had used this technique with seven layers in films such as \"Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs\", whereas \"In Saturn's Rings\" uses up to 1.2 million layers in its most complex sequence.\n",
"In September 2007, a team of astronomers from the United States and Britain released some of the clearest pictures ever taken of outer space. The pictures were obtained through the use of a new hybrid \"Lucky imaging\" and \"adaptive optics\" system that sharpens pictures taken from the Palomar Observatory. The resolution attained exceeds that of the Hubble Space Telescope by a factor of two.\n",
"This sort of 3D imaging solution is based on the principles of photogrammetry. It is also somewhat similar in methodology to panoramic photography, except that the photos are taken of one object on a three-dimensional space in order to replicate it instead of taking a series of photos from one point in a three-dimensional space in order to replicate the surrounding environment.\n",
"Photographs, both monochrome and color, can be captured and displayed through two side-by-side images that emulate human stereoscopic vision. Stereoscopic photography was the first that captured figures in motion. While known colloquially as \"3-D\" photography, the more accurate term is stereoscopy. Such cameras have long been realized by using film and more recently in digital electronic methods (including cell phone cameras).\n",
"To the right is the first color image derived from images taken by the panoramic camera on the Mars Exploration Rover \"Spirit\". It was the highest resolution image taken on the surface of another planet. According to the camera designer Jim Bell of Cornell University, the panoramic mosaic consists of four pancam images high by three wide. The picture shown originally had a full size of 4,000 by 3,000 pixels. However, a complete pancam panorama is even 8 times larger than that, and could be taken in stereo (i.e., two complete pictures, making the resolution twice as large again.) The colors are fairly accurate. (For a technical explanation, see colors outside the range of the human eye.)\n",
"Space exploration led to a renewed interest in the perspective projection. Now the concern was for a pictorial view from space, not for minimal distortion. A picture taken with a hand-held camera from the window of a spacecraft has a tilted vertical perspective, so the manned Gemini and Apollo space missions sparked interest in this projection.\n"
] |
Wouldn't large scale mining on the moon have a negative impact on Earth? Assuming large deposits of valuable minerals are found in it
|
No. The moon is simply way too big that mining operations as we know it could have any noticable impact on tides.
The total amount of all mining humans have done on earth since ever is smaller than the margin of error we have on the our estimation on mass of the moon.
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[
"Almost all lunar rocks are depleted in volatiles and are completely lacking in hydrated minerals common in Earth rocks. In some regards, lunar rocks are closely related to Earth's rocks in their isotopic composition of the element oxygen. The Apollo Moon rocks were collected using a variety of tools, including hammers, rakes, scoops, tongs, and core tubes. Most were photographed prior to collection to record the condition in which they were found. They were placed inside sample bags and then a \"Special Environmental Sample Container\" for return to the Earth to protect them from contamination. In contrast to the Earth, large portions of the lunar crust appear to be composed of rocks with high concentrations of the mineral anorthite. The mare basalts have relatively high iron values. Furthermore, some of the mare basalts have very high levels of titanium (in the form of ilmenite).\n",
"The carbonaceous boulder that would have been captured by the mission (maximum 6 meter diameter, 20 tons) is too small to harm the Earth because it would burn up in the atmosphere. Redirecting the asteroid mass to a distant retrograde orbit around the Moon would ensure it could not hit Earth and also leave it in a stable orbit for future studies.\n",
"Prospecting operations will be aimed at locating concentrations of extractable lunar gems and minerals. High grade titanium, rare-earth metals and helium-3 (a potential fusion reactor fuel) are all known to exist on the Moon. Low cost flight of concentrated ores to the Earth is feasible using Solar Powered, electromagnetic \"Rail guns\", and other technologies.\n",
"On Earth impact craters have resulted in useful minerals. Some of the ores produced from impact related effects on Earth include ores of iron, uranium, gold, copper, and nickel. It is estimated that the value of materials mined from impact structures is five billion dollars/year just for North America. \n",
"Comparison of the zinc isotopic composition of lunar samples with that of Earth and Mars rocks provides further evidence for the impact hypothesis. Zinc is strongly fractionated when volatilized in planetary rocks, but not during normal igneous processes, so zinc abundance and isotopic composition can distinguish the two geological processes. Moon rocks contain more heavy isotopes of zinc, and overall less zinc, than corresponding igneous Earth or Mars rocks, which is consistent with zinc being depleted from the Moon through evaporation, as expected for the giant impact origin.\n",
"Indirect evidence for the giant impact scenario comes from rocks collected during the Apollo Moon landings, which show oxygen isotope ratios nearly identical to those of Earth. The highly anorthositic composition of the lunar crust, as well as the existence of KREEP-rich samples, suggest that a large portion of the Moon once was molten; and a giant impact scenario could easily have supplied the energy needed to form such a magma ocean. Several lines of evidence show that if the Moon has an iron-rich core, it must be a small one. In particular, the mean density, moment of inertia, rotational signature, and magnetic induction response of the Moon all suggest that the radius of its core is less than about 25% the radius of the Moon, in contrast to about 50% for most of the other terrestrial bodies. Appropriate impact conditions satisfying the angular momentum constraints of the Earth-Moon system yield a Moon formed mostly from the mantles of the Earth and the impactor, while the core of the impactor accretes to the Earth. It is noteworthy that the Earth has the highest density of all the planets in the Solar System; the absorption of the core of the impactor body explains this observation, given the proposed properties of the early Earth and Theia.\n",
"Recent observation made by a number of spacecraft confirmed significant amounts of Lunar water. Mercury does not appear to contain observable quantities of HO, presumably due to loss from giant impacts. In contrast, Earth's hydrosphere contains ~ of HO and sedimentary rocks contain ~, for a total crustal inventory of ~ of HO. The mantle inventory is poorly constrained in the range of . Therefore, the bulk inventory of HO on Earth can be conservatively estimated as 0.04% of Earth's mass (~).\n"
] |
What will happen to a piece of wood, placed in a "pot"with no oxygen and then placed over a fire?
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That's basically a way to make charcoal. By starving the wood of oxygen you allow the moisture and volatile compounds to be burned off leaving you with a mostly pure carbon. It's important that it has some kind of vent though because the steam and volatile compounds will pressurize the container.
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[
"There are many ways to store firewood. These range from simple piles to free-standing stacks, to specialized structures. Usually the goal of storing wood is to keep water away from it and to continue the drying process.\n",
"Planks can be put directly over open flames, or stood on edge and faced towards the flames (the Finnish method), either method infuses the food with the natural oils and moisture found in the woods adding flavor.\n",
"The conservation of waterlogged wood is a complex process that involves impregnating. The impregnation process involves replacing the water with a material that will strengthen the structure of the wood without causing the wood to contract or come apart. There are different methods used to impregnate wood:\n",
"Impregnation of wood with a potassium silicate solution is an easy and low cost way for rendering the woodwork of houses secure against catching fire. The woodwork is first saturated with a diluted and nearly neutral solution of potash silicate. After drying, one or two coats of a more concentrated solution are usually applied.\n",
"A pot hanging over the fire, although picturesque, may spill, and the rigging may be difficult to construct from found wood. Generally this is done with metal rigging, much of it identical to that historically used in home fireplaces before the invention of stoves. Two vertical iron bars with an iron cross-piece allow pots to be hung at various heights or over different temperatures of fire. Griddles, grills and skewers can also be hung over the fire. When working with wood, one may use two tripods, lashed with tripod lashings, but the rope will be liable to melt or burn. Dovetail joints are more secure, but difficult to carve.\n",
"If a wooden artifact has sustained water damage, then the object must be dried slowly so as not to cause splitting of the wood as it dries. Similar to relative humidity, a rapid fluctuation in moisture from water damage can cause further damage to wooden objects. Slow controlled drying can be achieved by lower the relative humidity and creating a tent for the artifact so that it does not lose moisture too quickly.\n",
"Once started upon a timber prop, the fire would have naturally spread to the adjacent supports, and would have continued to burn as long as plenty of air was available. When the combustion of the supporting frames so weakened them that they gave way under the weight of the waste material lying on them it would have caused a block at that level; the timber then burning in a sort of cul-de-sac, would not have received all the oxygen necessary for the complete combustion of the carbon; the result was that CO was generated in addition to CO.\n"
] |
Gravitational time dilation for solar systems relative to distance from galactic centre.
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Well, the truth is that once you get far enough from an object's Schwarzschild radius, the effect isn't very significant. The equation for gravitational time dilation is:
t_0 = t_f*sqrt(1-r_0/r)
where t_0 is the observed time, t_f is "proper time" (time when you're far enough from the source that you're not affected by its gravity, but also at rest relative to the source), r_0 is the Schwarzschild radius, and r is the distance you are from the center.
The Sun's Schwarzschild radius is 3 km, which is to say that if the sun's mass were compressed to a single point, that point would create a black hole whose event horizon would have a radius of 3 km. The sun currently has a radius of about 7\*10^5 km, which means that a second on the surface of the sun would be about sqrt(1-3/7*10^(-5)) = 1.000002 times as long as a "proper" second.
I don't exactly know how far the most inner stars are from the galactic centre, but I know that they have to be far enough that the gravity gradient (the difference between the force of gravity at two points different distances from the source) would be low enough that stars could maintain a fusion cycle. I haven't done the math here, but intuitively I'd assume that if they're far enough away that they can hold a shape on the order of 10^5 km, they're far enough that the gravitational time dilation wouldn't affect them too much.
EDIT: Accidentally a caret.
