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what is it that can make similar guns from different brands sound different when firing the same cartridge?
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Barrel length affects the amount of propellant that is burned. Shorter barrel means louder blast.
Muzzle brakes/compensators/flash hiders on ends of barrels affects how the burned propellant is directed, which can change how the shot sounds.
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[
"Multiple discharges of one or more firearms are referred to as gunfire. The word can connote either the sound of a gun firing, the projectiles that were fired, or both. For example, the statement \"gunfire came from the next street\" could either mean the sound of discharge, or it could mean the bullets that were discharged. It is better to be a bit more specific while writing however. \"The sound of gunfire\" or \"we came under gunfire\" would be more descriptive and prevent confusion. In the latter phrase, in particular, \"fire\" is more commonly used (i.e. \"under fire\"), as both words hold the same general meaning within the proper context\n",
"He also had the gunfire sound effects changed for the film. Before, all gunshots in Warner Bros. movies sounded identical, regardless of the type of weapon being fired. Peckinpah insisted that each different type of firearm have its own specific sound effect when fired.\n",
"While modern firearms are generally referred to by the name of the cartridge the gun is chambered for, they are still categorized together based on bore diameter. For example, a firearm might be described as a \"30 caliber rifle\", which could be any of a wide range of cartridges using a roughly projectile; or a \"22 rimfire\", referring to any rimfire firearms firing cartridges with a .22 caliber projectile. However, there can be significant differences in nominal bullet and bore dimensions and all cartridges so \"categorized\" are not automatically identical in actual caliber.\n",
"The company produces bullets in calibers from .25 to .45 for pistols and from .223 to .30-06 for rifles. Each caliber comes in two forms, \"blue\" and \"silver\", the latter having greater penetrating power due to the use of no. 6 birdshot rather than no. 12.\n",
"Many techniques can be used to discriminate gunfire (also referred to as “classifying gunfire”) from similar noises such as cars backfiring or fireworks. As discussed previously, the SPL and corresponding acoustic propagation characteristics of high SPL impulsive sounds gave rise to the ‘spatial filter’ technique patented and used by ShotSpotter in its Gunshot Location System. This is just one of several methods used to distinguish between gunfire and other impulsive sounds. Analysis of the spectral content of the sound, its envelope, and other heuristics are also commonly used methods to distinguish and correctly classify impulsive sounds as gunfire.\n",
"BULLET::::- Model: Many firearms are not marked with a model designation, and many models look identical. The configuration of a firearm can sometimes be easily changed by exchanging parts to conform to a completely different model, or a completely different manufacturer.\n",
"The now-defunct Stembridge Gunsmiths provided the rifles and ammunition. Ammunition was quarter-load 5-in-1 blank cartridges containing smokeless powder, which did not produce the thick clouds of smoke the genuine black powder cartridges of the 1880s did. Most (if not all) of the sound effects for the rifle shots were dubbed, which is why the rifle sounded so different from the other gunshots on the show.\n"
] |
why is iran having nuclear capabilities such a big concern when the u.s. and plenty of other countries already do?
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There is no nuclear weapons program in Iran, according even to Israel and the US:
**The United States, European allies and even Israel generally agree on three things about Iran's nuclear program: Tehran does not have a bomb, has not decided to build one, and is probably years away from having a deliverable nuclear warhead.**
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The US instead accuses Iran of having the "intention to obtain the capability" to make nukes. A "capability" to make nukes is a deliberately vague accusation since the technology is 60 years old, and so practically any country with some technological development is "capable" theoretically of making nukes.
In fact according to the IAEA 40 nations have this "capability" right now -- that's 1 out of every 4 or 5 nations on the planet:
**More than 40 countries with peaceful nuclear programs could retool them to make weapons, the head of the U.N. atomic watchdog agency said yesterday amid new U.S. and European demands that Iran give up technology capable of producing such arms.**
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[
"BULLET::::- A potential reason behind U.S. resistance to an Iranian nuclear program lies in Middle Eastern geopolitics. In essence, the US feels that it must guard against even the possibility of Iran obtaining a nuclear weapons capability. Some nuclear technology is dual-use; i.e. it can be used for peaceful energy generation, and to develop nuclear weapons, a situation that resulted in India's nuclear weapons program in the 1960s. A nuclear-armed Iran would dramatically change the balance of power in the Middle East, weakening US influence. It could also encourage other Middle Eastern nations to develop nuclear weapons of their own further reducing US influence in a critical region.\n",
"Iran has stated that its programme is motivated by economic needs and scientific progress only. Iran has said its large petroleum reserves will inevitably extinguish, given its increasing domestic energy consumption and because of its oil exports. Iran has referred to U.S. government reports from the time of the Shah and independent U.S. estimates as recent as 2006 to justify its position. Iran has also referred to Russia's recent decision to withhold fuel delivery for its nuclear power plant as an additional reason why it cannot rely on other countries for its nuclear fuel needs.\n",
"BULLET::::- Since 2005, Iran's nuclear program has become the subject of contention with the Western world due to suspicions that Iran could divert the civilian nuclear technology to a weapons program. This has led the UN Security Council to impose sanctions against Iran on select companies linked to this program, thus furthering its economic isolation on the international scene. The U.S. Director of National Intelligence said in February 2009 that Iran would not realistically be able to a get a nuclear weapon until 2013, if it chose to develop one.\n",
"\"The New York Times\" reported in 2007 that Iran's nuclear program had spurred interest in establishing nuclear power programs by a number of neighboring countries, including Saudi Arabia, Turkey and Egypt. According to the report, \"roughly a dozen states in the region have recently turned to the IAEA in Vienna for help in starting\" nuclear programs. The article also described neighbouring states as very hostile to any nuclear weapons program Iran might embark on, stating \"many diplomats and analysts say that the Sunni Arab governments are so anxious about Iran's nuclear progress that they would even, grudgingly, support a United States military strike against Iran.\"\n",
"Iran consistently claimed that its nuclear program is purely for civilian purposes, and that it has no intention of ever utilizing its peaceful nuclear program to develop nuclear weapons. During the course of Iran's recent history, specifically during the Iran-Iraq war, Iran has experienced significant outages of its commercial electricity grid. Iran has also continuously claimed that it intends to ultimately export part of the electricity produced by its nuclear reactors to its regional neighbors, as a way of diversifying its mainly oil-based economy to more diversified revenue streams.\n",
"as well as U.S. involvement in a potential war between Israel and Iran over Iran’s nuclear program. The experience of wars in Iraq and Afghanistan is likely related to this declining desire to use force.\" Still as the report notes later 64% say Iran's nuclear problem is a critical threat to the United States and that \"Americans are...willing to take measures to counter the nuclear threat in both Iran and North Korea, but are much more guarded, stopping short of supporting military strikes.\"\n",
"A poll conducted in July 2012 found that 80% of Americans view Iran's nuclear program as a threat to the United States and its NATO allies. 39% viewed it as a very big threat, 41% viewed it was a moderate threat, 12% viewed it as not much of a threat, and 6% viewed it as not being a threat. In regards to how much of a threat the nuclear program is to Israel, 60% viewed it as a very big threat to Israel while 27% viewed it as a moderate threat. 80% believe that Iran is building nuclear weapons, including 72% of Democrats, 81% of Independents, and 89% of Republicans.\n"
] |
Because of the time it takes for the light of distant stars to reach us, how different would the sky have looked hundreds of years in the past?
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There are very few stars that will change on such short time scales. One example is Eta Carinae. It used to be one of the brightest stars in the sky, but "burped" a hundred years ago or so, and is now obscured by its own dust cloud.
Also, the time that light takes to reach us plays no part whatsoever into how many stars are in the night sky.
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[
"When one looks out into the night sky, distances also correspond to time into the past. A galaxy measured at ten billion light years in distance appears to us as it was ten billion years ago, because the light has taken that long to travel to the observer. If one were to look at a galaxy ten billion light years away in one direction and another in the opposite direction, the total distance between them is twenty billion light years. This means that the light from the first has not yet reached the second, because the approximately 13.8 billion years that the universe has existed is not a long enough time to allow it to occur. In a more general sense, there are portions of the universe that are visible to us, but invisible to each other, outside each other's respective particle horizons.\n",
"The light reaching Earth from z8_GND_5296 shows its position over 13 billion years ago, having traveled a distance of more than 13 billion light-years. Due to the expansion of the universe, this position is now at about (comoving distance) from Earth.\n",
"BULLET::::- 260 Pm – 27 light years – Distance to Chara, a star approximately as bright as our Sun. Its faintness gives us an idea how our Sun would appear when viewed from even so close a distance as this.\n",
"Distance to the star, 92 light years, is enough that it is not visible to the unaided eye. However, it is an easy target for binoculars. It is located only about 10° from the northern celestial pole so it is always visible on the northern hemisphere except for near the equator. Likewise, it is never visible in most of the southern hemisphere.\n",
"The \"Voyager 1\" probe and Gliese 445 will pass one another within 1.6 light-years in about 40,000 years. By that time Gliese 445 will be in a part of the sky different from its present location. The probe will no longer be operational. Also, given the star's inherent low brightness, even at that distance it would be barely visible to the naked eye of a hypothetical human being, with an apparent magnitude of only 5.72.\n",
"Later, according to Halt's memo, three star-like lights were seen in the sky, two to the north and one to the south, about 10 degrees above the horizon. Halt said that the brightest of these hovered for two to three hours and seemed to beam down a stream of light from time to time. Astronomers have explained these star-like lights as bright stars.\n",
"With an apparent magnitude of +5.05 in V, the star is rather difficult to make out with the naked eye, especially since its close neighbour Atlas is 3.7 times brighter and located less than 5 arcminutes away. Beginning in October of each year, Pleione along with the rest of the cluster can be seen rising in the east in the early morning before dawn. To see it after sunset, one will need to wait until December. By mid-February, the star is visible to virtually every inhabited region of the globe, with only those south of 66° unable to see it. Even in cities like Cape Town, South Africa, at the tip of the African continent, the star rises almost 32° above the horizon. Due to its declination of roughly +24°, Pleione is circumpolar in the northern hemisphere at latitudes greater than 66° North. Once late April arrives, the cluster can be spotted briefly in the deepening twilight of the western horizon, soon to disappear with the other setting stars.\n"
] |
Japan and USSR during 1938-1939. Were the USSR's armies actually superior to those of Japan? In what ways?
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The Red Army was superior to the Kwantung Army in three main ways, all of which feed into each other. They had a superior doctrine, were superior technologically, and were superior numerically. The last two were both dictated by, and enabled the first.
The Red Army in the region, under Georgy Zhukov, used the ideas of Deep Battle formulated by Mikhail Tukhachevsky. While this had been discredited by Tukhachevsky's purge, Zhukov was willing to put it into practice in this case. This doctrine dictated broad-front attacks to open the enemy rear to strong combined-armed forces. These could then be used to destroy the enemy ability to fight, by occupying territory, or, as it was used in this case, by encircling the forward forces of the opposition. It would later be used successfully in WWII. In comparison, Japanese doctrine was static, with armour being used separately from infantry. Attacks were made using small groups of infiltrating infantry similar to the German stormtrooper groups of the later part of WWI. Defensively, the doctrine mandated a thin forward defence, where a defence-in-depth is the best way to deal with Deep Battle.
The Soviet doctrine relied on fast tanks, supported by motorised infantry. This resulted in production of the BT series of tanks, ancestors of the T-34. These tanks were fast, and well armed with a high-velocity 45mm gun. While they were lightly armoured, their guns had an effective range far higher than those used by the Japanese. Japanese tanks were much slower, with less effective guns. At the same time, they had the same low armour as their Soviet counterparts.The motorised infantry required large amounts of trucks, which allowed Zhukov to ship supplies forwards from his railheads with ease. The Japanese, who didn't have the same access to motorised transport, struggled with this. In the air, the contest was surprisingly even. The Zero and Ki-48 Oscar of WWII had not yet entered Japanese service. Instead, Ki-27 Nates took on I-16s. This was a more even contest than that with the tanks, but still in favour of the Soviets. The I-16 was more heavily armed, and armoured than its Japanese counterpart. The Ki-27 was more manoeuvrable, but the I-16 was faster in a dive. With the advantage of numbers and improved tactics, the Soviet Air Force was able to prevent the IJA from affecting the battle significantly.
Finally, as was common for the Soviets, they had numerical superiority. They had 3 rifle divisions, 2 armoured divisions, 2 motor rifle divisions and 2 tank brigades. They also had the support of 2 Mongolian cavalry divisions. At the point of attack, the Japanese had a single division. In general in war, the side with more forces wins - there's a Patton quote to the effect of "war being decided by the side who gets there first with the most".
The second part of your question has two answers. The first is doctrinal.The Japanese doctrine of 1938 had a clear family resemblance to that of 1905. They had taken the wrong lessons from 1905 and from WWI. The Sino-Japanese War had done nothing to disprove this doctrine. As a result, their doctrine was heavily focussed on infantry combat supported by light artillery. This was fine in 1905 and 1914, and worked against poorly led Chinese infantry. This led to Japanese army procurement being focussed on weaponry that fitted this plan. In 1905, these were the most modern things on the market - bolt action rifles, machine guns, light field artillery. In 1938, the same types of weapons were being bought. Armour was experimental, and used low-velocity guns for infantry support. Heavier artillery pieces were neglected - some of the heaviest guns used by the IJA in 1938 had been bought to deal with the forts of Port Arthur in 1905. However, the rest of the world had moved on. Heavy artillery, tanks and trucks were the most important things an army could have, and Japan had only the most basic of these.
Even had their doctrine been in favour of producing these, they would have run into trouble doing so. Japan didn't have the greatest heavy industry in 1938. When the country is only producing a limited amount of armour plate per year, and the navy wants most of it for building battleships, the army can't build tanks. There were not enough trained mechanics to support a large tank or motorised corps. Even the IJN's aircraft carriers only had just enough mechanics for their air groups - the most significant losses at Midway were in ground crew, not pilots. The Soviets had the heavy industry, and the technically skilled manpower to support the demands of modern war. Japan did not.
|
[
"Organizationally, although Soviet forces in the Far East on paper amounted to some 32 division-equivalents by December 1941, they were regarded as only barely sufficient for defensive operations. Compared to a typical Japanese division, pre-war Red Army units possessed slightly less manpower, but had greater access to long-range, higher caliber artillery. After the German invasion, however, the Red Army was reorganized so that each division had scarcely half the manpower and a fraction of the firepower of either its German or Japanese counterpart. Hence, to achieve superiority on the battlefield the Soviets would have to concentrate several divisions to counter each of the opponent's.\n",
"In the east, the Soviet military won several decisive victories during border clashes with the Empire of Japan in 1938 and 1939. However, in April 1941, USSR signed the Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact with Japan, recognizing the territorial integrity of Manchukuo, a Japanese puppet state.\n",
"The poor relations between the Soviet Union and Japan from the 1920s until the late 1940s originated in Japan's victory over imperial Russia, the predecessor state of the Soviet Union, in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–05. During the Russian Civil War (1918–21), Japan (as a member of the Allied interventionist forces) occupied Vladivostok from 1918 until 1922, using as many as 70,000 troops. Japanese forces also penetrated as far west as Lake Baikal and Buryatia, occupying the city of Chita in Transbaikal until October 1920.\n",
"Although tentative plans for a joint German-Japanese approach against the USSR were hinted on in the 1936 Anti-Comintern Pact, the years 1938 and 1939 were already decisive for Japan's decision to not expand northward (i.e., against the USSR) but to the south. The Empire decisively lost two border fights against the Soviets, the Battles of Lake Khasan and Khalkin Gol, thereby convincing itself that the Imperial Japanese Army, lacking heavy tanks and the like, would be in no position to challenge the Red Army at that time. Nevertheless, Hitler's anti-Soviet sentiment soon led to further rapprochements with Japan, since he still believed that Japan would join Germany in a future war against the Soviet Union, either actively by invading southeast Siberia, or passively by binding large parts of the Red Army, which was fearing an attack of Japan's Kwantung Army in Manchukuo, numbering ca. 700,000 men as of the late 1930s.\n",
"The Russian Empire and Japan had previously fought the Russo-Japanese War, in 1904–1905, followed by Japan sending troops into Siberia during the Russian Civil War in the Siberian Intervention of 1918–1920, with animosities continuing as the two countries remained rivals in Northeast Asia after the establishment of the Soviet Union. Japans increasingly aggressive political and military behavior in East Asia during the 1930s led to border clashes between Soviet forces and Japanese forces in the Japanese puppet state of Manchukuo in Manchuria in 1937 at Kanchatzu Island in the Amur River and in 1939 in the Khalkhin Gol/Nomonhan Incident. But after 1939 the two countries turned their attention elsewhere – Japan to focus on the Second Sino-Japanese War in China and the Soviet Union to the signing of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact. Eventually, the Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact was signed on 13 April 1941.\n",
"From 1932 to 1945 the Empire of Japan and the Soviet Union had a series of conflicts. Japan had set its military sights on Soviet territory as a result of the \"Hokushin-ron\" doctrine, and the Japanese establishment of a puppet state in Manchuria brought the two countries into conflict. The war lasted on and off with the last battles of the 1930s (the Battle of Lake Khasan and the Battles of Khalkhin Gol) ending in a decisive victory for the Soviets. The conflicts stopped with the signing of the Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact on April 13, 1941. However, later, at the Yalta Conference, Stalin agreed to declare war on Japan; and on August 5, 1945, the Soviet Union voided their neutrality agreement with Japan.\n",
"The Soviet Union (USSR) was a command economy which already had an economic and legal system allowing the economy and society to be redirected into fighting a total war. The transportation of factories and whole labour forces east of the Urals as the Germans advanced across the USSR in 1941 was an impressive feat of planning. Only those factories which were useful for war production were moved because of the total war commitment of the Soviet government.\n"
] |
Many questions about recent /r/science posts about our universe being inside a black hole.
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1) Not very. It's mostly just that one guy working on it. It's a cool story, so they picked up on it.
2) The arrow of time markers shouldn't be viewed as something causative: time doesn't advance because of entropy increasing or the universe expanding. Rather, they're ways to figure out which way is which. It's similar to losing your bearings while scuba diving, and watching the bubbles to figure out which way is up.
2B) I'm not sure this is fully understood, but by the time it gets small enough for that to happen it is emitting high energy gamma radiation. In reality black holes are colder than the cosmic microwave background so they won't have a net loss of energy.
3-5 I have to do more research and I'm not on a computer with journal access right now.
|
[
"What was formerly believed to be a supermassive black hole at the centre of the Milky Way is revealed to be an artificial construct, known as the Void. Inside, there is a strange universe where the laws of physics are very different from those we know. It is slowly consuming the other stars of the galactic core—one day it will have devoured the entire galaxy.\n",
"The final chapter of the novel is told from the perspective of a Heechee \"Captain\" who lead the Australopithecus project on Heechee Heaven and the various expeditions to Earth. He and all of his kind are indeed hiding inside of a black hole at the center of the galaxy. Albert, the AI, is right and wrong: the fabric of the Universe has indeed been tampered with, but not by the Heechee. When the Heechee discovered this, they went into hiding, using gravitational manipulation technology to create a black hole around a large cluster of captive stars and planets. The Captain muses that the Australopithecus species (and some 15 other similar project races across the galaxy) are to the Heechee as the Heechee are to the mystery race who will reshape the entire Universe. He hopes that one day these project races will develop intelligence and travel the stars, not for any intellectual or cultural pleasure, but rather to act as buffer states between the Heechee and those mysterious others.\n",
"The theory that MH370 may have been consumed by a black hole received considerable attention when Don Lemon asked, on CNN, whether it was \"preposterous\" that it could have happened. Lemon was criticised for this by Jon Stewart on \"The Daily Show\", and by former U.S. Department of Transportation Inspector General Mary Schiavo, who, while appearing on CNN, said that \"...a small black hole would suck in our entire universe so we know it's not that.\" TheWire.com (which \"wasn't satisfied\" with Schiavo's answer) obtained detailed reasons why a black hole couldn't swallow a plane from Columbia University astronomy professor David J. Helfand and Peter Michelson, a professor of physics at Stanford University. It is possible that Schiavo was expressing herself humorously, and did not expect to be taken literally. Another hypothesis is that a meteor might have struck the plane; however, the statistical probability for this is extremely low.\n",
"Nikodem Janusz Popławski (born March 1, 1975) is a Polish theoretical physicist, most widely noted for the hypothesis that every black hole could be a doorway to another universe and that the universe was formed within a black hole which itself exists in a larger universe. This hypothesis was listed by \"National Geographic\" and \"Science\" magazines among their top ten discoveries of 2010. Popławski appeared in an episode of the TV show \"Through the Wormhole\" titled \"Are There Parallel Universes?\" and in an episode of the Discovery Channel show \"Curiosity\" titled \"Is There a Parallel Universe?\", which were hosted by Morgan Freeman and aired in 2011. He was named by \"Forbes\" magazine in 2015 as one of five scientists in the world most likely to become the next Albert Einstein.\n",
"However, Susskind also argued that, since Smolin's theory relies on information transfer from the parent universe to the baby universe through a black hole, it ultimately makes no sense as a theory of cosmological natural selection. According to Susskind and many other physicists, the last decade of black hole physics has shown us that no information that goes into a black hole can be lost. Even Stephen Hawking, who was the largest proponent of the idea that information is lost in a black hole, later reversed his position. The implication is that information transfer from the parent universe into the baby universe through a black hole is not conceivable.\n",
"The story begins with Professor Mangetsu, a Japanese astrophysicist and his daughter, Miyoko, are informed and startled about the approach of a giant black hole that previously destroyed the space probe Voyager 5. It is confirmed that this black hole will completely destroy Earth and its inhabitants.\n",
"BULLET::::- \"Eater\" (2000), novel by Gregory Benford. In the early 21st century, astronomers detect what appears to be a distant gamma-ray burster, a black hole engulfing a star light years away. It soon becomes apparent that the hole is smaller and closer than that, and rapidly approaching the Earth, swallowing asteroids and interplanetary debris on the way, and finally that it hosts an intelligent being, one created by \"a very early, intelligent civilization whose planet was being chewed up by the black hole,\" and who had uploaded their consciousnesses to it. The \"Eater\" would like to similarly absorb the best and brightest minds of Earth, and the destruction of humanity looms unless three astronomer protagonists, collectively playing Theseus to the black hole's Minotaur, can interfere with the increasingly malevolent entity's plans.\n"
] |
why technology "freezes"
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It doesn't unless your in the arctic. Sometimes things lock up, due to software conflicts.
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[
"In software engineering, a freeze is a point in time in the development process after which the rules for making changes to the source code or related resources become more strict, or the period during which those rules are applied. A freeze helps move the project forward towards a release or the end of an iteration by reducing the scale or frequency of changes, and may be used to help meet a roadmap.\n",
"Deep Freeze can also protect a computer from harmful malware, since it automatically deletes (or rather, no longer \"sees\") downloaded files when the computer is restarted. The advantage of using Deep Freeze is that it uses very few system resources, and thus does not slow down computer performance greatly. The disadvantage is that it does not provide real-time protection, therefore an infected computer would have to be restarted in order to remove malware.\n",
"Deep Freeze, by Faronics, is a software application available for the Microsoft Windows, and macOS operating systems which allows system administrators to protect the core operating system and configuration files on a workstation or server by restoring a computer back to the saved configuration, each time the computer is restarted. Also known as Reboot to Restore Software.\n",
"In bioseparations, freeze-drying can be used also as a late-stage purification procedure, because it can effectively remove solvents. Furthermore, it is capable of concentrating substances with low molecular weights that are too small to be removed by a filtration membrane. Freeze-drying is a relatively expensive process. The equipment is about three times as expensive as the equipment used for other separation processes, and the high energy demands lead to high energy costs. Furthermore, freeze-drying also has a long process time, because the addition of too much heat to the material can cause melting or structural deformations. Therefore, freeze-drying is often reserved for materials that are heat-sensitive, such as proteins, enzymes, microorganisms, and blood plasma. The low operating temperature of the process leads to minimal damage of these heat-sensitive products.\n",
"Pharmaceutical companies often use freeze-drying to increase the shelf life of the products, such as live virus vaccines, biologics and other injectables. By removing the water from the material and sealing the material in a glass vial, the material can be easily stored, shipped, and later reconstituted to its original form for injection. Another example from the pharmaceutical industry is the use of freeze drying to produce tablets or wafers, the advantage of which is less excipient as well as a rapidly absorbed and easily administered dosage form.\n",
"Mechanical freezers were the first to be used in the food industry and are used in the vast majority of freezing / refrigerating lines. They function by circulating a refrigerant, normally ammonia, around the system, which withdraws heat from the food product. This heat is then transferred to a condenser and dissipated into air or water. The refrigerant itself, now a high pressure, hot liquid, is directed into an evaporator. As it passes through an expansion valve, it is cooled and then vaporises into a gaseous state. Now a low pressure, low temperature gas again, it can be reintroduced into the system.\n",
"BULLET::::- A (complete) feature freeze, in which all work on adding new features is suspended, shifting the effort towards fixing bugs and improving the user experience. The addition of new features may have a disruptive effect on other parts of the program, due both to the introduction of new, untested source code or resources and to interactions with other features; thus, a feature freeze helps improve the program's stability.br For example: \"user interface feature freeze\" means no more features will be permitted to the user interface portion of the code; bugs can still be fixed.\n"
] |
how did apex predators that existed millions of years ago go extinct? (i.e terror birds, megalodon, levyatan)
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It's hard to pinpoint the exact causes ~~of~~ for most prehistoric animals and plants, beyond trying to extrapolate data from the scarce info we have. We can look at extinction events nowadays for clues though. Overfeeding and loss of habitat from environmental changes are the two biggest causes.
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[
"Apex predators are thought to have existed since at least the Cambrian period, around 500 million years ago. Extinct species cannot be directly determined to be apex predators as their behaviour cannot be observed, and clues to ecological relationships, such as bite marks on bones or shells, do not form a complete picture. However, indirect evidence such as the absence of any discernible predator in an environment is suggestive. \"Anomalocaris\" was an aquatic apex predator, in the Cambrian. Its mouthparts are clearly predatory, and there were no larger animals in the seas at that time.\n",
"The Russian ecologist Georgii Gause demonstrated the tendency toward extinction among predator–prey populations with a series of experiments in 1934. He found that in experiments with \"Didinium nasutum\" (predator) and \"Paramecium caudatum\" (prey), \"D. nausatum\" overexploited \"P. caudatum\" leading first to its extinction and subsequently to its own.\n",
"Several are encountered in \"Extinction Event\", where they are described as being intelligent, ruthless predators. They were first encountered feasting on the carcass of a dead \"Anatotitan\", which had apparently been killed by shock, as a result of a meteor strike. Later, Jenny and Helen Cutter are in the Cretaceous period, and one of the SAS soldiers assigned to help them, Tim Jenkins, was dragged away by the Troodons, who ate him alive due to his crippling caused by a Dimetrodon. The rest of the team were too late to save him. Later in the present, a pack of Troodon showed up at the overturned car Jenny and Hemple were in. Jenny attempted to keep them at bay by using a large metal rod that she had found in the truck's wreck. However, one of the Troodon then knocked her down to the ground, and pinned her down, with its foot. Just as it was about to kill her, the car's ruptured fuel tank caught on fire, scaring the Troodons away.\n",
"During the American megafaunal extinction event around 12,700YBP, 90genera of mammals weighing over became extinct. The extinction of the large carnivores and scavengers is thought to have been caused by the extinction of the megaherbivore prey upon which they depended. The cause of the extinction of the megafauna is debated but has been attributed to the impact of climate change, competition with other species including overexploitation by newly arrived human hunters, or a combination of both. One study proposes that several extinction models should be investigated because so little is known about the biogeography of the dire wolf and its potential competitors and prey, nor how all these species interacted and responded to the environmental changes that occurred at the time of extinction.\n",
"When populations of apex predators decrease, populations of mesopredators often increase. This is the mesopredator release effect. \"Mesopredator outbreaks often lead to declining prey populations, sometimes destabilizing communities and driving local extinctions\". When apex predators are removed from the ecosystem, this gives the mesopredators less competition and conflict. They are able to catch more prey and have lower mortality rates. Often, mesopredators can take over the role of apex predators. This happens when new species are introduced into an ecosystem or when species leave or are killed off. When this happens, and the new apex predator or former mesopredator, becomes the new species on top of the food chain, it is important to remember that they are not ecologically identical to the former apex predator, and is likely a smaller species, which will have different effects on the structure and stability of the ecosystem. The mesopredators that become the new apex predators are the species that benefit from this mesopredator release. Apex predators reduce mesopredator populations, and change mesopredator behaviors and habitat choices, by preying on and intimidating mesopredators. This can occur in any ecosystem with any type of relationship between predator and prey. However, in the case of the relationship between apex predator and mesopredator, it could mean that the apex predator causes the mesopredator to leave the ecosystem, again, creating room for a new species to become mesopredator. \n",
"The Holocene extinction (see also Quaternary extinction event), occurred at the end of the last ice age glacial period (a.k.a. the Würm glaciation) when many giant ice age mammals, such as woolly mammoths, went extinct in the Americas and northern Eurasia. An analysis of the extinction event in North America found it to be unique among Cenozoic extinction pulses in its selectivity for large animals. Various theories have attributed the wave of extinctions to human hunting, climate change, disease, a putative extraterrestrial impact, or other causes. However, this extinction near the end of the Pleistocene was just one of a series of megafaunal extinction pulses that have occurred during the last 50,000 years over much of the Earth's surface, with Africa and southern Asia (where the local megafauna had a chance to evolve alongside modern humans) being comparatively less affected. The latter areas did suffer a gradual attrition of megafauna, particularly of the slower-moving species (a class of vulnerable megafauna epitomized by giant tortoises), over the last several million years.\n",
"Their past extinction was due to tigers—precisely, the Balinese tiger—and humans hunting them for their antlers and pelts. Their main predators now are humans, leopards, dholes (the Asiatic wild dog), pythons, and crocodiles.\n"
] |
In America during World War II, what would happen if a man was drafted, and it turns out he wouldn't have made a good soldier?
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In a draft, it's not like you get handed a uniform. It means you report for selection. People are turned down for all sorts of reasons, even in a draft. Poor vision, diabetes, epilepsy, heart problems, hearing problems, mental illness, being too short, or not strong enough to keep up. There are written tests, medical tests, physical fitness tests, and interviews to determine if you're a viable candidate for the military. Even though standards are usually lowered somewhat during a time of war, there are still standards to be met, and people who don't meet them will not be able to serve.
Knowing that, there were a lot of people, particularly in Vietnam, who tried to avoid service by failing the tests. For example, the [Ishihara test for Colour Blindness](_URL_0_) includes a plate that can be seen by people of any colour blindness, and was used during the draft to find out who was lying to avoid military service.
|
[
"The number of men who actively sought to evade the World War II draft in Canada is not known. Military historian Jack Granatstein says the evasion was \"widespread\". In addition, in 1944 alone approximately 60,000 draftees were serving only as NRMA men, committed to border defense but not to fighting abroad.\n",
"When the U.S. entered World War II, he volunteered to serve in the U.S. Marines, but was rejected because he was considered an enemy alien due to his German heritage. The following year, the U.S. Government changed its mind and he was drafted in the U.S. Army. \"He had the dangerous job of manning listening posts in front of the main line and sending back intelligence to headquarters or going on reconnaissance patrols. He also served as the interrogator of German prisoners of war.\"\n",
"During World War II, there was no legal way to avoid the draft, and failure to obey was treated as insubordination, punished by execution or jail. Draft evaders were forced to escape to the forests and live there as outlaws, in what was called facetiously serving in the \"käpykaarti\" (Pine Cone Guard) or \"metsäkaarti\" (Forest Guard).\n",
"This decision of the United States government to enter World War I was backed up with additional legislation imposing military conscription in America to staff the nation's wartime Army and Navy. On May 18, 1917, a draft bill became law. The bill called for all eligible young men nationwide to register for the draft on a single day — June 5, 1917. While isolated hotspots of anti-conscription activity sprang up in some urban centers, the registration process was generally an orderly affair, with the vast majority of young American men accepting their fate with what has been characterized as \"a calm resignation.\"\n",
"During World War II he was drafted into the United States Army as a private. There he supervised the disposal of raw materials on the Munitions Allocation Board. He was also a liaison between the Army and Congress and the supervisor of the lend-lease program with the Soviet Union.\n",
"During World War II, he was drafted into the Army in 1943 as a conscientious objector, and after undergoing basic training three times, served as a noncombatant at Gravely Point, Washington in the Air Transport Command in charge of information and education. He refused a commission and was discharged with the rank of staff sergeant.\n",
"During the beginning of World War II, President Franklin D. Roosevelt had re-introduced the draft (conscription) in September 1940, and Koval registered for it on January 2, 1941. Raven Electric Company secured him a year's deferment from service until February 1942. According to historian Vladimir Lota, Koval's handlers wanted him to steal information about chemical weapons, and felt that he would not be able to do so while drafted. When the deferment expired, Koval was inducted into the United States Army. He received basic training at Fort Dix in New Jersey before being sent to the Citadel in Charleston, South Carolina. There, Koval served as a private in the 3410th Specialized Training and Reassignment Unit. On August 11, 1943, he was transferred to the Army Specialized Training Program, a unit established in December 1942 to provide talented enlistees with an education and technical training. Koval attended the City College of New York (CCNY) and studied electrical engineering. His CCNY classmates looked up to the older Koval as a role model and father figure who never did homework and was a noted ladies' man, never knowing about his Soviet education and wife. Colleagues recalled that he never discussed politics or the Soviet Union.\n"
] |
Are the steroids that cause people to gain weight in medication the same as the steroids people use to build muscle?
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The term steroid refers to molecules that have a similar 4 ring, 17 carbon base skeleton. Additions to this skeleton are what make each steroid different, but still belong to the same family.
So the type of "weight gaining" steroid that most people are on would be something like prednisone. The weight gain is a side effect, since most people are using it to suppress their immune system. For anyone who has had to take it, they will tell you it makes them ravenously hungery and insatiable.
The type of bodybuilding steroid people take is an androgenic steroid (similar to testosterone).
Again both share a similar backbone, but are different. And it's not just these two types that have this similarity. Estrogens, progestogens, androgens, and mineralocorticoids (that maintain blood pressure), glucocorticoids (that help regulate immune function and blood sugar levels) are all steroid hormones.
|
[
"Anabolic steroids are artificially produced hormones called androgens, which are essentially male-type sex hormones in the body. The most powerful of the androgens is testosterone. Another group of steroids are steroidal supplements, a weaker form of androgens. Steroids and supplements are controversial when used for sports because of the health risks associated with them. Some serious and long-term effects on the body are hair loss, dizziness, mood swings, delusions, paranoia, high blood pressure, and increased risk of heart disease, stroke, and even cancer. More recent studies also suggest that steroid users have an increased risk of depression and alcohol use later in life. Doctors call this the 'snowball effect' of steroid-related health problems. Injury patterns suggest that joint ligaments are not able to adapt to steroid-enhanced muscles, leading to injury.\n",
"Anabolic–androgenic steroids (AAS), including testosterone and its esters, have also been taken to enhance muscle development, strength, or endurance. They do so directly by increasing the muscles' protein synthesis. As a result, muscle fibers become larger and repair faster than the average person's.\n",
"Anabolic steroids were first made in the 1930s, and are now used therapeutically in medicine to stimulate muscle growth and appetite, induce male puberty and treat chronic wasting conditions, such as cancer and AIDS. The American College of Sports Medicine acknowledges that AAS, in the presence of adequate diet, can contribute to increases in body weight, often as lean mass increases and that the gains in muscular strength achieved through high-intensity exercise and proper diet can be additionally increased by the use of AAS in some individuals.\n",
"Enhancing substances (steroids) are sometimes used in the fitness industry to promote the development of muscle in a shorter amount of time. It is easier for a male to gain muscle mass than for women to gain muscle due to the amounts of testosterone that males have. Steroids are illegal unless they are prescribed by Doctors. If they are not prescribed by Doctors, steroids are usually smuggled into the United States from places like Mexico and European countries where a prescription is not required. The [anabolic–androgenic steroids (AASs)] are a family of hormones that contain the innate male hormone, testosterone, and a group of synthetic testosterone derivatives. These medicines are widely misused by men and rarely women to increase muscle content and body fat lose. When female athletes use these substances, they have to make sure they know how much exactly to take as mistake can lead to a lifelong side effect. Steroids in females can have a great amount of side effects including liver disorder, enlargement of clitoris, and a masculine look. Another major effect that can occur is if you are not eating the right nutrients or working out enough you can gain a lot of weight from the misuse of steroids. In women, AASs may interrupt ovarian function. Chronic intense physical activity leads to menstrual irregularities and, in severe cases, to the female athletes’ triad (such as low energy intake, menstrual disturbance and low bone mass), making it difficult to abandon sports effects and AASs. Acne, hirsutism and deepening of the tone of voice are major outcomes of AASs misapplication.\n",
"Anabolic/androgenic steroids are drugs that are obtained from the male hormone, testosterone. Anabolic steroids are used for muscle-building and strength gain for cosmetic reasons as well as for performance-enhancement in athletics and bodybuilding. Anabolic steroids work in many ways by increasing protein synthesis in the muscles and by eliminating the catabolic process (the process of breaking down skeletal muscle for energy). It is common for teens and adults to use steroids as they stimulate and encourage muscle growth much more rapidly than natural body building.\n",
"Anabolic-androgenic steroids (AAS) were first isolated, identified and synthesized in the 1930s, and are now used therapeutically in medicine to induce bone growth, stimulate appetite, induce male puberty, and treat chronic wasting conditions, such as cancer and AIDS. Anabolic steroids also increase muscle mass and physical strength, and are therefore used in sports and bodybuilding to enhance strength or physique. Known side effects include harmful changes in cholesterol levels (increased Low density lipoprotein and decreased High density lipoprotein), acne, high blood pressure, and liver damage. Some of these effects can be mitigated by taking supplemental drugs.\n",
"In sports where physical strength is favored, athletes have used anabolic steroids, known for their ability to increase physical strength and muscle mass. The drug mimics the effect of testosterone and dihydrotestosterone in the body. They were developed after Eastern Bloc countries demonstrated success in weightlifting during the 1940s. At the time they were using testosterone, which carried with it negative effects, anabolic steroids were developed as a solution. The drug has been used across a wide range of sports from football and basketball to weightlifting and track and field. While not as life-threatening as the drugs used in endurance sports, anabolic steroids have negative side effects, including:\n"
] |
Do we have any idea how gender egalitarian Teryan early pre-Christian pagan England was? And how much the introduction of Christianity change to that?
|
When you say "early pre-Christian pagan England", are you referring to:
pre-Roman pagan southern Britain (ie BC);
the early Roman period in southern Britain (pre-Christian pagan, so maybe the 2nd century AD);
or the early Anglo-Saxon period prior to Christianisation (so about 500-600AD)?
(Also, I confess I don't at all know what you mean by Teryan)
Checking Wikipedia, I see that the Mists of Avalon is a work of Arthurian fantasy, set during the time of the Saxon invasion. So, then, I'd have thought you'd really want to know how gender-egalitarian post-Roman Christian Britain was, not early pre-Christian pagan England.
Remember that Arthur is a fictional story set in what is essentially a fictional time; very few Arthurian romances portray the period accurately, because the source material (the original Arthur stories) is itself extremely inaccurate (it's portraying a legendary, mythical time, not an accurate picture of late Romano-British culture).
So, at the time prior to the Saxon invasions, what later became known as England (it was the Anglo-Saxons who named it England), was inhabited by the Romano-Brits; a somewhat Christianised, thoroughly Romanised culture. As Christianisation had been recent, it's quite likely that there were still many pagans; however, they were not the "Mother Goddess"-type pagans of Mists of Avalon; they were Roman-style pagans, worshipping gods like Jupiter, Juno, Mercury, Venus, etc (though sometimes with British names; for example, Bath was a city where people worshipped the goddess Minerva/Sulis, using both a Roman and British name).
That doesn't directly answer your question about gender-egalitarianism. But I want to explain the background.
Arthur is set in a fictionalised, mythical golden age. Many modern works try to set him in a slightly more realistic time, before the Saxon invasions. What they often miss, however (as I think Mists of Avalon does, but then, it is just a work of fiction, it's not trying to be history), is that the pre-Saxon period was the post-Roman period, nearly half a millenia after the Romans had conquered Britain. In some medieval legends, Arthur is related to the Imperial family of Rome.