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[
"However, there are a number of complications. The simple derivation above assumed that both the Sun and the object in question are traveling on circular orbits about the Galactic center. This is not true for the Sun (the Sun's velocity relative to the local standard of rest is approximately 13.4 km/s), and not necessarily true for other objects in the Milky Way either. The derivation also implicitly assumes that the gravitational potential of the Milky Way is axisymmetric and always directed towards the center. This ignores the effects of spiral arms and the Galaxy's bar. Finally, both transverse velocity and distance are notoriously difficult to measure for objects which are not relatively nearby.\n",
"The rest frame of the center of mass of our solar system isn't a perfect inertial frame of reference since our solar system orbits around the center of the Milky Way. An estimation for the time of period of circulation is 230 million years (estimations vary between 225 and 250 million years). As the estimation for the distance between our solar system and the center of the Milky Way is about 28000 Ly, the assumed orbital speed of our solar system is formula_80. This would cause an aberration ellipse with a major semiaxis of 2,6' (arcminutes). Therefore, in one year the aberration angle could change (at max.) formula_81 = 4,3 µas (microarcseconds). This very small value isn't detectable now, perhaps it's possible with the planned mission of the Gaia spacecraft.\n",
"Gravitational time dilation is a phenomenon predicted by the theory of General Relativity whereby time passes more slowly in regions of lower gravitational potential. Scientists used the lander to test this hypothesis, by sending radio signals to the lander on Mars, and instructing the lander to send back signals, in cases which sometimes included the signal passing close to the Sun. Scientists found that the observed Shapiro delays of the signals matched the predictions of General Relativity.\n",
"That is, the stronger the gravitational field (and, thus, the larger the acceleration), the more slowly time runs. The predictions of time dilation are confirmed by particle acceleration experiments and cosmic ray evidence, where moving particles decay more slowly than their less energetic counterparts. Gravitational time dilation gives rise to the phenomenon of gravitational redshift and Shapiro signal travel time delays near massive objects such as the sun. The Global Positioning System must also adjust signals to account for this effect.\n",
"Gravitational time dilation is at play e.g. for ISS astronauts. While the astronauts' relative velocity slows down their time, the reduced gravitational influence at their location speeds it up, although at a lesser degree. Also, a climber's time is theoretically passing slightly faster at the top of a mountain compared to people at sea level. It has also been calculated that due to time dilation, the core of the Earth is 2.5 years younger than the crust. \"A clock used to time a full rotation of the earth will measure the day to be approximately an extra 10 ns/day longer for every km of altitude above the reference geoid.\" Travel to regions of space where extreme gravitational time dilation is taking place, such as near a black hole, could yield time-shifting results analogous to those of near-lightspeed space travel.\n",
"Contrarily to velocity time dilation, in which both observers measure the other as aging slower (a reciprocal effect), gravitational time dilation is not reciprocal. This means that with gravitational time dilation both observers agree that the clock nearer the center of the gravitational field is slower in rate, and they agree on the ratio of the difference.\n",
"Gravitational time dilation is experienced by an observer that, at a certain altitude within a gravitational potential well, finds that his local clocks measure less elapsed time than identical clocks situated at higher altitude (and which are therefore at higher gravitational potential).\n"
] |
Would quantum computing make it easier to simulate molecular systems?
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In principle, the answer is yes. Since a quantum computer is itself a quantum mechanical system, it inherently is able to deal with quantum mechanical features. This is what Feynman had in mind when he proposed quantum computing in the 1980s, though this proposal has little to do with what we now mean by "(universal) quantum computer".
Instead of running a full-blown algorithm on a generic quantum computer, it can be easier to build a quantum system one can "easily" control which mimics the system you want to simulate. (In more precise terms: You map the Hamiltonian of the system you want to simulate to the Hamiltonian of a system you can experimentally control.) This is actually done quite a bit for solid state systems already, you can find more information here: _URL_0_
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[
"Since chemistry and nanotechnology rely on understanding quantum systems, and such systems are impossible to simulate in an efficient manner classically, many believe quantum simulation will be one of the most important applications of quantum computing. Quantum simulation could also be used to simulate the behavior of atoms and particles at unusual conditions such as the reactions inside a collider.\n",
"The idea that quantum computers might be more powerful than classical computers originated in Richard Feynman's observation that classical computers seem to require exponential time to simulate many-particle quantum systems. Since then, the idea that quantum computers can simulate quantum physical processes exponentially faster than classical computers has been greatly fleshed out and elaborated. Efficient (that is, polynomial-time) quantum algorithms have been developed for simulating both Bosonic and Fermionic systems and in particular, the simulation of chemical reactions beyond the capabilities of current classical supercomputers requires only a few hundred qubits. Quantum computers can also efficiently simulate topological quantum field theories. In addition to its intrinsic interest, this result has led to efficient quantum algorithms for estimating quantum topological invariants such as Jones and HOMFLY polynomials, and the Turaev-Viro invariant of three-dimensional manifolds.\n",
"Entirely new approaches for computing exploit the laws of quantum mechanics for novel quantum computers, which enable the use of fast quantum algorithms. The Quantum computer has quantum bit memory space termed \"Qubit\" for several computations at the same time. This facility may improve the performance of the older systems.\n",
"Quantum machine learning can also be applied to dramatically accelerate the prediction of quantum properties of molecules and materials. This can be helpful for the computational design of new molecules or materials. Some examples include\n",
"It is speculated that in a quantum computer, such simulations would be much more efficient and exact than that done in a classical computer, because it can perform the tunneling directly, rather than needing to add it by hand. Moreover, it may be able to do this without the tight error controls needed to harness the quantum entanglement used in more traditional quantum algorithms. Some confirmation of this is found in exactly solvable models.\n",
"Quantum computers are expected to have a number of significant uses in computing fields such as optimization and machine learning. They are famous for their expected ability to carry out 'Shor's Algorithm', which can be used to factorise large numbers which are mathematically important to secure data transmission.\n",
"Another goal is the development of quantum computers, which are expected to perform certain computational tasks exponentially faster than classical computers. Instead of using classical bits, quantum computers use qubits, which can be in superpositions of states. Quantum programmers are able to manipulate the superposition of qubits in order to solve problems that classical computing cannot do effectively, such as searching unsorted databases or integer factorization. IBM claims that the advent of quantum computing may progress the fields of medicine, logistics, financial services, artificial intelligence and cloud security.\n"
] |
If I am seeing a full moon, does someone a few timezones away see a full moon too?
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Yes the moon will be full (or close enough to it) for everyone on earth. The full moon happens with the sun and the moon are on opposite sides of the earth, so that the side of the moon facing the earth is illuminated by the sun.
Fun fact: the side of the moon facing earth is always the same side, since the moon rotates at just the right speed so that as it orbits the same side is always facing us. This is caused by a phenomenon called tidal locking.
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[
"A full moon is often thought of as an event of a full night's duration. This is somewhat misleading because its phase seen from Earth continuously waxes or wanes (though much too slowly to notice in real time with the naked eye). By definition, its maximum illumination occurs at the moment waxing stops. For any given location, about half of these maximum full moons may be visible, while the other half occurs during the day, when the full moon is below the horizon.\n",
"Full moon is generally a suboptimal time for astronomical observation of the Moon because shadows vanish. It is a poor time for other observations because the bright sunlight reflected by the Moon, amplified by the opposition surge, then outshines many stars.\n",
"Moonbows are most easily viewed when the moon is at or nearest to its brightest phase full moon. For moonbows to have the greatest prospect of appearing, the moon must be low in the sky (at an elevation of less than 42 degrees, preferably lower) and must not be obscured by cloud. In addition, the night sky must be very dark. Since the sky is not completely dark on a rising/setting full moon, this means they can only be observed two to three hours before sunrise (a time with few observers), or two to three hours after sunset. And, of course, there must be water droplets (e.g. from rain or spray) opposite the moon. This combination of requirements makes moonbows much rarer than rainbows produced by the sun. Moonbows may also be visible when rain falls during full moonrise at extreme latitudes during the winter months when the prevalence of the hours of darkness give more opportunity for the phenomenon to be observed.\n",
"BULLET::::- \"It was a nice night, with a moon, but the cloud covered the moon for most of the time... It was very hard going with our heavy loads; it was hot work. We eventually became split up into three groups. We only had one night sight; the lead man, Lieutenant Arias had it. One of the groups became separated when a vehicle came along the track we had to cross. We thought it was a military patrol. Another group lost contact, and the third separation was caused by someone going too fast. This caused my second in command, Lieutenant Bardi, to fall. He suffered a hairline fracture of the ankle and had to be left behind with a man to help him. … We were at Moody Brook by 5.30 a.m., just on the limits of the time planned, but with no time for the one hour's reconnaissance for which we had hoped.\"\n",
"At higher latitudes, there will be a period of at least one day each month when the Moon does not rise, but there will also be a period of at least one day each month when the Moon does not set. This is similar to the seasonal behaviour of the Sun, but with a period of 27.2 days instead of 365 days. Note that a point on the Moon can actually be visible when it is about 34 arc minutes below the horizon, due to atmospheric refraction.\n",
"Contrary to popular belief, the Moon should ideally not be viewed at its full phase. During a full moon, rays of sunlight are hitting the visible portion of the Moon perpendicular to the surface. As a result, there is less surface detail visible during a full moon than during other phases (such as the quarter and crescent phases) when sunlight hits the Moon at a much shallower angle. The brightness of a full moon as compared to a phase where a smaller percentage of the surface is illuminated tends to wash out substantial amounts of detail and can actually leave an afterimage on an observer's eye that can persist for several minutes. First quarter (six to nine days past new moon) is generally considered the best time to observe the Moon for the average stargazer. Shadows and detail are most pronounced along the \"terminator\", the dividing line between the illuminated (day side) and dark (night side) of the Moon.\n",
"On the right is a 1/10-second exposure showing an overexposed full moon. The Moon is seen through thin vaporous clouds, which glow with a bright disk surrounded by an illuminated red ring. A longer exposure would show more faint colors beyond the outside red ring.\n"
] |
how does the accelerator pedal in cars work?
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In most cars, pushing the accellerator (or gas ) pedal increases the flow of fuel to the engine. This means the engine will output more power, causing the car to accellerate.
However, this accelleration doesn't continue forever. Mainly because as a car's speed increases, the amount of wind resistance increases as well, that's like a force pushing against the car forcing it to slow down.
So when you press the accellerator, the engine will push the car harder, and as it speeds up, the air will push harder against it. Once they reach an equilibrium, the car stops accellerating and instead maintains a constant speed.
|
[
"Automobile accelerator pedals have historically been mechanical assemblies which link the pedal to the engine throttle by mechanical linkages or a Bowden cable. With the advent of electronic throttle control, accelerator pedals consist of a spring-loaded pedal arm connected to an electronic transducer. This transducer, typically a potentiometer or\n",
"The name stems from pre-WW2 vehicles where the accelerator pedal was in the centre (between the clutch on the left and the foot brake to the right). The brake was able to be operated with the heel whilst the accelerator pedal could be simultaneously pressed with the toe. The technique is carried out in modern cars by operating the brake with the toe area, while rocking the foot across to the right to operate the throttle with the right side of the foot. With practice, it becomes possible to smoothly and independently operate both pedals with one foot. The technique is common in all forms of motorsports.\n",
"In order to allow the powertrain computer to optimize performance under every driving condition, the Insight's accelerator pedal is a “drive-by-wire” type that uses an electronic position sensor instead of the conventional metal cable that usually connects the pedal to the engine's throttle body. In the drive-by-wire system, the engine's throttle body is controlled by the powertrain computer in response to the accelerator pedal position—allowing the computer to determine the optimal throttle body, fuel, and CVT settings based on the accelerator pedal position and its rate of travel.\n",
"On many cars, the accelerator pedal motion is communicated via the throttle cable, which is mechanically connected to the throttle linkages, which, in turn, rotate the throttle plate. In cars with electronic throttle control (also known as \"drive-by-wire\"), an electric actuator controls the throttle linkages and the accelerator pedal connects not to the throttle body, but to a sensor, which outputs a signal proportional to the current pedal position and sends it to the ECU. The ECU then determines the throttle opening based on the accelerator pedal's position and inputs from other engine sensors such as the engine coolant temperature sensor.\n",
"With electronic accelerator pedals, there was little inherent friction because of the simplicity of the mechanical design. The tactile pedal response of only a spring force with no hysteresis can make it more difficult for a driver to maintain an accelerator pedal position. Manufacturers of electronic accelerator pedals designed their pedals with additional parts to recreate the tactile response of the older mechanical accelerator pedals. To quote from CTS Corporation's 2004 US patent application:\n",
"Foot pedals can be raised, relocated (for instance swapped to be used by the opposite leg) or replaced with hand-controlled devices. The common form of hand controls consists of a push-pull handle mounted below and projecting to the side of the steering wheel housing. The bar connects by levers to the accelerator and brake pedals, and is typically pivoted so that pushing applies the accelerator while pulling applies the brake. As there is no facility to work a clutch pedal, hand controls must generally be used in cars with automatic transmissions. With one hand continuously engaged working the hand controls, the steering wheel will generally also be fitted with a steering knob to allow one-handed use. More complex fittings may also connect into the electronic circuitry of the vehicle to place indicator and other switches in easy reach of the driver without requiring them to release the hand controls or steering knob. A guard plate may be fitted to prevent inadvertent contact between the driver's feet and the pedals. Extension levers or adapted grips may also be fitted to the parking brake to allow it to be applied by a driver with limited hand or arm strength.\n",
"The older mechanically designed accelerator pedals not only provided a spring return, but the mechanism inherently provided some friction. This friction introduced mechanical hysteresis into the pedal force versus pedal position transfer function. Put more simply, once the pedal was set at a specific position, the friction would help keep the pedal at this setting. This made it easier for the driver to maintain a pedal position. For example, if the driver's foot is slightly jostled\n"
] |
what would happen if i threw a plugged in toaster into the bathtub with me?
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With current building codes, probably not much. Any outlet near a tub is a GFCI outlet, which means it has extra protection against exactly this sort of thing. The most likely thing will be that it will short out and trip its breaker before anything happens to you.
If you used an extension cord and ran it from an outlet further away, you'd have a slightly larger chance of something bad happening. If the electrical current happens to go through you on the way to the ground (probably via the drain), and it hits your heart, it could disrupt it and kill you.
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[
"BULLET::::- The Heart-Shaped Tub: Plumbing - The contestants must install the running water into their tubs by tapping into an existing plumbing line. After an extensive lesson by Geoff on how to install the shutoff valve. Ajay can't get his solder to stick due to holding the torch too far away and due to the water, so he inexplicably sprays the joint with more water. The other contestants also have similar problems, but Rob quickly addresses it by plugging the pipe with bread, having learned the trick from Geoff in the previous group challenge. However, Dan, who was also taught this trick by Geoff the previous day, doesn't pick up as quickly, but everyone eventually pick up on this trick. Ajay fails as he nearly burns himself with the torch after nearly dropping it. Rob's plumbing works and he passes, but he builds his pipes above the level of his tub deck. Matt's cold water pipe works fine, but he twists and ultimately destroys his hot water pipe in the process of unclogging bread from his pipe for a water test, so he fails, though the rest of his plumbing is noted to be fine. Dan fails as his pipes leak (though it is a minor issue, as Andrew notes). Charlene, having installed a T pointing down toward the floor at a 45 degree angle, ends up slicing off the whole pipe in her efforts to fix it, and so is forced to restart from the beginning well after everyone else is finished.\n",
"BULLET::::- Using AC electrical appliances around bathtubs, swimming pools, hot tubs, etc. with the risk that the appliance may fall into the water and cause electrocution. Only battery-operated devices are safe.\n",
"Water heaters potentially can explode and cause significant damage, injury, or death if certain safety devices are not installed. A safety device called a temperature and pressure relief (T&P or TPR) valve, is normally fitted on the top of the water heater to dump water if the temperature or pressure becomes too high. Most plumbing codes require that a discharge pipe be connected to the valve to direct the flow of discharged hot water to a drain, typically a nearby floor drain, or outside the living space. Some building codes allow the discharge pipe to terminate in the garage.\n",
"Dripping water is an everyday occurrence. As water leaves the faucet, the filament attached to the faucet begins to neck down, eventually to the point that the main droplet detaches from the surface. The filament cannot retract sufficiently rapidly to the faucet to prevent breakup and thus disintegrates into several small satellite drops.\n",
"On December 2, 2013, Canadian Richard Wygand uploaded a YouTube video describing his phone combusting. The phone was plugged into AC power overnight; he woke up to the smell of smoke and burning matter. In the video, the power cord was shown to be severely burnt and showed warped damage to the power plug. Later in the video, Wygand describes how he attempted to get a replacement:\n",
"BULLET::::- Merle – Merle removes the toilet without draining all the water from it, causing him to spill the remaining water all over the bathroom floor. Merle's installation also goes without any issues, although he did manage to briefly misplace two bolts and washers that were needed to hold the water in place. His work earns him a passing grade.\n",
"Because the chemical reaction of the water with the pipe occurs \"inside\" the pipe, it is often difficult to assess the extent of deterioration. The problem can cause both slow leaks and pipe bursting without any previous warning indication. The only long-term solution is to completely replace the polybutylene plumbing throughout the entire building.\n"
] |
how does a new computer know the date when you turn it on, even if not connected to the internet?
|
There is a small battery on the motherboard which runs a variety of things including a clock. If your computer forgets the time when it turns off this battery is likely dead. They typically last 3 to 5 years.
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[
"Some file archivers and some version control software, when they copy a file from some remote computer to the local computer, adjust the timestamps of the local file to show the date/time in the past when that file was created or modified on that remote computer, rather than the date/time when that file was copied to the local computer.\n",
"The date information in the following chronology is difficult to put into proper order. Some dates are for first running a test program, some dates are the first time the computer was demonstrated or completed, and some dates are for the first delivery or installation.\n",
"The 1541 does not have DIP switches to change the device number. If a user added more than one drive to a system the user had to open the case and cut a trace in the circuit board to permanently change the drive's device number, or hand-wire an external switch to allow it to be changed externally. It was also possible to change the drive number via a software command, which was temporary and would be erased as soon as the drive was powered off.\n",
"BULLET::::- Notebooks can be shared across multiple computers. Anyone can edit even while not connected and changes are merged automatically across machines when a connection is made. Changes are labeled with author and change time/date.\n",
"When the change is located, the OS then examines the information in the device to figure out what it is. It then has to load up the appropriate device drivers in order to make it work. In the past, this was an all-or-nothing affair, but modern operating systems often include the ability to find the proper driver on the Internet and install it automatically.\n",
"Some computer cases include a biased switch (push-button) which connects to the motherboard. When the case is opened, the switch position changes and the system records this change. The system's firmware or BIOS may be configured to report this event the next time it is powered on.\n",
"As the turn-of-the-millennium approached, bringing with it the turn-of-the-century (from the 1900s to the 2000s), fear spread, globally, about the possible technical malfunctions that could result as computer hardware and software struggled to cope with changes in computer dates, because many had only been designed to use the last two digits of a year. Rollover of dates at the end of the year, from \"1999\" to \"2000,\" in some computer software and systems, would simply go from the abbreviated date \"99\" to the abbreviated date \"00\"—essentially \"rolling back the clock\" and possibly confusing and disrupting automated operations.\n"
] |
Is it true that sniffing markers/petrol kills brain cells?
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_URL_0_
It's not that it's odour particles in your nose, it's often that you're inhaling asphyxiants. They bind to receptors in your lungs which keep you from getting actual oxygen. This causes hypoxia, which can lead to cell death. Your brain needs a constant source of oxygen and you can't regrow brain cells easily if they do die.
People do this intentionally because the lack of oxygen leads to delirium and hallucinations and other problems just caused by your brain not being able to function properly.
There's other chemicals in various inhalants that are going to be absorbed into your blood and have an effect, but the main reason people use them is that they prevent you from properly delivering oxygen to your brain and make you feel funny, and that's also the main mechanism that causes brain cells to die.
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[
"In 1977, biochemist Lou Sokoloff, Seymour Kety, and Floyd E. Bloom developed a way of mapping activity in the brain by tracking the rat brain's metabolization of oxygen. Nerve cells require oxygen and glucose for energy. 2-deoxyglucose (2DG) is a radioactive glucose isotope that can be tracked in the brain since it leaves a trace in the cell where it would normally be metabolized for energy if it were glucose. After stimulation of a certain region of cells, X-ray photographs can be sliced to reveal which cells were active, particularly at synaptic junctures.\n",
"Odor inhalation evokes activity throughout olfactory structures in humans. Neuroimaging studies lack resolution to determine the impacts of sniffing frequency on the structure of odor input through the brain, although imaging studies have revealed that the motor act of sniffing is anatomically independent of sniff-evoked odor perception. Implications for this include the shared but distributed pathways for odor processing in the brain.\n",
"Brain positron emission tomography is a form of positron emission tomography (PET) that is used to measure brain metabolism and the distribution of exogenous radiolabeled chemical agents throughout the brain. PET measures emissions from radioactively labeled metabolically active chemicals that have been injected into the bloodstream. The emission data from brain PET are computer-processed to produce multi-dimensional images of the distribution of the chemicals throughout the brain.\n",
"In 2006, it was shown that a second mouse receptor sub-class is found in the olfactory epithelium. Called the trace amine-associated receptors (TAAR), some are activated by volatile amines found in mouse urine, including one putative mouse pheromone. Orthologous receptors exist in humans providing, the authors propose, evidence for a mechanism of human pheromone detection.\n",
"Few studies have explored the impact of neurological disorders on sniffing behavior, although numerous neurological disorders affect respiration. Humans with Parkinson's disease have abnormal sniffing capabilities (i.e., reduced volume and flow rate) which may underlie olfactory perceptual impairments in the disease. Studies into sniffing in mouse models of Alzheimer's disease and also humans have not found major effects of Alzheimer's pathology on both basal respiration and odor-evoked sniffing.\n",
"Measurements of sniffing simultaneously with physiological measures from olfactory centers in the brain have provided information on how sniffing modulates the access and processing of odors at the neural level. Inhalation is necessary for odor input to the brain. Further, odor input through the brain is temporally linked to the respiratory cycle, with bouts of activity occurring with each inhalation. This linkage between sniffing frequency and odor processing provides a mechanism for the control of odor input into the brain by respiratory frequency and possibly amplitude, though this is not well established.\n",
"In mice nicotine increased the probability of later consumption of cocaine and the experiments permitted concrete conclusions on the underlying molecular biological alteration in the brain. The biological changes in mice correspond to the epidemiological observations in humans that nicotine consumption is coupled to an increased probability of later use of cannabis and cocaine.\n"
] |
Would people in the middle ages agree that the Barbarians won?