So, it's a mistake to think about gender equality or other cultural sociological phenomonen at this time as being about Brythonic culture, but rather, as being like Roman culture.
|
[
"Developing from the earlier Iron Age religion of continental northern Europe, it was introduced to Britain following the Anglo-Saxon migration in the mid 5th century, and remained the dominant belief system in England until the Christianisation of its kingdoms between the 7th and 8th centuries, with some aspects gradually blending into folklore. The pejorative terms \"paganism\" and \"heathenism\" were first applied to this religion by Christian Anglo-Saxons, and it does not appear that these pagans had a name for their religion themselves; there has therefore been debate among contemporary scholars as to the appropriateness of continuing to describe these belief systems using this Christian terminology. Contemporary knowledge of Anglo-Saxon paganism derives largely from three sources: textual evidence produced by Christian Anglo-Saxons like Bede and Aldhelm, place-name evidence, and archaeological evidence of cultic practices. Further suggestions regarding the nature of Anglo-Saxon paganism have been developed through comparisons with the better-attested pre-Christian belief systems of neighbouring peoples such as the Norse.\n",
"At present, while some Anglo-Saxonists have ceased using the terms \"paganism\" or \"pagan\" when discussing the early Anglo-Saxon period, others have continued to do so, viewing these terms as a useful means of designating something that is not Christian yet which is still identifiably religious. The historian John Hines proposed \"traditional religion\" as a better alternative, although Carver cautioned against this, noting that Britain in the 5th to the 8th century was replete with new ideas and thus belief systems of that period were not particularly \"traditional\". The term \"pre-Christian\" religion has also been used; this avoids the judgemental connotations of \"paganism\" and \"heathenism\" but is not always chronologically accurate.\n",
"Christianity became the dominant religion in England in the 7th century. Polytheistic Indo-European religions, often referred to as paganism, were practised before Christianity took hold. The most notable of these religions were Celtic polytheism, Roman polytheism and Anglo-Saxon paganism, which was the religion of the early English people, or Anglo-Saxons, and which was in many ways very similar to the closely related Norse paganism practised by the Scandinavian peoples and that would later be introduced to England by the Danes.\n",
"Churches in Anglo-Saxon England stressed doctrines that preached about virginity as a virtue and faithful monogamy; this is believed to have limited an individual’s chances of acquiring status, political power and property. Anglo-Saxon England was the first place in history that women had been raised to sainthood, and this was the strongest immediately following the acceptance of Christianity. Christianity provided lots of freedom for women. It helped them become powerful in society. Within the church women appeared to have been equal as well there are evidences of anti-feminism found in Homilies. Although anti-feminism was found in Homilies, it does not seem to hold true in practice. Women who went into the convent and took vows of poverty, chastity and obedience were glorified in the eyes of the Church and its Fathers. The convent offered self-development and social responsibility to women, something that women are fighting for today. Uniquely, the Anglo-Saxon church had institutions that consisted of male and female monasteries, located together but segregated, and in these the female abbot had the headship of the institution. Convents were run by abbesses, and this was an opportunity for women to have a position of authority. They were responsible for the finances and managing the property, with some the help of the other nuns. This control that women had did not survive the Viking invasion of 789, although women continued to play a major role in the church in late Anglo-Saxon England. Single gendered convents and monasteries had the chores that were commonly done by the other sex would have been performed by the common sex in that location; examples are men would have worked in the kitchens of monasteries and women would have worked in the gardens of nunneries.\n",
"According to MacDonald, much of the vociferous pagan criticism of the early church is evidence of this \"female initiative\" which contributed to the reasons Roman society saw Christianity as a threat. Accusations that Christianity undermined the Roman family and male authority in the home were used to stir up opposition to Christianity and negatively influence public opinion. \n",
"Some Christian feminists believe that the principle of egalitarianism was present in the teachings of Jesus and the early Christian movements, but this is a highly contested view by many feminist scholars who believe that Christianity itself relies heavily on gender roles. These interpretations of Christian origins have been criticized by secular feminists for \"anachronistically projecting contemporary ideals back into the first century.\" In the Middle Ages Julian of Norwich and Hildegard of Bingen explored the idea of a divine power with both masculine and feminine characteristics. Feminist works from the fifteenth to seventeenth centuries addressed objections to women learning, teaching and preaching in a religious context. One such proto-feminist was Anne Hutchinson who was cast out of the Puritan colony of Massachusetts for teaching on the dignity and rights of women.\n",
"It is important to realize that Christianization in the late Roman and Early Medieval West was a slow, inconsistent and incomplete social and religious change. It required the building of churches, conversion of elites and a widespread adoption of Christian self-identity with a system of Christian values, practices and beliefs. The church was constantly struggling against the survival of superstitions and pagan practices that were widely common among communities and common folk. However, it was only with the consent and participation of local populations that these religious changes were able to take effect. Therefore, as Klingshirn so carefully puts it, this process was reciprocal. Although the elites and theologians implemented all of the goals and strategies, it was up to the peasants and townspeople of local communities to accept these practices.\n"
] |
why do people choose to live in high crime areas (e.g. compton, ca and south side, chicago)
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High crime and low rent/property value go hand in hand. People live there because they can't afford to live anywhere else.
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[
"The popularity of the neighborhood has costs. Older, lifelong residents often clash with the values of the young urban professionals and students moving in. Also, parking in the South Side is among the tightest in the city, as narrow streets and high density of buildings leave little empty street space. Nuisance crime has also been a growing issue, but in mid-2018, city leaders announced that crime in the South Side bar district dropped by roughly 30 percent from the previous year, possibly because of the addition of new outdoor security cameras and a larger police patrol presence. \n",
"Familiar with bad housing in Baltimore and Washington, D.C., Rouse now had an opportunity to demonstrate what housing within a city's borders could be like. “There is a real need for residential development,” he said, “in which there is a strong sense of community; a need to feed into the city some of the atmosphere and pace of the small town and village; a need to create a community which can meet as many as possible of the needs of the people who live there; which can bring these people into natural contact with one another; which can produce out of these relationships a spirit and feeling of neighborliness and a rich sense of belonging to a community.” In a city that practiced strict racial segregation, Rouse intended Cross Keys to be open to all who could afford to live there. The development was a mixture of townhouses, garden apartments, a high-rise apartment house designed by Frank Gehry, stores grouped around a village square, and an office complex. By 1970, the Village of Cross Keys had become among the most desirable places to live in the Baltimore area.\n",
"While the area has had a large amount of success, recent developments have weakened the social structure here. Drugs are a problem among youth, and the seemingly easy money to be made from counterfeit items, stolen goods and drugs has caused more individualistic attitudes. It also causes neighbors to not want to be involved with their other neighbors for risk of becoming involved in something unexpected.\n",
"Additionally, in Los Angeles inner-city residents, who are much more likely to be poor minorities, have significantly fewer parks than suburban residents. Furthermore, there is less likely to be proper maintenance at inner-city parks. Parks may play different roles in the lives of inner-city youth than they do for suburban, wealthy youth, who are more likely to have the backyards and private play areas that inner-city youth lack.\n",
"Neighborhoods of low socioeconomic status are associated with higher rates of intentional injuries (violent crime). Poor investment in community property, and the lack of private and semi-private space can lead to the inability of residents to properly or adequately maintain defensible space. A lack of “eyes of the street” due to poor design or poor maintenance only makes crime prevention more difficult.\n",
"Today, the neighborhood is best known for its numerous commercial and entertainment establishments and being a convenient place to live for downtown workers due to its proximity to public transportation and the Loop. Gentrification has made the area much more attractive to college-educated white-collar workers, although it faced considerable resistance from the working-class Puerto Rican community it displaced. Crime has drastically decreased and many new homes have been built as well as older homes being restored. The area has become a desirable neighborhood and this has led to increased business activity, with many new bars, restaurants, and stores opening to serve individuals. The neighborhood is known for hosting local art stores and independent businesses.\n",
"The area enjoys the freedoms of rural life with some of the conveniences expected in modern life. Because it is so remote, crime is low (estimated to be under 1%, with almost no violent crime, historically). Social life centers around family/church.\n"
] |
what causes airplane turbulence in a completely clear sky?
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Turbulence is caused when different currents of air mix, causing pressure differences in the air and thus affecting flight through it. This doesn't always form clouds or other detectable formation, called clear air turbulence.
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[
"Wake turbulence is another type of clear-air turbulence, but in this case the causes are quite different from those set out above. In the case of wake turbulence, the rotating vortex-pair created by the wings of a large aircraft as it travels lingers for a significant amount of time after the passage of the aircraft, sometimes more than a minute. When this occurs, the lingering turbulence caused by the wake of the wing tips can deflect or even flip a smaller aircraft on the ground or in the air awaiting landing. This phenomenon can also lead to accidents with large aircraft as well. Delta Air Lines Flight 9570 crashed at the Greater Southwest International Airport in 1972 while landing behind a DC-10. This accident led to new rules for minimum following separation time from \"heavy\" aircraft. American Airlines Flight 587 crashed shortly after takeoff from John F. Kennedy International Airport in 2001 due to pilot overreaction to wake turbulence from a Boeing 747. Many aircraft are now made with wingtip devices to improve both the lift-to-drag ratio and fuel economy - such devices may also marginally reduce the strength of the wingtip vortices. However, such changes are not operationally significant (i.e. do not change the distances or times at which it is safe to follow other aircraft).\n",
"Clear-air turbulence is usually impossible to detect with the naked eye and very difficult to detect with a conventional radar, with the result that it is difficult for aircraft pilots to detect and avoid it. However, it can be remotely detected with instruments that can measure turbulence with optical techniques, such as scintillometers, Doppler LIDARs, or N-slit interferometers.\n",
"Safely landing a light aircraft in these conditions can be virtually impossible. Moreover, close to the ground, a glider or airplane pilot can be caught by surprise by a sudden reversal of the wind direction and transition from an upwind to a downwind situation. If the airspeed becomes too low, the aircraft will stall and may crash into the ground due to the altitude lost recovering from the stall. As a consequence of famous instances of crashes of this nature in the United States, a network of wind profilers and Terminal Doppler Weather Radars was developed in the vicinity of airports to monitor this wind shear. Based on FAA rules, every pilot must inquire about the wind speed and direction before landing.\n",
"Because aircraft move so quickly, they can experience sudden unexpected accelerations or 'bumps' from turbulence, including CAT - as the aircraft rapidly cross invisible bodies of air which are moving vertically at many different speeds. Although the vast majority of cases of turbulence are harmless, in rare cases cabin crew and passengers on aircraft have been injured when tossed around inside an aircraft cabin during extreme turbulence (and in a small number of cases, killed, as on United Airlines Flight 826 on December 28, 1997). BOAC Flight 911 broke up in flight in 1966 after experiencing severe lee-wave turbulence just downwind of Mount Fuji, Japan.\n",
"Air below the cloud base can be quite turbulent due to the thermals that formed the clouds, giving occupants of light aircraft an uncomfortable ride. To avoid turbulence where such clouds are present, pilots may climb above the cloud tops. However, glider pilots actively seek out the rising air to gain altitude.\n",
"Because the aviation industry is especially sensitive to the weather, accurate weather forecasting is essential. Fog or exceptionally low ceilings can prevent many aircraft from landing and taking off. Turbulence and icing are also significant in-flight hazards. Thunderstorms are a problem for all aircraft because of severe turbulence due to their updrafts and outflow boundaries, icing due to the heavy precipitation, as well as large hail, strong winds, and lightning, all of which can cause severe damage to an aircraft in flight. Volcanic ash is also a significant problem for aviation, as aircraft can lose engine power within ash clouds. On a day-to-day basis airliners are routed to take advantage of the jet stream tailwind to improve fuel efficiency. Aircrews are briefed prior to takeoff on the conditions to expect en route and at their destination. Additionally, airports often change which runway is being used to take advantage of a headwind. This reduces the distance required for takeoff, and eliminates potential crosswinds.\n",
"The National Transportation Safety Committee released a report and concluded that the plane crashed due to pilot lack of familiarization with the route and spatial disorientation after the aircraft entered clouds. \n"
] |
why do some people (like myself) have big booming voices and have difficulty speaking at an inside voice, but some people have really soft voices and struggle to speak up?
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Genetics. I think this question is similar to the question 'why am I blonde and my sibling is brunette?' Or 'why am I taller than my siblings?'. It's all in the genes. That being said, you can teach yourself to speak softly/loudly. It takes practice like everything else but it can be done.
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[
"Creaky voice is prevalent as a peer-group affectation among young women in the United States. For example, researcher Ikuko Patricia Yuasa suggests that the tendency is a product of young women trying to infuse their speech with gravitas by means of reaching for the male register and found that \"college-age Americans ... perceive female creaky voice as hesitant, nonaggressive, and informal but also educated, urban-oriented, and upwardly mobile.\" However, according to a 2012 study in \"PLOS ONE\", young women using creaky voice are viewed as less competent, less educated, less trustworthy, less attractive and less employable. Some suggest that creaky voice can function as a marker of parentheticals in conversations; creaky voice may indicate that certain phrases, when uttered with creaky voice, contain less central information.\n",
"Children may experience problems with their voice due to misuse or abnormalities in the vocal mechanisms. There are two types of voice disorders: those of phonation, and those of resonance. Both types can be the result of either abuse or physical structure. Voice disorders are among the most successfully treated speech and language problems because they can be solved with surgery or reconditioning of the voice (Boone 286).\n",
"Some people seek out the help of speech pathologists as they feel vocal fry makes them appear unsure and less confident. Researchers have found that young adult women who use vocal fry are perceived as less competent and less hireable (listeners have less of a negative reaction to male voices). Others argue that these perceptions are part of a broader attack on women's speech.\n",
"Because of his warm, strong voice, which earned him the sobriquet \"The Voice\" (the English term is used), he has been used frequently as narrator for television documentaries, and numerous talking books in the 1990s.\n",
"There is also some controversy regarding the use of a bigender voice. A person may want to have both a masculine and a feminine voice in their vocal repertoire, possibly to fit with their own bigender identity, or to read as a different gender in different contexts. Many clinicians will not train bigender voice, arguing that it decreases the opportunity for practice, and it may be difficult or even damaging to the vocal folds for the person to switch from one voice to another. However, Davies, Papp and Antoni (2015) reference the ability of actors to use different accents and dialects, and people to learn different languages as a sign that training a bigender voice may be a viable treatment goal.\n",
"Speech difficulties can result from hypotonia. Low-tone children learn to speak later than their peers, even if they appear to understand a large vocabulary, or can obey simple commands. Difficulties with muscles in the mouth and jaw can inhibit proper pronunciation, and discourage experimentation with word combination and sentence-forming. Since the hypotonic condition is actually an objective manifestation of some underlying disorder, it can be difficult to determine whether speech delays are a result of poor muscle tone, or some other neurological condition, such as intellectual disability, that may be associated with the cause of hypotonia. Additionally, lower muscle tone can be caused by Mikhail-Mikhail syndrome, which is characterized by muscular atrophy and cerebellar ataxia which is due to abnormalities in the ATXN1 gene.\n",
"The facial bones begin to grow as well. Cavities in the sinuses, the nose, and the back of the throat grow bigger, thus creating more space within the head to allow the voice to resonate. Occasionally, voice change is accompanied by unsteadiness of vocalization in the early stages of untrained voices. Due to the significant drop in pitch to the vocal range, people may unintentionally speak in head voice or even strain their voices using pitches which were previously chest voice, the lowest part of the modal voice register.\n"
] |
-why were fifa execs arrested, and what did the usa have to do with it?
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We don't know yet.
Even FIFA don't know yet. They've issued a press statement saying they are "seeking clarification".
We also don't know who's been arrested - only one of the six men has been named, and he's a FIFA official from the Cayman Islands.
The FBI are due to give a press conference at 3.30pm BST. No doubt we will know a lot more then.
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[
"On 27 May 2015, the United States Department of Justice unsealed an indictment following the arrest of several past and present FIFA officials. It stated that \"a high-ranking FIFA official\" caused payments totalling US $10 million to be paid to bank accounts in the name of CONCACAF and Caribbean Football Union controlled by Warner. \n",
"Fourteen FIFA officials and marketing executives were indicted by the United States Department of Justice in May 2015. The officials were arrested in Switzerland and are in the process of extradition to the US. Specific charges (brought under the RICO act) include wire fraud, racketeering, and money laundering.\n",
"FIFA's top officials were arrested at a hotel in Switzerland on suspicion of receiving bribes totaling $100m (£65m). The US Department of Justice stated that nine FIFA officials and four executives of sports management companies were arrested and accused of over $150m in bribes. The UK Shadow Home Secretary and Labour Member of Parliament, Andy Burnham, stated in May 2015 that England should boycott the 2018 World Cup against corruption in FIFA and military aggression by Russia.\n",
"In the 2015 FIFA corruption case, Swiss officials, operating under information from the United States Department of Justice, arrested many senior FIFA officials in Zurich, Switzerland. They also seized physical and electronic records from FIFA's main headquarters. The arrests continued in the United States where several FIFA officers were arrested and FIFA buildings raided. The arrests were made on the information of at least a $150 million (USD) corruption and bribery scandal.\n",
"On 27 May 2015, during the FIFA annual meeting at the Baur au Lac hotel in Zurich, authorities charged 14 officials, including nine current or former FIFA executives, including FIFA vice-president Jeffrey Webb. All faced extradition to the United States. On the same day, the Swiss attorney general's office said that other FIFA executives were being questioned on suspicion of \"criminal mismanagement\" and money laundering.\n",
"In total, seven current FIFA officials were arrested at the Hotel Baur au Lac in Zürich on 27 May. They were preparing to attend the 65th FIFA Congress, which was scheduled to include the election of the president of FIFA. They are expected to be extradited to the United States on suspicion of receiving in bribes. There was also a simultaneous raid on the CONCACAF headquarters in Miami, and later, two further men handed themselves in to police for arrest: Jack Warner and marketing executive Alejandro Burzaco. Two further arrests of FIFA officials at the hotel occurred in December 2015.\n",
"On 10 May 2011, Triesman, speaking before a British parliamentary select committee, affirmed his suspicions of bribery concerning four FIFA members, claiming that they sought bribes in return for backing England's failed 2018 World Cup bid. Whilst the FIFA Executive Committee dismissed the allegations, all the FIFA officials named have subsequently been either convicted of offences, or face extradition to the USA for trial. They with other FIFA executives have been banned for different periods from all contact with football.\n"
] |
how hard is it to quit smoking?
|
Because it contains a drug and drug addiction is very hard to overcome. Even with willpower it's hard to overcome. Same with any addiction. I've never smoked so never been addicted to nicotine. But I have been addicted to medicine. I won't say "drugs" because of what that appears. I never abused my medicine but I sure as hell never missed a dose, and stayed on longer than I truly needed. My regular dr (different than prescriber-was a workmans comp dr), reg dr weaned me off and helped me.
Addiction needs the desire to overcome it plus willpower and strength to do so. Many people can't or won't.
Some people can quit cold turkey and not have any problems. Others relapse and or have bad withdrawal off add to rice substances. Everyone is different because of chemical biology.
|
[
"BULLET::::- \"From April 2009 to April 2011 (a prospectus)\" Front (Smoking damages your health. Once you start smoking, it is very difficult to quit) Back (It is illegal to sell cigarettes to people under 19! It hurts your children's health)\n",
"The Easy Way to Stop Smoking is a self-help book written by British author and accountant Allen Carr. The book aims to help people quit smoking, offering a range of different methods. It was first published in 1985. Although championed by many celebrities, there has been limited empirical study of Carr's method.\n",
"Smoking cessation, referred to as \"quitting\", is the action leading towards abstinence of tobacco smoking. Methods of \"quitting\" include advice from physicians or social workers, cold turkey, nicotine replacement therapy, contingent vouchers, antidepressants, hypnosis, self-help (mindfulness meditation), and support groups. A meta-analysis from 2018, conducted on 61 RCT, showed that one year after people quit smoking with the assistance of first‐line smoking cessation medications (and some behavioral help), only a little under 20% of smokers remained sustained abstinence.\n",
"Smoking cessation programs are essential to those seeking to quit, as medical literature suggests that less than 5% of quitters abstain from cigarettes permanently when quitting without external sources of support.\n",
"Gradual reduction involves slowly reducing one's daily intake of nicotine. This can theoretically be accomplished through repeated changes to cigarettes with lower levels of nicotine, by gradually reducing the number of cigarettes smoked each day, or by smoking only a fraction of a cigarette on each occasion. A 2009 systematic review by researchers at the University of Birmingham found that gradual nicotine replacement therapy could be effective in smoking cessation. There is no significant difference in quit rates between smokers who quit by gradual reduction or abrupt cessation as measured by abstinence from smoking of at least six months from the quit day, suggesting that people who want to quit can choose between these two methods.\n",
"BULLET::::- \"From 1996 to March 2005\" Front (Smoking causes lung cancer and other diseases and it is especially dangerous for teenagers and pregnant women) Back (It is illegal to sell cigarettes to people under 19) and additionally, (You can be healthy and live longer if you quit), (Smoking also causes paralysis and heart diseases), (Smoking also damages your beloved children), (Smoking damages others)\n",
"In those who smoke, stopping smoking is the only measure shown to slow down the worsening of COPD. Even at a late stage of the disease, it can reduce the rate of worsening lung function and delay the onset of disability and death. Often, several attempts are required before long-term abstinence is achieved. Attempts over 5 years lead to success in nearly 40% of people.\n"
] |
What are some other theories of gravity?
|
There are plenty. It's very easy to construct a new theory of gravity - just put in some new ingredients and decide how those ingredients behave, and how they interact with the gravitational field. The real question isn't whether you can do it, it's a) whether you can make it fit with observations, and b) whether it's preferable to our current theory, general relativity (GR). GR fits practically all the data very well, especially if you consider two modifications - adding in dark energy and dark matter. Moreover GR is about as simple a theory of gravity as you can get - it has pretty much the simplest form for a theory with no extra ingredients. So any new theory is going to be more complex and less attractive, and seem fairly ad hoc.
The motivation for modifying this simple and elegant theory of GR is usually to explain dark energy or dark matter, and for various reasons people tend to prefer doing this for dark energy (there's just a lot of evidence out there that dark matter is a particle, and the modified gravity alternatives like TeVeS are really complicated and messy in comparison).
|
[
"Gravity is most accurately described by the general theory of relativity (proposed by Albert Einstein in 1915) which describes gravity not as a force, but as a consequence of the curvature of spacetime caused by the uneven distribution of mass. The most extreme example of this curvature of spacetime is a black hole, from which nothing—not even light—can escape once past the black hole's event horizon. However, for most applications, gravity is well approximated by Newton's law of universal gravitation, which describes gravity as a force which causes any two bodies to be attracted to each other, with the force proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.\n",
"The first field theory of gravity was Newton's theory of gravitation in which the mutual interaction between two masses obeys an inverse square law. This was very useful for predicting the motion of planets around the Sun.\n",
"Entropic gravity, also known as emergent gravity, is a theory in modern physics that describes gravity as an \"entropic force\"—a force with macro-scale homogeneity but which is subject to quantum-level disorder—and not a fundamental interaction. The theory, based on string theory, black hole physics, and quantum information theory, describes gravity as an \"emergent\" phenomenon that springs from the quantum entanglement of small bits of spacetime information. As such, entropic gravity is said to abide by the second law of thermodynamics under which the entropy of a physical system tends to increase over time.\n",
"Extended theories of gravity are alternative theories of gravity developed from the exact starting points investigated first by Einstein and Hilbert. These are theories describing gravity, which are metric theory, \"a linear connection\" or related affine theories, or metric-affine gravitation theory. Rather than trying to discover correct calculations for the matter side of the Einstein field equations; which include inflation, dark energy, dark matter, large-scale structure, and possibly quantum gravity; it is proposed, instead, to change the gravitational side of the equation.\n",
"Gravity is the weakest of the four fundamental interactions of physics, approximately 10 times weaker than the strong interaction, 10 times weaker than the electromagnetic force and 10 times weaker than the weak interaction. As a consequence, it has no significant influence at the level of subatomic particles. In contrast, it is the dominant interaction at the macroscopic scale, and is the cause of the formation, shape and trajectory (orbit) of astronomical bodies. For example, gravity causes the Earth and the other planets to orbit the Sun, it also causes the Moon to orbit the Earth, and causes the formation of tides, the formation and evolution of the Solar System, stars and galaxies.\n",
"() is a type of modified gravity theory which generalizes Einstein's general relativity. () gravity is actually a family of theories, each one defined by a different function, , of the Ricci scalar, . The simplest case is just the function being equal to the scalar; this is general relativity. As a consequence of introducing an arbitrary function, there may be freedom to explain the accelerated expansion and structure formation of the Universe without adding unknown forms of dark energy or dark matter. Some functional forms may be inspired by corrections arising from a quantum theory of gravity. () gravity was first proposed in 1970 by Hans Adolph Buchdahl (although was used rather than for the name of the arbitrary function). It has become an active field of research following work by Starobinsky on cosmic inflation. A wide range of phenomena can be produced from this theory by adopting different functions; however, many functional forms can now be ruled out on observational grounds, or because of pathological theoretical problems.\n",
"In general relativity, gravity becomes a fictitious force that arises in situations where spacetime deviates from a flat geometry. As an extension, Kaluza–Klein theory and string theory ascribe electromagnetism and the other fundamental forces respectively to the curvature of differently scaled dimensions, which would ultimately imply that all forces are fictitious.\n"
] |
how/why does 'ghost pepper' cause vomiting, rectal bleeding, sweating?
|
I'm assuming the chemicals in the pepper cause a great deal of irritation to human tissues.
Regular hot peppers cause similar irritation, but not to the same degree. At a certain point hot peppers are no longer foodstuffs and are just health hazards.
|
[
"In CBS's \"The Mentalist\" episode \"Red Scare\" (Season 2, episode 5, 2009), Patrick Jane realises that Pepper's ghost was used in an attempt to scare one of the characters, an architect, from an old house he was developing.\n",
"The makers of Skunklock compare the effects to those of pepper spray, but note that the formula for the chemical inside is proprietary. They say it will temporarily disable a thief by inducing vomiting in 99 percent of people, while making it difficult to see and breathe. The chemicals used are food-grade and non-toxic, sharing chemical similarities to Swedish fermented herring.\n",
"Infection of the pepper commonly starts at the soil line leading to symptoms of dark, water soaked areas on the stem. Dark lesions of the stem may girdle the plant resulting in death. Roots of the pepper plant appear brown and mushy. Leaf spots start out small and become water soaked, and as time progresses may enlarge turn tan and crack. Blighting of new leaves may also take place. The fruit of the pepper is infected through the stem giving way to water soaked areas on the fruit that are overgrown by signs of the pathogen which appear as, \"white-gray, cottony, fungal-like growth\" (hyphae). The fruit mummifies and stays attached to the stem.\n",
"Pepper spray is an inflammatory agent. It inflames the mucous membranes in the eyes, nose, throat and lungs. It causes immediate closing of the eyes, difficulty breathing, runny nose, and coughing. The duration of its effects depends on the strength of the spray, but the average full effect lasts from 20 to 90 minutes, but eye irritation, redness and tears can last for up to 24 hours.\n",
"Kenny is turned into a zombie after a mortician accidentally knocks Worcestershire sauce, a fermented liquid condiment, into his embalming fluid. Parker and Stone originally planned to have a Dr Pepper fall into the embalming fluid (in a belated response to that product's slogan \"Dr Pepper, What's the Worst That Could Happen?\"), but it was changed after the soft drink company objected to that use of their product.\n",
"Pepper spray (also known as capsicum spray) is a lachrymatory agent (a chemical compound that irritates the eyes to cause tears, pain, and temporary blindness) used in policing, riot control, crowd control, and self-defense, including defense against dogs and bears. Its inflammatory effects cause the eyes to close, taking away vision. This temporary blindness allows officers to more easily restrain subjects and permits people in danger to use pepper spray in self-defense for an opportunity to escape. It also causes temporary discomfort and burning of the lungs which causes shortness of breath. Although considered a less-than-lethal agent, it has been deadly in rare cases, and concerns have been raised about a number of deaths where being pepper sprayed may have been a contributing factor.\n",
"The effects of pepper spray are far more severe, including temporary blindness which lasts from 15–30 minutes, a burning sensation of the skin which lasts from 45 to 60 minutes, upper body spasms which force a person to bend forward and uncontrollable coughing making it difficult to breathe or speak for between 3 and 15 minutes.\n"
] |
Where do stereotypical "redneck" names like Bubba, Skeeter, or Cletus come from?
|
LIke many Colloquial things, the etemology of these names is tough to trace because their use is rarely documented very well.
The etemology of the word bubba has [reportedly](_URL_3_) traced to the german word "Bube." (meaning boy), or a similar sounding Gullah Word [BuhBuh](_URL_0_) meaning brother. - See also [this article](_URL_1_) referencing different Gullah words for Brother, "Buh" "Bruh," and other contractions of the term all meaning "brother," and used as a familial term among African American Communities in the Antebellum south.
> Animals in the tales refer to each other as 'brother' in the same manner that slaveholders referred to their chattel as 'family.' On one side, they are indeed 'brothers' and 'family,' for they belong to the same species. On the other hand, certain characteristics, such as race or class, circumvent true kinship. These lessons were not lost on the young.
It's notable that in many southern Baptist Communities "Brother" is still a fairly frequent term used to reference a man who's a member of the community. "You should go see brother john."
Given the fairly limited German population in the South (Although a non-trivial population of German Catholics settled in the Mississippi Delta in the late 1800's and early 1900's, as well as significant german populations in Texas (per a comment) the Creole interpretation is more likely. And it's a fairly straightforward path as to how it would have gained more widespread use.
As to "Skeeter" - the root word is Mosquito. [Mirriam Webster](_URL_4_) lists the first known use of the word as referencing a mosquito to be 1839. It comes from earlier English origins describing something that is quick and darting (hence it also describing a small boat). Given the presence (or abundance I might say) of mosquitos in much of the South, it's not unusual that it might have some use as a nickname.
Cletus is trickier. Most sources seem to indicate the name is of greek origin. " It actually had some popularity as a given name in the late 19th century. I'm unable to find any sources specifically identifying how it *specifically* became associated with rednecks that predate its use on the Simpsons for the Character [Cleetus Spuckler](_URL_2_) who is a stereotypical hillbilly character with his first appearance in 1994. Edit: a comment response did point out that the Dukes of Hazzard (airing 79-85) had a character named Cletus as one of the Sherrif's deputies.
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[
"Because of its association with the southern part of the United States, \"Bubba\" is also often used outside the South as a pejorative to mean a person of low economic status and limited education. \"Bubba\" may also be taken to mean one who is a \"good ol' boy\". In the US Army and Marines, \"Bubba\" can mean a lay soldier, similar to \"grunt\", but with connotations of endearment instead of derision (e.g., \"Can you make that device easier to work with, because every Bubba is going to have to use it?\").\n",
"In addition to \"Redlegs\", the term underwent extensive progression in Barbados and the following terms were also used: \"Redshanks\", \"Poor whites\", \"Poor Backra\", \"Backra Johnny\", \"Ecky-Becky\", \"Poor Backward Johnnie\", \"Poor whites from below the hill\", \"Edey white mice\" or \"Beck-e Neck\" (Baked-neck). Historically everything besides \"poor whites\" was used as derogatory insults.\n",
"It remains a mystery why Stadnick's nickname is \"Nurget\"; one Hamilton police officer says it goes back to his high school days when as the neighborhood hash dealer, Stadnick always had a \"nugget\" of hash to sell. In 1987, Stadnick went to Toronto to try to persuade an outlaw biker club, the Vagabonds, to \"patch over\" to become Hells Angels, but the club were unwilling to submit to the sort of self-discipline that Stadnick wanted. From 1987 onward, Stadnick was closely associated with Maurice Boucher who had become a \"full patch\" Hells Angel on 3 May 1987. In 1988, Stadnick become the national president of the Canadian Hells Angels. In the spring of 1988, Langlois fled to Morocco to escape charges of first-degree murder in connection with his role in the Lennoxville massacre of 1985, and Stadnick was chosen to be his successor. Stadnick immediately appointed Boucher his Quebec lieutenant and informed him that he would largely run Hells Angels operations in Quebec while Stadnick focused on expanding the Angels into the rest of Canada. In one of his first acts as president, Stadnick together with Boucher went to Quebec City on 28 May 1988 to meet the leaders of an outlaw biker club called the Vikings. The meeting went so well that the Vikings agreed to \"patch over\" to become Hells Angels' Quebec City chapter the same night. On 23 August 1988, Stadnick was arrested at the home of Douglas Freeborn, a former Satan's Choice member and a prominent drug dealer in Hamilton. Found with him were 11 ounces of hash, which led the police to charge him with intention to sell drugs, but the charges were dropped were Freeborn sworn in court that the hash belonged to him and Stadnick had nothing to do with his drug-dealing.\n",
"The \"Ikey\" nickname originated in the 1910s as an anti-semitic epithet applied to UCT students by the students of Stellenbosch University, because of the supposed large number of Jewish students at UCT.\n",
"The Stooges' names in this short are Buffalo Billious (Curly), Wild Bill Hiccup (Moe), and Just Plain Bill (Larry). The cultural references are to, respectively, American Old West figures Buffalo Bill and Wild Bill Hickock, and \"Just Plain Bill\", the title of a long-running radio program of the era.\n",
"Redneck is a term that can range from joking (e.g. comedian Jeff Foxworthy \"You might be a redneck if...) to derogatory, depending on context and tone of delivery, chiefly but not exclusively applied to white Americans perceived to be crass and unsophisticated, closely associated with rural whites of the Southern United States. Its usage is similar in meaning to \"cracker\" (especially regarding Texas, Georgia, and Florida), \"hillbilly\" (especially regarding Appalachia and the Ozarks), and \"white trash\" (but without the last term's suggestions of immorality).\n",
"The rhyming slang for \"bollocks\" is \"\"Jackson Pollocks\"\". It can be shortened to \"Jacksons\", as in \"Modern art? Pile o' \"Jacksons\" if you ask me!\". \"Sandra Bullocks\" is occasionally used to approximate rhyming slang; it does not quite rhyme, but preserves meter and rhythm. The Beautiful South bowdlerised their original line \"\"sweaty bollocks\"\" as \"\"Sandra Bullocks\"\", as one of several changes to make their song \"Don't Marry Her\" acceptable for mainstream radio play.\n"
] |
How accurate, topographically speaking, was the Chernobyl level in CoD 4?
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I don't know about topography, but the way the game is styled is fairly accurate. Pripyat has been abandoned since the Chernobyl nuclear plant disaster, so everything has been left for mother nature to control. But the ferris wheel is actually real and is still in Pripyat and some of the more famous building are also worked into the game
_URL_0_
_URL_1_
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[
"Unfortunately, hydrological and geological conditions in Chernobyl area promoted rapid radionuclide migration to subsurface water network. These factors include flat terrain, abundant precipitation and highly permeable sandy sediments Main natural factors of nuclides migration in the region can be divided into four groups, including: weather and climate-related (evaporation and precipitation frequency, intensity and distribution); geological (sediment permeability, drainage regimes, forms of vegetation); soil-borne (physical, hydrological and mechanical properties of lands); and lithological (terrain structures and types of rock). In meliorated areas migration processes are additionally influenced by anthropogenic drivers related to human agricultural activities. In this relation, specific parameters and type of drainage regime, melioration practices, water control and sprinkling can substantially accelerate natural tempos of migration of contaminants. For example, artificial drainage leads to substantial increase of absorption and flushing rates. These technological factors are particularly significant for the regions along Pripyat river and Dnieper river, which are almost totally subject to artificial irrigation and drainage within the network of constructed reservoirs and dams.\n",
"Collection of radioecological data from the Chernobyl disaster was performed on a private basis. Independent researchers collected data regarding the various dosage levels and geographical differences among the afflicted areas, allowing them to draw conclusions about the nature and intensity of the damage caused to ecosystems by the disaster.\n",
"Recent revelations of facts concealed by the Soviet propaganda show that the problem of groundwater radioactive contamination in Chernobyl zone existed long before the actual disaster. The analyses conducted in 1983-1985 showed deviation of radioactive standards in 1,5-2 times, as a result of earlier accidental malfunctions of CNPP in 1982 When the catastrophe occurred, groundwater irradiation was caused due to contamination of lands in the area of the wrecked fourth reactor. Furthermore, subsurface water was contaminated through unconfined aquifer in correlation and proportionally to contamination of soil by isotopes of Strontium and Caesium . Upper groundwater aquifer and most of Artesian aquifers were damaged in first place due to massive surface contamination with radioactive isotopes Strontium-90 and Cesium-137. At the same time, considerable levels of radioactive content were fixed on the periphery of exclusion zone, including part of potable water delivery system. This revelation proved the fact of migration of radioactive contaminants through the groundwater aquifers \n",
"In September 2005, a comprehensive report was published by the Chernobyl Forum, comprising a number of agencies including the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), the World Health Organization (WHO), United Nations bodies and the Governments of Belarus, the Russian Federation and Ukraine. This report titled: \"Chernobyl's legacy: Health, Environmental and Socio-Economic Impacts\", authored by about 100 recognized experts from many countries, put the total predicted number of deaths due to the disaster around 4,000 (of which 2,200 deaths are expected to be in the ranks of 200,000 liquidators). This predicted death toll includes the 47 workers who died of acute radiation syndrome as a direct result of radiation from the disaster, nine children who died from thyroid cancer and an estimated 4000 people who could die from cancer as a result of exposure to radiation. This number was subsequently updated to 9000 excess cancer deaths.\n",
"The Chernobyl disaster released roughly 10 PBq, or about 5% of the core inventory, of strontium-90 into the environment. The Fukushima Daiichi disaster released 0.1-1 PBq of strontium-90 in the form of contaminated cooling water into the Pacific Ocean.\n",
"Subsurface water was especially affected by radioactivity in the 30-km zone of evacuation (so called “exclusion zone”), surrounding the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant, or CNPP (Kovar&Herbert, 1998. The major and most hazardous contaminant from the perspective of hydrological spread was Strontium-90. This nuclide showed the most active mobility in subsurface waters; its rapid migration through groundwater aquifer was first discovered in 1988-1989 Other perilous nuclear isotopes included Cesium-137, Cesium-143, Ruthenium-106, Plutonium-239, Plutonium-240, Americium-241 The primary source of contamination was the damaged 4th reactor, which had actually been a crash site and where concentration of Strontium-90 initially exceeded the admissible levels for drinking water in 103-104 times. The reactor remained an epicenter of irradiation even after the emergency personnel built “Sarcophagus”, or “Shelter”, a protective construction aimed to isolate it from the environment. The structure proved to be non-hermetic, permeable to rainfall, snow and dew concentrations in many parts of 1000 m2 area Additionally, high amounts of cesium, tritium and plutonium were delivered to groundwater due to leakage of enriched water from the 4th reactor while building of the “Shelter” was in progress As a result, considerable amounts of water condensed inside the “Shelter” and absorbed radiation from nuclides-containing dust and fuels. Although most of this water evaporated, some portions of it leaked to groundwater from the surface layers under the reactor chambers.\n",
"Substantial groundwater contamination is one of the gravest environmental impacts caused by Chernobyl disaster. As a part of overall freshwater damage, it relates to so-called “secondary” contamination, caused by the delivery of radioactive materials through unconfined aquifers to the groundwater network It proved to be particularly challenging because groundwater basins, especially deep-laying aquifers, were traditionally considered invulnerable to diverse extraneous contaminants. To the surprise of scientists, Radionuclides of Chernobyl origin were found even in deep-laying waters with formation period of several hundred years\n"
] |
If you had a properly sized lens completely free of any imperfection, could you build a magnifying glass that could see atoms?
|
No, because the wavelength of (visible) light is longer than the distances between atoms, so they cannot be distinguished are the therefore non-resolvable. 1000x magnification is about as far as light can go, which allows you to see bacteria, but not viruses.
Electron microscopes are instead used because the wavelength of electrons...or something...is short enough to distinguish between two objects at that scale.