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While the Western Roman Empire collapsed in the 5th century, the Eastern Half existed in one form or another until the 15th century.
Regarding the Barbarians defeating the Roman Empire, it would be fair to say that what the Barbarians did and the Franks in particular is adopt and absorb Rome into their political and religious structure and eventually shifted away from the still existing Roman (Byzantine) Empire in Constantinople. The event that best highlights this was the crowing of Charlemagne as Emperor of the Romans on Christmas 800. What this did was de jure reestablish the Western Empire much to the anger of the Byzantines, who both viewed themselves as the true Roman Empire and that no Barbarian had the right to proclaim themselves as a Roman Emperor.
One book I'd recommend looking at regarding late antiquity and the Barbarians' relationship with Rome/Byzantium is Christopher Wickham's Inheritance of Rome. In short, the Byzantine Empire throughout its history called itself the Roman Empire and its people as Romans while the Franks at the least viewed themselves as the continuation of the Western Empire.
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[
"Historians have postulated several explanations for the appearance of \"barbarians\" on the Roman frontier: weather and crops, population pressure, a \"primeval urge\" to push into the Mediterranean or the \"domino effect\" of the Huns falling upon the Goths who, in turn, pushed other Germanic tribes before them. Entire barbarian tribes (or nations) flooded into Roman provinces, ending classical urbanism and beginning new types of rural settlements. In general, French and Italian scholars have tended to view this as a catastrophic event, the destruction of a civilization and the beginning of a \"Dark Age\" that set Europe back a millennium. In contrast, German and English historians have tended to see Roman/Barbarian interaction as the replacement of a \"tired, effete and decadent Mediterranean civilization\" with a \"more virile, martial, Nordic one\".\n",
"The 'Barbarians' are often blamed for the collapse of the Roman Empire, but in reality they were fascinating civilisations that produced magnificent art. Focusing on the often already Christian Huns, Vandals and Goths Januszczak follows each tribe's journey across Europe to settle in new lands and discovers the incredible art they produced along the way.\n",
"In the Byzantine Empire, the term \"barbarians\" () was used for several non-Greek people. The Byzantines regarded most neighbouring people as barbarians. The Bureau of Barbarians was a department of government dealing with matters relating to these \"barbarians\". In the Early Middle Ages in Europe, the term was applied to Huns, Goths, Pechenegs, Avars, Slavs, Bulgars, and others.\n",
"The barbarians comprised war bands or tribes of 10,000 to 20,000 people,[5] but in the course of 100 years they numbered not more than 750,000 in total, compared to an average 39.9 million population of the Roman Empire at that time. Although invasion was common throughout the time of the Roman Empire,[6] the period in question was, in the 19th century, often defined as running from about the 5th to 8th centuries AD.[7][8] The first invasions of peoples were made by Germanic tribes such as the Goths (including the Visigoths and the Ostrogoths), the Vandals, the Anglo-Saxons, the Lombards, the Suebi, the Frisii, the Jutes, the Burgundians, the Alemanni, the Scirii and the Franks; they were later pushed westward by the Huns, the Avars, the Slavs and the Bulgars.[9]\n",
"The Day of the Barbarians: The Battle That Led to the Fall of the Roman Empire is a 2007 nonfiction book by Alessandro Barbero about the Battle of Adrianople. After two centuries in which the \"barbarians\" were successfully integrated in the Roman Empire, a particular episode seems to set the end of this age. Due to corruption and bad organization of the migration phenomenon, the Roman Empire started its fall after this sigle-day battle, which saw the goths immigrants taking over the roman army.\n",
"There is a tendency by some modern scholars to ascribe to ancient barbarians a degree of ethnic solidarity that did not exist, according to A.H.M. Jones. Germanic tribes were constantly fighting each other and even within such tribal confederations as the Franks or Alamanni there were bitter feuds between the constituent tribes and clans. Indeed, a primary reason why many tribal sub-groups surrendered to the Roman authorities (\"dediticii\") and sought to settle in the empire as \"laeti\" was in order to escape pressure from their neighbours. The few known conflicts of loyalty only arose when the Roman army was campaigning against a barbarian-born soldier's own specific clan. Ammianus himself never characterises barbarian-born troops as unreliable. On the contrary, his evidence is that barbarian soldiers were as loyal, and fought as hard, as Roman ones.\n",
"The Roman Empire was not only a political unity enforced by violence. It was also the combined and elaborated civilization of the Mediterranean basin and beyond. It included manufacture, trade, and architecture, widespread secular literacy, written law, and an international language of science and literature. The Western barbarians lost much of these higher cultural practices, but their redevelopment in the Middle Ages by polities aware of the Roman achievement formed the basis for the later development of Europe.\n"
] |
Were the Picts Celtic or non-Indo-European people according to modern historians?
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Perhaps an expert will come along and answer this for you, but in the meantime I had a quick look and got what appears to me to be a general consensus towards the Picts being of mainly Celtic origin. Cunliffe summarises the issue as follows:
> "The Irish, Attocotti, and Picts were probably Celtic peoples, althought some linguists claim to be able to detect a pre-Indo-European element in the Pictish language." (263).
Of course, this quote demonstrates (at least in 1997) that nothing is 'known' on this matter, but we do have probability. A few more recent articles I have found seem to support the assertion that the Picts were of Celtic origin (Keys 41, Snow 46), but Teutonic influences later mixed in amongst the population of Scotland and became somewhat dominant, yet the modern 'Scottish' identity betrays a mix of linguistic influences including "Gaelic, English, Welsh, Norse, French, Flemish and Latin" (Hammond 6-8, 26-7). Celtic and non-Indo-European languages could also have co-existed:
> "Though it is fashionable for scholars to ignore it, a non-Indo-European language does seem to be visible in the inscriptions of Pictland, which have never convincingly been interpreted as Celtic. The presence of such a language is supported by the ancient river names, so long as they are not emended. When Isaac analysed Ptolemy’s river names in Britain, he found between thirty-four and forty-one Celtic ones and six non-Indo-European ones, and five of those six rivers turned out to be in north-east Scotland. This is indeed what one might expect on the far edge of an island on the far edge of Europe" (Sims-Williams 431-2).
I've only collected some bits and pieces here and I'm a total layman on this matter so I may have horrible embarrased myself. But the summary of Cunliffe seems reasonable on the matter: that is, that the Picts were predominantly Celtic and perhaps had a smaller non-Indo-European aspect.
Sources:
Cunliffe, Barry, The Ancient Celts, London: Penguin Books, 1999 (1997).
Hammond, Matthew H., "Ethnicity and the Writing of Medieval Scottish History", *The Scottish Historical Review*, 85, 219, 2006, 1-27.
Keys, David, "Rethinking the Picts," *Archaeology*, 57, 5, 2004, 40-4.
Sims-Williams, Dean, "Bronze and Iron Age Celtic Speakers: What we don't know, what we can't know, and what could we know? Language, Genetics and Archaeology in the 21st Century", *The Antiquaries Journal*, 92, 2012, 427-49.
Snow, Dean R., "Scotland's Irish Origins", *Archaeology*, 54, 4, 2001, 46-51.
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[
"Some quotations from the book follow. (Note that Sykes uses the terms \"Celts\" and \"Picts\" to designate the pre-Roman inhabitants of the Isles who spoke Celtic and does not mean the people known as Celts in central Europe.)\n",
"Links with the ancient Middle East are also involved in pseudohistorical claims related to Cornwall and the wider Celtic Britain, including speculation concerning the identity of the Picts. Some have associated the Cornish piskies of folklore with the Picts. The identity and origins of the Picts have attracted various speculations, including a Middle Eastern Semitic, or pharaonic Egyptian origin to the Pictish language. Most mainstream scholars believe the Pictish language to have been P-Celtic (i.e. an Indo-European language of the Celtic branch), and there is no real evidence that legends of piskies are related to the historical Picts.\n",
"BULLET::::- Picts (Picti) - They were a different people from the Britons, but may have shared common ancestry; If their language, Pictish language, was not Celtic it may have been Para-Celtic like Ligurian (i.e. an Indo-European language branch not Celtic but more closely related to Celtic) or (Proto) Germanic. They lived in Caledonia (today's Northern Scotland). Caledonian Forest (Caledonia Silva) was in their land. A tribal confederation.\n",
"The Picts were a confederation of peoples who lived in what is today eastern and northern Scotland during the Late British Iron Age and Early Medieval periods. Where they lived and what their culture was like can be inferred from early medieval texts and Pictish stones. Their Latin name, \"Picti\", appears in written records from Late Antiquity to the 10th century. They lived to the north of the rivers Forth and Clyde. Early medieval sources report the existence of a distinct Pictish language, which today is believed to have been an Insular Celtic language, closely related to the Brittonic spoken by the Britons who lived to the south.\n",
"In Galicia, approximately half of the non Latin toponyms transmitted from antiquity in the works of classical geographers and authors (Pomponius Mela, Pliny the Elder, Ptolemy...), or in epigraphic Roman inscriptions, have been found to be Celtic, being the other half mostly Indo-European but either arguably non Celtic, or lacking a solid Celtic etymology.\n",
"John Rhys, in 1892, proposed that Pictish was a non-Indo-European language. This opinion was based on the apparently unintelligible ogham inscriptions found in historically Pictish areas. A similar position was taken by Heinrich Zimmer, who argued that the Picts' supposedly exotic cultural practices (tattooing and matriliny) were equally non-Indo-European, and a pre-Indo-European model was maintained by some well into the 20th century.\n",
"British, Gaelic, or Anglo-Saxon neighbours. Although analogy and knowledge of other so-called 'Celtic' societies (a term they never used for themselves) may be a useful guide, these extended across a very large area. Relying on knowledge of pre-Roman Gaul, or 13th-century Ireland, as a guide to the Picts of the 6th century may be misleading if analogy is pursued too far.\n"
] |
What did the Russians do the German 6th army after they were captured?
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The captured members of the German 6th Army were by in large sent to Siberia, or at least to the east of the country to get them as far from the battle lines as possible. They were basically used for forced labor, suffered from ill clothing and malnutrition and general poor treatment. Out of the roughly 100K+ prisoners of the 6th, only @6,000 survived the war to be repatriated, some were not released until the early 1950s.
(Christina Morina, *Legacies of Stalingrad: Remembering the Eastern Front in Germany since 1945*)
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[
"On 22 June 1944, the Red Army launched Operation Bagration. The Soviet forces soon overwhelmed the German forces stationed near Bobruisk and encircled the city on the 27th. On 28 June 1944, Hamann, along with the rest of the Bobruisk garrison, was taken prisoner. On 17 July, he was paraded through the streets of Moscow with 50,000 other captured German soldiers, in the aftermath of Bagration. He was officially promoted to lieutenant general while in Soviet captivity, on 20 August 1944.\n",
"As the Russian Army moved closer to Poland, the Germans decided to liquidate the special ghetto-clearing unit of which Halberstam was a member. All the prisoners were taken to a field outside of Warsaw, told to undress and stand near open pits, where soldiers prepared to machine-gun them. At the last moment, however, a car sped into the field. A high-ranking officer jumped out and communicated the special order from Berlin to stop the execution and send the prisoners to the Dachau concentration camp, where they were needed as slave laborers.\n",
"The Soviet government immediately denied the German charges. They claimed the Polish prisoners of war had been engaged in construction work west of Smolensk, and consequently were captured and executed by invading German units in August 1941. The Soviet response on 15 April to the initial German broadcast of 13 April, prepared by the Soviet Information Bureau, stated \"Polish prisoners-of-war who in 1941 were engaged in construction work west of Smolensk and who...fell into the hands of the German-Fascist hangmen\".\n",
"From October 1944, the 10th Guards Army was one of the Soviet formations committed to besieging German Army Group \"Kurland\" in the Courland Peninsula. This was a lengthy operation that continued until the Germans in Courland surrendered on May 12, 1945.\n",
"When the Soviet army began its advance through Nazi-occupied Estonia in September 1944, the SS started to evacuate the camp. Many prisoners were sent west by sea to the Stutthof concentration camp near Danzig and to Freiburg in Schlesien, present day Świebodzice, then in Germany, now Poland. \n",
"After their recapture of Smolensk in the autumn of 1943, the Soviet government organized its own excavation. This second enquiry concluded that the Polish prisoners of war had been captured and executed by invading German units in August 1941.\n",
"On 15 June 1941, just a week before the Nazi German invasion of Russia, Vitkauskas was sent to the Military Academy of the General Staff in Moscow to complete courses for higher officers. It was part of a larger initiative to send Lithuanian officers to various courses and replace them with Russians. Two explanations are given – as a preparation for the German invasion or a precaution against a possible mutiny due to the June deportation. According to Vitkaukas' wife, the orders to depart to Moscow were urgent and Vitkauskas was placed under armed guard at the railway station. After the completion of the courses in December 1941, he taught tactics of the great military formations. He was a member of the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union from 1941 to 1954.\n"
] |
Is there a situation where crossing two beams of light could interfere with the way the beams look/act after they cross paths?
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The short answer is yes, it is indeed possible for light to interact with light, though it happens only at very high intensity, around 10^24 W/cm^2 for ~1 micron wavelength light (not far from realization in the laboratory given the present state and trajectory of high intensity laser technology). This is about two orders of magnitude higher in intensity than we can make in the laboratory today and will probably be reached in a decade or so, allowing for direct probing of quantum electrodynamics in the laboratory using high-intensity lasers.
[This article](_URL_0_) describes one such experiment. The essential physics is that at high enough laser intensity, one starts to "polarize" the vacuum, creating virtual electron-positron pairs that interact with the incident light as a nonlinear dielectric. Such dielectric behavior of the vacuum allows for the creation of a "matterless double-slit" in the article. The physics of this process is described well by quantum electrodynamics.
Your projectors are many, many orders of magnitude lower in intensity, so this bit of exotica is not occurring in your classroom.
[Edit: fixed some awkward wording.]
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[
"If the apparatus is changed so that a second beam splitter is placed in the upper-right corner, then part of the beams from each path will travel to the right, where they will combine to exhibit interference on a detection screen. Experimenters must explain these phenomena as consequences of the wave nature of light. Each photon must have traveled by both paths as a wave, because if each photon traveled as a particle along just one path then the many photons sent during the experiment would not produce an interference pattern.\n",
"Coherent light must be split into two or more beams prior to being recombined in order to achieve interference. Typical methods for beam splitting are Lloyd´s mirrors, prisms and diffraction gratings.\n",
"In 1911 Laue also discussed a situation where on a platform a beam of light is split and the two beams are made to follow a trajectory in opposite directions. On return to the point of entry the light is allowed to exit the platform in such a way that an interference pattern is obtained. Laue calculated a displacement of the interference pattern if the platform is in rotation – because the speed of light is independent of the velocity of the source, so one beam has covered less distance than the other beam. An experiment of this kind was performed by Georges Sagnac in 1913, who actually measured a displacement of the interference pattern (Sagnac effect). While Sagnac himself concluded that his theory confirmed the theory of an aether at rest, Laue's earlier calculation showed that it is compatible with special relativity as well because in \"both\" theories the speed of light is independent of the velocity of the source. This effect can be understood as the electromagnetic counterpart of the mechanics of rotation, for example in analogy to a Foucault pendulum. Already in 1909–11, Franz Harress (1912) performed an experiment which can be considered as a synthesis of the experiments of Fizeau and Sagnac. He tried to measure the dragging coefficient within glass. Contrary to Fizeau he used a rotating device so he found the same effect as Sagnac. While Harress himself misunderstood the meaning of the result, it was shown by Laue that the theoretical explanation of Harress' experiment is in accordance with the Sagnac effect. Eventually, the Michelson–Gale–Pearson experiment (1925, a variation of the Sagnac experiment) indicated the angular velocity of the Earth itself in accordance with special relativity and a resting aether.\n",
"After an equivalent of approximately 280 trips down the 4 km length to the far mirrors and back again, the two separate beams leave the arms and recombine at the beam splitter. The beams returning from two arms are kept out of phase so that when the arms are both in coherence and interference (as when there is no gravitational wave passing through), their light waves subtract, and no light should arrive at the photodiode. When a gravitational wave passes through the interferometer, the distances along the arms of the interferometer are shortened and lengthened, causing the beams to become slightly less out of phase. This results in the beams coming in phase, creating a resonance, hence, some light arrives at the photodiode, indicating a signal. Light that does not contain a signal is returned to the interferometer using a power recycling mirror, thus increasing the power of the light in the arms. In actual operation, noise sources can cause movement in the optics which produces similar effects to real gravitational wave signals; a great deal of the art and complexity in the instrument is in finding ways to reduce these spurious motions of the mirrors. Observers compare signals from both sites to reduce the effects of noise.\n",
"In 1913, Georges Sagnac showed that if a beam of light is split and sent in two opposite directions around a closed path on a revolving platform with mirrors on its perimeter, and then the beams are recombined, they will exhibit interference effects. From this result Sagnac concluded that light propagates at a speed independent of the speed of the source. The motion of the earth through space had no apparent effect on the speed of the light beam, no matter how the platform was turned. The effect had been observed earlier (by Harress in 1911), but Sagnac was the first to correctly identify the cause.\n",
"Typically (see Fig. 1, the well-known Michelson configuration) a single incoming beam of coherent light will be split into two identical beams by a beam splitter (a partially reflecting mirror). Each of these beams travels a different route, called a path, and they are recombined before arriving at a detector. The path difference, the difference in the distance traveled by each beam, creates a phase difference between them. It is this introduced phase difference that creates the interference pattern between the initially identical waves. If a single beam has been split along two paths, then the phase difference is diagnostic of anything that changes the phase along the paths. This could be a physical change in the path length itself or a change in the refractive index along the path.\n",
"The Geneva 1998 Bell test experiments showed that distance did not destroy the \"entanglement\". Light was sent in fibre optic cables over distances of several kilometers before it was analysed. As with almost all Bell tests since about 1985, a \"parametric down-conversion\" (PDC) source was used.\n"
] |
The Roman Emperor Claudius I is popularly depicted as either a bumbling fool, or a secret genius pretending to be a bumbling fool. What is the historical evidence for either view?
|
Since I've already been talking about Claudius quite a bit this weekend, I might as well field this question too...
Our understanding of Claudius' talents has been shaped by the nature and biases of the literary sources. There are only four that provide (more or less) independent accounts of his reign: Josephus' *Jewish Antiquities*, Tacitus' *Annals*, Suetonius' *Life of Claudius*, and the *Roman History* of Cassius Dio. Each author had a literary and political agenda, and shaped his portrait of Claudius accordingly.
Josephus, a Jewish protege of the Flavians, was motivated to present Claudius in a generally positive light. Claudius, after all, had been poisoned (or so it was assumed) to make room for Nero; and since the Flavians wanted to blacken the memory of Nero, Claudius was ripe for rehabilitation.
Tacitus, whose great themes were the rise of imperial tyranny and the decadence of the Senate, found ample material in the reign of Claudius, and presented the emperor as an indecisive man driven to tyranny by the machinations of his wives and freedmen.
Suetonius was a biographer, not an historian. In keeping with ancient ideas on the relative functions of those genres, he emphasized the moral qualities and failings of his subject, and accentuated the paradoxical rise of a court fool to the imperial seat.
Cassius Dio, writing in the early third century, presents a basically positive but rather cursory portrait of Claudius, in which the emperor's achievements are his own, and his failings those of this scheming courtiers.
Modern "popular" conceptions of Claudius tend to be dominated by Robert Graves' *I, Claudius* and *Claudius the God* and the BBC series based on them. Graves drew heavily on Suetonius, who provides a fascinating wealth of detail about the emperor's odd personal mannerisms. The idea that Claudius was a secret genius really grows out of Graves' novels, which show a highly intelligent but awkward man trying to survive in a vicious imperial household.