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[
"Lower size sensors also allow for the use of a wider range of lenses, since some types of optical impurities (specifically vignetting) are most visible around the edge of the lens. By only using the center of the lens, these impurities are not noticed. In practice, this allows for the use of lower cost glass without corresponding loss of quality.\n",
"The most important application of this concept is in cameras and telescopes. Due to diffraction, the smallest point to which a lens or mirror can focus a beam of light is the size of the Airy disk. Even if one were able to make a perfect lens, there is still a limit to the resolution of an image created by such a lens. An optical system in which the resolution is no longer limited by imperfections in the lenses but only by diffraction is said to be diffraction limited.\n",
"Convex lenses produce an image of an object at infinity at their focus; if the sun is imaged, much of the visible and infrared light incident on the lens is concentrated into the small image. A large lens creates enough intensity to burn a flammable object at the focal point. Since ignition can be achieved even with a poorly made lens, lenses have been used as burning-glasses for at least 2400 years. A modern application is the use of relatively large lenses to concentrate solar energy on relatively small photovoltaic cells, harvesting more energy without the need to use larger and more expensive cells.\n",
"It is possible for spectacle lenses to be made which can adjust the image sizes presented to the eye to be approximately equal. These are called iseikonic lenses. In practice though, this is rarely ever done.\n",
"Lenses can first be designed using paraxial theory to position images and pupils, then real surfaces inserted and optimized. Paraxial theory can be skipped in simpler cases and the lens directly optimized using real surfaces. Lenses are first designed using average index of refraction and dispersion (see Abbe number) properties published in the glass manufacturer's catalog and though glass model calculations. However, the properties of the real glass blanks will vary from this ideal; index of refraction values can vary by as much as 0.0003 or more from catalog values, and dispersion can vary slightly. These changes in index and dispersion can sometimes be enough to affect the lens focus location and imaging performance in highly corrected systems.\n",
"The conventional glass lens is pervasive throughout our society and in the sciences. It is one of the fundamental tools of optics simply because it interacts with various wavelengths of light. At the same time, the wavelength of light can be analogous to the width of a pencil used to draw the ordinary images. The limit becomes noticeable, for example, when the laser used in a digital video system can only detect and deliver details from a DVD based on the wavelength of light. The image cannot be rendered any sharper beyond this limitation.\n",
"The precision glass moulding process is not limited to small optics. For the right element geometry, it can enable economical production of aspheric lenses up to 60 mm in diameter and more than 20 mm thick.\n"
] |
why do all space launch pictures make the space ship look like it’s going in a full circle?
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The rocket doesn't go straight up to exit the atmosphere, it has to curve to conserve energy and reach the desired altitude. So the trail from the rocket explosion is really curved, because its trajectory was curved.
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[
"The section of spaceship that appears in the park scenes was created using scaffolding covered with plastic sheets. The lighting of these scenes was intended to pastiche \"Close Encounters of the Third Kind\". The special effects shots of the ship in flight were recycled from the TV series \"\". Due to the variety of shots used the appearance of the ship changes over the course of the film.\n",
"Fulci has proclaimed that to film the scene where a space ship takes off in the film, he used four lights, a black cloth over a stage with a lot of little bulks on the floor for stars that was shot in slow motion. Fulci referred to this scene as \"a source of pride for me!\". Howarth, a Fulci biographer commented that Fulci's memory must have wrong, as the scene in the film is accomplished through stock footage.\n",
"Shots where the spacecraft had parts in motion or the perspective changed were shot by directly filming the model. For most shots the model was stationary and camera was driven along a track on a special mount, the motor of which was mechanically linked to the camera motor—making it possible to repeat camera moves and match speeds exactly. Elements of the scene were recorded on same piece of film in separate passes to combine the lit model, stars, planets, or other spacecraft in the same shot. In moving shots of the long \"Discovery One\" spacecraft, in order to keep the entire model in focus, multiple passes had to be made with the lighting on it blocked out section by section. In each pass the camera would be focused on the one lit section. Many matting techniques were tried to block out the stars behind the models, with film makers sometimes resorting to hand tracing frame by frame around the image of the spacecraft (rotoscoping) to create the matte.\n",
"In shots where there was no perspective change, still shots of the models were photographed and positive paper prints were made. The image of the model was cut out of the photographic print and mounted on glass and filmed on an animation stand. The undeveloped film was re-wound to film the star background with the silhouette of the model photograph acting as a matte to block out where the spaceship image was.\n",
"Because of the nighttime launch and the fact that the International Space Station was orbiting over Baikonur at the time of lift-off, the launch of TMA-12M was visible from the ISS and NASA astronaut Richard Mastracchio was able to take a photograph of the view (see below in gallery).\n",
"Since NASA's Space Shuttle program had not been launched, Derek Meddings and his miniatures team had to create the rocket launch footage without any reference. Shuttle models attached to bottle rockets and signal flares were used for take-off, and the smoke trail was created with salt that fell from the models. The space scenes were done by rewinding the camera after an element was shot, enabling other elements to be superimposed in the film stock, with the space battle needing up to forty rewinds to incorporate everything. The climactic scenes of the space station disintegrating were created by Meddings and other members of the special effects team shooting the miniature model with shotguns.\n",
"All of the spaceships in the film were miniatures, as visual effects supervisors believed CGI was not effective enough to create realistic spaceships. The USM \"Auriga\" was originally designed by artist Nigel Phelps and resembled a medical instrument. This design proved to be too vertical for the film's opening shot, in which the camera pans out to show the ship, and did not appear satisfactory in the film's 2.35:1 aspect ratio. Three days before the design had to be finalized, Jeunet rejected it. Phelps, production illustrator Jim Martin, and concept artist Sylvain Despretz were tasked to redesign the ship. Jeunet felt Martin's design was too much like a space station, while he accepted Despretz's design due to its streamlined and horizontal appearance.\n"
] |
why have many pathogens evolved to be deadly if this constrains their ability to spread?
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We are not the natural host animal for many pathogens. The best way to find the host organism is to ask...which animal does it hurt the least but still grow in?
The really deadly ones are usually not regular human diseases....HIV has only been in us for 70-80 years. Ebola is usually in small forest animals.
|
[
"While there might be pathogens that can infect other hosts and cause disease, the inability to pervade, or spread, throughout the infected host species indicates that the pathogen is not adapted to that host species. In this case, the ability or lack thereof of a pathogen to adapt to its host environment is an indicator of the pathogen's fitness or virulence. If a pathogen has high fitness in the host environment, or is virulent, it will be able to grow and spread quickly within its host. Conversely, if the pathogen is not well adapted to its host environment, then it will not spread or infect the way a well adapted pathogen would.\n",
"A pathogen is only successful in infecting an organism if it can get past its defenses. Pathogenic bacteria and protozoa have developed a variety of methods to resist attacks by phagocytes, and many actually survive and replicate within phagocytic cells.\n",
"At one time, some biologists argued that pathogens would tend to evolve toward ever decreasing virulence because the death of the host (or even serious disability) is ultimately harmful to the pathogen living inside. For example, if the host dies, the pathogen population inside may die out entirely. Therefore, it was believed that less virulent pathogens that allowed the host to move around and interact with other hosts should have greater success reproducing and dispersing.\n",
"Many pathogens are thought to have host specialization, which explains the maintenance of distinct strains in host species. Pathogens would have to overcome their host specificity to cross to a new host species. Some studies have argued that host specializations may be exaggerated, and pathogens are more likely to exhibit CST than previously thought. Original hosts usually have low death rates when infected with a pathogen, with fatality rates tending to be much higher in new hosts\n",
"Pathogens must have a way to be transmitted from one host to another to ensure their species' survival. Infectious agents are generally specialized for a particular method of transmission. Taking an example from the respiratory route, from an evolutionary perspective viruses or bacteria that cause their host to develop coughing and sneezing symptoms have a great survival advantage, as they are much more likely to be ejected from one host and carried to another. This is also the reason that many microorganisms cause diarrhea.\n",
"The most frequently identified pathogens are \"Aspergillus fumigatus\" and \"Aspergillus flavus\", ubiquitous organisms capable of living under extensive environmental stress. Most humans are thought to inhale thousands of \"Aspergillus\" spores daily, but they do not affect most people’s health due to effective immune responses. Taken together, the major chronic, invasive, and allergic forms of aspergillosis account for around 600,000 deaths annually worldwide.\n",
"There are several pathways through which pathogens can invade a host. The principal pathways have different episodic time frames, but soil has the longest or most persistent potential for harboring a pathogen. Diseases in humans that are caused by infectious agents are known as pathogenic diseases, though not all diseases are caused by pathogens. Some diseases, such as Huntington's disease, are caused by inheritance of abnormal genes.\n"
] |
why does a person's body stop the force of a grenade when the force is strong enough to break through walls?
|
Hand grenades aren't anywhere NEAR as powerful as shown in the movies, and they are specifically not an explosive-damage weapon, they are a shrapnel weapon.
|
[
"The grenade has a lethal radius of , an injury radius of , but beyond radius the risk of injury is minimal. An untrained soldier could normally throw the grenade , making it safe to use as on offensive grenade, as well as a defensive grenade.\n",
"Throwing a grenade upstairs is dangerous, due to the risk of it falling back down; it is much safer to throw a grenade downstairs, so it is safer to capture a building from the top, rather than the bottom. Grenades generally explode near the floor, causing spalling downwards towards lower floors.\n",
"A key concern is that the grenade is picked up and thrown away or back at the thrower. The USMC's preferred technique to prevent this is a hard-throw, skip/bounce technique, where the grenade is thrown hard enough that it bounces or skips around, being hard to pick up and throw back – this is applicable when clearing a room, for instance. In other uses, such as to reach upper floors of a building, a grenade may be lobbed for greater distance or accuracy.\n",
"Blast waves will wrap around objects and buildings. Therefore, persons or objects behind a large building are not necessarily protected from a blast that starts on the opposite side of the building. Scientists use sophisticated mathematical models to predict how objects will respond to a blast in order to design effective barriers and safer buildings.\n",
"BULLET::::- Objects: Some objects such as vases, icicles, heavy cargo, wooden block, rocks, etc. can be knocked down from above to either create a distracting noise or kill enemies beneath (or both). If enemies are killed by objects, other enemies won't raise an alarm, thinking it's an accident. Other opportunities to create \"accidents\" may also present themselves; Hayato, for example, may provoke an ox to kick and kill an enemy standing behind it by throwing a rock at it.\n",
"The disadvantage of this method is that when a soldier wants to launch a grenade, they must mount the grenade to the muzzle prior to each shot. If they are surprised by a close-range threat while preparing to fire the grenade, they have to reverse the procedure before they can respond with rifle fire. Due to the lack of a barrel, rifle grenades also tend to be more difficult to fire accurately compared to underbarrel or standalone designs.\n",
"Falling on a grenade is the deliberate act of using one's body to cover a live time-fused hand grenade, absorbing the explosion and fragmentation in an effort to save the lives of others nearby. Since this is almost universally fatal, it is considered an especially conspicuous and selfless act of individual sacrifice in wartime; in United States military history, more citations for the Medal of Honor have been awarded for falling on grenades to save comrades than any other single act.\n"
] |
What's stopping a black hole from growing exponentially massive and destroying entire systems?
|
You might be interested in reading about [Sagittarius A*](_URL_0_), which is likely a colossal black hole at the center of our galaxy. It's thought to be about 12 light hours across, or about the size of the orbit of Neptune, and have a mass of about 5 million stars.
In fact, it's now commonly believe that every spiral galaxy has a super-massive black hole at it's core. The only thing really keeping them from destroying everything is... time. It take a long time to destroy a galaxy, much less the universe, as evidence by our survival for the last 13.2 billion years or so.
In reality, the orbits of star systems around the galactic center are very stable, and it will take enormous amounts of time for them to decay to the point of being consumed by a black hole. Just like our planets have orbited relatively stably for billions of years, so does the sun.
|
[
"The largest black holes in the universe are predicted to continue to grow. Larger black holes of up to (100 trillion) may form during the collapse of superclusters of galaxies. Even these would evaporate over a timescale of up to years. \n",
"If black holes evaporate under Hawking radiation, a solar mass black hole will evaporate over 10 years. A supermassive black hole with a mass of 10 (100 billion) will evaporate in around 2×10 years. Some monster black holes in the universe are predicted to continue to grow up to perhaps 10 during the collapse of superclusters of galaxies. Even these would evaporate over a timescale of up to 10 years\n",
"After years, black holes will dominate the universe. They will slowly evaporate via Hawking radiation.A black hole with a mass of around will vanish in around 2 years. As the lifetime of a black hole is proportional to the cube of its mass, more massive black holes take longer to decay. A supermassive black hole with a mass of (100 billion) will evaporate in around 2 years.\n",
"If black holes evaporate via Hawking radiation, a solar mass black hole will evaporate (beginning once the temperature of the cosmic microwave background drops below that of the black hole) over a period of 10 years. A supermassive black hole with a mass of 10 (100 billion) will evaporate in around 2×10 years. Some monster black holes in the universe are predicted to continue to grow up to perhaps 10 during the collapse of superclusters of galaxies. Even these would evaporate over a timescale of up to 10 years.\n",
"There are three reasons the black holes in the ELIRGs could be massive. First, the embryonic black holes might be bigger than thought possible. Second, the Eddington limit was exceeded. When a black hole feeds, gas falls in and heats, emitting light. The pressure of the emitted light forces the gas outward, creating a limit to how fast the black hole can continuously absorb matter. If a black hole broke this limit, it could theoretically increase in size at a fast rate. Black holes have previously been observed breaking this limit; the black hole in the study would have had to repeatedly break the limit to grow this large. Third, the black holes might just be bending this limit, absorbing gas faster than thought possible, if the black hole is not spinning fast. If a black hole spins slowly, it will not repel its gas absorption as much. A slow-spinning black hole can absorb more matter than a fast-spinning black hole. The massive black holes in ELIRGs could be absorbing matter for a longer time.\n",
"Production of a black hole requires concentration of mass or energy within the corresponding Schwarzschild radius. It is hypothesized by Zel'dovich and Novikov first and independently by Hawking that, shortly after the Big Bang, the Universe was dense enough for any given region of space to fit within its own Schwarzschild radius. Even so, at that time, the Universe was not able to collapse into a singularity due to its uniform mass distribution and rapid growth. This, however, does not fully exclude the possibility that black holes of various sizes may have emerged locally. A black hole formed in this way is called a primordial black hole and is the most widely accepted hypothesis for the possible creation of micro black holes. Computer simulations suggest that the probability of formation of a primordial black hole is inversely proportional to its mass. Thus, the most likely outcome would be micro black holes.\n",
"There is, however, an upper limit to how large supermassive black holes can grow. So-called ultramassive black holes (UMBHs), which are at least ten times the size of most supermassive black holes, at 10 billion solar masses or more, appear to have a theoretical upper limit of around 50 billion solar masses, as anything above this slows growth down to a crawl (the slowdown tends to start around 10 billion solar masses) and causes the unstable accretion disk surrounding the black hole to coalesce into stars that orbit it.\n"
] |
When they say that CERN achieved a heat record of ~5 trillion degrees, what does that actually mean/do?
|
Physicists often use "temperature" as a way of describing the average kinetic energy of a group of particles. The total energy involved is small, but the energy per particle is large, thus the temperature is large.
See [Wikipedia on the temperature of gasses](_URL_0_) for a somewhat relevant discussion.
|
[
"Gamow's prediction was a 5–10-kelvin black-body radiation temperature for the universe, after it cooled during the expansion. This was corroborated by Penzias and Wilson in 1965. Subsequent experiments arrived at a 2.7 kelvins temperature, corresponding to an age of the universe of 13.8 billion years after the Big Bang.\n",
"The RHIC physicists announced new temperature measurements for these experiments of up to 4 trillion kelvins, the highest temperature ever achieved in a laboratory. It is described as a recreation of the conditions that existed during the birth of the Universe.\n",
"In August 2012 ALICE scientists announced that their experiments produced quark–gluon plasma with temperature at around 5.5 trillion kelvins, the highest temperature achieved in any physical experiments thus far. This temperature is about 38% higher than the previous record of about 4 trillion kelvins, achieved in the 2010 experiments at the Brookhaven National Laboratory. The ALICE results were announced at the August 13 \"Quark Matter 2012\" conference in Washington, D.C.. The quark–gluon plasma produced by these experiments approximates the conditions in the universe that existed microseconds after the Big Bang, before the matter coalesced into atoms.\n",
"BULLET::::- Physicists collide gold ions together to produce a quark–gluon plasma, similar to that which existed in the first instant after the Big Bang. In doing so, they momentarily produce what Guinness World Records reports is the highest man-made temperature ever: 4 trillion degrees Celsius (7.2 trillion degrees Fahrenheit). (\"Los Angeles Times\")\n",
"In August 2012 ALICE scientists announced that their experiments produced quark–gluon plasma with temperature at around 5.5 trillion kelvins, the highest temperature mass achieved in any physical experiments thus far. This temperature is about 38% higher than the previous record of about 4 trillion kelvins, achieved in the 2010 experiments at the Brookhaven National Laboratory.\n",
"BULLET::::3. the critical temperature is expected to be given by the QCD scale, which is of order 100 MeV, or 10 kelvin, the temperature of the universe a few minutes after the Big Bang, so quark matter that we may currently observe in compact stars or other natural settings will be below this temperature.\n",
"This work has often been used as a foundation for reconstructing past global temperatures, and was used in previous versions of two of the best-known reconstructions, that prepared by the National Climatic Data Center (NCDC), and that prepared by NASA as its Goddard Institute for Space Studies (GISS) temperature set. The average temperature record is 60 years long with ~1650 records greater than 100 years and ~220 greater than 150 years (based on GHCN v2 in 2006). The earliest data included in the database were collected in 1697.\n"
] |
Can you give any information about this flag?
|
hi! Do consider x-posting this to /r/vexillology (the flag sub!)
|
[
"Some reference books give alternate versions of this flag, e.g. green with a white 6- or 8-pointed star, or green with a yellow star. None of the writers, however, cite any sources for their information.\n",
"This chapter, which describes about the national flag in detail, is the longest of the three chapters on each symbol. Consisting of thirty articles, this chapter lists dates on when the Mexican flag is flown and how it is flown, about the various honors that is presented to the flag and the various flag devices that can be used, such as the corbata.\n",
"However, the CBS document does not illustrate the early versions of the flag and its description of the 1949 flag is not entirely consistent with the photos surviving from 1949. It describes the flag as \"square\", while the proportions of the flag in the photographs appear closer to 4:5. The document describes the dragon as \"facing the fly end\", while the dragon visible in the photos faces the hoist. The dragon is described as \"parallel to the fly\" (meaning, according to a diagram in the document, parallel to the length along the bottom edge of the flag), while the dragon in the photos appears to have a slightly rising vertical slant. The dragon is described as \"green\", but the shade in the photos, if indeed green, must be very pale. \n",
"The article dictates what must be featured on the flag and also its proportions. Copies of the national flag which are made according to this law are kept in two locations: the General National Archive (\"Archivo General de la Nación\") and the National Museum of History (\"Museo Nacional de Historia\"). \n",
"The flag consists of three symbols: a star representing the United States, a latte stone representing the Chamorros, and a \"mwarmwar\" (decorative wreath) representing the Carolinians; the blue background represents the ocean and the Mariana Trench.\n",
"Article 4 of the 1959 constitution specifies the presence of a technical dossier containing a model of the flag, a guide to drawing it, which includes the proper measurements, and technical specifications of its colors.\n",
"The flag is based on a similar flag used during the Bangladesh Liberation War of 1971, which had a yellow map of the country inside the red disc. In 1972 this map was removed from the flag. One reason given was the difficulty for rendering the map correctly on both sides of the flag. The civil ensign and naval ensign place it in the canton of a red or white field, respectively. The Green part of the flag is irrelevant to Islam.\n"
] |
why do we grow out of things.
|
Because your tastes change as you get older and you learn more about the world and develop your social life. As you're exposed to more, better media, you start to realize how underdeveloped, uninteresting, and pandering a lot of children's media is.
|
[
"From an evolutionary perspective, creativity may be a result of the outcome of years of generating ideas. As ideas are continuously generated, the need to evolve produces a need for new ideas and developments. As a result, people have been creating and developing new, innovative, and creative ideas to build our progress as a society.\n",
"Growing up is growing up. It doesn’t really matter where you are because you don’t really know any better when you’re a kid. I knew I was poor, but that again just teaches you how to swindle money. Also, where I grew up is one of the most beautiful places in the world. And I would know; I’ve been everywhere.\n",
"The forth of Growth represents progress and development, potential limited only by motivation. Unfortunately, Growth lacks direction, and has potential for both good and evil. Growth is, appropriately, represented by a teenager—a somewhat dour and cynical boy, who is implied to have lost his faith in the world. This Envoy and his Original begin to grow apart as the novel progresses, diverging, and even spending a lot of time away from each other, unlike most other Envoy/Original pairs. Unlike the other Envoys, Growth does not remember his past incarnations, as experience would defeat the purpose of growing.\n",
"Growth mindsets are characterized by the belief that talents and abilities are things that are developed through effort, practice and instruction. Individuals with growth mindsets feel that they control their success, rather than external forces, so they are better able to problem solve and persist through setbacks. Research has shown that growth mindsets foster a more positive attitude toward practice and learning, a desire for feedback, a greater ability to deal with setbacks, and significantly better performance over time.\n",
"Decease and growth represent a new aggregation () and disruption (). However, the original intermixture of things is never wholly overcome. Each thing contains in itself parts of other things or heterogeneous elements, and is what it is, only on account of the preponderance of certain homogeneous parts which constitute its character. Out of this process arise the things we see in this world.\n",
"Development concerns expanding the choices people have, to lead lives that they value, and improving the human condition so that people have the chance to lead full lives. Thus, human development is about much more than economic growth, which is only a means of enlarging people's choices. Fundamental to enlarging these choices is building human capabilities—the range of things that people can do or be in life. Capabilities are \"the substantive freedoms [a person] enjoys to lead the kind of life [they have] reason to value\". Human development disperses the concentration of the distribution of goods and services underprivileged people need and center its ideas on human decisions. By investing in people, we enable growth and empower people to pursue many different life paths, thus developing human capabilities. The most basic capabilities for human development are to lead long and healthy lives, be knowledgeable (i.e., educated), have access to resources and social services needed for a decent standard of living, and be able to participate in the life of the community. Without these, many choices are not available, and many opportunities in life remain inaccessible.\n",
"Deep fundamental change happens because of what people do (not what they are given, not what is done to them). When people learn to make use of what they have, where they are, today—then people are moving forward to a future that they can shape according to their priorities.\n"
] |
What property decides if a material can be a superconductor?
|
That is a really hard question to answer, mainly because there's several classes of superconductors and only for one of those we really understand all the details.
**Conventional** superconductors can be explained by [BCS Theory](_URL_0_). The gist of this theory is that 2 electrons interact with each other via deformations/vibrations of the atomic lattice in the material. In this case they are no longer 2 independent electrons but can instead be thought of as a "Cooper pair". This cooper pair now has very different behavior compared to simple electrons (the details of why this is the case needs too much background information to just explain in this short answer) and can travel through the material without any resistance.
With that explanation of superconductivity it's perhaps easy to see that, to become superconducting, materials need a strong interaction between the electrons and the atomic lattice vibrations. The stronger the electrons interact with the lattice, the easier they can "use" those interactions to "talk to each other".
This also explains why you need low temperatures for superconductivity. The temperature of the material is nothing other than the lattice vibrations, so if you have too high a temperature, the lattice deformations of the electrons just get drowned out in all the thermal lattice vibrations happening.
This is only true for the conventional superconductors though. There are high temperature superconductors like YBCO (Yttrium Barium Copper Oxide) and other cuprates where the mechanism of superconductivity is still mostly unclear. There are 2 main theories about this unconventional superconductivity, one supposes that you can explain it by a coupling between layers of conventional superconductors that boosts the transition temperature to higher values and the other theory explains these materials by antiferromagnetic spin fluctuations. Explaining the latter one is really beyond the scope of this answer and since I don't do research on high-temperature superconductors I'm not really the right person to answer that anyway.
|
[
"On the other hand, there is a class of properties that are independent of the underlying material. For instance, all superconductors have \"exactly\" zero resistivity to low applied currents when there is no magnetic field present or if the applied field does not exceed a critical value. The existence of these \"universal\" properties implies that superconductivity is a thermodynamic phase, and thus possesses certain distinguishing properties which are largely independent of microscopic details.\n",
"Most of the physical properties of superconductors vary from material to material, such as the heat capacity and the critical temperature, critical field, and critical current density at which superconductivity is destroyed.\n",
"Superconductivity is the set of physical properties observed in certain materials, wherein electrical resistance no longer exists and from which magnetic flux fields are expelled. Any material exhibiting these properties is a superconductor. Unlike an ordinary metallic conductor, whose resistance decreases gradually as its temperature is lowered even down to near absolute zero, a superconductor has a characteristic critical temperature below which the resistance drops abruptly to zero. An electric current through a loop of superconducting wire can persist indefinitely with no power source.\n",
"The actual superconducting material is often written as YBaCuO, where \"d\" must be less than 0.7 for superconductivity. The reason for this is still not clear, but it is known that the vacancies occur only in certain places in the crystal, the copper oxide planes, and chains, giving rise to a peculiar oxidation state of the copper atoms, which somehow leads to the superconducting behavior.\n",
"Superconducting steel is a concept in materials science, referring to the idea of a steel alloy that would behave as a superconductor. The term has appeared primarily in discussions of designs of imagined devices involving nuclear fusion or processes with still higher densities of power.\n",
"Electrons in the superconducting state of a superconductor are ordered in a very different way than in a normal metal, i.e. they are paired into Cooper pairs. Furthermore, electrons in a material cannot be said to have a definitive position because of the momentum-position complementarity. In solid state physics one generally chooses a momentum space basis, and all electron states are filled with electrons until the Fermi surface in a metal, or until the gap edge energy in the superconductor.\n",
"The question of how superconductivity arises in high-temperature superconductors is one of the major unsolved problems of theoretical condensed matter physics. The mechanism that causes the electrons in these crystals to form pairs is not known. Despite intensive research and many promising leads, an explanation has so far eluded scientists. One reason for this is that the materials in question are generally very complex, multi-layered crystals (for example, BSCCO), making theoretical modelling difficult. \n"
] |
my company has a wifi network for their employees to connect their "personal devices" to. can they see everything i do?
|
Connections that are end-to-end encrypted should be secure, assuming that your company isn't doing some sort of man-in-the-middle attack on your traffic.
"Man in the middle" would be that you try to get a secure connection to Site A, and a machine on the company network replies saying that it is Site A, and then you send all your encrypted data to that machine. Then it forwards the messages on to the actual Site A, but only after decrypting it and saving a copy somewhere.
|
[
"Wireless Internet service providers (WISPs) operate independently of mobile phone operators. WISPs typically employ low-cost IEEE 802.11 Wi-Fi radio systems to link up remote locations over great distances (Long-range Wi-Fi), but may use other higher-power radio communications systems as well.\n",
"BULLET::::- The user's mobile terminal (laptop or PDA) physically connects to a network, either by plugging in a cable (Ethernet or Firewire) or by associating with a wireless access point via Wi-Fi or Bluetooth.\n",
"As per Motorola's marketing material, the system uses a broadband Internet connection in order for the customer to stay connected to their home and its other residents through the kit owner's computer or compatible mobile phone. Sensor-detected activities\n",
"The Company's products are designed to work with existing telecommunications infrastructure to provide low-cost voice and data services for access to both wireless (Wi-Fi) and fixed line) products, optimized for mobile backhaul, metro aggregation, broadband access and Wi-Fi data. As of 2015, the company focuses on two core areas: broadband and next-generation networks (NGN).\n",
"Companies will begin to use WiMAX to communicate from office to office, relatively near to each other and provide campus wide wireless connectivity to employees. Employee's computers will need to use new WiMAX cards to connect to these new networks. Next, or at the same time, public places such as airports, parks and coffee shops will be outfitted with WiMAX access points.\n",
"At a professional level, it is a common sight for companies to have their computers and laptops hooked up onto the Internet (via wired and wireless Internet connection), and for employees to have individual e-mail accounts. This greatly facilitates internal (among staffs of the company) and external (with other parties outside of one’s organization) communication. Mobile communications such as smart phones are increasingly making their way into the corporate world. For instance, in 2008, Apple announced their intention to actively step up their efforts to help companies incorporate the iPhone into their enterprise environment, facilitated by technological developments in streamlining integrated features (push e-mail, calendar and contact management) using ActiveSync.\n",
"WISPr (pronounced \"whisper\") or Wireless Internet Service Provider roaming is a draft protocol submitted to the Wi-Fi Alliance that allows users to roam between wireless internet service providers in a fashion similar to that which allows cellphone users to roam between carriers. A RADIUS server is used to authenticate the subscriber's credentials.\n"
] |
why aren't women allowed in the royal armoured corps?
|
They *can* join the Household Cavalry, Armoured Corps and Infantry regiments, they are just not allowed an active combat role.
I don't want to get into a debate about the reasons (can't be bothered to do this again) but remember that when people start to compare the physical fitness don't make the mistake of thinking Ronda Rousey vs Maurice Moss (without the gun) but think Ronda Rousey Vs Mike Tyson in his prime. I.E. people will start to compare well known physically fit women against the average guy on the street, not to well known physically fit men.
|
[
"Women are not allowed to have combat roles in the armed forces. According to a study carried out on this issue, a recommendation was made that female officers be excluded from induction in close combat arms. The study also held that a permanent commission could not be granted to female officers since they have neither been trained for command nor have they been given the responsibility so far. Although changes are appearing and women are playing important roles in army and the defence minister is also female.\n",
"On 27 September 2011, the Defence Minister Stephen Smith announced that women will be allowed to serve in frontline combat roles by 2016, including special forces. Women in the Australian military have been known to pass the physical selection tests for the army's elite Commando Regiment for many years, such as notable Lieutenant Colonel Fleur Froggatt two decades before this announcement , but were barred from joining due to their gender. In January 2012, Senior Defence sources said that while several women had recently passed physical entry tests for special forces, they had prevented further advancement due to 'injury concerns'. In refusing to provide the numbers of women who had passed entry tests for the SAS or commandos, or when they passed, Defence cited security concerns. \n",
"As a result of personnel shortages in the late 1980s the restriction against women in combat-related positions was dropped in 1990, and women were for the first time allowed to serve in warships, RAAF combat squadrons and many positions in the Army. Women were banned from positions involving physical combat, however, and were unable to serve in infantry, armoured, artillery and engineering units in the Army and clearance diving and ground defence positions in the RAN and RAAF respectively.\n",
"There are no restrictions on roles for women in the New Zealand Defence Force. They are able to serve in the Special Air Service infantry, armour and artillery. (So far no woman has yet made it into the Special Air Service.) This came into effect in 2001 by subordinate legislation, with a report in 2005 finding that the move helped drive a societal shift that \"values women as well as men\" but that integration of women into combat roles \"needed a deliberate and concerted effort\".\n",
"Women may now join the British Armed forces in all roles except those whose \"primary duty is to close with and kill the enemy\": Infantry, Household Cavalry, Royal Armoured Corps, Royal Marines Commandos, RAF Regiment, Special Air Service and Special Boat Service. In addition medical reasons used to preclude service in the Royal Navy Submarine Service or as Mine Clearance Divers, but in May 2014 it was announced that three women had become the RN's first female submariners. They are however, permitted access to special force's support units, such as commando engineers and are cleared to join the Special Reconnaissance Regiment, a largely unknown branch of the United Kingdom Special Forces that does not bar women from joining.\n",
"New Zealand has no restrictions on roles for women in its defence force. They are able to serve in the Special Air Service, infantry, armour and artillery. This came into effect in 2001 by subordinate legislation.\n",
"Today, women can serve on American combat ships, including in command roles, and on submarines. They are not permitted to participate in special forces programs such as Navy SEALs. Women enlisted soldiers are barred from serving in Infantry, Special Forces, however female enlisted members and officers can hold staff positions in every branch of the Army except infantry and armor. Women can however serve on the staffs of infantry and armor units at Division level and above, and be members of Special Operations Forces. Women can fly military aircraft and make up 2% of all pilots in the U.S. military. Although Army regulations ban women from infantry assignments, some females are detailed to accompany male infantry units to handle searches of Iraqi women.\n"
] |
what gives soap operas that “low quality” feeling to them? is it the lighting? the dialogue? it’s very distinct, but hard to pin down.
|
Here are a couple that I always notice:
1. ) Audio quality. It makes a big difference to have someone's vocal audio sequestered from any foley that occurs in a scene, such as door closes, foot steps, clothing. Everything is normalized together, in the same input mic, so you hear EVERYTHING on the sound stage, including the echoes of every sound in the scene. It may appear that they're walking around in a tuscan villa, but it SOUNDS like they're walking on particle board with no insulation.
2. ) Framerate. Not sure why they do this, but they run at 30 or 60 fps, yet snap to 24 FPS when they step outside. This inconsistency is jarring. A higher framerate doesn't make it bad, but it sets it apart from traditional cinematic features that run at 24 FPS.
3. ) Everything is formulaic. Everything. You watch a soap opera from today, and put it next to a soap opera from 30 years ago, and you won't find much difference. Probably just the hair and fashion. LOL! The camera angles, the lighting, the music, and the plot lines are all the same. Scene opens. Music intro. Enter Actor A and Actor B. Actor A's body language clearly shows that they like/dislike Actor B. Camera films Actor A talking to Actor B. Camera films Actor B's reaction, and holds for a music stab on dramatic scene conclusion. It's amazing what simple things like establishing shots, higher/lower/closer/skewed/contextual camera shots do to a scene to make it more visually interesting, and how it changes the context of the dialog.
4. ) There is no real story, no overarching character plot or development. You're essentially watching dramatic improv revolving around the personal lives of a collective group of individuals in a single location. The show is about how Actor A wrongs Actor B, and how it gets resolved by Actor B retaliating against Actor A, which somehow affects a third party, Actor C. Now, Actor B has done the wronging, Actor C retaliates, and Actor A is somehow wronged. Rinse and repeat. Add as many actors as you like to keep it varied, and maybe broaden the audience's demographic by letting more people connect with more actors with different identitarian traits (gender, race, culture, creed, age, etc...). It's gossip personified, which some people are absolutely fine with wasting their time on, but most of us aren't.
|
[
"BULLET::::- The visual quality of a soap opera is usually lower than prime time U.S. television drama series due to the lower budgets and quicker production times. This is also because soap operas are recorded on videotape using a multi-camera setup, unlike primetime productions that are usually shot on film and frequently use the single camera shooting style. Because of the lower resolution of video images, and also because of the emotional situations portrayed in soap operas, daytime serials make heavy use of close-up shots. Programs in the United States did not make the full conversion to high definition broadcasting until September 2011, when \"The Bold and the Beautiful\" became the last soap to convert to the format; \"One Life to Live\" was an exception to this, as it continued to be produced and broadcast in standard definition – albeit in the aspect ratio – until the end of its run on ABC in January 2012.\n",
"The main characteristics that define soap operas are \"an emphasis on family life, personal relationships, sexual dramas, emotional and moral conflicts; some coverage of topical issues; set in familiar domestic interiors with only occasional excursions into new locations\". Fitting in with these characteristics, most soap operas follow the lives of a group of characters who live or work in a particular place, or focus on a large extended family. The storylines follow the day-to-day activities and personal relationships of these characters. \"Soap narratives, like those of film melodramas, are marked by what Steve Neale has described as 'chance happenings, coincidences, missed meetings, sudden conversions, last-minute rescues and revelations, deus ex machina endings.'\" These elements may be found across the gamut of soap operas, from \"EastEnders\" to \"Dallas\". Due to the prominence of English-language television, most soap-operas are completely English (or in the case of a foreign soap opera, dubbed into English). However, several South African soap operas started incorporating a multi-language format, the most prominent being \"7de Laan\", which incorporates Afrikaans, English, Zulu and several other Bantu languages which make up the 11 Official Languages of South Africa (the subtitles are always in English).\n",
"The article discussed briefly the original characteristics of the soap opera as opposed to film. \"Soap operas concentrate mainly on dialogue and characters’ responses to happenings rather than on action.\"\n",
"Jeffers wrote; \"\"Soap operas are characterised by realism. They often feature topical social problems... Biddy and Miley’s marriage has come under stress in Glenroe. They also mostly take place in real time, with Christmas, Easter etc being marked. However, many soaps have a few characters who are exaggerated figures of fun, sources of 'comic relief.\"'\"\n",
"Many complain that the soap opera effect ruins the theatrical look of cinematic works, by making it appear as if the viewer is either on set or watching a behind the scenes featurette. For this reason, almost all manufacturers have built in an option to turn the feature off or lower the effect strength.\n",
"Although melodramatically eventful, soap operas such as this also have a luxury of space that makes them seem more naturalistic; indeed, the economics of the form demand long scenes, and conversations that a 22-episodes-per-season weekly series might dispense with in half a dozen lines of dialogue may be drawn out, as here, for pages. You spend more time even with the minor characters; the apparent villains grow less apparently villainous.\n",
"According to American soap opera writer and romance novelist Leah Laiman, soap operas are best known and most remembered for romance. The romances in daytime dramas are significantly characterized by bringing couples together, splitting them up, and starting the cycle over again to ensure that viewers remain invested in the pairings, if popular. This is a strategy that often succeeds within the medium. A supercouple storyline is typically detailed by the couple's facing seemingly insurmountable challenges, such as a difference in social class, strong family interference, simple disagreements, marriages to other people, children with other people, etc.\n"
] |
Is there a drug linked to brain growth and development similar to how testosterone and FSH are linked to muscle growth and developent?
|
I'll edit this post to include some more hard science later, but check out /r/Nootropics
Nootropics are 'cognitive enhancing drugs', and may increase "intelligence".
|
[
"Sex steroids are not the only important influences upon hypothalamic development; in particular, pre-pubertal stress in early life (of rats) determines the capacity of the adult hypothalamus to respond to an acute stressor. Unlike gonadal steroid receptors, glucocorticoid receptors are very widespread throughout the brain; in the paraventricular nucleus, they mediate negative feedback control of CRF synthesis and secretion, but elsewhere their role is not well understood.\n",
"In a 2009 review article discussing the effects of sex hormones on MS, Voskuhl and Gold noted that one small trial conducted by a research team headed by Dr. Nancy Sicotte suggested testosterone could be effective in preserving cognitive performance and reducing brain atrophy. However, this trial yielded no significant effect on the formation of brain lesions.\n",
"Hormones significantly affect human brain formation, as well as brain development at puberty. A 2004 review in \"Nature Reviews Neuroscience\" observed that \"because it is easier to manipulate hormone levels than the expression of sex chromosome genes, the effects of hormones have been studied much more extensively, and are much better understood, than the direct actions in the brain of sex chromosome genes.\" It concluded that while \"the differentiating effects of gonadal secretions seem to be\n",
"According to the researchers, several reasons may explain why the male brain is more vulnerable to neurotoxicants than the female brain. The availability of glutathione may be greater in females. They may also have greater sulfate‑based detoxification capacity than males. Co‑exposure to testosterone may increase the harmful effects of neurotoxicants. Males may, therefore, be more vulnerable to neuroinflammatory responses and oxidative stress than the females. Besides, the hormones estrogen and progesterone may have a neuroprotective effect in females.\n",
"The gonadal hormone testosterone an androgenic, or masculinizing, hormone that is synthesized in both the male testes and female ovaries, at a rate of about 14000 μg/day and 600 μg/day, respectively. Testosterone exerts organizational effects on the developing brain, many of which are mediated through estrogen receptors following its conversion to estrogen by the enzyme aromatase within the brain.\n",
"The extreme male brain theory has led to some controversy, and tests of the hypothesis had mixed findings on the correlation between biological indicators of prenatal testosterone and scores on the systemizing quotient and empathy quotient. Chapman et al. found that male children who had been exposed to more prenatal testosterone scored lower on the EQ, indicating that there is not only a sex difference in empathy but also a difference within the male population which is correlated with prenatal testosterone. There is also evidence against this theory. For example, one possible biomarker for prenatal testosterone's effect on the brain is a low ratio of the second to fourth finger (the 2D:4D ratio), which has been found to be associated with several male specific psychological factors. A significantly lower 2D:4D ratio than the general population has been found in autistic individuals, however there was no correlation between the empathizing and systemizing quotients and the 2D:4D ratio. The authors give many possible explanations for this finding which are contrary to the extreme male brain theory of autism, for example it is possible that the psychometric properties of the quotients are lacking or that the theory itself is incorrect and the difference in autistic brains is not an extreme of normal functioning but of a different structure altogether.\n",
"Our understanding of the major gonadal hormones, estrogen, progesterone, and testosterone, has significantly increased in the last century. These hormones are synthesized in various locations in the body, including the ovaries, adrenal gland, liver, subcutaneous fat, and brain. There is considerable research showing that these steroidal hormones take part in an important role in the pathophysiology of epilepsy. Broadly defined, estrogen and its many forms are thought to be “proconvulsant,” whereas progesterone is thought to be “anticonvulsant” by virtue of its conversion to the neurosteroid allopregnanolone.\n"
] |
Manichaeism seems almost unique in being a former major international world religion that was rendered completely extinct without even small remnant populations. Why did it disappear so entirely?
|
What is a world religion? Roman paganism had millions of adherents, reduced to nothing. Ditto for the so-called mystery religions (besides possibly Christianity) that sprung out of: the cult of Isis, Mithraism, etc. Egyptian religion similarly had millions of adherents and died away. Aztec religion. Name a pre-Christian or Muslim society that had millions of people and, for the most part, the religions they once practiced are gone (the other major proselytizing contemporary religion, Buddhism, was less likely to annihilate pre-contact customs, though did it as well, depending on how you quite deal with religious mixing).
More importantly, you have Zoroastrianism, which survived on to the present day only with likely only a few hundred thousand people.
Now, this doesn't fully explain which religions survive and which die, but generally, even before the ~~Treaty of Westphalia~~ Peace of Augsburg which coined the term, *cuius regio eius religio*, that is, he who rules, his religion. The Roman Empire, generally, tolerated a wide variety of cults and religions so long as their adherents remained subservient to the Emperor and partook the imperial cult in addition to whatever other practices they subscribed to.
Christianity was very different, and generally only allowed Judaism in its territory until after the Enlightenment. Islam similarly only allowed Christianity, Judaism, and Zoroastrianism.
Without either official support or a special recognized legal status and a loyal, ethnicized community, most religions falter. Manichaneanism reached China, for example, but like the early [Christian](_URL_3_) and [Jewish](_URL_1_) communities of China, which essentially disappeared (there is a small remnant which claims descent from the Jewish community in Kaifeng, but the community seems to have been permanently disrupted in the 19th century). The indigenous [ethnic Chinese Muslim community](_URL_0_) thrived, its survival likely due in part to the fact that it didn't end up isolated like the Jews and Christians. Religious communities can survive surprisingly long periods of isolation and persecution (see, for example, the Japanese [Kirishitans](_URL_2_)), but not forever. The Kaifeng Jews (Jews, with their strict bans on intermarriage, strong international ties, distinct identity, written tradition, and dietary laws the prevented too much socialization across community lines, have tended to have faired better in diaspora and out of power than most groups) are a good example: even by the 16th century when Jesuit missionary Matteo Ricci is in contact with them, they complain that their isolation has left them with a lack of learning. We have Manichean documents going at least into the 11th and 12th centuries. Not bad for a millennium out of power as a universalist religion (another difference from the Jews, whose claims of spiritual chosenness were not as harmed by their obvious small numbers).
|
[
"Manichaeism's basic doctrine was that the world and all corporeal bodies were constructed from the substance of Satan, an idea that is fundamentally at odds with the Zoroastrian notion of a world that was created by God and that is all good, and any corruption of it is an effect of the bad. From what may be inferred from many Manichean texts and a few Zoroastrian sources, the adherents of the two religions (or at least their respective priesthoods) despised each other intensely.\n",
"Manichaeism was quickly successful and spread far through the Aramaic-speaking regions. It thrived between the third and seventh centuries, and at its height was one of the most widespread religions in the world. Manichaean churches and scriptures existed as far east as China and as far west as the Roman Empire. It was briefly the main rival to Christianity before the spread of Islam in the competition to replace classical paganism. Manichaeism survived longer in the east than in the west, and it appears to have finally faded away after the 14th century in south China, contemporary to the decline of the Church of the East in Ming China. While most of Manichaeism's original writings have been lost, numerous translations and fragmentary texts have survived.\n",
"Manichaeism maintained a sporadic and intermittent existence in the west (Mesopotamia, Africa, Spain, France, North Italy, the Balkans) for a thousand years, and flourished for a time in Persia and even further east in Northern India, Western China, and Tibet. While it had long been thought that Manichaeism arrived in China only at the end of the seventh century, a recent archaeological discovery demonstrated that it was already known there in the second half of the 6th century.\n",
"Manichaeism, founded by Mani, was influential from North Africa in the West, to China in the East. Its influence subtly continues in Western Christian thought via Saint Augustine of Hippo, who converted to Christianity from Manichaeism, which he passionately denounced in his writings, and whose writings continue to be influential among Catholic, Protestant, and Orthodox theologians. An important principle of Manichaeism was its dualistic cosmology/theology, which it shared with Mazdakism, a philosophy founded by Mazdak. Under this dualism, there were two original principles of the universe: Light, the good one; and Darkness, the evil one. These two had been mixed by a cosmic accident, and man's role in this life was through good conduct to release the parts of himself that belonged to Light. Mani saw the mixture of good and bad as a cosmic tragedy, while Mazdak viewed this in a more neutral, even optimistic way.\n",
"The religion of Manichaeism, founded by Mani (216–276), originated in 3rd century Asorestan, and spread across a vast geographical area. In some instances, Manichaeism even surpassed the Church of the East in its reach, as it was for a time also widespread in the Roman Empire. While none of the six original Syriac scriptures of the Manichaeans have survived in their entirety, a long Syriac section of one of their works detailing key beliefs was preserved by Theodore Bar Konai (a Church of the East author from Beth Garmaï), in his book \"Ketba Deskolion\" written in about 792. Like the Church of the East, the traditional center of the Manichaean church was in Seleucia-Ctesiphon. Mani dedicated his only Middle Persian writing, the Shāpuragān, to Shapur I.\n",
"Manichaeism was repressed by the Sasanian Empire. In 291, persecution arose in the Persian empire with the murder of the apostle Sisin by Bahram II, and the slaughter of many Manichaeans. In 296, the Roman emperor Diocletian decreed all the Manichaean leaders to be burnt alive along with the Manichaean scriptures and many Manichaeans in Europe and North Africa were killed. This policy of persecution was also followed by his successors. Theodosius I issued a decree of death for all Manichaean monks in 382 AD. The religion was vigorously attacked and persecuted by both the Christian Church and the Roman state. Augustine of Hippo, one of the early Doctors of the Catholic Church was a Manichaean until his conversion to Christianity in 386. He was never persecuted for this and he freely converted. Due to the heavy persecution upon its followers in the Roman Empire, the religion almost disappeared from western Europe in the 5th century and from the eastern portion of the empire in the sixth century.\n",
"Manichaeism conceives of two coexistent realms of light and darkness that become embroiled in conflict. Certain elements of the light became entrapped within darkness, and the purpose of material creation is to engage in the slow process of extraction of these individual elements. In the end the kingdom of light will prevail over darkness. Manicheanism inherits this dualistic mythology from Zurvanist Zoroastrianism, in which the eternal spirit Ahura Mazda is opposed by his antithesis, Angra Mainyu. This dualistic teaching embodied an elaborate cosmological myth that included the defeat of a primal man by the powers of darkness that devoured and imprisoned the particles of light.\n"
] |
can every single thing a computer does be broken down into binary code?
|
...the signals going to the monitor are in binary. Once inside the monitor, the signals get reinterpreted by the controller ciruits, in binary and determine the brightness of each color pixel, whose data is in binary. The pixels themselves are sent binary signals. The brightness of the pixel is controlled by how long the pixel is pulsed at ON state vs OFF state.
|
[
"A binary code represents text, computer processor instructions, or any other data using a two-symbol system. The two-symbol system used is often \"0\" and \"1\" from the binary number system. The binary code assigns a pattern of binary digits, also known as bits, to each character, instruction, etc. For example, a binary string of eight bits can represent any of 256 possible values and can, therefore, represent a wide variety of different items.\n",
"To convert a binary number into its hexadecimal equivalent, divide it into groups of four bits. If the number of bits isn't a multiple of four, simply insert extra 0 bits at the left (called padding). For example:\n",
"A binary computer does exactly the same multiplication as decimal numbers do, but with binary numbers. In binary encoding each long number is multiplied by one digit (either 0 or 1), and that is much easier than in decimal, as the product by 0 or 1 is just 0 or the same number. Therefore, the multiplication of two binary numbers comes down to calculating partial products (which are 0 or the first number), shifting them left, and then adding them together (a binary addition, of course):\n",
"For most purposes, however, binary values are converted to or from the equivalent decimal values for presentation to or input from humans; computer programs express literals in decimal by default. (123.1, for example, is written as such in a computer program, even though many computer languages are unable to encode that number precisely.)\n",
"In modern computers, binary data refers to any data represented in binary form rather than interpreted on a higher level or converted into some other form. At the lowest level, bits are stored in a bistable device such as a flip-flop. While most binary data has symbolic meaning (except for don't cares) not all binary data is numeric. Some binary data corresponds to computer instructions, such as the data within processor registers decoded by the control unit along the fetch-decode-execute cycle. Computers rarely modify individual bits for performance reasons. Instead, data is aligned in groups of a fixed number of bits, usually 1 byte (8 bits). Hence, \"binary data\" in computers are actually sequences of bytes. On a higher level, data is accessed in groups of 1 word (4 bytes) for 32-bit systems and 2 words for 64-bit systems.\n",
"For case 3, where bits have changed in both the information and the check sections, notice that the number of zeros in the information section has \"gone up\", as described for case 1, and the binary value stored in the check portion has \"gone down\", as described for case 2. Therefore, there is no chance that the two will end up mutating in such a way as to become a different valid code word.\n",
"In computing and telecommunications, binary codes are used for various methods of encoding data, such as character strings, into bit strings. Those methods may use fixed-width or variable-width strings. In a fixed-width binary code, each letter, digit, or other character is represented by a bit string of the same length; that bit string, interpreted as a binary number, is usually displayed in code tables in octal, decimal or hexadecimal notation. There are many character sets and many character encodings for them.\n"
] |
How did Britain keep the value of its currency stable during its explosive growth in the 19th Century? [reposted because unanswered]
|
> Was it just the growth in supply of gold?
That was a big part of it. You had gold strikes in California, the Yukon, South Africa, Colorado, Australia, and so on, all increasing the money supply.
Another big part was the growth in the private creation of paper money by [commercial banks](_URL_0_), as well as by the circulation of bills of exchange (essentially checks that were endorsed from hand to hand, sometimes dozens of times, sometimes crossing oceans, so a little bit of "real" money created a lot of paper money).
You also had periodic crashes when, essentially, the money supply would run out; the decision to maintain a gold standard was by no means without casualties.
So the British (and most of the rest of the world) maintained the value of their currency in part simply because they decided to--they chose enduring brutal depressions on a regular basis rather than printing money when it was needed.
|
[
"Throughout the period, expansionary monetary policy and easy credit also caused Britain's currency to depreciate and its exchange rate to fall. Concerned by this, the government appointed a committee to determine if convertibility should be resumed soon, regardless of whether the war was still going on. This Bullion Report of 1810 became influential in monetary policy for its analysis of how bank policy influences exchange rates.\n",
"During the early and mid 19th century Britain had been plagued economically due to the conversion of currency from gold to a paper currency. This switch to inconvertible currency spiraled Britain's economy into a financial crisis. Throughout this period of time two financial groups were formed, these groups were known as the British Banking School and the British Currency School.\"The goal of both camps was to discover the optimal method of limiting (or not limiting) banking practices so as to encourage economic stability.\"\n",
"Since ignorance of the changing world, the British pound has experienced a tremendous value plummeted this change the currency systems of Europe, given the continued strong shock to the global economy. \n",
"As an example of direct intervention to manage currency valuation, in the 20th century Great Britain's central bank, the Bank of England, would sometimes use its reserves to buy large amounts of pound sterling to prevent it falling in value. Black Wednesday was a case where it had insufficient reserves of foreign currency to do this successfully. Conversely, in the early 21st century, several major emerging economies effectively sold large amounts of their currencies in order to prevent their value rising, and in the process built up large reserves of foreign currency, principally the US dollar.\n",
"The United Kingdom's pound sterling was the primary reserve currency of much of the world in the 19th century and first half of the 20th century. The emergence of the USA as an economic superpower, and the establishment of the U.S. Federal Reserve System in 1913, and U.S. economic dominance from the second half of the 20th century onward, as well as economic weakness in the UK at various times during the second half of the 20th century, resulted in sterling losing its status as the world's most important reserve currency: in the 1950s 55% of global reserves were still held in sterling; but the share was 10% lower within 20 years.\n",
"The economy grew every year 1812–1815, despite a large loss of business by East Coast shipping interests. Wartime inflation averaged 4.8% a year. The national economy grew 1812–1815 at the rate of 3.7% a year, after accounting for inflation. Per capita GDP grew at 2.2% a year, after accounting for inflation. Money that would have been spent on imports—mostly cloth—was diverted to opening new factories, which were profitable since British cloth was not available. This gave a major boost to the industrial revolution, as typified by the Boston Associates. The Boston Manufacturing Company built the first integrated spinning and weaving factory in the world at Waltham, Massachusetts, in 1813.\n",
"Britain remained on the gold standard until World War I, something which helped entrench sterling as the global currency of choice throughout the 19th century. However, in the short term, the bill produced a sharply deflationary effect, and falling prices strongly favored holders of money over borrowers of money: agriculturalists were doubly squeezed, with mortgages costing more in real terms, and produce selling for less. Country gentlemen clamoured for relief, whether from the issuing of small paper notes (briefly tried), by a return to bimetalism, or by a debt restructuring to allow for the changing value of money.\n"
] |
how do treadmills and other machines track your hearts bpm by those silver things on the handle?
|
The basic concept to be aware of here is what makes the heart beat.
Our heartbeat is driven by an electrical signal generated by a small group of cells (sometimes called pacemaker cells) located within our heart. The electric pulse generated by this group spreads through the heart, causing first one part, then the other to contract and relax. (As an aside, this is why electric shocks are so dangerous; they disrupt that group of cells and stop our hearts from effectively beating.)
***However***, this pulse isn't confined to the heart; it spreads through the body, because our insides conduct electricity rather well. So, we constantly have an electrical pulse in our body as well.
When we touch the silvery section of an exercise machine, the circuitry inside the machine can actually detect those minute changes in voltage caused by the pacemaker cells in our heart; from there, it can do some fancy math to separate one beat from the next, and arrive at an estimation of your heart rate.
|
[
"Know Your Pulse - Since 2009 the AF Association has been campaigning for manual pulse checks to be included in all routine medical checkups carried out by the NHS in England. A manual pulse check is one of the easiest ways to detect a cardiac arrhythmia, which otherwise often goes untreated until a stroke or other serious illness occurs.\n",
"A pulse watch, also known as a pulsometer or pulsograph, is an individual monitoring and measuring device with the ability to measure heart or pulse rate. Detection can occur in real time or can be saved and stored for later review. The pulse watch measures electrocardiography (ECG or EKG) data while the user is performing tasks, whether it be simple daily tasks or intense physical activity. The pulse watch functions without the use of wires and multiple sensors. This makes it useful in health and medical settings where wires and sensors may be an inconvenience. Use of the device is also common in sport and exercise environments where individuals are required to measure and monitor their biometric data.\n",
"From this point onwards, physicians started to make medical observations based on the number of heart beats in a minute (bpm). The functions and mechanisms of the pulse watch were updated and redeveloped by many professionals throughout history. The use of pulse detecting devices have been implemented consistently by medical schools and facilities, as a form of medical technology, to accurately time the pulse and respiration of patients.\n",
"The application also supports heart sensors from other manufacturers. It is able to generate a graph as a function of time of the different frequencies reached during a sports session as well as other information such as the average and maximum heart rate reached.\n",
"While pulse oximeters are a commonly used medical device, the PPG derived from them is rarely displayed and is nominally only processed to determine heart rate. PPGs can be obtained from transmissive absorption (as at the finger tip) or reflection (as on the forehead).\n",
"Medical treadmills are also active measuring devices. When connected through an interface with ECG, ergospirometry, blood pressure monitor (BPM), or EMG, they become a new medical system (e.g., stress test system or cardiopulmonary rehabilitation system) and can also be equipped to measure VO2max and various other vital functions.\n",
"Pulse watches are utilised on a daily basis by a wide range of people, this is due to the vast availability and accessibility to the device. Pulse watch devices are used in the medical industry where a transcript of user's heart rate data over a period of time can be stored and automatically sent to the user's physician. This is also the case where calorie intake and physical activity levels of users can be stored and sent to their physicians for the purpose of weight management. Wearable devices which use pulse watch mechanisms are also used in the management of patient health. The ability of these devices to efficiently monitor and store health data, provides a solution for patients who require ongoing self-management to monitor the progression of the illness. One study created a data recording system for participants with type-1 diabetes, using these wearable devices. Participants used the device to track their daily intake of carbohydrates, their insulin and blood glucose levels and their amount of physical activity. The results of the study found that the use of these wearable wrist devices provided a simple way for patients to monitor the requirements of their health challenges.\n"
] |
why is it illegal to not hire somebody because of their race/religion?
|
There are no quotas. No one is forced to hire minorities, you just can't discriminate against them. Given a choice between equal white and black candidates you can't choose on race. Many people prefer this because they wanted a society where merit was more important than race.
Even with non-discriminatory practices whites are still hired at greater rates, not due to any overt racism, but because of inherent advantages at birth that mean by the time they get to the job interview and compete with a black candidate, they have a more competitiveness resume and can get the job on merit.
It is pretty much impossible to enforce on an individual level, but if a company does it enough to establish a pattern then you have a case.
|
[
"In many countries laws are put into place to prevent organizations from engaging in discriminatory practices against protected classes when selecting individuals for jobs. In the United States, it is unlawful for private employers with 15 or more employees along with state and local government employers to discriminate against applicants based on the following: race, color, sex (including pregnancy), national origin, age (40 or over), disability, or genetic information (note: additional classes may be protected depending on state or local law). More specifically, an employer cannot legally \"fail or refuse to hire or to discharge any individual, or otherwise discriminate against any individual with respect to his compensation, terms, conditions, or privilege of employment\" or \"to limit, segregate, or classify his employees or applicants for employment in any way which would deprive or tend to deprive any individual of employment opportunities or otherwise adversely affect his status as an employee.\"\n",
"In the hiring process, discrimination may be either open or covert, with employers finding other ostensible reasons not to hire a candidate or just not informing prospective employees at all as to why they are not being hired. Additionally, when an employer fires or otherwise discriminates against a transgender employee, it may be a \"mixed motive\" case, with the employer openly citing obvious wrongdoing, job performance issues or the like (such as excessive tardiness, for example) while keeping silent in regards to transphobia.\n",
"An employer's refusal to employ a qualified job applicant on prohibited grounds is clearly discriminatory with respect to employment. It is also clearly discriminatory with respect to employment to refuse to continue current employment (meaning to dismiss, demote, retire, deny any benefit or promotion, etc.) based on prohibited grounds. However, any differential treatment based on prohibited grounds may constitute discrimination, including dress codes and appearance requirements.\n",
"BULLET::::- \"It shall be an unlawful employment practice for an employer… --to discriminate against any individual with respect to his compensation, terms, conditions, or privileges of employment, because of such individual’s race, color, religion, sex, or national origin...\"\n",
"Transgender people also experience significant workplace discrimination and harassment. Unlike sex-based discrimination, refusing to hire (or firing) a worker for their gender identity or expression is not explicitly illegal in most U.S. states.\n",
"In most countries, even those where sex work is legal, sex workers of all kinds feel that they are stigmatized and marginalized, and that this prevents them from seeking legal redress for discrimination (for e. g., racial discrimination by a strip club owner, dismissal from a teaching position because of involvement in the sex industry), non-payment by a client, assault, or rape. Activists also believe that clients of sex workers may also be stigmatized and marginalized, in some cases even more so than sex workers themselves. For instance, in Sweden, Norway, and Iceland, it is illegal to buy sexual acts, but not to sell them (the buyer is said to have committed a crime, but not the prostitute).\n",
"The main provisions of the regulations are to make direct and indirect discrimination against an employee or potential employee on the grounds of religion unlawful. They also make it unlawful to discriminate by way of victimization, or to harass an employee on grounds of religious belief. The regulations also extend to cover providers and of vocational training in relation to those undergoing training for any employment, and to those acting as employment agencies and giving careers advice.\n"
] |
why people trust crystal healing when there is no scientific evidence to support its claims?
|
The same as with most things people believe. There is a lot of anecdotal evidence, and when that evidence is put forward by a source someone already trusts - an actor, a family member, a community leader - the stories are believed without double-blind testing to back them up.
|
[
"There is no peer-reviewed scientific evidence that crystal healing has any effect; it is considered a pseudoscience. Alleged successes of crystal healing can be attributed to the placebo effect. Furthermore, there is no scientific basis for the concepts of \"chakras\", being \"blocked\", energy grids requiring grounding, or other such terms; they are widely understood to be nothing more than terms used by adherents to lend credibility to their practices. Energy, as a scientific term, is a very well-defined concept that is readily measurable and bears little resemblance to the esoteric concept of energy used by proponents of crystal healing.\n",
"Crystal healing is a pseudoscientific alternative medicine technique that uses semiprecious stones and crystals such as quartz, amethyst or opals. Adherents of the technique claim that these have healing powers, although there is no scientific basis for this claim.\n",
"BULLET::::- Crystal healing – belief that crystals have healing properties. Once common among pre-scientific and indigenous peoples, it enjoyed a resurgence in popularity in the 1970s with the New Age movement. There is no scientific evidence that crystal healing has any effect.\n",
"Some individuals believe in the paranormal claim that crystal skulls can produce a variety of miracles. Anna Mitchell-Hedges claimed that the skull she allegedly discovered could cause visions, cure cancer, that she once used its magical properties to kill a man, and that in another instance, she saw in it a premonition of the John F. Kennedy assassination.\n",
"Claims of the healing and supernatural powers of crystal skulls have had no support in the scientific community, which has found no evidence of any unusual phenomena associated with the skulls nor any reason for further investigation, other than the confirmation of their provenance and method of manufacture.\n",
"In 1999, researchers French and Williams conducted a study to investigate the power of crystals compared with a placebo. Eighty volunteers were asked to meditate with either a quartz crystal, or a placebo stone which was indistinguishable from quartz. Many of the participants reported feeling typical \"crystal effects\"; however, this was irrespective of whether the crystals were real or placebo. In 2001 Christopher French, head of the anomalistic psychology research unit at the University of London and colleagues from Goldsmiths College outlined their study of crystal healing at the British Psychological Society Centenary Annual Conference, concluding \"There is no evidence that crystal healing works over and above a placebo effect.”\n",
"In the English speaking world, crystal healing is heavily associated with the New Age spiritual movement: \"the middle-class New Age healing activity \"par excellence\"\". In contrast with other forms of complementary and alternative medicine (CAM), participants in crystal healing view the practice as \"individuated\", i.e., dependent on extreme personalization and creative expression. Practitioners of crystal healing purport that certain physical properties—e.g., shape, color, and markings—determine the ailments that a stone can heal; lists of such links are published in commonly distributed texts. Paradoxically, practitioners also \"hold the view that crystals have no intrinsic qualities but that, instead, their quality changes according to both\" participants. After selecting the stones by color or their believed metaphysical qualities, they place them on parts of the body. Color selection and placement of stones are done according to concepts of grounding, \"chakras\", or energy grids.\n"
] |
Why is it that we are losing helium into space, while hydrogen stays around?
|
Helium, a noble gas, is too light to be held under earths gravity. Hydrogen is lighter, and free hydrogen will also escape, however, it is also reactive, and unlike helium, is mostly bound up in compounds with other elements. Free hydrogen will still escape.
|
[
"All degassed helium is lost to space eventually, due to the average speed of helium exceeding the escape velocity for the Earth. Thus, it is assumed the helium content and ratios of Earth's atmosphere have remained essentially stable.\n",
"Atmospheric escape of hydrogen on Earth is due to Jeans escape (~10 - 40%), charge exchange escape (~ 60 - 90%), and polar wind escape (~ 10 - 15%), currently losing about 3 kg/s of hydrogen. The Earth additionally loses approximately 50 g/s of helium primarily through polar wind escape. Escape of other atmospheric constituents is much smaller. A Japanese research team in 2017 found evidence of a small number of oxygen ions on the moon that came from the Earth.\n",
"A sizable quantity of water would have been in the material that formed the Earth. Water molecules would have escaped Earth's gravity more easily when it was less massive during its formation. Hydrogen and helium are expected to continually escape (even to the present day) due to atmospheric escape.\n",
"Hydrogen deficiency results from stellar evolution. Over the course of a star's evolution, both the consumption of hydrogen in nuclear fusion and the removal of hydrogen layers by explosive processes can lead to a deficiency of hydrogen in its atmosphere.\n",
"Thermal energy causes some of the molecules at the outer edge of the atmosphere to increase their velocity to the point where they can escape from Earth's gravity. This causes a slow but steady loss of the atmosphere into space. Because unfixed hydrogen has a low molecular mass, it can achieve escape velocity more readily, and it leaks into outer space at a greater rate than other gases. The leakage of hydrogen into space contributes to the shifting of Earth's atmosphere and surface from an initially reducing state to its current oxidizing one. Photosynthesis provided a source of free oxygen, but the loss of reducing agents such as hydrogen is thought to have been a necessary precondition for the widespread accumulation of oxygen in the atmosphere. Hence the ability of hydrogen to escape from the atmosphere may have influenced the nature of life that developed on Earth. In the current, oxygen-rich atmosphere most hydrogen is converted into water before it has an opportunity to escape. Instead, most of the hydrogen loss comes from the destruction of methane in the upper atmosphere.\n",
"A helium planet might form via hydrogen evaporation from a gaseous planet orbiting close to a star. The star will drive off lighter gases more effectively through evaporation than heavier gasses, and over time deplete the hydrogen, leaving a greater proportion of helium behind.\n",
"BULLET::::- Although abundant in the universe, helium is very scarce on Earth. The only commercially viable reserves are a few natural gas wells, mostly in the US, that trapped it from the slow alpha decay of radioactive materials within Earth. By human standards helium is a non-renewable resource that cannot be practically manufactured from other materials. When released into the atmosphere, e.g., when a helium-filled balloon leaks or bursts, helium eventually escapes into space and is lost.\n"
] |
Are all elements produced in stars?
|
No.
Or at least there are some elements that we cannot possibly detect even if they were produced in stars. There are some elements which have extremely short half-lives. Which means that they can be created in laboratories, and there's a very short time within which these can be detected before they decay into other elements. That means that even if they are made within stars or through chance chemical reactions, we wouldn't be able to detect them ( considering the distance and the very short time period they would exist)
Earlier all transuranic elements were thought to be like this, so that they could only be produced synthetically. But now we know that there are those that exist naturally as well (like Plutonium).
Those with atomic numbers above 99 have only been created in laboratories and have not been generated in stars. I think also Technetium (Tc 43) is not present in nature, but not sure about that one.
|
[
"The abundance of elements in the Solar System is in keeping with their origin from nucleosynthesis in the Big Bang and a number of progenitor supernova stars. Very abundant hydrogen and helium are products of the Big Bang, but the next three elements are rare since they had little time to form in the Big Bang and are not made in stars (they are, however, produced in small quantities by the breakup of heavier elements in interstellar dust, as a result of impact by cosmic rays). Beginning with carbon, elements are produced in stars by buildup from alpha particles (helium nuclei), resulting in an alternatingly larger abundance of elements with even atomic numbers (these are also more stable). In general, such elements up to iron are made in large stars in the process of becoming supernovas. Iron-56 is particularly common, since it is the most stable element that can easily be made from alpha particles (being a product of decay of radioactive nickel-56, ultimately made from 14 helium nuclei). Elements heavier than iron are made in energy-absorbing processes in large stars, and their abundance in the universe (and on Earth) generally decreases with their atomic number.\n",
"The two lightest elements, hydrogen and helium, were mostly formed in the Big Bang and are the most common elements in the universe. The next three elements (lithium, beryllium and boron) were formed mostly by cosmic ray spallation, and are thus rarer than heavier elements. Formation of elements with from 6 to 26 protons occurred and continues to occur in main sequence stars via stellar nucleosynthesis. The high abundance of oxygen, silicon, and iron on Earth reflects their common production in such stars. Elements with greater than 26 protons are formed by supernova nucleosynthesis in supernovae, which, when they explode, blast these elements as supernova remnants far into space, where they may become incorporated into planets when they are formed.\n",
"The universe's 94 naturally occurring chemical elements are thought to have been produced by at least four cosmic processes. Most of the hydrogen, helium and a very small quantity of lithiumin the universe was produced primordially in the first few minutes of the Big Bang. Other three recurrently occurring later processes are thought to have produced the remaining elements. Stellar nucleosynthesis, an ongoing process inside stars, produces all elements from carbon through iron in atomic number, but little lithium, beryllium, or boron. Elements heavier in atomic number than iron, as heavy as uranium and plutonium, are produced by explosive nucleosynthesis in supernovas and other cataclysmic cosmic events. Cosmic ray spallation (fragmentation) of carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen is important to the production of lithium, beryllium and boron.\n",
"Some relatively small quantities of elements beyond helium (lithium, beryllium, and perhaps some boron) were created in the Big Bang, as the protons and neutrons collided with each other, but all of the \"heavier elements\" (carbon, element number 6, and elements of greater atomic number) that we see today, were created inside stars during a series of fusion stages, such as the proton-proton chain, the CNO cycle and the triple-alpha process. Progressively heavier elements are created during the evolution of a star.\n",
"The Big Bang produced hydrogen, helium, and traces of lithium, while all heavier elements are synthesized in stars and supernovae. Supernovae tend to enrich the surrounding interstellar medium with elements other than hydrogen and helium, which usually astronomers refer to as \"metals\".\n",
"A star gains heavier elements by combining its lighter nuclei, hydrogen, deuterium, beryllium, lithium, and boron, which were found in the initial composition of the interstellar medium and hence the star. Interstellar gas therefore contains declining abundances of these light elements, which are present only by virtue of their nucleosynthesis during the Big Bang. Larger quantities of these lighter elements in the present universe are therefore thought to have been restored through billions of years of cosmic ray (mostly high-energy proton) mediated breakup of heavier elements in interstellar gas and dust. The fragments of these cosmic-ray collisions include the light elements Li, Be and B.\n",
"The abundance of elements is in keeping with their origin from the Big Bang and nucleosynthesis in a number of progenitor supernova stars. Very abundant hydrogen and helium are products of the Big Bang, while the next three elements are rare since they had little time to form in the Big Bang and are not made in stars (they are, however, produced in small quantities by breakup of heavier elements in interstellar dust, as a result of impact by cosmic rays).\n"
] |
why do cars need transmissions but planes and boats don't?
|
Engines have a relatively narrow range of RPM where they perform efficiently.
Planes and boats propel themselves in a viscous atmosphere/fluid. As a result, plane and boat engines can operate in a fairly narrow range of RPM and still be effective. Within that narrow RPM range, the propeller/fan generates sufficient thrust into the viscous atmosphere/fluid to propel the aircraft/boat forward.
On the other hand, car engines are "rigidly" connected to the ground via ground- > tires- > wheels- > driveshaft- > transmission- > clutch- > engine. This means that without a transmission, a car's engine would have to operate on a much wider range of RPM's - including RPM's where the engine performs poorly or not at all. A transmission allows the car engine to remain in its efficient RPM range while the car can travel from a crawl to over 100mph.
|
[
"As modern ships' propellers are at their most efficient at the operating speed of most slow speed diesel engines, ships with these engines do not generally need gearboxes. Usually such propulsion systems consist of either one or two propeller shafts each with its own direct drive engine. Ships propelled by medium or high speed diesel engines may have one or two (sometimes more) propellers, commonly with one or more engines driving each propeller shaft through a gearbox. Where more than one engine is geared to a single shaft, each engine will most likely drive through a clutch, allowing engines not being used to be disconnected from the gearbox while others keep running. This arrangement lets maintenance be carried out while under way, even far from port.\n",
"The most common use is in motor vehicles, where the transmission adapts the output of the internal combustion engine to the drive wheels. Such engines need to operate at a relatively high rotational speed, which is inappropriate for starting, stopping, and slower travel. The transmission reduces the higher engine speed to the slower wheel speed, increasing torque in the process. Transmissions are also used on pedal bicycles, fixed machines, and where different rotational speeds and torques are adapted.\n",
"Sports cars are also often equipped with manual transmissions because they offer more direct driver involvement and better performance, though this is changing as many automakers move to faster dual-clutch transmissions, which are generally shifted with paddles located behind the steering wheel. For example, the 991 Porsche 911 GT3 uses Porsche's PDK. Off-road vehicles and trucks often feature manual transmissions because they allow direct gear selection and are often more rugged than their automatic counterparts.\n",
"Aircraft that use propellers as their prime propulsion device constitute a historically important subset of aircraft, despite inherent limitations to their speed. Aircraft powered by piston engines get virtually all of their thrust from the propeller driven by the engine. A few piston engined aircraft derive some thrust from the engine's exhaust gases, and there are certain hybrid types like the Motorjet that use a piston engine to drive the compressor of a jet engine, which supplies the primary thrust (although some types also have a propeller powered by the piston engine for low speed efficiency). All aircraft prior to World War II (except for a tiny number of early jet aircraft and rocket aircraft) used piston engines to drive propellers, so all Flight airspeed records prior to 1944 were necessarily set by propeller-driven aircraft. Rapid advances in first liquid-fueled rocket engine-powered aircraft – with a 1004 km/h record set in October 1941 by a German example — and axial-flow jet engine technology during World War II meant that no propeller-driven aircraft would ever again hold an absolute air speed record. Shock wave formation in propeller-driven aircraft at speeds near sonic conditions, impose limits not encountered in jet aircraft.\n",
"Because the flywheels are a mechanical power source, it is not necessary to use an electric motor or generator as an intermediary between it and a diesel engine designed to provide emergency power. By using a transmission gearbox, the rotational inertia of the flywheel can be used to directly start up a diesel engine, and once running, the diesel engine can be used to directly spin the flywheel. Multiple flywheels can likewise be connected in parallel through mechanical countershafts, without the need for separate motors and generators for each flywheel.\n",
"Because manual transmissions are mechanically simpler, are more easily manufactured, and have fewer moving parts than automatic transmissions, they require less maintenance and are easier as well as cheaper to repair. Due to their mechanical simplicity, they often last longer than automatic transmissions when used by a skilled driver. Typically, there are no electrical components, pumps and cooling mechanisms in a manual transmission, other than an internal switch to activate reversing lighting. These attributes become extremely vital with a vehicle stuck in mud, snow, etc. The back and forth rocking motion of the vehicle drivers use to dislodge a stuck vehicle can destroy automatic transmissions. Clutches are a wear item that may need to be replaced at some point in the vehicle's lifespan, however the service life of the clutch depends on the operating conditions that it is subjected to.\n",
"A major concern with unmanned underwater vehicles is communication. Communication between the pilot and unmanned vehicle is crucial, however there are multiple factors that might hinder the connection between the two. One of the major problems involves the distortion of transmissions underwater, because water can distort underwater transmissions and delay them which can be a very major problem in a time sensitive mission. Communications are usually disturbed due to the fact that unmanned underwater vehicles utilize acoustic waves rather than the more conventional electromagnetic waves. Acoustic wave transmissions are often delayed anywhere from 1–2 seconds because they move more slowly than other types of waves. This is not including environmental conditions that can also hinder communications such as reflection, refraction, and the absorbing of signal. These effect within the water overall scatter and degrade the signal, making this communication system fairly delayed when compared to other communication sources. Another system that utilizes the acoustic waves is within the navigation of these unmanned vehicles, precise navigation is a must for these unmanned vehicles to complete their missions. A popular navigation system aboard these unmanned underwater vehicles is acoustic positioning, which is also faces with the same problems as acoustic communication because they use the same system. The Royal Netherlands Navy has published an article detailing their concerns surrounding unmanned marine vehicles. The Royal Netherlands Navy is strongly concerned with the ability of UUV's to evade detection and complete tasks not possible in manned vessels. The adaptability and utility of Unmanned Underwater vehicles means it will be difficult to predict and counter their future actions.\n"
] |
How fast does a torus need to rotate to simulate earth gravity?
|
You are right. A larger diameter requires a smaller angular speed. The formula is *g = omega*^(2)*r*, where:
* *g* is the Earth's gravity (9.8 m/s^(2))
* *r* is the radius of the ring
* *omega* is the angular speed of the ring.
|
[
"The cylinders rotate to provide artificial gravity on their inner surface. At the radius described by O'Neill, the habitats would have to rotate about twenty-eight times an hour to simulate a standard Earth gravity; an angular velocity of 2.8 degrees per second. Research on human factors in rotating reference frames\n",
"It consists of a torus, or doughnut-shaped ring, that is 1.8 km in diameter (for the proposed 10,000 person habitat described in the 1975 Summer Study) and rotates once per minute to provide between 0.9g and 1.0g of artificial gravity on the inside of the outer ring via centrifugal force.\n",
"The ability to simulate movement, such as could be encountered in ships, airplanes, or a terrestrial reactor during an earthquake becomes available in the 2013 release of RELAP5-3D. This capability allows the user to simulate motion through input, including translational displacement and rotation about the origin implied by the position of the reference volume. The transient rotation can be input using either Euler or pitch-yaw-roll angles. The movement is simulated using a combination of sine functions and tables of rotational angles and translational displacement. Since the gravitational constant is also an input quantity, this capability is not limited to the surface of the Earth. It allows RELAP5-3D to model reactor systems on space craft, a space station, the moon, or other extraterrestrial bodies.\n",
"Orbitals spin to mimic the effects of gravity and are sized so that the rate of rotation necessary to produce a comfortable gravity level is approximately equal to one day. In the case of the standard Culture day and gravity, this diameter is around three million kilometres. For such an orbital to reproduce the equivalent to the Earth's gravity (9.8 m/s at sea level), whilst maintaining Earth's 24-hour period of rotation, it would need to have a diameter of approximately 3.71 million kilometres, and spinning at 486,000 km/hr. By tilting the axis of the Orbital relative to its orbit around a star a convenient day-night cycle can be experienced by the inhabitants. Since the edges of the Orbital are built as high walls, the rotation prevents the atmosphere from escaping, thus protecting the inhabitants from radiation. The walls are typically hundreds or thousands of kilometres high, made of a 'monocrystal' material.\n",
"The cosmic treadmill allows any being with sufficient super-speed to precisely time travel, and Pre-\"Crisis\" it allowed travel between the multiple Earths. The treadmill works by generating vibrations that will shift the user into a specific time. The vibrations require a high amount of speed to generate and attempts to use the treadmill without it have proven dangerous. Initially, the vibrations had to be kept up internally, or one would fade back into the time from whence they came. This was fixed by John Fox in \"Flash\" #112.\n",
"The machine operates by a high speed air spindle rotating a grinding bit. The air spindles are removable and interchangeable to achieve varying surface speeds. Some spindles are fixed speed (60000 rpm), others are adjustable (30000-50000 rpm), and still others are very high speed (175000 rpm). The machines have a standard X-Y table with the notable exception of knee travel. All axes are indexed to .0001\" via a vernier scale on the handwheels, with higher accuracy available with the use of measuring bars. The machine head has two vertical travels, one rough head adjustment and the other a precise spindle adjustment. The spindle to which the detachable air spindle mounts also rotates at a variable speed and can typically outfeed .100\" while running, again with an accuracy of .0001\" on the handwheel or greater, for very precise hole, peg and surface grinding. A well-kept jig grinder will reliably position work to a higher degree of accuracy than is possible with handwheels alone. These features are all critical in positioning a hole and peg system a precise distance from a reference surface or edge.\n",
"In the \"Expanse\" series by James S. A. Corey, space stations generate artificial gravity by rotating, as do spun-up, hollowed-out asteroids, usually at around 0.3 g. Moving ships under constant thrust also simulate gravity by linear acceleration.\n"
] |
Why is it called "Missionary position"? Where does the term come from?
|
You may be interested in u/yodatsracist's recent 4-part answer to [I saw an article today claiming that the "missionary" position derives its name from Native Americans/Africans who saw missionaries having sex. How true is this?](_URL_0_)
|
[
"It is commonly believed that the term \"missionary position\" arose in connection with English-speaking Christian missionaries, who supposedly encouraged the sexual position in new converts in the colonial era. However, the term probably originated from Alfred Kinsey's \"Sexual Behavior in the Human Male\" through a confluence of misunderstandings and misinterpretations of historical documents. The French refer to it as the 'classical' position. Tuscans refer to the position as \"the Angelic position\" while some Arabic-speaking groups call it \"the manner of serpents.\"\n",
"A missionary is a member of a religious group sent into an area to promote their faith or perform ministries of service, such as education, literacy, social justice, health care, and economic development. The word \"mission\" originates from 1598 when the Jesuits sent members abroad, derived from the Latin \"missionem\" (nom. \"missio\"), meaning \"act of sending\" or \"mittere\", meaning \"to send\". The word was used in light of its biblical usage; in the Latin translation of the Bible, Christ uses the word when sending the disciples to preach The gospel in his name. The term is most commonly used for Christian missions, but can be used for any creed or ideology.\n",
"Missionaries are instructed to avoid slang and casual language including when they are alone in their apartment and in their letters to family. They are also instructed to refer to missionary leaders by only their correct titles. However, as with the members of any organization, some missionaries use certain missionary-specific jargon when communicating with one another. Some words and expressions are mission- or language-specific, while others are universal, such as calling the halfway point of a mission the \"hump\" or hump day, or describing a missionary who is excited about returning home as \"trunky\" as he has already packed his trunk. Foreign-language missionaries often develop a \"mission language\", distinct from but combining aspects of their first and acquired languages, that they use when communicating with each other; the senkyoshigo of Japan is an example.\n",
"Though there are a number of variations and adoptions of the missionary position, the classic missionary position involves a man and a woman, with the woman lying on her back and the man on top. Variations in the positions may vary the angle and depth of penile penetration.\n",
"The missionary position or man-on-top position is a sex position in which, generally, a woman lies on her back and a man lies on top of her while they face each other and engage in vaginal intercourse. The position may also be used for other sexual activity, such as anal sex. It is commonly associated with heterosexual sexual activity, but is also used by same-sex couples.\n",
"A Christian missionary can be defined as \"one who is to witness across cultures\". The Lausanne Congress of 1974, defined the term, related to Christian mission as, \"to form a viable indigenous church-planting movement\". Missionaries can be found in many countries around the world.\n",
"In the 1960s, missiologists began to re-employ the term to distinguish between two kinds of missionary work: that which was being done among peoples where the indigenous church was already established, and new efforts among peoples where the Christian Church was very weak or non-existent. The contemporary usage of the term is part of a general trend to look at the missionary task more in terms of social, cultural and linguistic isolation from the gospel, rather than strictly geographic isolation.\n"
] |
Are bats the only carriers for Ebola that do not die from it?
|
*Technically*, we don't know for certain that bats even are the carriers, although they are the likeliest suspect. [This paper from 2005](_URL_1_) sampled a whole spread of animals to try and find a carrier, so that might help you on your search for different species.