So where does the truth lie? It is clear that Claudius was a competent administrator - his recorded measures are reasonable, and occasionally even far-sighted. It is equally clear that he was a bumbling politician, prone to being used and conspired against.
One of our very few unvarnished views of Claudius comes from the so-called Lyon Tablet, a bronze panel that records verbatim a speech the emperor made in the Senate to advocate citizenship. This is our one real glimpse into how Claudius always spoke - and it is fascinating. The emperor rambles on about historical minutiae, and has to be reminded repeatedly (by senators shouting from the benches) to get to the point. We see, in other words, an obviously intelligent and learned man, but also one awkward in manner and speech. The Lyon Tablet seems to more or less confirm Suetonius' comments on Claudius' behavior as emperor. Claudius was definitely smart - but we should not imagine him as a secret mastermind.
|
[
"BULLET::::- Nero (historical), Emperor of Rome, portrayed as incompetent, petty, cruel, and subject to manipulation by his courtiers. He listens most intently to flatterers and fools. The novel does indicate, though, that the grossly exaggerating flatteries concerning his abilities as a poet actually have some basis in fact.\n",
"Partly due to a perceived lack of intelligence because of his stutter, the man who became the Roman Emperor Claudius was initially shunned from the public eye and excluded from public office. His infirmity is also thought to have saved him from the fate of many other Roman nobles during the purges of Tiberius and Caligula. Isaac Newton, the English scientist who developed the law of gravity, also had a stutter. Other famous Englishmen who stammered were King George VI and Prime Minister Winston Churchill, who led the UK through World War II. Although George VI went through years of speech therapy for his stammer, Churchill thought that his own very mild stutter added an interesting element to his voice: \"Sometimes a slight and not unpleasing stammer or impediment has been of some assistance in securing the attention of the audience...\" The Stuttering Foundation has a list of Famous People Who Stutter.\n",
"As a person, ancient historians described Claudius as generous and lowbrow, a man who sometimes lunched with the plebeians. They also paint him as bloodthirsty and cruel, overly fond of gladiatorial combat and executions, and very quick to anger; Claudius himself acknowledged the latter trait, and apologized publicly for his temper. According to the ancient historians he was also overly trusting, and easily manipulated by his wives and freedmen. But at the same time they portray him as paranoid and apathetic, dull and easily confused.\n",
"Suetonius paints Claudius as a ridiculous figure, belittling many of his acts and attributing his good works to the influence of others. Thus the portrait of Claudius as the weak fool, controlled by those he supposedly ruled, was preserved for the ages. Claudius’ dining habits figure in the biography, notably his immoderate love of food and drink, and his affection for the city taverns.\n",
"Claudius was deified by Nero and the Senate almost immediately. Those who regard this homage as cynical should note that, cynical or not, such a move would hardly have benefited those involved, had Claudius been \"hated\", as some commentators, both modern and historic, characterize him. Many of Claudius' less solid supporters quickly became Nero's men. Claudius' will had been changed shortly before his death to either recommend Nero and Britannicus jointly or perhaps just Britannicus, who would have been considered an adult man according to Roman law only a few months later.\n",
"Tacitus wrote a narrative for his fellow senators and fitted each of the emperors into a simple mold of his choosing. He wrote of Claudius as a passive pawn and an idiot in affairs relating to the palace and often in public life. During his censorship of 47–48 Tacitus allows the reader a glimpse of a Claudius who is more statesmanlike (XI.23–25), but it is a mere glimpse. Tacitus is usually held to have 'hidden' his use of Claudius' writings and to have omitted Claudius' character from his works. Even his version of Claudius' Lyons tablet speech is edited to be devoid of the Emperor's personality. Dio was less biased, but seems to have used Suetonius and Tacitus as sources. Thus the conception of Claudius as the weak fool, controlled by those he supposedly ruled, was preserved for the ages.\n",
"Claudius was a younger brother of Germanicus, and had long been considered a weakling and a fool by the rest of his family. The Praetorian Guard, however, acclaimed him as emperor. Claudius was neither paranoid like his uncle Tiberius, nor insane like his nephew Caligula, and was therefore able to administer the Empire with reasonable ability. He improved the bureaucracy and streamlined the citizenship and senatorial rolls. He ordered the construction of a winter port at Ostia Antica for Rome, thereby providing a place for grain from other parts of the Empire to be brought in inclement weather.\n"
] |
why does it not matter to climate change that the earth was hotter during certain periods of the past?
|
Even if we totally accept the argument that climate change has occurred on this scale and with this rapidity before, there's nothing to suggest that it won't be extremely disruptive to our way of life. Regions that are fertile today may become barren, regions that may be farmed in the future may be remote or poorly suited to growing crops. The majority of the human population lives on the edge of the ocean. So we have to shift all our food production around, we have to move our cities. These things don't turn on a dime, and we have a huge population to move and feed. Think of the difficulties right now with Syrian refugees, feeding and housing them. That's < 10 million displaced people. Imagine billions, right when the food infrastructure is suddenly needing massive changes.
|
[
"And the Earth is not the only one that changed - the luminosity of the sun has increased over time. Because rocks record a history of relatively constant temperatures since Earth's beginnings, there must have been more greenhouse gasses to keep the temperatures up in the Archean when the sun was younger and fainter. All these major differences in the environment of the Earth placed very different constraints on the evolution of life throughout our planet's history. Moreover, more subtle changes in the habitat of life are always occurring, shaping the organisms and traces that we observe today and in the rock record.\n",
"The issue of climate change is one that has rapidly gained traction in the last ten years as there has been a unprecedented increase in the Earth's temperature. Scientist's argue that the reason behind this involves the trapping of the sun's heat in the Earth's lower atmosphere, due to greenhouse gases in the upper atmosphere re-reflecting heat energy back onto the earth.\n",
"Joel Schwartz, an AEI visiting fellow, stated: \"The Earth has indeed warmed during the last few decades and may warm further in the future. But the pattern of climate change is not consistent with the greenhouse effect being the main cause.\"\n",
"Since the late 1800s, the surface of the earth has experienced an increase of 0.6 °C in global temperatures. The earth historically has experienced periods of large increases in global temperatures. For example, around 2 million B.C the surface temperature of the earth is estimated to have been 5 °C warmer than today. While these temperatures increased as a result of the natural warming and cooling of the earth, current increases in global temperatures are attributed to increasing amounts of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Greenhouse gases have increased since the late 19th century due to the industrialization of nations worldwide. Examples of greenhouse gases include carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and hydro-fluorocarbons. While each of these have a significant impact on the effects of greenhouse gases, carbon dioxide is considered to be the most important as approximately three-quarters of the human-generated global warming effect may attributed to increased carbon dioxide output .\n",
"The Earth has experienced a constantly changing climate in the time since plants first evolved. In comparison to the present day, this history has seen Earth as cooler, warmer, drier and wetter, and (carbon dioxide) concentrations have been both higher and lower. These changes have been reflected by constantly shifting vegetation, for example forest communities dominating most areas in interglacial periods, and herbaceous communities dominating during glacial periods. It has been shown that past climatic change has been a major driver of the processes of speciation and extinction. The best known example of this is the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse which occurred 350 million years ago. This event decimated amphibian populations and spurred on the evolution of reptiles.\n",
"As the earth warms, the rain belt is projected to move north of the current position. Recent climate change can be attributed to rising carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere; caused by the burning of fossil fuels. The correlation between the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere and average global temperature is undeniably direct, meaning that as more carbon dioxide is released into the atmosphere, the temperature of the earth is expected to rise as well. Even though the earth is warming as a whole entity, the Northern Hemisphere is warming faster than the Southern because of melting Arctic sea ice.\n",
"Wagner erroneously asserted in March 2017 that climate change is the result of Earth moving closer to the Sun and from greater body heat emanating from a greater number of humans: \"The Earth moves closer to the Sun every year. We have more people. You know, humans have warm bodies so is heat coming off? We're just going through a lot of change, but I think we are, as a society, doing the best we can.\" PolitiFact rated the claims as \"false\" and added \"that movement closer to the sun, scientists say, wouldn't have an impact on climate change... Also, there's no evidence to suggest human body heat is at all related to global climate change.\" The scientific consensus is that humans are primarily causing climate change through the production of carbon dioxide which exacerbates the Earth's greenhouse effect.\n"
] |
shorting the dow
|
The two main reasons you would short the Dow would be: [1] If you think the DOW will go down. [2] To hedge against some other position. Hedging is another matter and I won't go into it here.
Seeing as it is ELI5 I will use an example that is easier to understand (gold as it is traded in dollars not an index like the DOW).
Assume there is a gold dealer that you know that will let you borrow any amount of gold you like at current market prices at any time, and will also buy it back off you at current market prices at any time. This is what many financial institutions offer.
Say gold is currently worth $1700 and you think it is going to go down in price. A method of speculating that it will go down would be to 'go short' on gold. Going short is where you profit on downward movements in prices. Going long is where you profit of upward movements in prices.
Going short: Firstly, you would borrow an amount of gold. Let's say you borrow 100 ounces at $1700. You have borrowed $1700 x 100 = $170,000 worth of gold. The dealer essentially has given you $170,000 and has said "now you owe me 100 ounces of gold". Say in a weeks time gold is now worth $1600. You still owe the dealer 100 ounces. You decide to take your profit. To pay off your debts you will have to give the dealer back his 100 ounces. To settle your debts you will have to buy 100 ounces of gold and then ship them to the dealer. This will cost you $1600 x 100 = $160,000.
So in summary you borrowed $170,000 from the dealer, a week later you cleared your debts with a $160,000 payment. You have profited the difference of $10,000 from the price of gold going down.
Notes: [1] I have ignored transactions costs and interest payments.
[2] The DOW is exactly the same sort of situation except it is an index that you are trading on the movement of.