Interestingly, [dogs can become infected](_URL_0_) with Ebola by eating carcasses, but are asymptomatic.
|
[
"Bats are transporters of many viruses that do not affect them due to their unusually high immune system efficiency. M. pusillus have been known to carry antibodies specific to Ebola. Mitochondrial analysis was conducted on multiple fruit bats following the Ebola viruses outbreak in 2014 and one of the bat species testing positive for the virus was M. pusillus. With M. pusillus being highly frugivore, human contact in greatly increased in agricultural regions of Africa, increasing the risk for virus transmission.\n",
"In 2014 there was an outbreak of the Ebola virus in Guinea. In response, the health ministry banned the sale and consumption of bats, thought to be carriers of the disease. Despite this measure, the virus eventually spread from rural areas to Conakry.\n",
"There is no evidence of transmission to humans directly from bats, and, as such it appears that human infection only occurs via an intermediate host, a horse. Despite this in 2014 the NSW Government sanctioned the destruction of flying fox colonies.\n",
"The natural reservoir for Ebola has yet to be confirmed; however, bats are considered to be the most likely candidate species. Three types of fruit bats (\"Hypsignathus monstrosus\", \"Epomops franqueti\" and \"Myonycteris torquata\") were found to possibly carry the virus without getting sick. , whether other animals are involved in its spread is not known. Plants, arthropods, rodents, and birds have also been considered possible viral reservoirs.\n",
"Researchers have now found evidence of Ebola infection in three species of fruit bat. The bats show no symptoms of the disease, indicating that they may be the main natural reservoirs of the Ebolavirus. It is possible that there are other reservoirs and vectors. Understanding where the virus incubates between outbreaks and how it is transmitted between species will help protect humans and other primates from the virus.\n",
"Although it is not entirely clear how Ebola initially spreads from animals to humans, the spread is believed to involve direct contact with an infected wild animal or fruit bat. Besides bats, other wild animals sometimes infected with EBOV include several monkey species, chimpanzees, gorillas, baboons, and duikers.\n",
"The hunting and consumption of bats as bushmeat is a public health risk in West Africa due to the danger of wildlife-to-human transmission of disease. Bats are a natural reservoir for filoviruses, including the Ebola virus and Marburg virus, and infected bats can introduce ebolavirus to humans who come in close contact with them. Bats may also host henipaviruses and lyssaviruses.\n"
] |
what are the rules in the music industry that govern how one artist’s song can be covered by another?
|
In the US you make and sell cover versions of other artists' songs \*without their permission\* as long as you do certain things, including paying them a fixed rate royalty. Here's a link with more information: [_URL_0_](_URL_0_)
& #x200B;
There is a slightly different process for cover bands that are preforming live versions of someone else's music. You need to pay a fee to ASCAP which is an organization that collects royalties for songwriters. Usually the venue where the cover band performs will have a blanket ASCAP license that covers any cover songs a band it likely to play.
|
[
"Artists must have publishing rights for songs they release through the \"Rock Band\" Network, thus limiting the use of covers or remixes. However, Harmonix only seeks to gain non-exclusive licenses for songs, allowing artists to also have their songs used in other rhythm games. Artists will be able to remove songs from the Network if they want.\n",
"Musicians often use this license for self-promotion. For instance, a cellist who performed a musical work on a recording may obtain a mechanical license so he can distribute copies of the recording to others as an example of his cello playing. Recording artists also use this when they record cover versions of songs. This is common among artists who don't usually write their own songs. In the United States, this is required by copyright law regardless whether or not the copies are for commercial sale.\n",
"Since the Copyright Act of 1909, United States musicians have had the right to record a version of someone else's previously recorded and released tune, whether it is music alone or music with lyrics. A license can be negotiated between representatives of the interpreting artist and the copyright holder, or recording published tunes can fall under a mechanical license whereby the recording artist pays a standard royalty to the original author/copyright holder through an organization such as the Harry Fox Agency, and is safe under copyright law even if they do not have any permission from the original author. A similar service was provided by Limelight by RightsFlow, until January 2015, when they announced they will be closing their service. The U.S. Congress introduced the mechanical license to head off an attempt by the Aeolian Company to monopolize the piano roll market.\n",
"The site does appear to work in the United States but some songs are not licensed yet and if you come across a song with no license the website ask you to fill out information about the song and the band to help them gain licenses quicker.\n",
"Music licensing is the licensed use of copyrighted music. Music licensing is intended to ensure that the owners of copyrights on musical works are compensated for certain uses of their work. A purchaser has limited rights to use the work without a separate agreement.\n",
"The artists meet with both songwriters and discuss possible changes to the song to make it more suitable to the artist releasing the song. The artist produces one song and their choice is revealed when they return to the live show to perform their chosen song. \n",
"Therefore, persons or businesses wishing to play music that falls \"in the public domain\" are still legally required to obtain permission to use the mechanical recording of this music, from the mechanical copyright holder. And where the use is of copyrighted music, the same applies. In all cases, before a song title may be broadcast on a telephone MOH, said use must be approved and licensed from BOTH the \"song title\" copyright owner (if it is NOT in public domain) and the \"mechanical\" copyright owner. \n"
] |
why do we have ear lobes ?
|
Where else would you put your 00 gauge plug? - WAIT! Don't answer that, I don't want to know.
There is no known biological function for the ear lobe.
|
[
"The ears either have (1) a hole in the center or (2) an ovaloid shape with an extended curl. In the former style, the upper outer ear is formed into an ovaloid shaped with a hole in the center while the lower outer ear is formed by a lobe. On the other hand, the latter style explains the formation of the upper outer ear into an ovaloid shape with an extended curl going inside and the lower outer part consisting of the earlobe.\n",
"Humans have few olfactory receptor cells compared to dogs and few functional olfactory receptor genes compared to rats. This is in part due to a reduction of the size of the snout in order to achieve depth perception as well as other changes related to bipedalism. However, it has been argued that humans may have larger brain areas associated with olfactory perception compared to other species.\n",
"The external ear openings are covered with fur and do not have a pinnae. The nostrils are small vertical slits right below the shield-like rostrum. Although the brain has been regarded as very primitive and represents the \"lowliest marsupial brain\", the olfactory bulbs and the rubercula olfactoria are very well developed. This seems to suggest that the olfactory sense plays an important role in the marsupial moles' life, as it would be expected for a creature living in an environment lacking visual stimuli. The middle ear seems to be adapted for the reception of low-frequency sounds.\n",
"The middle ear consists of only the stapes and the oval window, which transfer vibration to the inner ear through a reentrant fluid circuit as seen in some reptiles. The species within the Scolecomorphidae lack both stapes and an oval window, making them the only known amphibians missing all the components of a middle ear apparatus.\n",
"The ears are long and pointed, with sharp serrations along the medial edges and a spatulate tragus including a shelf-like fold. The upper lip has a number of heavy bristles and surrounds the nose, with numerous folds and small projections along its edge. The snout is raised upwards, while the remainder of the skull is relatively flattened. The incisor teeth are reduced in size, but have a complex shape with two or three lobes.\n",
"The porpoise ear has specific adaptations to the marine environment. In humans, the middle ear works as an impedance equaliser between the outside air's low impedance and the cochlear fluid's high impedance. In whales, and other marine mammals, there is no great difference between the outer and inner environments. Instead of sound passing through the outer ear to the middle ear, porpoises receive sound through the throat, from which it passes through a low-impedance fat-filled cavity to the inner ear. The porpoise ear is acoustically isolated from the skull by air-filled sinus pockets, which allow for greater directional hearing underwater. Odontocetes send out high frequency clicks from an organ known as a melon. This melon consists of fat, and the skull of any such creature containing a melon will have a large depression. The large bulge on top of the porpoises head is caused by the melon.\n",
"In the practice of otoplasty, the term prominent ears describes external ears (pinnae) that, regardless of their size, protrude from the sides of the head. The abnormal appearance exceeds the normal head-to-ear measures, wherein the external ear is less than 2.0 cm, and at an angle of less than 25 degrees, from the side of the head. Ear configurations, of distance and angle, that exceed the normal measures, appear prominent when the man or the woman is viewed from either the front or the back perspective. In the occurrence of prominent ears, the common causes of anatomic defect, deformity, and abnormality can occur individually or in combination; they are:\n"
] |
Life in 1910, London
|
We've allowed this post, but you're unlikely to get a thorough answer. Questions like "were life conditions good?" and "were people happy?" are not really answerable: some people had a high standard of living and some did not; some people were happy most of the time and some were desperately unhappy, with every nuance in between. People in good circumstances had personal setbacks that made them unhappy, and people in desperate circumstances had times of joy.
I would recommend that you pose your more concrete questions to the sub separately:
*What sort of art was being produced in England around 1910? What decorative arts movements were relevant?*
*How was garbage and sewage collected in early twentieth century England?*
*How common was electricity in England in 1910? When did "ordinary people" start to have access to it?*
For the overall view of the period, I think you will find *Edwardian England: A Guide to Everyday Life, 1900-1914*, by Evangeline Holland, useful. It seems to be a well-researched guide to politics and popular culture, and may help you get more specific questions to ask.
|
[
"A London Life is a novella by Henry James, first published in \"Scribner's Magazine\" in 1888. The plot revolves around a crumbling marriage and its impact on many other people, especially Laura Wing, the sister of the soon-to-be-divorced wife. Laura is a classic Jamesian \"central consciousness,\" whose reflections and emotions color the presentation of the storyline and the other characters. The tale is notable for its straightforward, even hard-edged approach to sexuality and divorce. This might reflect the influence of French naturalism on James during the 1880s.\n",
"London is a historical novel by Edward Rutherfurd published in 1997, which charts the history of London from 54 B.C. to 1997. The novel begins with the birth of the River Thames and moves to 54 B.C., detailing the life of Segovax, a curious character with slightly webbed hands and a flash of white hair. Seqovax becomes the ancestor of the Ducket and Dogget families, prominent fictional families woven into the novel.\n",
"One of the most famous events of 19th century London was the Great Exhibition of 1851. Held at The Crystal Palace, the fair attracted visitors from across the world and displayed Britain at the height of its Imperial dominance.\n",
"One of the most famous events of 19th-century London was the Great Exhibition of 1851. Held at The Crystal Palace, the fair attracted 6 million visitors from across the world and displayed Britain at the height of its Imperial dominance.\n",
"Later important depictions of London from the 19th and early 20th centuries are Dickens' novels, and Arthur Conan Doyle's Sherlock Holmes stories. Also of significance is Letitia Elizabeth Landon's \"Calendar of the London Seasons\" (1834). Modern writers pervasively influenced by the city include Peter Ackroyd, author of a \"biography\" of London, and Iain Sinclair, who writes in the genre of psychogeography.\n",
"This article covers the history of London of the early 20th century, from 1900 to the outbreak of World War II in 1939. London entered the 20th century at the height of its influence as the capital of the largest empire in history, but the new century was to bring many challenges. London was the largest city in the world from about 1825 until it was overtaken by New York City in 1925.\n",
"\"Our London Lives\" opened in The Museum of London on 8 January 2016 and closed on 11 February 2016. Atherton's recorded visits of his estranged son's visits to London over 16 years (1999 - 2015) was shown as part of Recording A Life exhibition in the Show Space gallery and subsequently became the first video diary taken into the museum's permanent collection\n"
] |
Why is strep throat, caused by a commensal bacteria, contagious?
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Because there are different forms found in different people much like blood types, therefore it is fine for yourself to carry but not other people
The exact reason strep throat is contagious.
Because if a new type of streptococcus is found the body sends infection markers and can be potentially fatal if it's not your own type
|
[
"Strep throat is caused by group A β-hemolytic \"streptococcus\" (GAS or \"S. pyogenes\"). Other bacteria such as non–group A β-hemolytic \"streptococci\" and \"fusobacterium\" may also cause pharyngitis. It is spread by direct, close contact with an infected person; thus crowding, as may be found in the military and schools, increases the rate of transmission. Dried bacteria in dust are not infectious, although moist bacteria on toothbrushes or similar items can persist for up to fifteen days. Contaminated food can result in outbreaks, but this is rare. Of children with no signs or symptoms, 12% carry GAS in their pharynx, and, after treatment, approximately 15% of those remain positive, and are true \"carriers\".\n",
"The second most common cause is bacterial infection of which the predominant is Group A β-hemolytic streptococcus (GABHS), which causes strep throat. Bacterial infection of the tonsils usually follows the initial viral infection. Less common bacterial causes include: \"Staphylococcus aureus\" (including methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus or MRSA ), \"Streptococcus pneumoniae\", \"Mycoplasma pneumoniae\", \"Chlamydia pneumoniae\", \"Bordetella pertussis\", \"Fusobacterium\" sp., \"Corynebacterium diphtheriae\", \"Treponema pallidum\", and \"Neisseria gonorrhoeae\".\n",
"Streptococcal bacteria have been found living inside the walls of water-conducting xylem cells in spent reeds. Streptococcal bacterium is a common bacterium that causes illness to the throat, including sore throat and strep throat.\n",
"Tonsillitis is most commonly caused by a viral infection, with about 5% to 40% of cases caused by a bacterial infection. When caused by the bacterium group A streptococcus, it is referred to as strep throat. Rarely bacteria such as \"Neisseria gonorrhoeae\", \"Corynebacterium diphtheriae\", or \"Haemophilus influenzae\" may be the cause. Typically the infection is spread between people through the air. A scoring system, such as the Centor score, may help separate possible causes. Confirmation may be by a throat swab or rapid strep test.\n",
"Streptococcal pharyngitis or strep throat is caused by a group A beta-hemolytic streptococcus (GAS). It is the most common bacterial cause of cases of pharyngitis (15–30%). Common symptoms include fever, sore throat, and large lymph nodes. It is a contagious infection, spread by close contact with an infected individual. A definitive diagnosis is made based on the results of a throat culture. Antibiotics are useful to both prevent complications (such as rheumatic fever) and speed recovery.\n",
"Staphylococcal enteritis is an inflammation that is usually caused by eating or drinking substances contaminated with staph enterotoxin. The toxin, not the bacterium, settles in the small intestine and causes inflammation and swelling. This in turn can cause abdominal pain, cramping, dehydration, diarrhea and fever.\n",
"Due to the disruption of digestive processes by the overgrowth of intestinal bacteria; malabsorption of bile salts, fat and fat-soluble vitamins, protein and carbohydrates results in damage to the mucosal lining of the intestine by bacteria or via the production of toxic metabolites.\n"
] |
could it be possible that a black hole in our universe turns out to be a big bang in some other universe?
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[There's a Polish cosmologist who thinks this might be possible.](_URL_0_)
It's totally untestable, though. At least, for a very long time.
|
[
"The initial state of the universe, at the beginning of the Big Bang, is also predicted by modern theories to have been a singularity. In this case the universe did not collapse into a black hole, because currently-known calculations and density limits for gravitational collapse are usually based upon objects of relatively constant size, such as stars, and do not necessarily apply in the same way to rapidly expanding space such as the Big Bang. Neither general relativity nor quantum mechanics can currently describe the earliest moments of the Big Bang, but in general, quantum mechanics does not permit particles to inhabit a space smaller than their wavelengths.\n",
"A small minority of sources argue that distant supermassive black holes whose large size is hard to explain so soon after the Big Bang, such as ULAS J1342+0928, may be evidence that our universe is the result of a Big Bounce, instead of a Big Bang, with these supermassive black holes being formed before the Big Bounce.\n",
"A small minority of sources argue that distant supermassive black holes whose large size is hard to explain so soon after the Big Bang, such as ULAS J1342+0928, may be evidence that our universe is the result of a Big Bounce, instead of a Big Bang, with these supermassive black holes being formed before the Big Bounce.\n",
"A view of black holes first proposed in the late 1980s might be interpreted as shedding some light on the nature of classical white holes. Some researchers have proposed that when a black hole forms, a Big Bang may occur at the core, which would create a new universe that expands outside of the parent universe. See also Fecund universes.\n",
"It is possible that such quantum primordial black holes were created in the high-density environment of the early Universe (or Big Bang), or possibly through subsequent phase transitions. They might be observed by astrophysicists through the particles they are expected to emit by Hawking radiation.\n",
"A 2012 paper argues that the Big Bang itself is a white hole. It further suggests that the emergence of a white hole, which was named a 'Small Bang', is spontaneous—all the matter is ejected at a single pulse. Thus, unlike black holes, white holes cannot be continuously observed; rather, their effect can only be detected around the event itself. The paper even proposed identifying a new group of gamma-ray bursts with white holes.\n",
"Evgeny Lifshitz and Isaak Markovich Khalatnikov also tried to avoid the Big Bang theory but also failed. Roger Penrose used light cones and general relativity to prove that a collapsing star could result in a region of zero size and infinite density and curvature called a Black Hole. Hawking and Penrose proved together that the Universe should have arisen from a singularity, which Hawking himself disproved once Quantum effects are taken into account.\n"
] |
How big is our solar system in non-planar directions (up & down rather than out)
|
blorg is on the right track except for two things:
1) The heliopause (and associated other surfaces between the solar wind and the interstellar medium [ISM]) is thought to be more comet shaped than spherical. The sun is moving through the ISM, and thus toward the nose it is more compressed, and in the opposite direction it has a long tail.
2) While the difference between the inside and outside of the heliopause would be hard to detect if you were just floating around out there, the characteristics of the material (magnetic field strength and orientation, ionization state, density, temperature...) are really quite different, which is why it's exciting as Voyager starts to encounter the effects of the ISM as it reaches the edge of the solar system.
|
[
"The geocentric system is simpler, being smaller and involving few massive objects: that coordinate system defines its center as the center of mass of the Earth itself. The barycentric system can be loosely thought of as being centered on the Sun, but the Solar System is more complicated. Even the much smaller planets exert gravitational force upon the Sun, causing it to shift position slightly as they orbit. Those shifts are very large in comparison to the measurement precisions that are required for astrometry. Thus, the BCRS defines its center of coordinates as the center of mass of the entire Solar System, its barycenter. This stable point for gravity helps to minimize relativistic effects from any observational frames of reference within the Solar System.\n",
"After Copernicus proposed his heliocentric system, with the Earth in revolution around the Sun, it was possible to build a model of the whole Solar System without scale. To ascertain the scale, it is necessary only to measure one distance within the Solar System, e.g., the mean distance from the Earth to the Sun (now called an astronomical unit, or AU). When found by triangulation, this is referred to as the \"solar parallax\", the difference in position of the Sun as seen from the Earth's centre and a point one Earth radius away, i. e., the angle subtended at the Sun by the Earth's mean radius. Knowing the solar parallax and the mean Earth radius allows one to calculate the AU, the first, small step on the long road of establishing the size and expansion age of the visible Universe.\n",
"Most of the major bodies of the Solar System orbit the Sun in nearly the same plane. This is likely due to the way in which the Solar System formed from a protoplanetary disk. Probably the closest current representation of the disk is known as the \"invariable plane of the Solar System\". Earth's orbit, and hence, the ecliptic, is inclined a little more than 1° to the invariable plane, Jupiter's orbit is within a little more than ° of it, and the other major planets are all within about 6°. Because of this, most Solar System bodies appear very close to the ecliptic in the sky.\n",
"From the surface of , would have an apparent diameter of roughly 41°. For comparison, the Sun appears to be 0.5° from Earth. The secondary orbits its primary in a manner very similar to the adjunct image, where the red cross is the center of mass.\n",
"The overall structure of the charted regions of the Solar System consists of the Sun, four relatively small inner planets surrounded by a belt of mostly rocky asteroids, and four giant planets surrounded by the Kuiper belt of mostly icy objects. Astronomers sometimes informally divide this structure into separate regions. The inner Solar System includes the four terrestrial planets and the asteroid belt. The outer Solar System is beyond the asteroids, including the four giant planets. Since the discovery of the Kuiper belt, the outermost parts of the Solar System are considered a distinct region consisting of the objects beyond Neptune.\n",
"It revolves around the host star in a somewhat elongated orbit. If it were located in the Solar System, this orbit would stretch from just outside the orbit of Venus (at 117 million km or 0.78 astronomical unit [AU] from the Sun) to just outside the orbit of the Earth (at 162 million km or 1.08 AU). Because the planet is at least 720 times more massive than the Earth, it is predicted that Iota Horologii b is more similar to planet Jupiter.\n",
"In the Solar System, planets, asteroids, most comets and some pieces of space debris have approximately elliptical orbits around the Sun. Strictly speaking, both bodies revolve around the same focus of the ellipse, the one closer to the more massive body, but when one body is significantly more massive, such as the sun in relation to the earth, the focus may be contained within the larger massing body, and thus the smaller is said to revolve around it. The following chart of the perihelion and aphelion of the planets, dwarf planets and Halley's Comet demonstrates the variation of the eccentricity of their elliptical orbits. For similar distances from the sun, wider bars denote greater eccentricity. Note the almost-zero eccentricity of Earth and Venus compared to the enormous eccentricity of Halley's Comet and Eris.\n"
] |
the difference between piston plane engines and car engines
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if car engine breaks down, you putter to side of the road and call AAA.
& #x200B;
if your plane engine breaks down, you fall out of the sky and call FAA.
& #x200B;
if you maintained your car engine at same level of your plane engine, you'd be doing inspection every morning before leaving for work. oil changes every month, certified mechanic inspections every year.
|
[
"Aircraft design more strongly favors lower weight and air-cooled designs. Rotary engines were popular on aircraft until the end of World War I, but had serious stability and efficiency problems. Radial engines were popular until the end of World War II, until gas turbine engines largely replaced them. Modern propeller-driven aircraft with internal-combustion engines are still largely air-cooled. Modern cars generally favor power over weight, and typically have water-cooled engines. Modern motorcycles are lighter than cars, and both cooling fluids are common. Some sport motorcycles were cooled with both air and oil (sprayed underneath the piston heads).\n",
"Fuel for piston-engine powered aircraft (usually a high-octane gasoline known as avgas) has a high volatility to improve its carburetion characteristics and high autoignition temperature to prevent preignition in high compression aircraft engines. Turbine engines (like diesel engines) can operate with a wide range of fuels because fuel is injected into the hot combustion chamber. Jet and gas turbine (turboprop, helicopter) aircraft engines typically use lower cost fuels with higher flash points, which are less flammable and therefore safer to transport and handle.\n",
"Aircraft engines are a mechanical component of the propulsion system on an airplane, helicopter, rocket or UAV which produces rotary energy to be transferred to a propeller or kinetic energy as a high pressure air exhaust stream. The most common aircraft engine types are turboprop, turbojet, turbofan and turboshaft, however electric engines and piston engines, both used more predominantly in recreational personal aircraft and older model aircraft also exist. Aircraft engine performance has improved dramatically since the advent of the first powered flight in 1848 by John Stringfellow. Aircraft engine manufacturers are constantly innovating to produce more efficient and more reliable engines for aircraft manufacturers. The first jet aircraft and subsequent powered flight occurred on the 27th of August 1939 by a Heinkel He 178. Today, most commercial aircraft are powered by jet engines for long-haul journeys. Efficient aircraft engines have significant positive economic impacts, as they reduce fuel costs for airline companies, enabling cheaper ticket prices and greater flight distances.\n",
"An aircraft engine is a component of the propulsion system for an aircraft that generates mechanical power. Aircraft engines are almost always either lightweight piston engines or gas turbines, except for small multicopter UAVs which are almost always electric aircraft.\n",
"Although there are 1, 3 and 5-cylinder engines, almost all other inline engines are built with even numbers of cylinders, as it is easier to balance out the mechanical vibrations. Another form of multiple-cylinder internal combustion engine is the radial engine, with cylinders arranged in a star pattern around a central crankshaft. Radial engines are most commonly used as aircraft engines, and in basic single-row configuration are built with odd numbers of cylinders (from 3 to 9). An odd number of cylinders is necessary in a four stroke radial, since the firing order is such that every other cylinder fires as the crankshaft rotates. Only with an odd number of cylinders will all cylinders evenly fire in this manner in two crankshaft revolutions (first the odd cylinders, followed by the even cylinders). \"Twin-row\" or \"multi-row\" radials are also built, which is basically two or more single-row radials connected front-to-back and driving a common crankshaft. In this \"twin row\", or \"multi-row\" configuration, the total number of cylinders will be an even number, although each row still has an odd number. For example, a typical single row radial such as the Wright Cyclone has 9 cylinders. The twin row Wright Twin Cyclone is based on this engine and thus has two banks of 9 cylinders, for a total of 18, an even number.\n",
"Reciprocating engines in aircraft have three main variants, radial, in-line and flat or horizontally opposed engine. The radial engine is a reciprocating type internal combustion engine configuration in which the cylinders \"radiate\" outward from a central crankcase like the spokes of a wheel and was commonly used for aircraft engines before gas turbine engines became predominant. An inline engine is a reciprocating engine with banks of cylinders, one behind another, rather than rows of cylinders, with each bank having any number of cylinders, but rarely more than six, and may be water-cooled. A flat engine is an internal combustion engine with horizontally-opposed cylinders.\n",
"Opposed, air-cooled four- and six-cylinder piston engines are by far the most common engines used in small general aviation aircraft requiring up to per engine. Aircraft that require more than per engine tend to be powered by turbine engines.\n"
] |
Has there ever been a mathematical "Piltdown Man"? That is, a mathematical theorem that was accepted as valid for many years, only to have a fatal flaw discovered much later?
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Not to insult the folks here, but you could try x-posting over at /r/math.
|
[
"Victor Michael Jean-Marie Thébault (1882–1960) was a French mathematician best known for propounding three problems in geometry. The name Thébault's theorem is used by some authors to refer to the first of these problems and by others to refer to the third.\n",
"The unsolved problem stimulated the development of algebraic number theory in the 19th century and the proof of the modularity theorem in the 20th century. It is among the most notable theorems in the history of mathematics and prior to its proof was in the \"Guinness Book of World Records\" as the \"most difficult mathematical problem\" in part because the theorem has the largest number of unsuccessful proofs.\n",
"George David Birkhoff (March 21, 1884 – November 12, 1944) was an American mathematician best known for what is now called the ergodic theorem. Birkhoff was one of the most important leaders in American mathematics in his generation, and during his time he was considered by many to be the preeminent American mathematician.\n",
"BULLET::::- Pythagorean theorem, named after the mathematician Pythagoras, although it was known before him to Babylonian mathematicians (although it is not known if the Babylonians possessed a proof of the result; yet it is not known either, whether Pythagoras proved the result).\n",
"In the Nash biography \"A Beautiful Mind\", author Sylvia Nasar explains that Nash was working on proving Hilbert's nineteenth problem, a theorem involving elliptic partial differential equations when, in 1956, he suffered a severe disappointment. He learned that an Italian mathematician, Ennio de Giorgi, had published a proof just months before Nash achieved his. Each took different routes to get to their solutions. The two mathematicians met each other at the Courant Institute of Mathematical Sciences of New York University during the summer of 1956. It has been speculated that if only one had solved the problem, he would have been given the Fields Medal for the proof.\n",
"BULLET::::- Bernhard Riemann (1826–1866) left notable mathematical problems, which remain unsolved, within his Nachlass. Marcus Du Sautoy writes:Most mathematicians passing through Göttingen take the time to visit the library to examine Riemann's famous unpublished scribblings, his \"Nachlass\". Not only is it a moving experience to feel a bond with such an important figure in the history of mathematics, but the \"Nachlass\" still contains many unsolved mysteries, locked inside Riemann's illegible scribbles. It has become the Rosetta stone of mathematics.\n",
"In \"The Royale\", a 1989 episode of the 24th-century-set TV series \"\", Picard tells Commander Riker about his attempts to solve the theorem, \"still unsolved\" after 800 years. He concludes, \"In our arrogance, we feel we are so advanced. And yet we cannot unravel a simple knot tied by a part-time French mathematician working alone without a computer.\" (Andrew Wiles's insight leading to his breakthrough proof happened four months after the series ended.)\n"
] |
How was FDR's decision to run for a third term received by the Democratic Party? By his 4th election was there "Roosevelt Fatigue"?
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Roosevelt’s decision to run for a third term was heavily influenced by the foreign affairs of the time re: Germany and the struggle of the British to defend and fight back. The national sentiment towards isolationism, especially among politicians, ultimately convinced Roosevelt to seek a third term. He viewed this less as a political coup and more as a necessity to prepare the nation for war.
If anything, the Democratic Party was happy he chose to run due to Wilkie’s popularity (the Republican nominee) at the time.
“When the delegates to the DNC convened in Chicago on July 15, 1940, there was no serious doubt he (Roosevelt) would accept the renomination.”
That’s not to say the the whole of the Democratic party rallied right away around Roosevelt. Roosevelt did not attend the convention and preferred to have his associates Perkins, Hopkins, and Ickes take care of things in Chicago. Roosevelt did not want to come out right away and declare that he wanted to nomination, so he literally played a game of telephone with Kentucky Senator Barkley, an old-timer who had a penchant for delivering emotional keynote addresses that brought the people to a frenzy. He too gave a keynote in 1940 ending with a personal note from Roosevelt: “The President has never had, and has not today, any desire or purpose to continue in the office of President, to be a candidate for that office, or to be nominated by the convention for that office. He wishes in earnestness and sincerity to make it clear that all of the delegates in this convention are free to vote for any candidate.”
I’ll quote directly from FDR here: “The vast crowd in Chicago Stadium was speechless for a moment. What did Roosevelt mean? The statement said neither yes nor no. Five, ten, fifteen seconds, and then bedlam broke loose. From loudspeakers all over convention hall a powerful voice boomed out “WE WANT ROOSEVELT. WE WANT ROOSEVELT,” over and over.
Roosevelt did not really want to run for a fourth term unless the war was still going on - as he was in terrible health. That being said he made his intentions clear early on this time around: “he put his cards on the table early. In a message to party chairman Robert E. Hannegan well over a week before the delegates would assemble, the president said that although he did not wish to run, his duty compelled him to do so. ‘Reluctantly, but as a good soldier, I will accept and serve in this office, if I am ordered to do so by the Commander In Chief of us all - the sovereign people of the United States.”
He won renomination on the first ballot.
All info taken from Jean Edward Smith’s fantastic “[FDR](_URL_0_)”
|
[
"On July 2, H. L. Mencken declared that, by his observation, the party lacked confidence in both Roosevelt's ability to deliver a general election victory and his physical fitness for the office of president. He opined that the party had nominated the weakest candidate that had been presented before them. Mencken faulted Smith, believing that his pure spite towards Roosevelt had left him blind to the strategy that was necessary to successfully thwart Roosevelt's candidacy. Mencken also felt that Smith had lost his edge.\n",
"As the campaign drew to a close, Willkie and other Republicans stepped up their attacks on Roosevelt's foreign policy. Willkie warned that Roosevelt's re-election would lead to the deployment of U.S. troops abroad. In response, Roosevelt stated that \"Your boys are not going to be sent into any foreign wars.\" Roosevelt won the 1940 election with 55% of the popular vote and almost 85% of the electoral vote (449 to 82). Willkie won ten states: strongly Republican states of Vermont and Maine, and eight isolationist states in the Midwest. The Democrats retained their congressional majorities, but the conservative coalition largely controlled domestic legislation and remained \"leery of presidential extensions of executive power through social programs.\"\n",
"As the campaign drew to a close, Willkie and other Republicans stepped up their attacks on Roosevelt's foreign policy. Willkie warned that Roosevelt's re-election would lead to the deployment of U.S. troops abroad. In response, Roosevelt stated that \"Your boys are not going to be sent into any foreign wars.\" Roosevelt won the 1940 election with 55% of the popular vote and almost 85% of the electoral vote (449 to 82). Willkie won ten states: strongly Republican states of Vermont and Maine, and eight isolationist states in the Midwest. The Democrats retained their congressional majorities, but the conservative coalition largely controlled domestic legislation and remained \"leery of presidential extensions of executive power through social programs.\"\n",
"Roosevelt had been surprised by the outcome of the Republican convention, having expected to oppose a conservative isolationist. The polls showed Willkie behind by only six points, and the president expected this to be a more difficult race than he had faced in his defeats of Hoover and Landon. Roosevelt felt that Willkie's nomination would remove the war issue from the campaign. Roosevelt was nominated by the Democratic convention in Chicago in July, though he stated that because of the world crisis, he would not actively campaign, leaving that to surrogates. The fact that both major-party presidential candidates favored intervention frustrated isolationists, who considered wooing Charles Lindbergh as a third party candidate.\n",
"Willkie concluded his campaign on November 2 with a large rally at New York's Madison Square Garden. Polls showed him four points behind Roosevelt, but with a trend towards the Republicans. Many pundits expected a tight race. On Election Day, November 5, 1940, the returns were initially encouraging, but quickly turned against Willkie. By 11 pm, radio commentators were reporting that Roosevelt had won a third term. Willkie received 45 percent of the popular vote to Roosevelt's 55 percent. The president received 27.2 million votes to Willkie's 22.3 million, and won 449 to 82 in the Electoral College. Willkie won 10 states to the president's 38 though he did better than Hoover and Landon had against Roosevelt. Willkie's popular vote total of 22,348,480 set a record for a Republican not broken until Eisenhower in 1952.\n",
"Roosevelt also actively campaigned in this election against his doctors' advice in order to counter Republican claims that he was close to death. Roosevelt maintained a consistent (albeit sometimes narrow) lead in the polls at all times and won a solid victory in this election due to the American successes in World War II and Roosevelt's popularity.\n",
"Roosevelt was receiving many letters from supporters urging him to run, and Republican office-holders were organizing on his behalf. Balked on many policies by an unwilling Congress and courts in his full term in the White House, he saw manifestations of public support he believed would sweep him to the White House with a mandate for progressive policies that would brook no opposition. In February, Roosevelt announced he would accept the Republican nomination if it was offered to him. Taft felt that if he lost in November, it would be a repudiation of the party, but if he lost renomination, it would be a rejection of himself. He was reluctant to oppose Roosevelt, who helped make him president, but having become president, he was determined to be president, and that meant not standing aside to allow Roosevelt to gain another term.\n"
] |
what keeps a panting dog from hyperventilating ?
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Panting in dogs tends to be shallow breaths an they're not moving a ton of air, which prevents them from blowing off all their carbon dioxide (CO2) and getting respiratory alkalosis (high blood pH which causes an acid/base imbalance). But not always... dogs that are taking fast, deep breaths will suffer from the same hyperventilation syndrome as people. The body is more sensitive to a build-up of CO2 to tell us when to breathe than a lack of oxygen. Hyperventilating causes you to expel more CO2 than usual which will cause your body to stop signaling you to take a breath and you won't get sufficient oxygen. It also causes alkalosis where the blood pH increases. A dog panting regularly isn't moving more air than a dog taking in slower, deep breaths, so hyperventilation isn't an issue. The issue comes when there is labored breathing or heavy panting, which will cause these issues. Dogs are also more prone to aerophagia, where they gulp air while panting heavily and distend out their stomachs. Aerophagia can rarely lead to bloat, but can be quite uncomfortable. Questions?
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[
"Unlike dogs, panting is a rare occurrence in cats, except in warm weather environments. Some cats may pant in response to anxiety, fear or excitement. It can also be caused by play, exercise, or stress from things like car rides. However, if panting is excessive or the cat appears in distress, it may be a symptom of a more serious condition, such as a nasal blockage, heartworm disease, head trauma, or drug poisoning. In many cases, feline panting, especially if accompanied by other symptoms, such as coughing or shallow breathing (dyspnea), is considered to be abnormal, and treated as a medical emergency.\n",
"Panting is an attempt to regulate body temperature. Excitement can raise the body temperature in both humans and dogs. Although not an intentional communication, if the dog pants rapidly but is not exposed to warm conditions then this signals excitement due to stress.\n",
"Apparently to prevent overheating, dik-diks have elongated snouts with bellows-like muscles through which blood is pumped. Airflow and subsequent evaporation cools this blood before it is recirculated to the body. However, this panting is only implemented in extreme conditions; dik-diks can tolerate air temperatures of up to .\n",
"Breathing has other important functions. It provides a mechanism for speech, laughter and similar expressions of the emotions. It is also used for reflexes such as yawning, coughing and sneezing. Animals that cannot thermoregulate by perspiration, because they lack sufficient sweat glands, may lose heat by evaporation through panting.\n",
"The common ostrich has no sweat glands, and under heat stress they rely on panting to reduce their body temperature. Panting increases evaporative heat (and water) loss from its respiratory surfaces, therefore forcing air and heat removal without the loss of metabolic salts. Panting allows the common ostrich to have a very effective respiratory evaporative water loss (REWL). Heat dissipated by respiratory evaporation increases linearly with ambient temperature, matching the rate of heat production. As a result of panting the common ostrich should eventually experience alkalosis. However, The CO concentration in the blood does not change when hot ambient temperatures are experienced. This effect is caused by a lung surface shunt. The lung is not completely shunted, allowing enough oxygen to fulfill the bird's metabolic needs. The common ostrich utilizes gular fluttering, rapid rhythmic contraction and relaxation of throat muscles, in a similar way to panting. Both these behaviors allow the ostrich to actively increase the rate of evaporative cooling.\n",
"Primarily, dogs regulate their body temperature through panting and sweating via their paws. Panting moves cooling air over the moist surfaces of the tongue and lungs, transferring heat to the atmosphere.\n",
"Pugs, like other short-snouted breeds, have elongated palates. When excited, they are prone to \"reverse sneezing\" which causes them to quickly (and seemingly laboriously) gasp and snort. The veterinary name for this is pharyngeal gag reflex and it is caused by fluid or debris getting caught under the palate and irritating the throat or limiting breathing. Reverse sneezing episodes are usually not harmful, and massaging the dog's throat or covering its nose in order to make it breathe through its mouth can often shorten a sneezing fit.\n"
] |
Did the Union Jack ever have a red background with a blue central cross?
|
No. The Union Jack has only ever had a red cross (from the flag of England) and a blue background (from the flag of Scotland). Whoever coloured this image made an error. And whoever drew it too, for that matter. The British flag being lowered seems to be an illustration of the *current* Union Jack, which was adopted in 1801 after the Union with Ireland. In 1783 it would have looked [like this](_URL_0_).
|
[
"The Union Jack also appeared on both the 1910–1928 and 1928–1994 flags of South Africa. The 1910–1928 flag was a red ensign with the Union coat of arms in the fly. The 1928–1994 flag, based on the Prinsenvlag and commonly known as the \"oranje-blanje-blou\" (orange-white-blue), contained the Union Jack as part of a central motif at par with the flags of the two Boer republics of the Orange Free State and Transvaal. To keep any one of the three flags from having precedence, the Union Jack is spread horizontally from the Orange Free State flag towards the hoist; closest to the hoist, it is in the superior position but since it is reversed it does not precede the other flags.\n",
"The Second Confederate Navy Jack was a rectangular cousin of the Confederate Army's battle flag and was in use from 1863 until 1865. It existed in a variety of dimensions and sizes, despite the CSN's detailed naval regulations. The blue color of the diagonal saltire's \"Southern Cross\" was much lighter than the dark blue of the battle flag.\n",
"The jack was “an ordinary square canvas, having printed on both sides the flag colors and coat of arms of the Romanian Socialist Republic. Two crossed white anchors of the same size as the coat of arms are affixed to the blue area”.\n",
"The current design of the Union Jack dates from the union of Ireland and Great Britain in 1801. It consists of the red cross of Saint George (patron saint of England), edged in white, superimposed on the Cross of St Patrick (patron saint of Ireland), which are superimposed on the Saltire of Saint Andrew (patron saint of Scotland). Wales is not represented in the Union Flag by Wales's patron saint, Saint David, as at the time the flag was designed Wales was part of the Kingdom of England.\n",
"The current and second Union Jack dates from 1 January 1801 with the Act of Union 1800, which merged the Kingdom of Ireland and the Kingdom of Great Britain to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. The new design added a red saltire, the cross of Saint Patrick, for Ireland. This is counterchanged with the saltire of St Andrew, such that the white always follows the red clockwise. The arrangement has introduced a requirement to display the flag \"the right way up\"; see specifications for flag use, below. As with the red cross, so too the red saltire is separated by a white fimbriation from the blue field. This fimbriation is repeated for symmetry on the white portion of the saltire, which thereby appears wider than the red portion. The fimbriation of the cross of St George separates its red from the red of the saltire.\n",
"The Union Jack is the third quarter of the 1939 coat of arms of Alabama, representing British sovereignty over the state prior to 1783. The version used is the modern flag, whereas the 1707 flag would have been used in colonial Alabama.\n",
"United or confederated states have in many cases adopted a jack representing their national union. The best known is the Union Jack of the United Kingdom's Royal Navy, composed in 1606 by joining together the flags of England and Scotland. When the Kingdom of Ireland merged with Great Britain in 1801, a red saltire (St Patrick's Cross) was added to form the present Union Flag. The design of the British Union Jack probably inspired later jacks of other nations, e.g. Russia and the Union Jack of Norway and Sweden. The Russian jack in its turn inspired the jacks of Bulgaria, Estonia and Latvia.\n"
] |
why are we training so many kids to code?
|
We teach all kids history, it doesn't make them grow into historians. (It doesn't even grow many of them into history-aware people, kids forget most of what they learn or never gain much competence at it anyway.)