[3] Hope this helps!
|
[
"During the early part of the 2010s, aided somewhat by the loose monetary policy practiced by the Federal Reserve, the Dow made a notable rally attempt, though with significant volatility due to growing global concerns such as the 2010 European sovereign debt crisis, the Dubai debt crisis, and the United States debt ceiling crisis. On May 6, 2010, the index lost around 400 points over the day, then just after 2:30 pm EDT, it lost about 600 points in just a few minutes, and gained the last amount back about as quickly. The intra-day change at the lowest point was 998.50 points, representing an intra-day loss of 9.2%. The event, during which the Dow bottomed out at 9,869 before recovering to end with a 3.2% daily loss at 10,520.32, became known as the 2010 Flash Crash. The index closed the half-year at 9,774.02 for a loss of 7.7%.\n",
"BULLET::::- On October 9, 2007, the Dow Jones Industrial Average closed at the record level of 14,164.53. Two days later on October 11, the Dow would trade at its highest intra-day level ever, at the 14,198.10 mark. In what would normally take many years to accomplish; numerous reasons were cited for the Dow's extremely rapid rise from the 11,000 level in early 2006, to the 14,000 level in late 2007. They included future possible takeovers and mergers, healthy earnings reports particularly in the tech sector, and moderate inflationary numbers; fueling speculation the Federal Reserve would not raise interest rates. Roughly on par with the 2000 record when adjusted for inflation, this represented the final high of the cyclical bull. The index closed 2007 at 13,264.82, a level it would not surpass for nearly five years.\n",
"On October 9, 2007, the Dow Jones Industrial Average closed at a record high of 14,164.53. Two days later on October 11, the Dow traded at an intra-day level high of 14,198.10, a mark which would not be matched until March 2013. In what would normally take many years to accomplish; numerous reasons were cited for the Dow's extremely rapid rise from the 11,000 level in early 2006, to the 14,000 level in late 2007. They included future possible takeovers and mergers, healthy earnings reports particularly in the tech sector, and moderate inflationary numbers; fueling speculation the Federal Reserve would not raise interest rates.\n",
"On Thursday November 13, the Dow Jones Industrial Average marked another dramatic session, with the index (opening at 8,282.66) that after a mixed start tumbled again below the 8,000 mark (to a low of 7,965.42) but then reversed the trend and gained more than 900 points (fourth largest daily swing ever) in less than three hours closing at 8,835.25 with a net gain of more than 550 points (third largest ever).\n",
"BULLET::::- On May 6, 2010, the Dow Jones Industrial Average declined about 1,000 points (about 9 percent) and recovered those losses within minutes. It was the second-largest point swing (1,010.14 points) and the largest one-day point decline (998.5 points) on an intraday basis in the Average's history. This market disruption became known as the Flash Crash and resulted in U.S. regulators issuing new regulations to control market access achieved through automated trading.\n",
"For the decade, the Dow made a 228% increase from the 838 level to 2,753; despite the market crashes, Silver Thursday, an early 1980s recession, the 1980s oil glut, the Japanese asset price bubble and other political distractions such as the Soviet–Afghan War, the Falklands War, the Iran–Iraq War, the Second Sudanese Civil War and the First Intifada in the Middle East. The index had only two negative years, which were in 1981 and 1984.\n",
"During the late part of the 2010s, despite anticipations of post-election selloffs, the Dow rallied significantly after Donald Trump was elected President. On January 25, 2017, the Dow hit a record high of 20,000, an increase of 1,667 points since his election in November 2016. Throughout the course of the rest of 2017 and January 2018, the Dow skyrocketed past a few millenary milestones, including the symbolic 25,000 on January 4, 2018. However, on February 2, 2018, the Dow suffered its biggest loss since Brexit on June 24, 2016. As volatility made its return for next week, the largest intraday point drop of 1,597.08 points and largest closing point drop of 1,175.21 points were both set on February 5, 2018 although percentage changes were not as extreme as some past stock market crashes. Spring and summer brought much-needed relief for the Dow as the index eventually soared to new highs. By \"fall\", the Dow began falling tremendously again for two major reasons: fear of sudden spikes in interest rates by the Federal Reserve and woes in technology stocks. While the Dow plunged more than 10%, but less than 20%, on a closing-basis in late 2018 to confirm correction status, but not bear market status, the index rallied more than 10% from its Christmas Eve low, leading some to argue whether that correction has ended or needs to close at a new high.\n"
] |
[Experiment] Which method would get the boiled water to lower temperature within the same amount of time?
|
Do the experiment and report back, it's really easy. Any kitchen thermometer will do. To avoid having an effect from fresh tap water being cooler than room temperature, while the other case has 5 minutes to warm up the tap water I suggest using water that has been left at room temperature for 20 minutes.
To get good readings I suggest you note down the temperature in both cases at 10-20 s intervals and draw the graphs.
There are two main mechanisms at work, heat loss through generation of steam (you need energy for the phase transition) and heat loss to the surroundings, which is proportional to the difference in temperature. My gut feeling is that the second mechanism will end up at a lower temperature, but I'd do the experiment and then I'd know with certainty.
**----------------------------------------------------------**
Edit: OK, I've done it for you, we got talking about it and I just needed to see what happens. See here for a picture of the [setup](_URL_0_) and the [results](_URL_1_). After finding two thermometers it only took 20 minutes or so - perfect for a coffee break.
The black cups were used for mixing and measuring the temperatures, the red ones held equal amounts of room temperature (20 C) cold water, the green ones were used to measure equal amounts of freshly boiled water before pouring them into the black cups. As I'm using two equal fresh cups, the second batch does not get an advantage by coming into contact with a preheated cup.
Cup A got the hot and cold water at T=0 (with a little stirring from the thermometer), Cup B got the hot water only, with cold added after 5 minutes.
As expected Cup B cooled quickest while it was hottest, and this larger early loss of heat proved decisive. After equilibration of the mixed fluids Cup B had an advantage of 2 C, which it kept nearly constant during the next 5 minutes. After 10 minutes the final temperatures were: Cup A: 47.5 C and Cup B 45 C.
So in conclusion, if you want the lowest mixing temperature after 10 minutes, add the cold water after taking advantage of the rapid initial cooling due to the large temperature difference.
|
[
"The traditional advice of boiling water for ten minutes is mainly for additional safety, since microbes start getting eliminated at temperatures greater than and bringing it to its boiling point is also a useful indication that can be seen without the help of a thermometer, and by this time, the water is disinfected. Though the boiling point decreases with increasing altitude, it is not enough to affect the disinfecting process.\n",
"Boiling water is used as a method of making it potable by killing microbes that may be present. The sensitivity of different micro-organisms to heat varies, but if water is held at 70 °C (158 °F) for ten minutes, many organisms are killed, but some are more resistant to heat and require one minute at the boiling point of water.\n",
"BULLET::::1. Boiling: Bringing water to its boiling point (about 100 °C or 212 F at sea level), is the oldest and most effective way since it eliminates most microbes causing intestine related diseases, but it cannot remove chemical toxins or impurities. For human health, complete sterilization of water is not required, since the heat resistant microbes are not intestine affecting. The traditional advice of boiling water for ten minutes is mainly for additional safety, since microbes start getting eliminated at temperatures greater than . Though the boiling point decreases with increasing altitude, it is not enough to affect the disinfecting process. In areas where the water is \"hard\" (that is, containing significant dissolved calcium salts), boiling decomposes the bicarbonate ions, resulting in partial precipitation as calcium carbonate. This is the \"fur\" that builds up on kettle elements, etc., in hard water areas. With the exception of calcium, boiling does not remove solutes of higher boiling point than water and in fact increases their concentration (due to some water being lost as vapour). Boiling does not leave a residual disinfectant in the water. Therefore, water that is boiled and then stored for any length of time may acquire new pathogens.\n",
"Accordingly, an arbitrary volume of hot water can be stored, as long as the stratification is kept intact. In this case there must not be vertical metal plates or tubes as they would conduct heat through the water layers, defeating the purpose of stratification. When effectively employed this technique can maintain water as high as 95 °C (i.e. just below boiling) yielding a higher energy density, and this energy can be stored a long time provided the hot water remains undiluted.\n",
"BULLET::::2. The boiling temperature of a liquid is dependent on pressure - high pressures will yield high boiling temperatures, and low pressures will yield low boiling temperatures. A common simple experiment is to place a cup of water in a vacuum chamber, and then reduce the pressure in the chamber until the water boils. By reducing the pressure the water will boil even at room temperature. This works both ways - if the pressure is increased beyond normal atmospheric pressures, the boiling of hot water could be suppressed far beyond normal temperatures. The cooling system of a modern internal combustion engine is a common example.\n",
"Water normally freezes at 273.15 K (0 °C or 32 °F), but it can be \"supercooled\" at standard pressure down to its crystal homogeneous nucleation at almost 224.8 K (−48.3 °C/−55 °F). The process of supercooling requires that water be pure and free of nucleation sites, which can be achieved by processes like reverse osmosis or chemical demineralization, but the cooling itself does not require any specialised technique. If water is cooled at a rate on the order of 10 K/s, the crystal nucleation can be avoided and water becomes a glass—that is, an amorphous (non-crystalline) solid. Its glass transition temperature is much colder and harder to determine, but studies estimate it at about 136 K (−137 °C/−215 °F).\n",
"The technology is based on the phenomenon that as the vapour pressure on a liquid reduces, its boiling point reduces. The boiling point of a liquid is defined as the temperature at which the vapour pressure of the liquid is equal to the external pressure. When the pressure above a liquid is reduced, the vapour pressure needed to induce boiling is also reduced, and the boiling point of the liquid decreases. By reducing pressure we can even boil off water at lower temperatures. This rapid evaporation of moisture from the surface and within the products due to the low surrounding pressure, absorbs the necessary latent heat for phase change from the product itself. This latent heat required for evaporation is obtained mostly from the sensible heat of the product and as a consequence of this evaporation the temperature of the product falls and the product can be cooled down to its desired storage temperature.\n"
] |
[li5] a lake in northern canada freezes solid over the winter. what happens to the fish? would fish even live there?
|
The surface freezes, but the water below remains liquid. The lake remains in equilibrium, such that there is an equal amount of water freezing, as there is ice melting underneath the surface.
The part that makes *me* wonder, is how fish can survive those temperatures.
|
[
"Moreover the shallow lake freezes solid every seven years on average. This leads to significant winter fishkill, and since rough fish like carp rebound faster than desirable game fish, it has been a struggle to maintain the sport fishery.\n",
"The shallow water can be completely frozen in the cold winters, which results in fish kill. Increasing environmental pressures have degraded the amount of game fish present. In past years, it was not unusual to find large Northern Pike and other predatory species. Most fish caught are bullheads and carp. Grasses and trees border the river for much of its length, and provides habitat for a variety of wildlife. Due to the large number of trees edging the creek, there are many fallen trees which make navigation by canoe difficult or impossible. Beavers have also taken advantage of the trees and built several dams.\n",
"This cold water fish is named after its native lake, which is located in Chukotka, Russian Federation. This species and its relative, the long-finned char (\"Salvethymus svetovidovi\") are limited to this remote lake, which is an impact crater. They are adapted to its very cold waters, which are generally just above the freezing point. The surface is frozen for about 10 months of the year. It may start to melt in the summer, but some years it never fully thaws. This fish spends most of the year in total darkness.\n",
"The lake has little commercial activity, but sees many recreational uses. In the winter, it freezes over completely and hosts a number of ice fishing competitions, making it one of the most intensely fished lakes in Ontario. However, claims that it is one of the world's largest lakes that freeze over completely in winter are pure speculation, and, in fact, spurious; Canada alone has a large number lakes of the same size or larger that do the same.\n",
"The fish fauna of the lakes is quite changeable as many fish die during cold winters because of shallow water. Species such as whitefish, bream, pike, and perch die because of a lack of oxygen. There may be more than ten species of fish in some lakes.\n",
"Frozen fish is used for the preparation of \"stroganina\". The fish for \"stroganina\" is usually caught by ice fishing during the late fall and fresh frozen in order to avoid the formation of ice crystals in the meat. Frozen fish can be glazed with near-freezing ice water in order to avoid dehydration and better-preserve the fish meat in a frozen state. The fish is typically frozen straight, without bending its body.\n",
"Ice fishing is allowed on Lake Gilead during the winter. Fish species present include (but are not limited too) largemouth bass, rainbow, lake and brown trout, chain pickerel, yellow perch, and panfish. In the 1990s a local fisherman illegally introduced northern pike, though they are rarely caught.\n"
] |
Adding salt to a supercooled liquid?
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It would depend on how deeply supercooled the liquid is. Deeply supercooled solutions (say, beer below -20 & deg;C) would be extremely sensitive to agitation and vibration, so even the act of stirring in the salt would probably trigger a nucleation event. The salt itself would not serve as a "seed crystal", because its lattice is not matched to the crystalline structure of ice, but the process of adding the salt could create a sufficient perturbation to initiate nucleation in the supercooled liquid.
-
If the degree of supercooling is low or moderate (e.g., beer above -10 & deg;C) , then adding the salt would lower the equilibrium freezing temperature (and also lower the nucleation temperature), thus reducing the supercooling (if temperature is held constant).
|
[
"Supersaturation has been a frequent topic of research throughout history. Early studies of these solutions were normally conducted with sodium sulfate, also known as Glauber’s Salt, due to the stability of the crystal and the rising role it had in industry. Through the use of this salt, an important scientific discovery was made by Jean-Baptiste Ziz, a botanist from Mayence, in 1809. His experiments allowed him to conclude that the crystallization of a supersaturated solution does not simply come from its agitation, (the previous belief) but from solid matter entering and acting as a “starting” site for crystals to form, now called nuclei sites. Expanding upon this, Gay-Lussac brought attention to the kinematics of salt ions and the characteristics of the container having an impact on the supersaturation state. He was also able to expand upon the number of salts with which a supersaturated solution can be obtained. Later Henri Löwel came to the conclusion that both nuclei of the solution and the walls of the container have a catalyzing effect on the solution that cause crystallization. Explaining and providing a model for this phenomenon has been a task taken on by more recent research. Désiré Gernez contributed to this research by discovering that nuclei must be of the same salt that is being crystallized in order to yield crystallization.\n",
"Supersaturated solutions will also undergo crystallization under specific conditions. In a normal solution, once the maximum amount of solute is dissolved, adding more solute would either cause the dissolved solute to precipitate out and/or for the solute to not dissolve at all. Similarly, there are cases wherein solubility of a saturated solution is decreased by manipulating temperature, pressure, or volume but a supersaturated state does not occur. In these cases, the solute will simply precipitate out. This is because a supersaturated solution is in a higher energy state than a saturated solution.\n",
"Some aqueous solutions can be supercooled into a glassy state, for instance LiCl:\"R\"HO (a solution of lithium chloride salt and water molecules) in the composition range 4<\"R\"<8. An aqueous solution containing sugar has a glassy state and can be used as a surfactant.\n",
"Electrolytes or molten salts are mixtures of different ions. In a mixture of three or more ionic species of dissimilar size and shape, crystallization can be so difficult that the liquid can easily be supercooled into a glass.\n",
"But later, this gave way to seeding the supersaturated solution with high-purity aluminium hydroxide (Al(OH)) crystal, which eliminated the need for cooling the liquid and was more economically feasible:\n",
"Undercooling, or supercooling, is the cooling of a liquid below its equilibrium freezing temperature while it remains a liquid. This can occur wherever crystal nucleation is suppressed. In levitated samples, heterogeneous nucleation is suppressed due to lack of contact with a solid surface. Levitation techniques typically allow samples to be cooled several hundred degrees Celsius below their equilibrium freezing temperatures.\n",
"Replacing the liquid electrolyte with a solid has been a major ongoing field of research. Recent experiments using solidified melted salts have shown some promise, but currently suffer from higher degradation during continued operation, and are not flexible.\n"
] |
how do choloroplasts have their own dna but 95% of the proteins in chloroplasts are encoded by nuclear genes?
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Essentially Chloroplasts (and mitochondria) were originally free bacteria. Chloroplasts descend from cyano-bacteria, which means they can photosynthesise.
You get things like [lichen](_URL_0_) today, which are a mixture of fungal cells, and cyanobacteria living together. At some point in the past, the ancestor of all plants was something like this. A cyanobacteria was engulfed into a "plant" cell, which resulted in the double-membrane structure. This would confer the plant cell a survival advantage, as it could now get energy directly form the sugars produced by the internal cyanobateria.
However, if the cyanobacteria reproduced out of control, it would kill it's host cell. Sometimes bacterial chromosomes (the circular loops) will lose a chunk, which drifts off. If this DNA migrates to the nucleus, it can be integrated into the plant cell itself. Now, the proteins are produced by the DNA encoded in the nucleus, but originally they came from the bacteria!
Over time many genes have migrated to the nucleus, which domesticates the chloroplasts, since they cannot reproduce without the nucleus making proteins for them. Proteins which are made at a large rate have stayed inside the chloroplasts themselves.
Now the chloroplasts are part of the plant, but originally they were free living bacteria who gradually become tamed.
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[
"Of the approximately three-thousand proteins found in chloroplasts, some 95% of them are encoded by nuclear genes. Many of the chloroplast's protein complexes consist of subunits from both the chloroplast genome and the host's nuclear genome. As a result, protein synthesis must be coordinated between the chloroplast and the nucleus. The chloroplast is mostly under nuclear control, though chloroplasts can also give out signals regulating gene expression in the nucleus, called \"retrograde signaling\".\n",
"The chloroplast genome most commonly includes around 100 genes which code for a variety of things, mostly to do with the protein pipeline and photosynthesis. As in prokaryotes, genes in chloroplast DNA are organized into operons. Introns are common in chloroplast DNA molecules, while they are rare in prokaryotic DNA molecules (plant mitochondrial DNAs commonly have introns, but not human mtDNA).\n",
"The chloroplast genome most commonly includes around 100 genes that code for a variety of things, mostly to do with the protein pipeline and photosynthesis. As in prokaryotes, genes in chloroplast DNA are organized into operons. Unlike prokaryotic DNA molecules, chloroplast DNA molecules contain introns (plant mitochondrial DNAs do too, but not human mtDNAs).\n",
"Of the approximately 3000 proteins found in chloroplasts, some 95% of them are encoded by nuclear genes. Many of the chloroplast's protein complexes consist of subunits from both the chloroplast genome and the host's nuclear genome. As a result, protein synthesis must be coordinated between the chloroplast and the nucleus. The chloroplast is mostly under nuclear control, though chloroplasts can also give out signals regulating gene expression in the nucleus, called \"retrograde signaling\".\n",
"Eukaryotic chloroplasts, as well as the other plant plastids, also contain extrachromosomal DNA molecules. Most chloroplasts house all of their genetic material in a single ringed chromosome, however in some species there is evidence of multiple smaller ringed plasmids. A recent theory that questions the current standard model of ring shaped chloroplast DNA (cpDNA), suggests that cpDNA may more commonly take a linear shape. A single molecule of cpDNA can contain anywhere from 100-200 genes and varies in size from species to species. The size of cpDNA in higher plants is around 120–160 kb. The genes found on the cpDNA code for mRNAs that are responsible for producing necessary components of the photosynthetic pathway as well as coding for tRNAs, rRNAs, RNA polymerase subunits, and ribosomal protein subunits. Like mtDNA, cpDNA is not fully autonomous and relies upon nuclear gene products for replication and production of chloroplast proteins. Chloroplasts contain multiple copies of cpDNA and the number can vary not only from species to species or cell type to cell type, but also within a single cell depending upon the age and stage of development of the cell. For example, cpDNA content in the chloroplasts of young cells, during the early stages of development where the chloroplasts are in the form of indistinct proplastids, are much higher than those present when that cell matures and expands, containing fully mature plastids.\n",
"Protein synthesis within chloroplasts relies on two RNA polymerases. One is coded by the chloroplast DNA, the other is of nuclear origin. The two RNA polymerases may recognize and bind to different kinds of promoters within the chloroplast genome. The ribosomes in chloroplasts are similar to bacterial ribosomes.\n",
"Chloroplasts have their own genome, which encodes a number of thylakoid proteins. However, during the course of plastid evolution from their cyanobacterial endosymbiotic ancestors, extensive gene transfer from the chloroplast genome to the cell nucleus took place. This results in the four major thylakoid protein complexes being encoded in part by the chloroplast genome and in part by the nuclear genome. Plants have developed several mechanisms to co-regulate the expression of the different subunits encoded in the two different organelles to assure the proper stoichiometry and assembly of these protein complexes. For example, transcription of nuclear genes encoding parts of the photosynthetic apparatus is regulated by light. Biogenesis, stability and turnover of thylakoid protein complexes are regulated by phosphorylation via redox-sensitive kinases in the thylakoid membranes. The translation rate of chloroplast-encoded proteins is controlled by the presence or absence of assembly partners (control by epistasy of synthesis). This mechanism involves negative feedback through binding of excess protein to the 5' untranslated region of the chloroplast mRNA. Chloroplasts also need to balance the ratios of photosystem I and II for the electron transfer chain. The redox state of the electron carrier plastoquinone in the thylakoid membrane directly affects the transcription of chloroplast genes encoding proteins of the reaction centers of the photosystems, thus counteracting imbalances in the electron transfer chain.\n"
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