Additionally a lot of the cheaper overseas folk are sub-par programmers too.
|
[
"In the Tech Lab, children are introduced to coding by learning how to program a robot to complete a series of tasks, navigate mazes, and play games. Each activity is designed to promote creative problem-solving in novice programmers. More experienced coders can program robots to respond to sensor inputs and use loops to avoid obstacles.\n",
"\"Teens Learning Code\" offers those too old for \"Girls Learning Code\" yet too young for \"Ladies learning Code\" a program that is tailored to teens. It is open to female-identified, trans, and non-binary youth ages 13-17 and teaches various technological skills such as webmaking, gamemaking, and even app inventing.\n",
"Kids Code Jeunesse (KCJ) is a Canadian not for profit organization based in Montreal, Quebec which helps children in Canada have an opportunity to learn computational thinking through code. This organization, founded in 2013 by Kate Arthur, is primarily used by children, teachers, and parents with the skills needed for the modern society. KCJ wants more creatures than producers. The intent is not to replace existing courses with computer science, but rather complement them with coding. Kids Code Jeunesse uses intuitive, open source, free tools such as Scratch and Trinket. Its education materials are developed for children aged 5 to 12 years old. By targeting a younger age group, KCJ is helping boost the children's abilities in communication, collaboration, problem-solving, and creative thinking.\n",
"Bernstein explains language development according to the two codes in light of their fundamentally different values. For instance, a child exposed solely to restricted code learns extraverbal communication over verbal, and therefore may have a less extensive vocabulary than a child raised with exposure to both codes. While there is no inherent lack of value to restricted code, a child without exposure to elaborated code may encounter difficulties upon entering formal education, in which standard, clear verbal communication and comprehension is necessary for learning and effective interaction both with instructors and other students from differing backgrounds. As such, it may be beneficial for children who have been exposed solely to restricted code to enter pre-school training in elaborated code in order to acquire a manner of speaking that is considered appropriate and widely comprehensible within the education environment.\n",
"Code Club is a voluntary initiative, founded in 2012, which aims to provide opportunities for children aged 9 to 13 to developing coding skills through free after-school clubs. As of November 2015, over 3,800 schools and other public venues had established a Code Club, regularly attended by an estimated 44,000 young people across the United Kingdom. The organisation has also expanded internationally, and there are now over 6,000 Code Club operating worldwide. Volunteer programmers and software developers give their time to run Code Club sessions, passing on their programming skills and mentoring the young students. Children create their own computer games, animations and websites, learning how to use technology creatively.\n",
"Attention to beginners is considered important, because most computer programmers will always be such, and because many beginners never widen their knowledge, limiting themselves to work in aspects of the language in which they specialize.\n",
"Made with Code revolves primarily around providing online activities for young girls to learn coding on its website. Many of Made with Code's projects use Blockly programming, a visual editor that writes programs by assembling individual blocks. Step by step instructions are provided to guide users. Along the way, works may either be discarded or saved and downloaded.\n"
] |
why is a sugary drink sticky when spilled, but an artificially sweetened one not?
|
Artificial sweeteners are much more concentrated. So, when they dry out, there is less leftover.
|
[
"A variety of beverages call for sweetening to offset the tartness of some juices used in the drink recipes. Granulated sugar does not dissolve easily in cold drinks or ethyl alcohol. Since the following syrups are liquids, they are easily mixed with other liquids in mixed drinks, making them superior alternatives to granulated sugar.\n",
"Multiple artificial sweeteners can be used to give diet soft drinks a sweet taste without sugar. Sometimes two sweeteners are used in the same beverage. Opinion is mixed as to the taste of these beverages: some think they lack the taste of their sugar-sweetened counterparts, while others think the taste is similar. Some also note an unusual non-sugary aftertaste. Some feel the opposite—that diet drinks have no aftertaste and that drinks sweetened by high fructose corn syrup have a gritty, over-sweet aftertaste.\n",
"A sweetened beverage is any beverage with added sugar. It has been described as \"liquid candy\". Consumption of sweetened beverages has been linked to weight gain, obesity, and associated health risks. According to the CDC, consumption of sweetened beverages is also associated with unhealthy behaviors like smoking, not getting enough sleep and exercise, and eating fast food often and not enough fruits regularly.\n",
"Sugar alcohols are used widely in the food industry as thickeners and sweeteners. In commercial foodstuffs, sugar alcohols are commonly used in place of table sugar (sucrose), often in combination with high intensity artificial sweeteners to counter the low sweetness. Xylitol and sorbitol are popular sugar alcohols in commercial foods.\n",
"Advocates say drinks employing these sweeteners have a more natural sugar-like taste than those made just with aspartame, and do not have a strong aftertaste. The newer aspartame-free drinks can also be safely consumed by phenylketonurics, because they do not contain phenylalanine. Critics say the taste is not better, merely different, or note that the long-term health risks of all or certain artificial sweeteners is unclear.\n",
"Many different sugars can be used as the fuel for rocket candy, including glucose, fructose, and sucrose; however, sucrose is the most common. Sorbitol, a sugar alcohol commonly used as a sweetener in food, produces a less brittle propellant with a slower burn rate. This reduces the risk of cracking propellant grains. Sugars with a double bonded oxygen, such as fructose and glucose, are less thermally stable and tend to caramelize when overheated, but have a lower melting point for ease of preparation. Sugars that only have alcohol groups, like sorbitol, are much less prone to this decomposition. Some other commonly used sugars include erythritol, xylitol, lactitol, maltitol, or mannitol.\n",
"Most of Truvia's side effects are related to erythritol which is a sugar alcohol. Sugar alcohols are valuable as sweeteners since they cause little to no rise in blood glucose levels as sugar does. However, the downside to most sugar alcohols is their propensity to cause gastrointestinal side effects. Erythritol is unique in that among these compounds it has one of the most favorable nutritional profiles. Erythritol is almost as sweet as sucrose, is virtually non-caloric, and cannot be fermented by gut bacteria present in the small intestine. According to Truvia's website, up to 90% of erythritol is absorbed by the small intestine and excreted unchanged in the urine. Only a small amount of it will reach the large intestine where GI symptoms, like bloating, flatulence, and cramping usually originate. \n"
] |
Benedict Arnold is regarded as the biggest traitor of the American Revolution. I've heard that he was treated poorly by America beforehand though. What's his story?
|
[Here's a previous thread](_URL_0_) with a response by /u/zuzahin that goes in-depth into Arnold's story and motivations.
|
[
"Benedict Arnold (June 14, 1801) was an American military officer who served as a general during the American Revolutionary War, fighting for the American Continental Army before defecting to the British in 1780. George Washington had given him his fullest trust and placed him in command of the fortifications at West Point, New York. Arnold planned to surrender the fort to British forces, but the plot was discovered in September 1780 and he fled to the British. His name quickly became a byword in the United States for treason and betrayal because he led the British army in battle against the very men whom he had once commanded.\n",
"A great-great grandson named Benedict Arnold became notorious for his betrayal of America during the American Revolutionary War. Other descendants include US Presidents George Herbert Walker Bush and George W. Bush; Commodore Oliver Hazard Perry, American hero of the Great Lakes during the War of 1812, and his younger brother Commodore Matthew Calbraith Perry, who was sent across the Pacific Ocean in 1852 by President Millard Fillmore to open Japan to western trade; and Stephen Arnold Douglas, who debated Abraham Lincoln in the Lincoln–Douglas debates of 1858 while vying for an Illinois Senate seat, afterwards losing to Lincoln in the 1860 United States presidential election. A published line of descent from Arnold to U.S. President James A. Garfield was later disproven.\n",
"Benedict Arnold entered the American Revolution as a patriot fighting for American independence. Arnold had many successful campaigns, and was considered by many to be the best general and most accomplished leader in the Continental Army. In September 1777 he led a division of the army commanded by Horatio Gates against British General John Burgoyne at the Battle of Freeman's Farm. Following that battle, disagreements between Arnold and Gates boiled over, for reasons including Gates' failure to credit Arnold for his role in the battle, and Gates removed Arnold from command. In the Battle of Bemis Heights in early October, Arnold, against Gates' orders, took to the battlefield, where he played a key role in rallying the troops to attack the British position. In 1778 the American rebels formed an alliance with France, which Arnold was very much opposed to (as demonstrated by the letter). Arnold also made enemies everywhere he went, including politically well-connected military officers and members of the Continental Congress. Charges and countercharges between Arnold and his enemies led to multiple courts martial and investigations of Arnold's financial management of his various commands. These actions, and the influence of his second wife, Peggy Shippen, the daughter of a wealthy Philadelphia Loyalist, led Arnold to begin negotiations to change sides with British Major John André in 1779.\n",
"Written in 1780, while secretary to the French Legation to the US Army: \"D'Complot du Benedict Arnold & Sir Henri Clinton contre Eunas` States du America General George Washington\" One of the first accounts of Arnold's treason, was not published until 1816.\n",
"Arnold was not in a position to influence what transpired at Fort Griswold, as he remained in New London and observed the action at Fort Griswold across the river. He was blamed by many on both sides for the affair, however, because he was the commanding officer who bore full responsibility for the actions of his men. American sentiments were further inflamed against him for the simple fact that he had betrayed and killed those among whom he had grown up.\n",
"Arnold suffered what he considered a series of slights and insults by the Continental Congress in the months and years following Saratoga, as the Revolutionary War continued. He also opposed treaties that brought French military assistance to the Americans. The wounded Arnold began negotiations with British agents that culminated in his changing sides in September 1780. As part of these negotiations, Arnold attempted unsuccessfully to hand his American command, the key fortification of West Point, over to the British. This attempt failed because of the capture of Major John André, and Arnold escaped to the British lines, was given the rank of a British brigadier general, and the British exchequer paid him £6,000.\n",
"Many New England newspapers published responses to Arnold's letter. The \"Connecticut Courant\" published a response by Noah Webster that answered Arnold with \"patriotic ardor.\" Washington's reaction to Arnold's treason was very bitter; he saw Arnold as villainous, misguided, and completely evil.\n"
] |
why are puns generally frowned upon (albeit humorously)?
|
because groaning and rolling your eyes is the response we hope for when we make a terrible pun. It's basically applause
|
[
"Puns are a common source of humour in jokes and comedy shows. They are often used in the punch line of a joke, where they typically give a humorous meaning to a rather perplexing story. These are also known as feghoots. The following example comes from the movie \"\", though the punchline stems from far older Vaudeville roots. The final line puns on the stock phrase \"the lesser of two evils\".\n",
"Non-humorous puns were and are a standard poetic device in English literature. Puns and other forms of wordplay have been used by many famous writers, such as Alexander Pope, James Joyce, Vladimir Nabokov, Robert Bloch, Lewis Carroll, John Donne, and William Shakespeare, who is estimated to have used over 3,000 puns in his plays.\n",
"Puns often are used in the titles of comedic parodies. A parody of a popular song, movie, etc., may be given a title that hints at the title of the work being parodied, replacing some of the words with ones that sound or look similar. For example, collegiate a cappella groups are often named after musical puns to attract fans through attempts at humor. Such a title can immediately communicate both that what follows is a parody and also which work is about to be parodied, making any further \"setup\" (introductory explanation) unnecessary.\n",
"Paronomasia is prevalent orally as well. Salvatore Attardo believes that puns are verbal humor. He talks about Pepicello and Weisberg's linguistic theory of humor and believes the only form of linguistic humor is limited to puns. This is because a pun is a play on the word itself. Attardo believes that only puns are able to maintain humor and this humor has significance. It is able to help soften a situation and make it less serious, it can help make something more memorable, and using a pun can make the speaker seem witty.\n",
"The pun, also called paronomasia, is a form of word play that exploits multiple meanings of a term, or of similar-sounding words, for an intended humorous or rhetorical effect. These ambiguities can arise from the intentional use of homophonic, homographic, metonymic, or figurative language. A pun differs from a malapropism in that a malapropism is an incorrect variation on a correct expression, while a pun involves expressions with multiple (correct or fairly reasonable) interpretations. Puns may be regarded as in-jokes or idiomatic constructions, especially as their usage and meaning are usually specific to a particular language or its culture.\n",
"There are many established formats for jokes. One example is the pun or double-entendre, where similar words are interchanged. The Two Ronnies often used puns and double-entendre. Stewart Francis and Tim Vine are examples of current comedians who deploy numerous puns. Jokes based on puns tend to be very quick and easy to digest, which sometimes leads to other joke forms being overlooked, for example in the Funniest Joke of the Fringe awards. Other jokes may rely on confounding an audience's expectations through a misleading setup (known as a 'pull back and reveal' in the UK and a 'leadaway' in the US). Ed Byrne is an example of a comedian who has used this technique. Some jokes are based on ad absurdum extrapolations, for example much of Richard Herring and Ross Noble's standup.. In ironic humour there is an intentional mismatch between a message and the form in which it is conveyed (for example the work of Danielle Ward). Other joke forms include observation (Michael McIntyre), whimsy (David O'Doherty), self-deprecation (Robin Williams) and parody (Diane Morgan).\n",
"Puns can function as a rhetorical device, where the pun serves as a persuasive instrument for an author or speaker. Although puns are sometimes perceived as trite or silly, if used responsibly a pun \"…can be an effective communication tool in a variety of situations and forms\". A major difficulty in using puns in this manner is that the meaning of a pun can be interpreted very differently according to the audience's background and can significantly subtract from a message.\n"
] |
why does it seem that most movies have a "happy" ending?
|
Because most people like happy endings.
|
[
"A lot of people, it just kicks 'em right in the head. This is a strange thing to say, but 30 or 40 years ago, I don't think the ending would have been quite so surprising. Because, even though Hollywood is built upon the convention of happy endings, in the old days there was always the 20 percent, or something like that, that weren't. And therefore, if you didn't give 'em a happy ending it wasn't, like, out of nowhere. Now, there's just no movies that are like this. They'll have muted, sad endings ... but the idea that you're gonna shoot down your protagonist, shoot him dead ... But, you know, at the same time I think the film does have a positive ending. It's not a happy ending, but it's a positive ending. I mean, the character does achieve redemption on his own terms. And he always understood what the stakes were, he understood the code he was living by ... But I suspect that that's probably too difficult a calculation for most observers ... I think there's a problem with audiences coming into the movie, because they don't know what to expect. I always thought the proper title of the movie should be, in the Elizabethan sense, \"The Tragedy of Johnny Handsome\". If you told everybody that's what the title of the movie was, they'd kind of be prepared. The story is organized along the lines of a rather more classic tragedy. It's certainly organized around the principle that character is destiny. ... I think it's a movie about moral choice, not psychological truth. If there is such a thing as psychological truth. I think my movies are very much about character. I take the view of character that has basically prevailed for about 2,000 years, up until the end of the second World War. Which is -- this is a vulgar oversimplification -- but it's that `What I do is my character, my actions define my character.' After the second World War, thanks to theories of modern psychology and confusion about what was scientific and what wasn't, the definition of character became much more, `How did I become what I am?' I am not so much interested in that theory as I am in the previous theory. And I think that throws you profoundly out of step with your peers and with the critical community. Not so much around the world, but certainly in the United States. But I think it's changing.\n",
"\"123telugu\" gave the film three stars and stated, \"On the whole, Happy Wedding is a passable family drama which showcases a contemporary theme which is synonymous with the current generation. The emotions work well but the film takes its own time to register as it is based on urban relationships and bonding. Because of this, some might really like it and a few other sections may disown it right away giving the film a limited appeal this weekend.\"\n",
"The Happy Ending is a 1969 drama film written and directed by Richard Brooks, which tells the story of a repressed housewife who longs for liberation from her husband and daughter. It stars Jean Simmons (who received an Oscar nomination), John Forsythe, Shirley Jones, Lloyd Bridges and Teresa Wright.\n",
"In storylines where the protagonists are in physical danger, a happy ending mainly consists of their survival and successful completion of the quest or mission; where there is no physical danger, a happy ending may be lovers consummating their love despite various factors which may have thwarted it. A considerable number of storylines combine both situations. In Steven Spielberg's version of \"War of the Worlds\", the happy ending consists of three distinct elements: The protagonists all survive the countless perils of their journey; humanity as a whole survives the alien invasion; \"and\" the protagonist father regains the respect of his estranged children. The plot is so constructed that all three are needed for the audience's feeling of satisfaction in the end. \n",
"Responding to festival screenings of \"The Happys\", critics called the movie \"one ironically fun film about what it means to be happy\" that \"jumps fearlessly into its subject matter.\" Variety described \"The Happys\" as a \"middling work,\" \"The Hollywood Reporter\" wrote that it is a \"quirky, insiderish L.A. dramedy,\" the \"Los Angeles Times\" said it was \"a cutesy classic Hollywood tale adapted for modern times,\" and \"The Advocate\" called \"The Happys\" \"charming and thoughtful.\"\n",
"The end of the film was then changed from a tragic one to the happy one, but the change destroyed the thematic unity of the text. Bunny Reuben, who wrote Kapoor's biography \"Raj Kapoor, The Fabulous Showman\", gives his rationale for the change: \"The film had some of Shankar-Jaikishan's loveliest music, and a 'Devdas'-ian tragic ending which was changed to the conventional happy ending because the film didn't do well in its first release.\"\n",
"The Happy Ending is a 1931 British drama film directed by Millard Webb and starring George Barraud, Daphne Courtney and Alfred Drayton. Its plot concerns a father who deserted his family some years before returning home only to find his wife has told his children and neighbours that he died as a hero when he abandoned them. A silent version, of \"The Happy Ending\" had been made in 1925 based on the same play.\n"
] |
Could someone clear this whole thing up? (When smoking from a bowl made of aluminum, can aluminum enter the lungs?)
|
You don't have to melt the Al to get it into the lungs, you just have to mince it fine enough to get it suspended in the air. I can see this happening with heating Al foil, especially repeated heating.
I don't know exactly how they are using it in the linked discussion, though, and I don't know the exact chemistry involved, so take that as you will.
Although aluminum in your digestive tract isn't an issue at any sane dose, ANY particulate matter, especially metals, can really mess up your lungs. I'm not talking about vaporized aluminum (I actually think that would be less dangerous), I'm thinking more along the lines of a fine aluminum powder.
This would get down into the lungs and make your clearance system go nuts, eventually leading to COPD-like symptoms and possible brochiectasis.
I doubt this would happen from a single exposure, or even multiple infrequent exposures. And it is certainly not specific to aluminum. But chronic regular exposure could cause serious problems, especially in people prone to COPD. And there is a mechanistic posibility of marijuana use increasing COPD risk over that of tobacco smoking at the same level. To my knowledge it has not been linked statistically, but the mechanism is there).
|
[
"Inhalation of aluminum arsenide may cause acute irritation to the respiratory system. It may also cause chronic arsenic poisoning, ulceration of the nasal septum, liver damage and cancer/diseases of the blood, kidneys and nervous system. Aluminum arsenide is poisonous if ingested and may cause gastrointestinal and skin effects and acute arsenic poisoning. Chronic implications from ingestion include arsenic poisoning, gastrointestinal disturbances, liver damage, and cancer/disease of the blood, kidneys and nervous system. If applied to the skin, aluminum arsenide may cause acute irritation, but there are no chronic health effects recorded.\n",
"Use of aluminum in cans began in 1957. Aluminum offers greater malleability, resulting in ease of manufacture; this gave rise to the two-piece can, where all but the top of the can is simply stamped out of a single piece of aluminum, rather than laboriously constructed from two pieces of steel. The inside of the can is lined by spray coating an epoxy lacquer or polymer to protect the aluminum from being corroded by acidic contents such as carbonated beverages and imparting a metallic taste to the beverage. The epoxy may contain bisphenol A. A label is either printed directly on the side of the can or will be glued to the outside of the curved surface, indicating its contents.\n",
"Most aluminum cans are made of two pieces. The bottom and body are \"drawn\" or \"drawn and ironed\" from a flat plate or shallow cup. After filling, the can \"end\" is sealed onto the top of the can. This is supplemented by a sealing compound to ensure that the top is air tight.\n",
"Aluminum has been proposed as an energy storage method by a number of researchers. Hydrogen can be extracted from aluminum by reacting it with water. To react with water, however, aluminum must be stripped of its natural oxide layer, a process which requires pulverization, chemical reactions with caustic substances, or alloys. The byproduct of the reaction to create hydrogen is aluminum oxide, which can be recycled back into aluminum with the Hall–Héroult process, making the reaction theoretically renewable.\n",
"Aluminum powder is powdered aluminum. This was originally produced by mechanical means using a stamp mill to create flakes. Subsequently, a process of spraying molten aluminum to create a powder of droplets was developed by E. J. Hall in the 1920s. The resulting powder might then be processed further in a ball mill to flatten it into flakes for use as a coating or pigment. Aluminum powder is non-toxic and is not harmful unless injected directly in a major blood vessel such as the aorta. Aluminum powder, if breathed in, is not particularly harmful and will only cause minor irritation. The melting point of aluminum powder is 660 °C.\n",
"Aluminium is a silver-white, soft metal and the most abundant metallic element, comprising 1/12 of the Earth's crust. Aluminum is always found combined with oxygen or other elements in nature and must be processed from ore to produce workable aluminium metal. Aluminum metal is one of the most widely recycled industrial materials due to ease of remelting used aluminum and the expense of processing natural aluminum ores. Bottlecans are made from 100 percent recyclable aluminium through either an extrusion or Coil to Can (C2C) process to a wide range of shapes and sizes. Impact extruded bottles are produced with three times the aluminium of a traditional beer can, which provides for increased insulation. C2C bottles use 30%-40% to less aluminium than impact extruded aluminium bottles. Exal Corporation has pioneered the use C2C technology to manufacture aluminium bottles.\n",
"Aluminum arsenide is a stable compound; however, acid, acid fumes and moisture should be avoided. Hazardous polymerization will not occur. Decomposition of aluminum arsenide produces hazardous arsine gas and arsenic fumes.\n"
] |
how do floors get mopped, garbage cans get emptied, plumbing get repaired etc. in top secret areas? are there janitors with high level security clearance?
|
Areas like that have "clean desk" policies where everything has to be secured in locked drawers when you are not at your desk. If it is somewhere with constant activities then the people there take their trash to somewhere outside the room where it gets collected.
|
[
"Most municipal building codes mandate that drain plumbing increase in diameter as it moves closer to the municipal sewer system. I.E., most kitchen sinks evacuate water with a -inch drain pipe, which feeds into a larger 4-inch drain pipe on the main plumbing stack before heading to a septic tank or to the city sewage system. This means that, barring intrusion by tree roots or other debris into buried piping, the vast majority of household drain clogs occur in the smallest-diameter piping, usually in the pop-up or drain trap, where they can be reached easily by a hydro-mechanical device's water hose.\n",
"Clean-outs are fittings with removable elements, allowing access to drains without the removal of plumbing fixtures. They are used to allow an auger (or plumber's snake) to clean out a plugged drain. Since clean-out augers are limited in length, clean-outs should be placed in accessible locations at regular intervals throughout a drainage system (including outside the building). Minimum requirements are typically at the end of each branch in piping, just ahead of each water closet, at the base of each vertical stack and inside and outside the building in the main drain or sewer. Clean-outs usually have screw-on caps or screw-in plugs. They are also known as \"rodding eyes\", because of the eye-shaped cover plates often used on external versions.\n",
"All plumbing waste fixtures use traps to prevent sewer gases from leaking into the house. Through traps, all fixtures are connected to waste lines, which in turn take the waste to a \"soil stack\", or \"soil vent pipe\". At the building drain system's lowest point, the drain-waste vent is attached, and rises (usually inside a wall) to and out of the roof. Waste exits from the building through the building's main drain and flows through a sewage line, which leads to a septic system or a public sewer. Cesspits are generally prohibited in developed areas.\n",
"The Cleaning Office oversees the removal of litter and debris from city streets, collects material for recycling and garbage from public litter bins and coordinates with Derelict Vehicle Operations to remove abandoned vehicles. The Lot Cleaning Unit cleans vacant lots and the areas around them, and around city-owned buildings in order to meet the city's Health Code standards.\n",
"A floor drain is a plumbing fixture that is installed in the floor of a structure, mainly designed to remove any standing water near it. They are usually round, but can also be square or rectangular. They usually range from ; most are in diameter. They have gratings that are made of metal or plastic. The floor around the drain is also sloped to allow the water to flow to the drain. Many residential basements have one or more floor drains, usually near a water heater or washer/dryer. Floor drains can also be found in commercial basements, restrooms, kitchens, refrigerator areas, locker/shower rooms, laundry facilities, and near swimming pools, among other places.\n",
"Apartment dwellers usually use shared containers that may be collected by the city or by private recycling companies which can have their own recycling rules. In some cases, glass is specifically separated into its own container because broken glass is a hazard to the people who later manually sort the co-mingled recyclables. Sorted recyclables are later sold to companies to be used in the manufacture of new products.\n",
"In the US, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and state environmental agencies develop and enforce regulations on the storage, treatment and disposal of hazardous waste. The EPA requires that toxic waste be handled with special precautions and be disposed of in designated facilities around the country. Also, many US cities have collection days where household toxic waste is gathered. Some materials that may not be accepted at regular landfills are ammunition, commercially generated waste, explosives/shock sensitive items, hypodermic needles/syringes, medical waste, radioactive materials, and smoke detectors.\n"
] |
if you are able to look at somebody's reflection, this person must also be able to look at yours. does this concept apply always?
|
If the other person is blind.
|
[
"BULLET::::- Level 3: Identification. This stage is characterized by the new ability to identify self: an individual can now see that what's in the mirror is not another person but actually them. It is seen when a child, instead of referring to the mirror while referring to themselves, refers to themselves while looking in the mirror.\n",
"BULLET::::- Level 0: Confusion. At this level the individual has a degree of zero self-awareness. This person is unaware of any mirror reflection or the mirror itself. They perceive the mirror as an extension of their environment. Level 0 can also be displayed when an adult frightens himself in a mirror mistaking his own reflection as another person just for a second.\n",
"Consider a reflection which appears to us in a mirror. There is nothing corresponding to the reflection in the world external to the mind (for our reflection appears to us as the image of a human being apparently located inside a wall, or a wardrobe). The appearance is therefore a mental object, a sense datum.\n",
"BULLET::::- Level 2: Situation. At this point an individual can link the movements on the mirror to what is perceived within their own body. This is the first hint of self-exploration on a projected surface where what is visualized on the mirror is special to the self.\n",
"On a more general level, it remains debatable whether recognition of one's mirror image implies self-awareness. Likewise, the converse may also be false—one may hold self-awareness, but not present a positive result in a mirror test.\n",
"Viewing one's own facial reflection in the mirror causes neurological changes in the right inferior frontal gyrus, the right inferior occipital gyrus, the right inferior parietal lobe, and the right parietal area. These changes, which all occur in the right hemisphere, highlight the role of the right hemisphere in self-related cognition and processing and support the theory that the right hemisphere is the most likely substrate for the \"self\" in the brain. When the right hemisphere is damaged in any way, the patient will most likely lose the ability to recognize one's face - the most common feature of self-recognition. When paired with mirror agnosia or impaired facial processing, damage in any of these areas of the right hemisphere of the brain can lead to difficulties in self-recognition. Delusions such as mirrored-self misidentification can then develop.\n",
"Mirrored-self misidentification is the delusional belief that one's reflection in the mirror is another person – typically a younger or second version of one's self, a stranger, or a relative. This delusion occurs most frequently in patients with dementia and an affected patient maintains the ability to recognize others' reflections in the mirror. It is caused by right hemisphere cranial dysfunction that results from traumatic brain injury, stroke, or general neurological illness. It is an example of a monothematic delusion, a condition in which all abnormal beliefs have one common theme, as opposed to a polythematic delusion, in which a variety of unrelated delusional beliefs exist. This delusion is also classified as one of the delusional misidentification syndromes (DMS). A patient with a DMS condition consistently misidentifies places, objects, persons, or events. DMS patients are not aware of their psychological condition, are resistant to correction and their conditions are associated with brain disease – particularly right hemisphere brain damage and dysfunction.\n"
] |
what happens to clinically insane people after committing crimes that if a non-insane person did, they would receive the death penalty?
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There's a concept in criminal law, that requires that the person understand what they did was wrong. This concept can be directly traced back to Roman legal codes (though like many Roman concepts, they borrowed it from a [Greek thinker](_URL_1_)). It's not true for certain type of crimes (crimes stemming from criminal negligence or strict liability crimes).
If someone is found not guilty for reason of insanity, they are usually confined to a mental health facility until they are declared sane. One of the most famous, successful [insanity defenses](_URL_0_.) was recently released from institutional confinement last year, after 30 years of institutional treatment.
|
[
"Insane individuals are not punished for their crimes. During the reign of Henry VIII, however, it was enacted that in the cases of high treason, an idiot could be tried in his absence as if he were perfectly sane. In the reign of Mary I, this statute was repealed. Today there are powers to send insane defendants to a mental hospital.\n",
"Those found to have been not guilty by reason of mental disorder or insanity are generally then required to undergo psychiatric treatment in a mental institution, except in the case of temporary insanity (see below). In England and Wales, under the Criminal Procedure (Insanity and Unfitness to Plead) Act of 1991 (amended by the Domestic Violence, Crime and Victims Act, 2004 to remove the option of a guardianship order), the court can mandate a hospital order, a restriction order (where release from hospital requires the permission of the Home Secretary), a \"supervision and treatment\" order, or an absolute discharge. Unlike defendants who are found guilty of a crime, they are not institutionalized for a fixed period, but rather held in the institution until they are determined not to be a threat. Authorities making this decision tend to be cautious, and as a result, defendants can often be institutionalized for longer than they would have been incarcerated in prison.\n",
"In many cases, the insane defendant was released and allowed to go home; in some, he was held in prison until the King decided to grant him a pardon. A lunatic who became insane prior to the trial could not be executed, nor, after 1542, trialled for felonies up to and including high treason. It was then established that somebody found not guilty due to insanity should be immediately released; up until the beginning of the 19th century, this was almost all that could be done, although the Vagrancy Act 1714 allowed two Justices of the Peace to confine a dangerous lunatic. The test of insanity was extremely narrow; defendants had to prove that they were incapable of distinguishing between good and evil, and, following the trial of John Firth in 1790, that they suffered from a mental disease which made them incapable of \"forming a judgment upon the consequences of [their] actions\".\n",
"If one succeeds in being declared \"not guilty by reason of insanity\" then the result is going to an asylum, a clearly inadequate result for somebody suffering from occasional epileptic fits, and many conditions unrecognized by nineteenth century medicine. The law has therefore been reformed in many ways. One important reform, introduced in England and Wales by statute is the diminished responsibility defence. The requirements are usually more lax, for instance, being \"an abnormality of mind\" which \"substantially impair[s] mental responsibility for his acts and omission in doing or being a party to the killing.\"\n",
"Hendershott v. People, Supreme Court of Colorado, 653 P.2d. 385 (1982), is a criminal case that a defendant who was not excused by being legally insane, might still be exculpated because he lacked a guilty mind (mens rea) due to a mental disease.\n",
"Historically, those persons acquitted of a crime by reason of insanity (insanity acquittees) were subjected to commitment procedures to institutions for the \"criminally insane\" with little attention or oversight provided as to what these procedures were. In the early 1970s, the procedures began to be examined legally on constitutional as well as therapeutic grounds.\n",
"If found insane, criminal offenders may not be sentenced. Instead, they must be referred to THL (National Institute for Health and Welfare) for involuntary treatment. Niuvanniemi hospital specializes in involuntary commitment of criminal patients.\n"
] |
Do doppelgängers have extremely similar DNA like siblings or twins do? Or do they appear unrelated when taking a DNA test?
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If you are asking whether people that look superficially the same as you would show up as related to you if they took a DNA test, then no. These types of genetic testing look primarily at so called junk DNA, the ~98% of you DNA that is not actively involved in how your body is created, so any similarities between people are due to either ancestry or coincidence.
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[
"Each person’s DNA is unique to them to the slight exception of identical (monozygotic and monospermotic) twins, who start out from the identical genetic line of DNA but during the twinning event have incredibly small mutations which can be detected now (for all intents and purposes, compared to all other humans and even to theoretical \"clones, [who would not share the same uterus nor experience the same mutations pre-twinning event]\" identical twins have more identical DNA than is probably possible to achieve between any other two humans). Tiny differences between identical twins can now (2014) be detected by next generation sequencing. For current fiscally available testing, \"identical\" twins cannot be easily differentiated by the most common DNA testing, but it has been shown to be possible. While other siblings (including fraternal twins) share about 50% of their DNA, monozygotic twins share virtually 99.99%. Beyond these more recently discovered twinning-event mutation disparities, since 2008 it has been known that people who are identical twins also each have their own set of copy number variants, which can be thought of as the number of copies they each personally exhibit for certain sections of DNA.\n",
"Although 99.9% of human DNA sequences are the same in every person, enough of the DNA is different that it is possible to distinguish one individual from another, unless they are monozygotic (identical) twins. DNA profiling uses repetitive sequences that are highly variable, called variable number tandem repeats (VNTRs), in particular short tandem repeats (STRs), also known as microsatellites, and minisatellites. VNTR loci are similar between closely related individuals, but are so variable that unrelated individuals are unlikely to have the same VNTRs.\n",
"Monozygotic twins share around 99.99% of their DNA, while other siblings share around 50%. Some next generation sequencing tools are capable of detecting rare de novo mutations in only one of the twins (detectable in rare single nucleotide polymorphisms). Most DNA testing tools would not detect these rare SNPs in most twins.\n",
"Autosomal DNA tests can identify relationships but they can be misinterpreted. For example, transplants of stem cell or bone marrow will produce matches with the donor. In addition, identical twins (who have identical DNA) can give unexpected results.\n",
"In identical twins, if one is affected there is a 50–60% chance that the other will also be affected. In non-identical twins the risk is 15%. These risks are greater in those with generalized rather than focal seizures. If both twins are affected, most of the time they have the same epileptic syndrome (70–90%). Other close relatives of a person with epilepsy have a risk five times that of the general population. Between 1 and 10% of those with Down syndrome and 90% of those with Angelman syndrome have epilepsy.\n",
"Dizygotic twins, like any other siblings, have an extremely small chance of having the same chromosome profile. Even if they happen to have the same chromosome profile, they will always have different genetic material on each chromosome, due to chromosomal crossover during meiosis. Like any other siblings, dizygotic twins may look similar, particularly given that they are the same age. However, dizygotic twins may also look very different from each other.\n",
"BULLET::::- In 2001, it was reported that a 35-year-old woman from the Canary Islands had discovered that she was one of a set of identical twins and that she had been accidentally switched at birth with another girl. She grew up as an only child, until a friend of her twin mistook her for being that twin. But the person was shocked by the striking similarity in appearance and summoned them together. They took a DNA test, which proved they were identical twins. The twin who had grown up thinking that another girl was her twin said that the girl she thought was her twin looked nothing like her. Since the women were born in a state hospital, they sued the government for damages.\n"
] |
how are there enough cows to supply the over 15k macdonalds and burger kings in u.s.
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First, a single cow produces an awful lot of hamburgers. A grown steer produces about 500 pounds of beef, which is 2000 quarter-pound hambugers.
Second, there are enormous herds of cattle on ranches in the rural parts of the US, which you generally don't see because they're not along highways, but the US is enormous and can easily hold them. The state of Texas alone has more than 11 million cattle, or 22 billion hambugers worth.
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[
"Cow–calf operations are widespread throughout the United States. A 1997 census found that this sector of the U.S. beef market produced over $40.5 billion. As of 2007 there were more than 765,000 cow–calf operators in the country, mostly concentrated in the Western and Southeastern U.S. states.\n",
"Beef production is the largest single agricultural venture in the United States, with 687,540 farms raising cattle and over a million in the production process, as of the 2007 Agriculture Census. On average, a single farm typically raises about 50 cattle at a time, with 97% of the cattle farms classified as one of these small family farms. These smaller farms average a gross cash income of $62,286 per year as of 2007.\n",
"The beef and dairy industries are the most lucrative branches of the U.S. agricultural industry, however, they are also the most resource intensive. To date, beef is the most popular of the meats; the U.S. alone produced 25.8 billion pounds in 2013. In this same year, 201.2 billion pounds of milk were produced. These cattle are mostly raised in centralized animal feeding operations, or CAFOs. On average, a mature cow will consume anywhere from seven to twenty-four gallons of water a day; cows that are lactating require about twice as much water. The amount of water that cattle may drink in a day also depends upon the temperature. Cattle have a feed conversion ratio of 6:1, for every six pounds of food consumed, the animal should gain one pound. Thus, there is also a substantial \"indirect\" need for water in order to grow the feed for the livestock. Growing the amount of feed grains necessary for raising livestock accounts for 56 percent of the U.S water consumption. Of a 1,000 pound cow, only 430 pounds make it to the retail markets. This 18 percent loss, creates an even greater demand for cattle, being that CAFOs must make up for this lost profitable weight, by increasing the number of cows that they raise.\n",
"In August 2014, the United States Department of Agriculture awarded the farm a $127,000 grant to produce and market local burgers made from a blend of grass-fed beef and pork. The grant was part of the 2008 Farm Bill given to nearly farms 250 in the United States to help farmers generate new products, create and expand marketing opportunities, and increase income.\n",
"The beef production in Nova Scotia come from approximately 1200 producers. In 2005 there was a total of 108, 500 head produced. The cattle can be slaughtered on a farm if it is for direct sale while if it is to be shipped internationally it must be slaughtered in a federally inspected processing plant. There is only one of these such facilities in the Atlantic region of Canada.\n",
"The Lambas are primarily engaged in subsistence farming and small animal husbandry, especially chickens, guinea fowl, goats, pigs, and sheep. They grow millet and sorghum that they make into a thick porridge (\"la pâte\") that is the staple of their diet and that they brew into thick low-alcohol beer. They also grow yams and cassava, groundnuts (peanuts), beans, and fonio.\n",
"Most Beef cattle are finished in feedlots. The first feedlots were constructed in the early 1950s. Some of these feedlots grew so large they warranted a new designation, \"Concentrated Animal Feeding Operation\" (CAFO). Most American beef cattle spend the last half of their lives in a CAFO.\n"
] |
why do my hands feel weak after i watch doctors taking blood.
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Likely because some part of the process makes you anxious and you experience a mini fight-or-flight reaction of blood being drained from your extremities to be pumped into things your body deems more important in the moment. Possibly resulting in your hands even becoming totally numb.
Source: Am deathly afraid of needles and experienced what I described last trip to the doctor.
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[
"Men were generally partially sedated with chloroform or alcohol before surgery. When properly done, the patient would feel no pain during their surgery, but would not be totally unconscious. Stonewall Jackson, for example, recalled the sound of the saw cutting through the bone of his arm, but recalled no pain. Infection was the most common cause of death of injured soldiers. Infection occurred for a variety of reasons. Surgeons would typically go from surgery to surgery without cleaning their equipment or their hands; surgeons would use sponges that they only rinsed in water on multiple patients. These practices caused bacteria to spread from patient to patient, from all surgical surfaces, and from the environment, which caused infections in many.\n",
"Blood poses the greatest threat to health in a laboratory or clinical setting due to needlestick injuries (\"e.g.\", lack of proper needle disposal techniques and/or safety syringes). These risks are greatest among healthcare workers, including: nurses, surgeons, laboratory assistants, doctors, phlebotomists, and laboratory technicians. These roles often require the use of syringes for blood draws or to administer medications.\n",
"A minority of individuals with hand, foot and mouth disease may require hospital admission due to complications such as inflammation of the brain, inflammation of the meninges, or acute flaccid paralysis. Non-neurologic complications such as inflammation of the heart, fluid in the lungs, or bleeding into the lungs may also occur.\n",
"Nerve injuries occur as a result of trauma, compression or over-stretching. Nerves send impulses to the brain about sensation and also play an important role in finger movement. When nerves are injured, one can lose ability to move fingers, lose sensation and develop a contracture. Any nerve injury of the hand can be disabling and results in loss of hand function. Thus it is vital to seek medical help as soon as possible after any hand injury.\n",
"BULLET::::- hands showing circulation problems (hands can have blotchy patches of red and white) (associated with other stigmata of vascular disease (e.g. vascular insufficiency ulcers of the Fingers).\n",
"The most common nerve injuries during surgery occur in the upper and lower extremities. Injuries to the nerves in the arm or shoulder can result in numbness, tingling, and decreased sensory or muscular use of the arm, wrist, or hand. Many operating room injuries could be solved by simply restraining the arms and legs. Other causes of nerve or muscular damage to the extremities is caused by pressure on the body by the surgical team leaning on the patient's arms and legs. The patient's arms can be protected from these risks by using an arm sled. Separation of the sternum during a heart procedure can also cause the first rib to put pressure on the nerves in the shoulder. The lithotomy position is also known to cause stress on the lower extremities.\n",
"Patients who experience swelling, bleeding or pain at the insertion site, develop fever, feel faint or weak, notice a change in temperature or color in the arm or leg that was used or have shortness of breath or chest pain should immediately seek medical advice.\n"
] |
if black absorbs all colors on the visible spectrum, then how are there glossy black finishes that reflect light
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Pure black would absorb all colours, however pure black doesn't exist. Glossy black reflects some of the light.
There is the nanotubes based black called Vantablack which reflects only 0.04% of the light. And that is the blackest black we have at this moment: People who see it for the first time go from "There is an empty hole in this".
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[
"Absorption of light is contrasted by transmission, reflection and diffusion, where the light is only redirected, causing objects to appear transparent, reflective or white respectively. A material is said to be black if most incoming light is absorbed equally in the material. Light (electromagnetic radiation in the visible spectrum) interacts with the atoms and molecules, which causes the energy of the light to be converted into other forms of energy, usually heat. This means that black surfaces can act as thermal collectors, absorbing light and generating heat (see Solar thermal collector). \n",
"In the visible spectrum, black is the absorption of all colors. Black can be defined as the visual impression experienced when no visible light reaches the eye. Pigments or dyes that absorb light rather than reflect it back to the eye \"look black\". A black pigment can, however, result from a \"combination\" of several pigments that collectively absorb all colors. If appropriate proportions of three primary pigments are mixed, the result reflects so little light as to be called \"black\". This provides two superficially opposite but actually complementary descriptions of black. Black is the absorption of all colors of light, or an exhaustive combination of multiple colors of pigment.\n",
"Color is a sensation caused when white light from a source such as the sun is reflected off a pigment on the surface. The pigment selectively reflects certain wavelengths of light while absorbing others. A dye can be considered as a substance that can be fixed to a material that has these properties. The colour it reflects is defined by the structure of the molecule, and particular the parts of the chromogen molecule called the chromophore group.\n",
"BULLET::::- Although a combination of 100% cyan, magenta, and yellow inks should, in theory, completely absorb the entire visible spectrum of light and produce a perfect black, practical inks fall short of their ideal characteristics and the result is actually a dark muddy color that does not quite appear black. Adding black ink absorbs more light and yields much better blacks.\n",
"The result is that the background is black. All of the features of objects in the field of view that don't match the refractive index of the mounting medium appear as bright white. When a particle is mounted in a liquid that matches its refractive index somewhere in the visible wavelengths then those wavelengths are not refracted by the particle and are not collected by the objective. The image of the object is formed by all of the wavelengths that remain. These wavelengths combine to produce a single color that can be used to indicate which band of wavelengths are missing (see Chart 2). Examples of this type of dispersion staining and the colors shown for different λo's can be seen at the microlabgallery.com site for Darkfield Dispersion Staining. This method is more difficult to interpret due to the single color rather than two bracketing colors but is relatively accurate near the center of the visible range.\n",
"A reflectance spectroscopy study of one commercially available dye based on carminic acid found that it reflects mostly red light with wavelengths longer than about 603 nm, which provides its saturated red color.\n",
"The reddish-brown color is a consequence of preferential absorption of light in the blue (400 – 500 nm), although the absorption extends throughout the visible (at shorter wavelengths) and into the infrared (at longer wavelengths). Absorption of light at wavelengths shorter than about 400 nm results in photolysis (to form NO + O, atomic oxygen); in the atmosphere the addition of O atom so formed to O results in ozone formation.\n"
] |
Can chivalry in the Middle ages be seen as an attempt to rein in the violence of the warrior classes?
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A partial answer: a part of the idea of 'chivalry' in western Europe came from the [Peace and Truce of God](_URL_0_) a movement traced to the tenth century that resulted in quite a few proclamations by both religious and secular leaders. It was an attempt to govern internal violence, setting aside days of the year on which war could not be fought and people against which violence could not be committed.
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[
"Chivalry was developed in the north of France around the mid-12th century but adopted its structure in a European context. New social status, new military techniques, and new literary topics adhered to a new character known as the knight and his ethos called chivalry. A regulation in the chivalric codes includes taking an oath of loyalty to the overlord and perceiving the rules of warfare, which includes never striking a defenceless opponent in battle. The chivalric ideals are based on those of the early medieval warrior class, and martial exercise and military virtue remains an integral part of chivalry until the end of the medieval period, as the reality on the battlefield changed with the development of Early Modern warfare increasingly restricted to the tournament ground and duelling culture. The joust remained the primary example of knightly display of martial skill throughout the Renaissance (the last Elizabethan Accession Day tilt was held in 1602).\n",
"Historian of chivalry Richard W. Kaeuper, saw chivalry as a central focus in the study of the European middle ages that was too often presented as a civilizing and stabilizing influence in the turbulent middle ages. On the contrary, Kaueper argues “that in the problem of public order the knights themselves played an ambivalent, problematic role and that the guides to their conduct that chivalry provided were in themselves complex and problematic.” Many of the codes and ideals of chivalry were of course contradictory, however, when knights did live up to them, they did not lead to a more “ordered and peaceful society”. The tripartite conception of medieval European society (those who pray, those who fight, and those who work) along with other linked subcategories of monarchy and aristocracy, worked in congruence with knighthood to reform the institution in an effort “to secure public order in a society just coming into its mature formation.” \n",
"Chivalry underwent a revival and elaboration of chivalric ceremonial and rules of etiquette in the 14th century that was examined by Johan Huizinga, in \"The Waning of the Middle Ages\", in which he dedicates a full chapter to \"The idea of chivalry\". In contrasting the literary standards of chivalry with the actual warfare of the age, the historian finds the imitation of an ideal past illusory; in an aristocratic culture such as Burgundy and France at the close of the Middle Ages, \"to be representative of true culture means to produce by conduct, by customs, by manners, by costume, by deportment, the illusion of a heroic being, full of dignity and honour, of wisdom, and, at all events, of courtesy. ...The dream of past perfection ennobles life and its forms, fills them with beauty and fashions them anew as forms of art\".\n",
"The \"code of chivalry\" is thus a product of the Late Middle Ages, evolving after the end of the crusades partly from an idealization of the historical knights fighting in the Holy Land and from ideals of courtly love.\n",
"Chivalry and religion were mutually influenced during the period of the Crusades. The early Crusades helped to clarify the moral code of chivalry as it related to religion. As a result, Christian armies began to devote their efforts to sacred purposes. As time passed, clergy instituted religious vows which required knights to use their weapons chiefly for the protection of the weak and defenseless, especially women and orphans, and of churches.\n",
"Fans of chivalry have assumed since the late medieval period that there was a time in the past when chivalry was a living institution, when men acted chivalrically, when chivalry was alive and not dead, the imitation of which period would much improve the present. This is the mad mission of Don Quixote, protagonist of the most chivalric novel of all time and inspirer of the chivalry of Sir Walter Scott and of the U.S. South: to restore the age of chivalry, and thereby improve his country. It is a version of the myth of the Golden Age.\n",
"Chivalry developed as an early standard of professional ethics for knights, who were relatively affluent horse owners and were expected to provide military services in exchange for landed property. Early notions of chivalry entailed loyalty to one's liege lord and bravery in battle, similar to the values of the Heroic Age. During the Middle Ages, this grew from simple military professionalism into a social code including the values of gentility, nobility and treating others reasonably. In \"The Song of Roland\" (c. 1100), Roland is portrayed as the ideal knight, demonstrating unwavering loyalty, military prowess and social fellowship. In Wolfram von Eschenbach's \"Parzival\" (c. 1205), chivalry had become a blend of religious duties, love and military service. Ramon Llull's \"Book of the Order of Chivalry\" (1275) demonstrates that by the end of the 13th century, chivalry entailed a litany of very specific duties, including riding warhorses, jousting, attending tournaments, holding Round Tables and hunting, as well as aspiring to the more æthereal virtues of \"faith, hope, charity, justice, strength, moderation and loyalty.\"\n"
] |
what is going through my cat's head when he runs back and forth seemingly aimlessly?
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Although there are a bunch of factors to consider, (sterilization, age, etc) if I had to make a personal guess, I'd say he has a natural instinct to prowl and hunt like in the wild and since he can't exactly do those things, he just aimlessly runs.
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[
"In the cabin earlier, Tom chases Jerry in circles, until the mouse breaks off and runs directly near the open door outside, as Tom does also. Unbeknownst to the cat, he got too fast, and in a similar fashion to Wile E. Coyote and the Road Runner, he is far off the cliff, with Jerry still on the ground, safe. Tom then got worried that he was stupid and then lets himself fall with a waving goodbye. As he fell, he then got rolled up into a giant snowball while being rolled down from a slope, as the end point causes him to be thrown up to the sky. Jerry then calls on the St. Bernard, who is still digging, by a whistle. The dog then stops after he hears Jerry's whistle. The mouse then points the dog to an approaching giant snowball with Tom inside. After the ball lands with Tom inside flat, the St. Bernard then attempts to save the flattened cat with a keg of brandy. After he left the cat standing, Tom fell and \"shattered\" into pieces. However, he is then reconstructed by the St. Bernard with the brandy. The alcohol makes Tom drunk. He starts seeing hallucinations, like five Jerrys, which he has to count in between hiccups. He later sees hallucinations of a hole and he seems to see countless holes. Tom hiccups to the real hole, causing him to get frozen solid, requiring the St. Bernard's assistance once again. At the end of this part, once again, Tom becomes intoxicated, causing himself to ski on his feet as he hiccups. Jerry and the dog watch at him, as they shake hands for his \"cure\". Tom then unintentionally bumps his head onto a tree, causing himself to be unconscious as the dog felt worried, trying to make him cure.\n",
"The Cat becomes upset with the Grinch's hijinks and has a psychiatric session with him in a thought bubble to find out what makes him so mean-spirited. Predictably, he gets nowhere with the imaginary Grinch, so he then decides to go over and have a talk with him, but the Grinch makes it so dark that he can't see where he's going, and he crashes his car when he passes a \"Dead End\" sign.\n",
"It turns out that the reason for the cat's uncontrollable transformations was the Road Runner, who found the book of magic and decided to test his powers. He then turns a mailbox into a gracious and beautiful female roadrunner and the two leave, walking and holding \"hands\", while the Coyote suffers being shark food.\n",
"BULLET::::- Anxious/ovulating posture – The cat is lying on its belly. The back of the body is more visibly lower than the front part when the cat is standing or moving. Its breathing may be fast, and its legs are tucked under its body. The tail is close to the body and may be curled forward (or close to the body when standing), with the tip of the tail moving up and down (or side to side).\n",
"Tom holds up his right hand and sees nothing, then holds up his left hand, and drops Tyke in fear. Tom smiles nervously, attempting to run off, until Spike grabs Tom by the whiskers and issues him an ultimatum: the cat \"had better\" leave Tyke alone or Spike will make him suffer the consequences. Tom flees blindly, crashing into a tree, fountain, clothesline pole and trash can.\n",
"The Cat Out of the Bag: Players battle Kuro in Kaya's front yard while avoiding Jango's hypnosis. Kuro himself can create a trail of light when he starts running, and can surround players with it, attacking them all at once with his \"Out of the Bag Attack\".\n",
"The cat starts crying because he knows what is going to happen. He bawls, \"You're gonna hurt my itsy-bitsy body... with a sharp saw... boo-hoo-hoo-hoo-hoo!\" Merlin has Second Banana go get the (rubber) saw in the trunk. Second Banana finds trick cards and magic flowers but no rubber saw, so he is forced to give Merlin a real one. Merlin starts sawing the box and Second Banana finally finds the rubber saw. Merlin throws the real one away and he apologizes to the cat. When he bends over, his moustache falls off. The cat says, \"Hey! You're a mouse! I hate mouses!\" The cat breaks out of the box and goes after the two mice. Merlin calls on some real magic to turn out the lights and, once the lights come back on, the cat is entangled in a locked chain. The cat chomps down on the chain, breaking it. He then goes back to the mice. They stop him and Merlin tells him that they have a gift for him, and he \"will get a bang out of it.\" It's actually a large piece of dynamite. The cat blows out the one fuse, not knowing there is one at the bottom. The fuse ends and it blows up.\n"
] |
In physics, why is the formula to calculate force F=ma instead of F=mv (mass x velocity)?
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The problem is that you are not calculating an impact force correctly. The equation **F** = m**a** tells you the net force on an object. But the equation does not tell you directly the impact force of one object on another when they crash.
For instance, if an object of mass *M* traveling at speed *V* just before impact crashes into a rigid wall and comes to rest over a time period *T*, then Newton's second law tells you that the average impact force felt by the object was F = MV/T because its average acceleration was just V/T. So, indeed, the impact force increases with impact velocity, as expected.
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[
"where F is the force on mass 1 due to its interactions with mass 2, and F is the force on mass 2 due to its interactions with mass 1. The two dots on top of the x position vectors denote their second derivative with respect to time, or their acceleration vectors.\n",
"Therefore, the Newtonian definition of mass as the ratio of three-force and three-acceleration is disadvantageous in SR, because such a mass would depend both on velocity and direction. Consequently, the following mass definitions used in older textbooks are not used anymore:\n",
"with F the net force (a vector), \"m\" the mass of a particle and a the acceleration of the particle (also a vector) which would be measured by an observer at rest in the frame. The force F is the vector sum of all \"real\" forces on the particle, such as electromagnetic, gravitational, nuclear and so forth. In contrast, Newton's second law in a rotating frame of reference, rotating at angular rate \"Ω\" about an axis, takes the form:\n",
"Momentum and force is a similar application of calculus in baseball. Particularly, the average force on a bat while hitting a ball can be calculated by combining different concepts within applied calculus. First, the change in the ball's momentum by the external force F(t) must be calculated. The momentum can be found by multiplying the mass and velocity. The external force F(t) is a continuous function of time.\n",
"This form shows that a body can have acceleration due to thrust even if no external forces act on it (F = 0). Note finally that if one lets F be the sum of F and F then the equation regains the usual form of Newton's second law:\n",
"In the special relativity paper, in 1905, Einstein noted that, given a specific definition of the word \"force\" (a definition which he later agreed was not advantageous), and if we choose to maintain (by convention) the equation mass x acceleration = force, then one arrives at formula_1 as the expression for the transverse mass of a fast moving particle. This differs from the accepted expression today, because, as noted in the footnotes to Einstein's paper added in the 1913 reprint, \"it is more to the point to define force in such a way that the laws of energy and momentum assume the simplest form\", as was done, for example, by Max Planck in 1906, who gave the now familiar expression formula_2 for the transverse mass. \n",
"where F is the vector sum of all forces exerted on the vehicle, m is its current mass, and a is the acceleration vector, the instantaneous rate of change of velocity (v), which in turn is the instantaneous rate of change of displacement. Solving for a, acceleration equals the force sum divided by mass. Acceleration is integrated over time to get velocity, and velocity is in turn integrated to get position.\n"
] |
What stopped Nixon's push for Universal Healthcare?
|
Politics, plain and simple.
Until the end of his life Sen. Edward Kennedy said his greatest regret during his political career was turning down President Nixon's deal on healthcare.
[This column] (_URL_1_) from 2009 and [this one] (_URL_0_) from 2012 do a good job explaining the plan and the dynamics of the 1970s that caused it to fail.
The plan was not true universal healthcare, but it would have been a step towards universal coverage and possibly single payer.
What failure to make a deal came down to was interest groups lobbying Congress and throwing their electoral weight around. Once elections were on the line, elected officials chose not to risk those groups support next election.
I think those two columns only touch on, but do not really emphasize Ted Kennedy's prominence during these years. JFK was assassinated in 1963 and RFK in 1968, Ted Kennedy was the heir to the Kennedy political dynasty and heir to the party's Presidential nomination. Despite not being his party's official Senate leader, as the favorite for the nomination in 1972 he was in many ways the de facto party leader.
If Ted Kennedy agreed to a deal he would have brought with him Democratic votes in the House and Senate. Once Kennedy turned down the deal due to lack of union support there was nobody in a position to pickup negotiations. Unions made up a significant portion of Democratic voters and donors and no Democrat around 1970 would want to put that at risk, especially after it caused Kennedy to step away from the deal.
|
[
"In 1971, Nixon proposed health insurance reform—a private health insurance employer mandate, federalization of Medicaid for poor families with dependent minor children, and support for health maintenance organizations (HMOs). A limited HMO bill was enacted in 1973. In 1974, Nixon proposed more comprehensive health insurance reform—a private health insurance employer mandate and replacement of Medicaid by state-run health insurance plans available to all, with income-based premiums and cost sharing.\n",
"As one policy initiative, Nixon called for more money for sickle-cell research, treatment, and education in February 1971 and signed the National Sickle Cell Anemia Control Act on May 16, 1972. While Nixon called for increased spending on such high-profile items as sickle-cell disease and for a War on Cancer, at the same time he sought to reduce overall spending at the National Institutes of Health.\n",
"In the estimation of historians, and later politicians of the major parties, the most successful and permanent program was the creation of a National Health Service which started operations in 1947. It entitled all citizens to healthcare, which, funded by taxation, was free at the point of delivery. The opposition from physicians was bought off by allowing them to keep lucrative private practices on the side. All hospitals were nationalized and brought into the system. John Carrier and Ian Kendall find that the mission for Minister of Health Aneurin Bevan was resolving \"The potential conflict between the aim of providing a universalist, comprehensive health service of a good standard and that of containing health costs to a reasonable level, and how to finance the system in such a way that certainty and sufficiency of funds could be guaranteed.\" Michael Foot adds that Bevan had to persuade \"the most conservative and respected profession in the country to accept and operate the Labour government's most intrinsically socialist proposition. In the end historians give Bevan the major credit for the success.\n",
"In addition to desegregating public schools, Nixon implemented the Philadelphia Plan in 1970—the first significant federal affirmative action program. He also endorsed the Equal Rights Amendment after it passed both houses of Congress in 1972 and went to the states for ratification. He also pushed for African American civil rights and economic equity through a concept known as black capitalism. Nixon had campaigned as an ERA supporter in 1968, though feminists criticized him for doing little to help the ERA or their cause after his election. Nevertheless, he appointed more women to administration positions than Lyndon Johnson had.\n",
"Nixon later goes on to talk about health care and providing each American with quality health care, \"It is time to bring comprehensive, high quality health care within the reach of every American. [We should] assure comprehensive health insurance protection to millions who cannot now obtain it or afford it, with improved protection against catastrophic illnesses. This will be a plan that maintains the high standards of quality in America's health care. And it will not require additional taxes.\" Nixon mentions many topics that the American people stressed about the most. The security, freedom, and health of the nation was the most stagnant points in the address.\n",
"In February 1971, President Nixon proposed health insurance reform—an employer mandate to offer private health insurance if employees volunteered to pay 25 percent of premiums, federalization of Medicaid for the poor with dependent minor children, and support for health maintenance organizations. Hearings on national health insurance were held in 1971, but no bill had the support of House Ways and Means and Senate Finance Committee chairmen Representative Wilbur Mills and Senator Russell Long. Kennedy sponsored and helped pass the limited Health Maintenance Organization Act of 1973. He also played a leading role, with Senator Jacob Javits, in the creation and passage of the National Cancer Act of 1971.\n",
"Determined to dismantle much of Johnson's Great Society and its accompanying federal bureaucracy, Nixon defunded or abolished several programs, including the Office of Economic Opportunity, the Job Corps, and the Model Cities Program. Nixon advocated a \"New Federalism\", which would devolve power to state and local elected officials, but Congress was hostile to these ideas and enacted only a few of them. During Nixon's tenure, spending on Social Security, Medicare, and Medicaid all increased dramatically. Total spending on social insurance programs grew from $27.3 billion in 1969 to $67.4 billion in 1975, while the poverty rate dropped from 12.8 percent in 1968 to 11.1 percent in 1973.\n"
] |
how is liquid nitrogen kept cold? can it be kept in a bottle for a long period and still be cold?
|
LN2 is stored in dewar's for smaller amounts or in cryogenic tanks for larger quantities. Dewar's are just high efficiency thermos tanks usually with a vented lid. Why the vent? Because no thermos is perfect at retaining temperature, so as temp goes up, the volume increases and there is a phase change from liquid to gas.
The cryo tanks usually have a mechanism for keeping the tanks chilled so as to keep the LN in a steady state.
Edit: typo
|
[
"Liquid nitrogen is a cryogenic fluid that can cause rapid freezing on contact with living tissue. When appropriately insulated from ambient heat, liquid nitrogen can be stored and transported, for example in vacuum flasks. The temperature is held constant at 77 K by slow boiling of the liquid, resulting in the evolution of nitrogen gas. Depending on the size and design, the holding time of vacuum flasks ranges from a few hours to a few weeks. The development of pressurised super-insulated vacuum vessels has enabled liquefied nitrogen to be stored and transported over longer time periods with losses reduced to 2% per day or less.\n",
"Liquid nitrogen is a compact and readily transported source of dry nitrogen gas, as it does not require pressurization. Further, its ability to maintain temperatures far below the freezing point of water makes it extremely useful in a wide range of applications, primarily as an open-cycle refrigerant, including:\n",
"Liquid nitrogen (N) is used to create low lying fog effects in a manner similar to dry ice. A machine heats water to at or near the boiling point, creating steam and increasing the humidity in a closed container. When liquid nitrogen is pumped into the container, the moisture rapidly condenses, creating a thick white fog. A fan placed at the output of the container directs the fog where it is needed, creating a rolling fog that lies low to the ground.\n",
"Liquid nitrogen (N) is used to create low-lying fog effects in a manner similar to dry ice. A machine heats water to at or near the boiling point, creating steam and increasing the humidity in a closed container. When liquid nitrogen is pumped into the container, the moisture rapidly condenses, creating a thick white fog. A fan placed at the output of the container directs the fog where it is needed, creating a rolling fog that lies low to the ground. These types of machines are commonly referred to as \"dry foggers\" because the fog created by this method consists solely of water droplets, and as it dissipates there is little to no residue left on any surfaces. Dry Fogger is also a trademarked name for a particular brand of this style of fog machine.\n",
"In laboratories and industry, vacuum flasks are often used to hold liquefied gases (often LN2) for flash freezing, sample preparation and other processes where maintaining an extreme low temperature is desired. Larger vacuum flasks store liquids that become gaseous at well below ambient temperature, such as oxygen and nitrogen; in this case the leakage of heat into the extremely cold interior of the bottle results in a slow boiling-off of the liquid so that a narrow unstoppered opening, or a stoppered opening protected by a pressure relief valve, is necessary to prevent pressure from building up and eventually shattering the flask. The insulation of the vacuum flask results in a very slow \"boil\" and thus the contents remain liquid for long periods without refrigeration equipment.\n",
"It is occasionally used to freeze and remove warts. However, liquid nitrogen performs better in this role, since it is colder so requires less time to act, and less pressure. Dry ice has fewer problems with storage, since it can be generated from compressed carbon dioxide gas as needed.\n",
"Liquid nitrogen is used in several foods and drinks to quickly freeze them or for the vapors it produces. Its consumption poses several dangers to humans. The extreme cold temperature can cause damage to human tissue, and the displacement of oxygen by nitrogen can cause asphyxiation.\n"
] |
how does left-cardiac hypertrophy lead to cardiac arrhythmias?
|
With left-sided hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, the left ventricle is very muscular and that leaves little room for blood to fill up in it between beats. As a result, you can get blood backing up into the left atrium. This stretching can cause electrical signals to get "messed up" (simple way to put it), resulting in the heart doing weird stuff as it tries to keep up with the blood flowing into it.
There's also the issue of that super muscular chamber contracting really hard, which can throw off the normal rhythm.
|
[
"Hypertensive heart disease is the result of structural and functional adaptations leading to left ventricular hypertrophy, diastolic dysfunction, CHF, abnormalities of blood flow due to atherosclerotic coronary artery disease and microvascular disease, and cardiac arrhythmias. Individuals with left ventricular hypertrophy are at increased risk for, stroke, CHF, and sudden death. Aggressive control of hypertension can regress or reverse left ventricular hypertrophy and reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease.\n",
"Two major groups of arrhythmias are bradycardia and tachycardia. Bradycardia can be caused by heart blocks. Tachycardias include SVT (supraventricular tachycardia) and VT (ventricular tachycardia). SVT does not cause syncope except in Wolff-Parkinson-White syndrome. Ventricular tachycardia originate in the ventricles. VT causes syncope and can result in sudden death. Ventricular tachycardia, which describes a heart rate of over 100 beats per minute with at least three irregular heartbeats as a sequence of consecutive premature beats, can degenerate into ventricular fibrillation, which is rapidly fatal without cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) and defibrillation.\n",
"Cardiac dysrhythmia is a heart rate disorder that manifests as an altered cardiac rhythm. It results from either abnormal pacemaker activity or a disturbance in impulse propagation, or both. [6] Arrhythmias can be caused by various conditions including ischemia, hypoxia, pH disruptions, B adrenergic activation, drug interactions or the presence of diseased tissue. [5] These events can trigger the development of ectopic pacemaker in the heart, which emit abnormal impulses at random times during the cardiac cycle. An arrhythmia can present itself as either bradycardia or tachycardia. [5] Untreated arrhythmias may progress to atrial fibrillation or ventricular fibrillation. [5] Treatment is aimed at normalizing cardiac rhythm by altering ion flow across the membrane. Antiarrhythmic agents can reduce arrhythmia related symptoms such as palpitations or syncope; however, they often have a narrow therapeutic index and can also be proarrhythmic[6].\n",
"Arrhythmias are abnormalities of the heart rate and rhythm (sometimes felt as palpitations). They can be divided into two broad categories: fast and slow heart rates. Some cause few or minimal symptoms. Others produce more serious symptoms of lightheadedness, dizziness and fainting.\n",
"Eventually, due to increased resistance and decreased compliance of the pulmonary vessels, elevated pulmonary pressures cause the myocardium of the right heart to hypertrophy (RVH). The onset of Eisenmenger's syndrome begins when right ventricular hypertrophy causes right heart pressures to exceed that of the left heart, leading to reversal of blood flow through the shunt (i.e., blood moves from the right side of the heart to the left side). As a consequence, deoxygenated blood returning from the body bypasses the lungs through the reversed shunt and proceeds directly to systemic circulation, leading to cyanosis and resultant organ damage.\n",
"Cardiac dysrhythmia is an irregular heartbeat that can occur in the ventricles or atria. Normally the heartbeat is initiated in the SA node of the atrium but initiation can also occur in the Purkinje fibres of the ventricles, giving rise to premature ventricular contractions, also called ventricular extra beats. When these beats become grouped the condition is known as ventricular tachycardia.\n",
"Acute MR (as may occur due to the sudden rupture of a chorda tendinae or papillary muscle) causes a sudden volume overload of both the left atrium and the left ventricle. The left ventricle develops volume overload because with every contraction it now has to pump out not only the volume of blood that goes into the aorta (the forward cardiac output or forward stroke volume) but also the blood that regurgitates into the left atrium (the regurgitant volume). The combination of the forward stroke volume and the regurgitant volume is known as the total stroke volume of the left ventricle.\n"
] |
would there be any temperature difference if the speed of the light were slower?
|
I'm not sure I can ELI5 this, but i'll just try and explain it anyway. I'm not really sure what the best answer, but my best guess is that it depends on what other physical constants changed. Assuming that everything was held constant and you just halve c, going with the [plank einstein relation](_URL_0_) E=c/wavelength, then as c decreases, E decreases, and so temperature would go down.
Another way to look at this is that since frequency is inversely proportional to wavelength multiplied by c as a constant, so as c goes down, the frequency at a particular wavelength of light would be lower. If the photo frequency is lower, then things are moving around slower. Slower moving is less energy, is lower temperature.
However, it'd also say it probably wouldn't *feel* colder, because the whole system would have adjusted down, including melting/boiling points, etc.
|
[
"In the theory, the one-way speed of light is principally only equal to the two-way speed in the aether frame, though not in other frames due to the motion of the observer through the aether. However, the difference between the one-way and two-way speeds of light can never be observed due to the action of the aether on the clocks and lengths. Therefore, the Poincaré-Einstein convention is also employed in this model, making the one-way speed of light isotropic in all frames of reference.\n",
"These considerations show that the speed of light as a limit is a consequence of the properties of spacetime, and not of the properties of objects such as technologically imperfect space ships. The prohibition of faster-than-light motion, therefore, has nothing in particular to do with electromagnetic waves or light, but comes as a consequence of the structure of spacetime.\n",
"Some consider the \"principle of the constancy of the velocity of light\" insufficiently substantiated. However, as already shown by Robert Daniel Carmichael (1910) and others, the constancy of the speed of light can be interpreted as a natural consequence of \"two\" experimentally demonstrated facts:\n",
"Another apparent contradiction lies in the fact that the group velocity in anomalously dispersive media is higher than the speed of light. This was investigated by Arnold Sommerfeld (1907, 1914) and Léon Brillouin (1914). They came to the conclusion that in such cases the signal velocity is not equal to the group velocity, but to the front velocity which is never faster than the speed of light. Similarly, it is also argued that the apparent superluminal effects discovered by Günter Nimtz can be explained by a thorough consideration of the velocities involved.\n",
"The speed of light in vacuum instead is considered a constant, and defined by the SI as 299792458 m/s. Variability of the speed of light is therefore equivalent with a variability of the SI meter and/or the SI second.\n",
"Because the speed of light is now exactly defined in terms of the metre, more precise measurement of the speed of light does not result in a more accurate figure for its velocity in standard units, but rather a more accurate definition of the metre. The accuracy of the measured speed of light is considered to be within 1 m/s,\n",
"Although light and objects within spacetime cannot travel faster than the speed of light, in this case it was the metric governing the size and geometry of spacetime itself that changed in scale. Changes to the metric are not limited by the speed of light.\n"
] |
why are x-rays emitted through high powered lights, and just how dangerous could it be with prolonged exposure?
|
Those aren't actually stage lights; they're the CRT picture tubes from a [rear projection TV](_URL_0_).
CRTs work by accelerating a beam of electrons in a vacuum tube to high energy, and letting the beam hit the phosphor-coated inner surface of the screen. Some of the energy excites atoms in the phosphorecent coating, and is released as light. But the electrons can also hit metal components inside the tube, releasing X-rays. Normally this isn't a concern, because the amount of radiation is small, and the front surface of the screen is made of glass that contains lead to absorb a lot of it.
It's exceedingly unlikely that there was anything radioactive in those tubes. The warning is there because radiation can be produced when they're operating at high voltage.
|
[
"Lead is the most common shield against X-rays because of its high density (11340 kg/m), stopping power, ease of installation and low cost. The maximum range of a high-energy photon such as an X-ray in matter is infinite; at every point in the matter traversed by the photon, there is a probability of interaction. Thus there is a very small probability of no interaction over very large distances. The shielding of photon beam is therefore exponential (with an attenuation length being close to the radiation length of the material); doubling the thickness of shielding will square the shielding effect.\n",
"Such wavelength are very narrow and will fall within a much broader band than regular fluorescent black lights. Therefore, UV LEDs are completely safe. It will cause no damage to your eyes nor risks of skin cancer. When the black light falls upon the UV-visible ink, it makes the ink fluoresce, where it emits visible light and make the message readable for human eyes.\n",
"X-ray photons carry enough energy to ionize atoms and disrupt molecular bonds. This makes it a type of ionizing radiation, and therefore harmful to living tissue. A very high radiation dose over a short period of time causes radiation sickness, while lower doses can give an increased risk of radiation-induced cancer. In medical imaging this increased cancer risk is generally greatly outweighed by the benefits of the examination. The ionizing capability of X-rays can be utilized in cancer treatment to kill malignant cells using radiation therapy. It is also used for material characterization using X-ray spectroscopy.\n",
"BULLET::::- There is a risk from glare. A French government report published in 2013 indicated that a luminance level higher than 10,000 cd/m2 causes visual discomfort whatever the position of the lighting unit in the field of vision. As the emission surfaces of LEDs are highly concentrated point sources, the luminance of each individual source can be 1000 times higher than the discomfort level. The level of direct radiation from this type of source can therefore easily exceed the level of visual discomfort\n",
"\"X-ray detector\" All plasma loses energy by emitting light. This covers the whole spectrum: visible, IR, UV, and X-rays. This occurs anytime a particle changes speed, for any reason. If the reason is deflection by a magnetic field, the radiation is Cyclotron radiation at low speeds and Synchrotron radiation at high speeds. If the reason is deflection by another particle, plasma radiates X-rays, known as Bremsstrahlung radiation. X-rays are termed in both hard and soft, based on their energy.\n",
"CRTs can emit a small amount of X-ray radiation as a result of the electron beam's bombardment of the shadow mask/aperture grille and phosphors. The amount of radiation escaping the front of the monitor is widely considered not to be harmful. The Food and Drug Administration regulations in are used to strictly limit, for instance, television receivers to 0.5 milliroentgens per hour (mR/h) (0.13 µC/(kg·h) or 36 pA/kg) at a distance of from any external surface; since 2007, most CRTs have emissions that fall well below this limit.\n",
"BULLET::::- Exposure to UV light from the sun or blue light from the sun or LEDs may be weakly associated with an increased risk of developing AMD. These potential risk factors are inconclusive and exposure to UV light or blue light may slightly increase the risk as compared to major risk factors like smoking and hypertension.\n"
] |
what process has happened over the years that makes things i found as a child hilarious to me then but now not finding them as humorous.
|
You've developed more sophisticated tastes. Maybe not much more sophisticated, but still, at least a little. You've seen things that are far funnier than simple rude jokes or silly cartoons, and you've also seen so many rude jokes that the idea has gotten old.
|
[
"The cognitive component of humor is clearly exemplified during the years of childhood, which is characterized by evolving cognitive structures. As a child advances from one degree of cognition to the next, what is considered humorous and what is not should also manifest a meaningful progression. Understanding any particular joke may call upon an array of cognitive processes such as condensations, awareness of incongruities (the cognitive component), and the ability to comprehend unusual verbal representations. The intrinsic gratification involved in the brain activity underlying humor is also encountered in mental activities such as solving puzzles and decoding mysteries.\n",
"In 2010, McGraw met journalist Joel Warner, who was fascinated by McGraw's humor research and unified theory of humor. Starting in 2011, the two created \"The Humor Code Project,\" a two-year, 91,000-mile global search for what makes things funny. Their travels took them to Tanzania, Scandinavia, Japan, Israel, Peru, and several other destinations in North America. McGraw and Warner authored The Humor Code, a book about their travels and the experiments they conducted along the way. The two maintained multiple blogs about their adventures on Wired, Huffington Post, and Psychology Today. McGraw's research and the book have been widely covered by the media, including the Wall Street Journal, NPR, MSNBC, The Boston Globe, Scientific American, The Atlantic, Denver Post, and others.\n",
"Hüller said that she always thinks \"about how humor works\" and it was this question \"we were asking ourselves during the process. What is it that makes people laugh? What is funny about Toni? I think...desperation...is the origin of comedy.\" Falling out of a chair is \"the oldest joke.\" But even when things don't work, \"you really have to try, seriously. I think that’s what we did — you never have to play the joke.\"\n",
"When someone finds something funny, there are different ways of expressing it. Common responses of humor include laughing and smiling. In 2008, a study was conducted using 155 undergraduate students at North London University in order to measure responses to humor using a British comedy. The participants were divided into one of three categories: watched a video of the comedy, listened to an audiotape of the comedy, or read a script of the comedy. Approximately half of the participants were observed by an overt video camera and half were observed by a covert video camera. Results showed that participants laughed and smiled much more frequently when watching a video of the comedy and listening to the audiotape of the comedy than when reading a script. The difference in the frequency of smiling and laughing between the video and the audiotape was not significant. Participants laughed and smiled more frequently when observed by a covert video camera than an overt video camera. Aspects of the video and audiotape such as visualization of the acting, auditory representation, and also the presence of audience laughter significantly increase the frequency of laughter and smiling.\n",
"From an evolutionary perspective, humorous violations likely originated as apparent physical threats, like those present in play fighting and tickling. As humans evolved, the situations that elicit humor likely expanded from physical threats to other violations, including violations of personal dignity (e.g., slapstick, teasing), linguistic norms (e.g., puns, malapropisms), social norms (e.g., strange behaviors, risqué jokes), and even moral norms (e.g., disrespectful behaviors). The BVT suggests that anything that threatens one's sense of how the world \"ought to be\" will be humorous, so long as the threatening situation also seems benign.\n",
"Cognitive humor processing refers to the neural circuitry and pathways that are involved in detecting incongruities of various situations presented in a humorous manner. Over the past decade, many studies have emerged utilizing fMRI studies to describe the neural correlates associated with how a human processes something that is considered \"funny\". Conceptually, humor is subdivided into two elements: cognitive and affective. The cognitive element, known as humor detection, refers to understanding the joke. Usually, this is characterized by the perceiver attempting to comprehend the disparities between the punch line and prior experience. The affective element, otherwise known as humor appreciation, is involved with enjoying the joke and producing visceral, emotional responses depending on the hilarity of the joke. This ability to comprehend and appreciate humor is a vital aspect of social functioning and is a significant part of the human condition that is relevant from a very early age. Humor comprehension develops in parallel with growing cognitive and language skills during childhood, while its content is mostly influenced by social and cultural factors. A further approach is described which refers to humor as an attitude related to strains. Humorous responses when confronted with troubles are discussed as a skill often associated with high social competence. The concept of humor has also been shown to have therapeutic effects, improving physiological systems such as the immune and central nervous system. It also has been shown to help cope with stress and pain. In sum, humor proves to be a personal resource throughout the life span, and helps support the coping of everyday tasks.\n",
"In 2010, Warner met Peter McGraw, a professor at the University of Colorado. Warner was fascinated by McGraw's research and unified theory of humor, the Benign Violation Theory. Starting in 2011, the two created \"The Humor Code Project,\" a two-year, 91,000-mile global search for what makes things funny. Their travels took them to Tanzania, Scandinavia, Japan, Israel, Peru, and several other destinations in North America. McGraw and Warner authored \"The Humor Code\", a book about their travels and the experiments they conducted along the way. The two maintained multiple blogs about their adventures on Wired, Huffington Post, and Psychology Today.\n"
] |
How much air do various plants need to live relative to humans?
|
The short answer is very little. You can keep a [plant in a glass jar]( _URL_0_) forever.
In principle a plant could run out of CO2, but in practice a plant will survive indefinitely in a sealed jar with a bit of soil because bacteria and nematodes tend to breathe in the O2 and exhale CO2. Plants also like to have oxygen so they can use stored sugars for energy at night, but in a jar they tend to supply themselves.
This works best with a jar that closes tightly filled with humidity-tolerant weedy plants that do not get very big like small ferns, dollarweed and mosses. If you use wild plants you tend to get some volunteer algae as well, and cyanobacteria (the green slime) can fix nitrogen from the air if they want to. Earth-in-a-jar is a fun little experiment. Just leave it in a windowsill.
|
[
"Air also contains a variable amount of water vapor, on average around 1% at sea level, and 0.4% over the entire atmosphere. Air content and atmospheric pressure vary at different layers, and air suitable for use in photosynthesis by terrestrial plants and breathing of terrestrial animals is found only in Earth's troposphere and in artificial atmospheres.\n",
"Plants grown using aeroponics spend 99.98% of their time in air and 0.02% in direct contact with hydro-atomized nutrient solution. The time spent without water allows the roots to capture oxygen more efficiently. Furthermore, the hydro-atomized mist also significantly contributes to the effective oxygenation of the roots. For example, NFT has a nutrient throughput of 1 liter per minute compared to aeroponics’ throughput of 1.5 milliliters per minute.\n",
"The New York Botanical Gardens wrote that the diversity of epiphytes (\"air plants\" that grow on other plants) is higher in the cloud forests of Ecuador, Colombia and Peru than anywhere else on the planet.\n",
"Air cultures optimize access to air for successful plant growth. Materials and devices which hold and support the aeroponic grown plants must be devoid of disease or pathogens. A distinction of a true aeroponic culture and apparatus is that it provides plant support features that are minimal. Minimal contact between a plant and support structure allows for 100% of the plant to be entirely in air. Long-term aeroponic cultivation requires the root systems to be free of constraints surrounding the stem and root systems. Physical contact is minimized so that it does not hinder natural growth and root expansion or access to pure water, air exchange and disease-free conditions .\n",
"Just 15 plant crops provide 90 percent of the world's food energy intake (exclusive of meat), with rice, maize, and wheat comprising 2/3 of human food consumption. These three are the staples of about 80 percent of the world population, and rice feeds almost half of humanity.\n",
"Clean air supplies oxygen which is an excellent purifier for plants and the aeroponic environment. For natural growth to occur, the plant must have unrestricted access to air. Plants must be allowed to grow in a natural manner for successful physiological development. The more confining the plant support becomes, the greater incidence of increasing disease pressure of the plant and the aeroponic system.\n",
"Humans comprise about 100 million tonnes of the Earth's dry biomass, domesticated animals about 700 million tonnes, earthworms over 1,100 million tonnes, and annual cereal crops about 2.3 billion tonnes.\n"
] |
What were the average prices of firearms in the 1890 era american west?
|
I would suggest finding a period Sears Roebuck catalogue. Sears Roebuck was the Amazon of its day, and sold everything from clothing to medicines to firearms by mail-order.
|
[
"The Colt 1860 cost approximately $20 per revolver. This was rather expensive during the 1860s, both for the United States Army and private citizens. Colt had been criticized for this high price, and by 1865 the revolver was reduced to $14.50.\n",
"Depending upon where one resided, $25 could purchase an acre of land, a saddle, or double-barreled shotgun. To give some sense of proportion to these figures: Comparing $25 of daily productivity per hired hand to the price of a barrel of crude oil in 1861 ($0.49), the gold production would yield roughly more than of oil per hand per day.\n",
"In 1869, the War Department purchased far fewer weapons of all kinds than it had in the Civil War. Only three Frank Wesson carbines were purchased during the year, for $20 each. At the same time, it purchased, or had modified 13,098 Sharps carbines (listed as 'Sharps carbines, altered'), at approximately $4 each.\n",
"By the 1820s prices could be over £1,000, and by 1900 over £10,000. A record price of £33,000 (equivalent) was reached in 1933 with a sale to America of a work from the Jan Six collection. The highest recent prices include a painting now in the Mauritshuis, The Hague, sold in December 1995 for £3.74 million (illustrated above), and a larger picture now in the J. Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles, sold in July 2001 for £6.5 million, both at Sotheby's.\n",
"The price of a \"Winchester bushel\" averaged about 6s 6d in 1794, but peaked at 13s 6d in August 1795. The price did not return 6s 6d until March 1796. During the period of high prices municipal governments in towns such as Oxford and Cambridge seized cargoes of wheat passing through them, something that was illegal. There were bread riots in July-August 1795 in some 14 towns, which came to be known as the revolt of the housewives. Burials increased substantially in 1795 relative to 1794 and 1796. In response, the British Government took over the import of grains from abroad. All wheat imported up to the end of 1795 had been purchased on government account. It came either on government vessels or vessels chartered to the government. \n",
"Prices vary strongly based on the availability of the various cylinders and the condition of the revolver. It has been imported to the US, and previous sellers (among them being Century Arms (CAI)) have sold imported guns at $275, but auction prices for a complete set in good condition will reach close to $600.\n",
"The prices of raw materials were depressed and declining from, roughly, 1982 until 1998. From the mid-1980s to September 2003, the inflation-adjusted price of a barrel of crude oil on NYMEX was generally under $25/barrel. Since 1968 the price of gold has ranged widely, from a high of $850/oz ($27,300/kg) on 21 January 1980, to a low of $252.90/oz ($8,131/kg) on 21 June 1999 (London Gold Fixing).\n"
] |
hpv -- so there's an std that basically everyone has and it's benign except when it isn't?
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I don't want to tell you whether or not to worry about HPV, but here's what I know about it. There are several different strains. Some of them cause warts, some of them don't. The ones that don't cause warts can sometimes turn cells cancerous, but generally don't have any other noticeable side effects. There's a vaccine that protects against the most common cancer-causing strains.
A lot of people have HPV and most don't know it. Unless you have warts, or an abnormal pap smear, or get cancer from it there's not really a way to know whether or not you have it. In fact, there's not even a test for men to tell whether or not they have it (other than the "see if you have a wart" test).
So the strains that cause warts and the strains that cause cancer are generally separate. Men are rarely directly affected by strains that cause cancer. I think if a man gets it anally then the cancer becomes a bigger deal, but I’m not positive. Women who have strains that cause cancers sometimes get abnormal precancerous cells that show up on a pap smear. These cells may become cancer or they may not turn into anything. I don’t really know more beyond that and am not a doctor so I’m hesitant to speculate.
So to sum it up: A lot of people have HPV. A lot of those people don’t know they have it because they don’t show any symptoms and there are no tests for it. HPV generally only does two things: give you warts and/or cancer. If you’re aguy who doesn’t have sex with other men then the cancer probably isn’t a big concern. If you’re a woman, make sure to get regular pap smears and if one of them is abnormal see what your doctor says about it. If your doctor tells you something that sounds crazy like “you can’t have sex for a year” consider getting a second opinion.
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[
"HPV (Human papillomavirus) is the most common STI among teens (as well as adults). In a CDC study, 18% of teen girls were infected with HPV. Another study found that HPV infections account for about half of STIs detected among 15- to 24-year-olds each year. While HPV infections may not cause any disease and is often asymptomatic, it can cause genital warts and even cancer.\n",
"In the United States, Human papillomavirus is the most common STD. Routine use of HPV vaccines have greatly reduced the prevalence of HPV in specimens of females aged 14-19 and 20-24, the age group most at risk of contracting HPV, in 2011-2014 since 2003-2006.\n",
"Sexually transmitted HPV is divided into 2 categories: low-risk and high-risk. Low-risk HPVs cause warts on or around the genitals. Type 6 and 11 cause 90% of all genital warts and recurrent respiratory papillomatosis that causes benign tumors in the air passages. High-risk HPVs cause cancer and consist of about a dozen identified types. Type 16 and 18 are two that are responsible for causing most of HPV-caused cancers. These high-risk HPVs cause 5% of the cancers in the world. In the United States, high-risk HPVs cause 3% of all cancer cases in women and 2% in men.\n",
"About a dozen HPV types (including types 16, 18, 31, and 45) are called \"high-risk\" types because persistent infection has been linked to cancers such as cancer of the oropharynx, larynx, vulva, vagina, cervix, penis, and anus. These cancers all involve sexually transmitted infection of HPV to the stratified epithelial tissue. Individuals infected with both HPV and HIV have an increased risk of developing cervical or anal cancer.\n",
"HPV is the sexually transmitted virus that is known to be the cause of genital warts. There are currently more than 100 different strains of HPV, half of which can cause genital infections. It is worth noting here that although it is not usually the HPV strains that cause genital warts that are associated with the oropharyngeal cancers, they are transmitted the same way through oral-genital sexual contact, and consumers should protect themselves accordingly and adhere to a routine health and dental screening schedule to monitor and maintain their health status. \n",
"BULLET::::- The human papillomavirus (HPV) is the most common STI in the United States. There are more than 40 different strands of HPV and many do not cause any health problems. In 90% of cases the body's immune system clears the infection naturally within 2 years. Some cases may not be cleared and can lead to genital warts (bumps around the genitals that can be small or large, raised or flat, or shaped like cauliflower) or cervical cancer and other HPV related cancers. Symptoms might not show up until advanced stages. It is important for women to get pap smears in order to check for and treat cancers. There are also two vaccines available for women (Cervarix and Gardasil) that protect against the types of HPV that cause cervical cancer. HPV can be passed through genital-to-genital contact as well as during oral sex. It is important to remember that the infected partner might not have any symptoms.\n",
"Some HPV types, such as HPV-5, may establish infections that persist for the lifetime of the individual without ever manifesting any clinical symptoms. HPV types 1 and 2 can cause common warts in some infected individuals. HPV types 6 and 11 can cause genital warts and laryngeal papillomatosis.\n"
] |
why did the dea decide to make cbd a schedule 1 narcotic?
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Because there is a long history of pharmaceutical companies lobbying to have anything that might take some of their money made illegal. CBD oil is making headlines and deserves to be researched. By lobbying to have it made schedule I, there will be little to no research done in the U.S. ensuring that we will have to buy pharma products.
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[
"While engaged in scheduling debates in the United States, the DEA also pushed for international scheduling. In 1985 the World Health Organization's Expert Committee on Drug Dependence recommended that MDMA be placed in Schedule I of the 1971 United Nations Convention on Psychotropic Substances. The committee made this recommendation on the basis of the pharmacological similarity of MDMA to previously scheduled drugs, reports of illicit trafficking in Canada, drug seizures in the United States, and lack of well-defined therapeutic use. While intrigued by reports of psychotherapeutic uses for the drug, the committee viewed the studies as lacking appropriate methodological design and encouraged further research. Committee chairman Paul Grof dissented, believing international control was not warranted at the time and a recommendation should await further therapeutic data. The Commission on Narcotic Drugs added MDMA to Schedule I of the convention on 11 February 1986.\n",
"Because the government was powerless to prosecute people for these drugs until after they had been marketed successfully, laws were passed to give the DEA power to emergency schedule chemicals for a year, with an optional 6-month extension, while gathering evidence to justify permanent scheduling, as well as the analogue laws mentioned previously. Emergency-scheduling power was used for the first time for MDMA. In this case, the DEA scheduled MDMA as a Schedule I drug and retained this classification after review, even though their own judge ruled that MDMA should be classified Schedule III on the basis of its demonstrated uses in medicine. The emergency scheduling power has subsequently been used for a variety of other drugs including 2C-B, AMT, and BZP. In 2004, a piperazine drug, TFMPP, became the first drug that had been emergency-scheduled to be denied permanent scheduling and revert to legal status.\n",
"In the United States, MDPV is a DEA federally scheduled drug. On October 21, 2011, the DEA issued a temporary one-year ban on MDPV, classifying it as a schedule I substance. Schedule I status is reserved for substances with a high potential for abuse, no currently accepted use for treatment in the United States and a lack of accepted safety standards for use under medical supervision.\n",
"Four days following the DEA’s first Take-Back Day on September 25, 2010, Congress approved legislation that amended the Controlled Substances Act. This action provided the DEA with the option to develop a permanent process for people to safely and conveniently dispose of their prescription drugs. After October 12, President Obama signed the Safe and Secure Drug Disposal Act of 2010, and the DEA immediately began installing regulations for a more permanent solution.\n",
"On April 4, 2003, the United States DEA added both 5-MeO-DiPT and alpha-methyltryptamine (AMT) to Schedule I of the Controlled Substances Act under \"emergency scheduling\" procedures. The drugs were officially placed into Schedule I on September 29, 2004. Prior to its prohibition in the U.S., 5-MeO-DiPT was sold online alongside psychoactive analogues such as DiPT, and DPT, neither of which have yet been expressly outlawed.\n",
"In 2013 a CNN program that featured Charlotte's Web cannabis brought increased attention to the use of CBD in the treatment of seizure disorders. Since then, 16 states have passed laws to allow the use of CBD products with a doctor's recommendation (instead of a prescription) for treatment of certain medical conditions. This is in addition to the 30 states that have passed comprehensive medical cannabis laws, which allow for the use of cannabis products with no restrictions on THC content. Of these 30 states, eight have legalized the use and sale of cannabis products without requirement for a doctor's recommendation.\n",
"CBD is a 5-HT receptor agonist, which may also contribute to an anxiolytic effect. This likely means the high concentrations of CBD found in \"Cannabis indica\" mitigate the anxiogenic effect of THC significantly. The cannabis industry claims that sativa strains provide a more stimulating psychoactive high while indica strains are more sedating with a body high. However this is disputed by researchers.\n"
] |
A (probably) dumb question about dimensions...
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Absolutely. The [Klein bottle](_URL_0_) is one such example.
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[
"The issue of dimension still matters to geometry as many classic questions still lack complete answers. For instance, many open problems in topology depend on the dimension of an object for the result. In physics, dimensions 3 of space and 4 of space-time are special cases in geometric topology, and dimensions 10 and 11 are key ideas in string theory. Currently, the existence of the theoretical dimensions is purely defined by technical reasons; it is likely that further research may result in a \"geometric\" reason for the significance of 10 or 11 dimensions in the theory, lending credibility or possibly disproving string theory.\n",
"A dimension is a structure that categorizes facts and measures in order to enable users to answer business questions. Commonly used dimensions are people, products, place and time.. (Note: People and time sometimes are not modeled as dimensions).\n",
"The idea of other dimensions was incorporated into many early science fiction stories, appearing prominently, for example, in Miles J. Breuer's \"The Appendix and the Spectacles\" (1928) and Murray Leinster's \"The Fifth-Dimension Catapult\" (1931); and appeared irregularly in science fiction by the 1940s. Classic stories involving other dimensions include Robert A. Heinlein's \"—And He Built a Crooked House\" (1941), in which a California architect designs a house based on a three-dimensional projection of a tesseract; and Alan E. Nourse's \"Tiger by the Tail\" and \"The Universe Between\" (both 1951). Another reference is Madeleine L'Engle's novel \"A Wrinkle In Time\" (1962), which uses the fifth dimension as a way for \"tesseracting the universe\" or \"folding\" space in order to move across it quickly. The fourth and fifth dimensions are also a key component of the book \"The Boy Who Reversed Himself\" by William Sleator.\n",
"The small and large inductive dimensions are two of the three most usual ways of capturing the notion of \"dimension\" for a topological space, in a way that depends only on the topology (and not, say, on the properties of a metric space). The other is the Lebesgue covering dimension. The term \"topological dimension\" is ordinarily understood to refer to Lebesgue covering dimension. For \"sufficiently nice\" spaces, the three measures of dimension are equal.\n",
"Where the traditional geometry allowed dimensions 1 (a line), 2 (a plane) and 3 (our ambient world conceived of as three-dimensional space), mathematicians have used higher dimensions for nearly two centuries. The concept of dimension has gone through stages of being any natural number \"n\", to being possibly infinite with the introduction of Hilbert space, to being any positive real number in fractal geometry. Dimension theory is a technical area, initially within general topology, that discusses \"definitions\"; in common with most mathematical ideas, dimension is now defined rather than an intuition. Connected topological manifolds have a well-defined dimension; this is a theorem (invariance of domain) rather than anything \"a priori\".\n",
"The dimensions (e.g., length) of an object as measured by one observer may be smaller than the results of measurements of the same object made by another observer (e.g., the ladder paradox involves a long ladder traveling near the speed of light and being contained within a smaller garage).\n",
"A \"dimension\" is a property, with a finite domain, that describes an analysis coordinate of the fact. A fact generally has multiple dimensions that define its minimum representation granularity. Typical dimensions for the sales fact are products, stores, and dates; in which case, the basic information that can be represented is product sales in one store in one day.\n"
] |
Historians, can you help me identify this money found in my granddad's WWII warchest?
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These are some interesting but commonly found banknotes.
From top to bottom, left to right:
10 000 German Mark, 1920's Weimar Republic/Germany.
1 Pound - Japanese Occupation Currency for Oceania.
10 Pesos - Japanese Occupation Currency for the Philippines.
5 Pesos - Japanese Occupation Currency for the Philippines.
1/2 Schilling - Japanese Occupation Currency for Oceania.
5 French Francs - Wartime issue.
1 Peso - Japanese Occupation Currency for the Philippines.
10 Francs - Allied Military Currency.
2 Francs - Allied Military Currency.
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[
"BULLET::::- 1916-1920: \"PNB issued notes\". This note is never officially issued by the Philippine National Bank. 10,000 pieces were captured and issued during World War II by the Japanese. The others were looted by Moros in the Province of Mindanao who sold them at tenth of their face value.\n",
"The money from \"Konto\" 5 was deposited for the officer's lifetime and did not stop when he retired. In the last months of the war, Erich von Manstein, Wilhelm List, Georg von Küchler and Maximilian von Weichs kept on changing the bank accounts into which Lammers had to deposit the money from \"Konto\" 5 to avoid the Allied advance. Much correspondence went back and forth between the officers and Lammers, as they kept writing anxiously to make certain that he was depositing their monthly bribes into the right accounts.\n",
"The War Finance Corporation was a government corporation in the United States created to give financial support to industries essential for World War I, and to banking institutions that aided such industries. It continued to give support to various efforts during the interwar period. The corporation was created by a Congressional act of April 5, 1918, and abolished on July 1, 1939.\n",
"According to family legend Mr. Huey, who was born at Big Bone, in 1805, buried his money, all gold and silver, in a great chest before the war. He dug it up after the war and used the money to build the house. Burying money is a very common story, though it is common because so many people actually did it; in this case it may or may not have actually been so, but there can be little doubt that many people probably did bury their money before or during the war with so many rascally Yankees about.\n",
"Throughout the 1950s, Sayers produced or edited six books, including \"Financial Policy, 1939-45\" and his history of Lloyd Banks. \"Financial Policy\", which was published in 1956 and took Sayers five years to complete, gave a gripping yet truthful account of the wartime Treasury and the economic and political challenges it had to deal at that time. A testament to Sayers' skill as a historian and writer, the book became part of the official war history. which became part of the official war history and on which he worked for more than five years. In 1957 Sayers was appointed to the Committee on the Working of the Monetary System, where he examined most witnesses and drafted key section of the committee's official report. However, Sayers grew to be bitterly disappointed with the report's reception after it was published in 1959. This disappointment notwithstanding, Sayers went on to publish dozens of essays, articles and books in the following three decades, and was very often requested as a historian of financial institution. In this context, he was considered as a possible historian of the U.S. federal reserve system and wrote a post-1914 sequel to the official history of the Bank of England. This history was completed in 1976 and earned Sayers the offer of a knighthood, which he refused.\n",
"Although this was never proven, there were certain looted items of little monetary value which survived him and remain, along with personal items, in a vault in a Glasgow bank. These include banners from Goering's Carinhall, Ramensky's commando beret, compass and his commando knife.\n",
"BULLET::::- John F. Kennedy's diary was sold at RR Auction in April 2017 for $718,750. That was the diary that John F. Kennedy kept as a Hearst reporter during the summer of 1945 and which included a series of remarkable comments and personal observations regarding notable historical figures of the time.\n"
] |
When the Germans were attacking Russia, and winter began, why didnt the Germans simply not take Russian clothing available on site?
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The Soviets implemented a "scorched earth" policy designed to deprive the occupying Germans of anything and everything they might use to sustain themselves. This included burning down all usable buildings and their contents, killing any livestock that could not be brought east, poisoning wells and food, destroying machinery, burning oil fields and crops, ect. From what I understand although the Germans were not properly clothed for winter, once this problem became strikingly apparent this was attempted to be remedied by salvaging Russian clothes like you said, military issued winter wear, but also through clothing drives back home, where German families would send winter clothes and blankets to those deployed. However and getting back to "scorched earth", no matter how many pairs of socks or coats you have you need more then that to survive a long Russian winter of living, traveling, and fighting outside. You need shelter, downtime to rest (sweating can kill you), warm food, dry clothes to change into (harder to salvage), oils to keep your weapons and machines from seizing up in the cold (as well as spare parts), and most importantly fuel. This last bit was most scarce, with Panzer divisions and units of mechanized infantry running out of fuel throughout the campaign, and a reason why it was imperative for the Germans to strike south and capture the Baku oilfields in the Caucuses. This obviously did not happen, as the advance was stopped at Stalingrad.
While it might have been theoretically possible to supply the troops with all these necessities, the Germans treated occupied populations as sub-humans. This deprived them of potential assistance (Soviet occupied people like the Ukrainians initially welcomed the Germans as liberators, but soon turned against them for obvious reasons) and created (along with the rapid German advance that left behind many Red Army units) partisan resistance that harried the rear and made supply, rest, and downtime from the front, very difficult.
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[
"Early in the war, this consisted of heavy wool greatcoats (a similar pattern was issued to East German border guards until 1989). They had silver dimpled buttons that did not reflect the light and were sometimes painted green to provide further camouflage. Following Hitler's invasion of the USSR, the Germans found themselves ill-equipped to deal with the Russian winter at the end of 1941 and had to improvise. German civilians back home were called upon to donate fur coats and other winter clothing for the war effort until enough specialized military gear for the extreme cold had been produced. Hooded waterproof parkas were issued later in the war, in white for troops on the Eastern Front and in field-grey for mountain troops (Gebirgsjäger soldiers). In addition to the standard-issue snow camouflage, the Germans made extensive use of captured Red Army equipment, especially so the fur boots, which provided better protection from the sub-zero temperatures. German troops took drastic action to obtain their winter uniform and gear from dead Russian soldiers, including even cutting off the legs of the corpses to get off their thick boots.\n",
"Standard German army uniforms had proven inadequate for the harsh conditions of the Russian winter, thus the Army had a new winter uniform designed. A viewing of the new uniform by Hitler was arranged. The uniform was also to be adopted by the \"Waffen-SS\" and the Luftwaffe Field Divisions, so SS chief Heinrich Himmler and \"Luftwaffe\" commander Hermann Göring were expected to be present as well. This made for a great opportunity: the three most important and powerful Nazis could all be removed.\n",
"During the invasion of the Soviet Union in the early months of the war, rapid German advances almost captured the cities of Moscow and Leningrad. The bulk of Soviet industry which could not be evacuated was either destroyed or lost due to German occupation. Agricultural production was interrupted, with grain crops left standing in the fields. This caused hunger reminiscent of the early 1930s. In one of the greatest feats of war logistics, factories were evacuated on an enormous scale, with 1,523 factories dismantled and shipped eastwards along four principal routes to the Caucasus, Central Asia, the Ural, and Siberia. In general, the tools, dies and production technology were moved, along with the blueprints and their management, engineering staffs and skilled labor.\n",
"In contrast to the usual shortages in the Red Army, soldiers received regular issues of winter clothing, as their combat effectiveness could be hampered in cold conditions otherwise. The Wehrmacht also regularly made use of captured Red Army winter uniforms, often taking them from the deceased, due to the ineffectiveness of their own winter uniforms. Similarly in the Winter War, due to a poor preparation and lack of materiel, Finnish rank-and-file troops were not issued uniforms, and had to survive with whatever of their own clothing they could bring (facetiously \"malli Cajander\" (model Cajander) after Prime Minister Aimo Cajander), or resort to capturing them from dead Red Army soldiers.\n",
"During World War II, the Wehrmacht lacked necessary supplies, such as winter uniforms, due to the many delays in the German army's movements. At the same time, Hitler's plans for Operation Barbarossa actually miscarried before the onset of severe winter weather: he was so confident of a quick victory that he did not prepare for even the possibility of winter warfare in Russia. In fact his eastern army suffered more than 734,000 casualties (about 23% of its average strength of 3,200,000) during the first five months of the invasion before the winter started. On 27 November 1941, Eduard Wagner, the Quartermaster General of the German Army, reported that \"We are at the end of our resources in both personnel and material. We are about to be confronted with the dangers of deep winter.\" Also of note is the fact that the unusually early winter of 1941 cut short the \"rasputitsa\" season, improving logistics in early November, with the weather still being only mildly cold.\n",
"Some of the deportees had received warnings to stay away from home and were hiding either among friends or in forests. After the German-Soviet war began many of them organized small guerrilla units and attacked the retreating Red Army soldiers and greeted Germans with the flag of independent Latvia.\n",
"In all, 44 German soldiers wearing U.S. uniforms were sent through U.S. lines, and all but eight returned, with the last men being sent through the lines on 19 December; after this, the element of surprise had been lost and they reverted to wearing German uniforms. It was not an uncommon practice at the time to send camouflaged reconnaissance units behind enemy lines, but because of the impact of Operation Greif, every occurrence of this was attributed to Skorzeny's men. In addition, German infantry often salvaged any items of U.S. Army clothing they found, thus it was not out of the question that regular German troops might be killed or captured wearing items of U.S. uniforms.\n"
] |
What did Thomas Jefferson think of the Haitian Revolution?
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In Thomas Jefferson's letter to Lafayette in 1791, he wrote about the American, French, and Haitian revolutions. He praised the French for "exterminating the monster aristocracy, & pulling out the teeth & fangs of it’s associate monarchy." However it is clear that he does not see the plight of the Haitians in the same light:
> what are you doing for your colonies? they will be lost if
not more effectually succoured. indeed no future efforts you can make will ever be able to reduce the blacks. all that can be done in my opinion will be to compound with them as has been done formerly in Jamaica. we have been less zealous in aiding them, lest your government should feel their restoration, and their connection with you, as you do yourselves.
[Source](_URL_0_)
Here Jefferson speaks of the need for the French to placate and control the Haitians. He alludes to the peace treaties of the Jamaican First Maroon War, where the British offered a level of self governance to the rebelling slaves.
As president, Jefferson attempted to economically isolate the new, black-led Haitian government. This was in part an attempt to discourage similar rebellions in the American South, and calm the fears of slave-owners. (Jefferson and the Nonrecognition of Haiti, Matthewson)
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[
"That year and once the Haitians declared independence in 1804, President Jefferson had to deal with strong hostility to the new nation by his southern-dominated Congress. He shared planters' fears that the success of Haiti would encourage similar slave rebellions and widespread violence in the South. Historian Tim Matthewson noted that Jefferson faced a Congress \"hostile to Haiti\", and that he \"acquiesced in southern policy, the embargo of trade and nonrecognition, the defense of slavery internally and the denigration of Haiti abroad.\" Jefferson discouraged emigration by American free blacks to the new nation. European nations also refused to recognize Haiti when the new nation declared independence in 1804. In his short biography of Jefferson in 2005, Christopher Hitchens noted the president was \"counterrevolutionary\" in his treatment of Haiti and its revolution.\n",
"Jefferson expressed ambivalence about Haiti. During his presidency, he thought sending free blacks and contentious slaves to Haiti might be a solution to some of the United States' problems. He hoped that \"Haiti would eventually demonstrate the viability of black self-government and the industriousness of African American work habits, thereby justifying freeing and deporting the slaves\" to that island. This was one of his solutions for separating the populations. In 1824, book peddler Samuel Whitcomb, Jr. visited Jefferson in Monticello, and they happened to talk about Haiti. This was on the eve of the greatest emigration of U.S. Blacks to the island-nation. Jefferson told Whitcomb that he had never seen Blacks do well in governing themselves, and thought they would not do it without the help of Whites.\n",
"After Toussaint Louverture had become governor general of Saint-Domingue following a slave revolt, in 1801 Jefferson supported French plans to take back the island. He agreed to loan France $300,000 \"for relief of whites on the island.\" Jefferson wanted to alleviate the fears of southern slave owners, who feared a similar rebellion in their territory. Prior to his election, Jefferson wrote of the revolution, \"If something is not done and soon, we shall be the murderers of our own children.\"\n",
"Jefferson and Madison start the rap battle by questioning the cabinet as to who aided the American Revolutionaries during their hour of need (the answer: France). Jefferson also argues that because the Americans signed a treaty between themselves and the King of France, they are honor bound to give aid to them as they enter a war with Britain. Jefferson then insults Hamilton, accusing him of being greedy and stating that he is disloyal. Jefferson notes that he is Secretary of State, not Hamilton, implying that he should have more influence on this decision than the Secretary of Treasury.\n",
"After early 1802, when he learned that Napoleon intended to regain a foothold in Saint-Domingue and Louisiana, Jefferson proclaimed neutrality in relation to the Haitian Revolution. The U.S. allowed war contraband to \"continue to flow to the blacks through usual U.S. merchant channels and the administration would refuse all French requests for assistance, credits, or loans.\" The \"geopolitical and commercial implications\" of Napoleon's plans outweighed Jefferson's fears of a slave-led nation. After the rebels in Saint-Domingue proclaimed independence from France in the new republic of Haiti in 1804, Jefferson refused to recognize Haiti as the second independent republic in the Americas. In part he hoped to win Napoleon's support over the acquisition of Florida. American slaveholders had been frightened and horrified by the slave massacres of the planter class during the rebellion and after, and a southern-dominated Congress was \"hostile to Haiti.\" They feared its success would encourage slave revolt in the American South. Historian Tim Matthewson notes that Jefferson \"acquiesced in southern policy, the embargo of trade and nonrecognition, the defense of slavery internally and the denigration of Haiti abroad.\" According to the historian George Herring, \"the Florida diplomacy reveals him [Jefferson] at his worst. His lust for land trumped his concern for principle.\"\n",
"After early 1802, when he learned that Napoleon intended to regain a foothold in Saint-Domingue and Louisiana, Jefferson proclaimed neutrality in relation to the Haitian Revolution. The U.S. allowed war contraband to \"continue to flow to the blacks through usual U.S. merchant channels and the administration would refuse all French requests for assistance, credits, or loans.\" The \"geopolitical and commercial implications\" of Napoleon's plans outweighed Jefferson's fears of a slave-led nation. After the rebels in Saint-Domingue proclaimed independence from France in the new republic of Haiti in 1804, Jefferson refused to recognize Haiti as the second independent republic in the Americas. In part he hoped to win Napoleon's support over the acquisition of Florida. American slaveholders had been frightened and horrified by the slave massacres of the planter class during the rebellion and after, and a southern-dominated Congress was \"hostile to Haiti.\" They feared its success would encourage slave revolt in the American South. Historian Tim Matthewson notes that Jefferson \"acquiesced in southern policy, the embargo of trade and nonrecognition, the defense of slavery internally and the denigration of Haiti abroad.\" According to the historian George Herring, \"the Florida diplomacy reveals him [Jefferson] at his worst. His lust for land trumped his concern for principle.\"\n",
"Thomas Jefferson also was the source of \"\"Précis historique de la révolution des États Unis d'Amérique, précédé de l'histoire de ses provinces, jusq'à l'époque de la révolution, et suivi du Manifeste ou de l'acte d'Indépendance des treize États-Unis\"\", anonymously published in Ghent by Goessin in 1789.\n"
] |
why hasnt a large group of people filed a class action suite against verizon or comcast
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Many service providers in the US, including Comcast, have clauses in their user agreements which actually forbid customers from engaging in class-action lawsuits against the company. In fact, many of these user agreements prevent you from taking any legal action and mandate that all disputes (that can't be resolved directly with the company) must be settled outside of court through binding arbitration.
Yes, it is true that these clauses are not legally enforceable in all jurisdictions, but it still prevents and discourages many customers from trying to get a class action lawsuit going. Also, these lawsuits are extremely expensive and unless you have demonstrable proof that the company caused widespread harm/damage and/or acted illegally then it simply doesn't make sense to proceed with such a lawsuit.
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[
"In 2007, Free Press, Public Knowledge, and the Federal Communications Commission filed a complaint against Comcast's Internet service. Several subscribers claimed that the company was interfering with their use of peer-to-peer networking applications. The Commission stated that it had jurisdiction over Comcast's network management practices and that it could resolve the dispute through negotiation rather than through rulemaking. The Commission believed that Comcast had \"significantly impeded consumers' ability to access the content and use the applications of their choice\", and that because Comcast \"ha[d] several available options it could use to manage network traffic without discriminating\" against peer-to-peer communications, its method of bandwidth management \"contravene[d] ... federal policy\". At this time, \"Comcast had already agreed to adopt a new system for managing bandwidth demand, the Commission simply ordered it to make a set of disclosures describing the details of its new approach and the company's progress toward implementing it\". Comcast complied with this Order but petitioned for a review and presented several objections.\n",
"Dozens of civil suits against the government and telecommunications companies over the program were consolidated before the chief judge of the Northern District of California, Vaughn R. Walker. One of the cases was a class-action lawsuit against AT&T, focusing on allegations that the company had provided the NSA with its customers' phone and Internet communications for a data-mining operation. Plaintiffs in a second case were the al-Haramain Foundation and two of its lawyers.\n",
"The EFF, ACLU and Time Warner have joined forces to try to quash most of the lawsuits. The ACLU and EFF argued that the lawsuits were not closely related and therefore improperly joined, and that it was improper to file all suits in Washington DC even though most of the alleged offenders resided elsewhere. Time Warner argued that it could only handle 28 IP address lookup requests per month. In July 2010, the Washington D.C. District Court judge rejected these arguments, but ordered UCSG, EFF and ACLU to work together to draft notification letters to be sent to the targeted individuals by their ISPs. The letters would inform them about the process and their legal options to fight the subpoena and would have to be approved by the court. \n",
"The Electronic Frontier Foundation (EFF) filed a class-action lawsuit against AT&T on January 31, 2006, accusing the telecommunication company of violating the law and the privacy of its customers by collaborating with the National Security Agency (NSA) in a massive, illegal program to wiretap and data-mine Americans' communications. On July 20, 2006, a federal judge denied the government's and AT&T's motions to dismiss the case, chiefly on the ground of the state secrets privilege, allowing the lawsuit to go forward. On August 15, 2007, the case was heard by the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals and was dismissed on December 29, 2011, based on a retroactive grant of immunity by Congress for telecommunications companies that cooperated with the government. The U.S. Supreme Court declined to hear the case. \n",
"In October 2008, the court denied the defendants' motions to dismiss the case on the federal claims and granted their motions to dismiss the state unfair trade practice claims except in California, New York, and Washington, but gave the plaintiffs leave to amend those claims. In December 2011, the district court granted Apple and AT&T's motions to compel arbitration, following the Supreme Court decision in \"AT&T Mobility v. Concepcion\", and decertified the class; in April 2012 the Ninth Circuit denied plaintiffs permission to appeal.\n",
"BULLET::::- “It has been a very long and drawn out fight, and it has certainly distracted the FCC for the last year. It has distracted the carriers as well, who have spent a lot of time, effort and money in terms of publicly fighting about it and privately fighting about it,\" says Larry Downes an industry consultant and author...\"It is very, very unlikely that AT&T will file suit,\" said Downes. \"They've said publicly and repeatedly that they are comfortable with the net neutrality order and I take that as a pretty strong indication that they are not going to litigate it.\"\n",
"On January 14, 2014 Verizon won their lawsuit over the FCC in the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Court. Verizon was suing over increased regulation on internet service providers on the grounds that \"even though the Commission has general authority to regulate in this arena, it may not impose requirements that contravene express statutory mandates. Given that the Commission has chosen to classify broadband providers in a manner that exempts them from treatment as common carriers, the Communications Act expressly prohibits the Commission from nonetheless regulating them as such.\"\n"
] |
why don't we have nintendo wii styled controls for a computer instead of the conventional mouse?
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Because The wii mote is very imprecise for clicking. The ergonomics don't really work well for the complexities of computers.
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[
"Because the Nintendo DS and Wii lack the dual analog joysticks that were used for control in the original game, the controls for \"Skate It\" were redesigned to take advantage of each platform's respective control methods. For example, the Wii version utilizes the motion sensing of the Wii Remote to control the player's skateboard, with gestures used to perform tricks, while the Nintendo DS version features stylus and touchscreen control. The Wii version also features support for the Wii Balance Board.\n",
"Classic Controller can be used with the Virtual Console as well as with certain Wii and WiiWare games. Along with the Nintendo GameCube controller, the Classic Controller is one of the controllers required to play certain Virtual Console games, such as SNES or Nintendo 64 titles, which require more buttons than the Wii Remote. However, the Classic Controller cannot be used to play GameCube games. When in the Wii Menu, the left analog stick takes control of the cursor when the Wii Remote is not pointed at the screen. The Classic Controller can navigate through the Message Board, settings menus, and Wii Shop Channel, but becomes inactive on all other channels except for the YouTube channel which the directional button is the only way to navigate through YouTube (except for using keyboard). It is also compatible with the Wii U, and some Wii U-specific games support it as well, such as \"Trine 2: Director's Cut\". The Classic Controller can also be used to navigate the Wii U home screen and menus. The Classic Controller is also compatible with the NES Classic Edition and Super NES Classic Edition.\n",
"\"Next Generation\" commented that, while earlier ports had trouble recreating the mouse controls of the original, the Nintendo 64 version \"handles it beautifully\". The review's author stated that the controller's analog stick \"allow[s for] the same simple point and click interface as the PC\", adding that \"the entire interface is equally responsive and well planned.\" The reviewer praised its graphics and audio, even calling the voice acting \"the most competent [...] ever to appear en masse on the platform\", but disliked its lack of multiplayer support, and concluded that the port \"keeps the spirit of the game perfectly while adapting it wonderfully to the limitations of the N64\". James Bottorff of \"The Cincinnati Enquirer\" believed that advancements in the real-time strategy genre rendered the Nintendo 64 port outdated, despite its new \"bells and whistles\". However, Bottorff wrote that those who had not played earlier \"Command & Conquer\" releases would find it \"highly addictive\", adding that its \"controls are surprisingly good for a PC port.\"\n",
"The controllers in the international version of the console feature the Wii Nunchuk's connector, which allows the controller to be connected to the Wii Remote for use with Virtual Console games on the Wii and Wii U. Accessories for the Wii such as the Classic Controller may be used with the NES Classic. The controllers for the Japanese version are hardwired into the console just like in the original Famicom, so they cannot be used in conjunction with the Wii. The Famicom Mini controllers are also proportioned to the size of the console, resulting in them being smaller than their North American or European counterpart. They fit into small holding slots on the side of the console. The Famicom Mini comes with two controllers. The microphone on the Player 2 controller is superficial only and does not work.\n",
"The Wii U GamePad is the standard game controller for Nintendo's Wii U home video game console. Incorporating traits from tablet computers, the GamePad has traditional input methods (such as buttons, dual analog sticks, and a D-pad), touchscreen controls, and motion controls. The touchscreen can be used to supplement a game by providing alternate, second screen functionality or an asymmetric view of a scenario in a game. The screen can also be used to play a game strictly on the GamePad screen, without the use of a television display. Conversely, non-gaming functions can be assigned to it as well, such as using it as a television remote.\n",
"The Wii U GamePad is the standard controller for Nintendo's eighth generation video game console. It incorporates traits from tablet computers and also has traditional input methods, such as buttons, dual analog sticks, and a D-pad. It also features touchscreen and motion controls. The touchscreen can be used to supplement a game by providing second screen functionality or an asymmetric view of a scenario in a game. The screen can also be used to play a game strictly on the GamePad screen, without the use of a television display. Conversely, non-gaming functions can be assigned to it as well, such as using it as a television remote.\n",
"Nintendo's first presentation of the controller in 2011 led to confusion upon whether the Wii U would support the use of multiple GamePads. A Nintendo spokesperson stated that the GamePad would not be sold individually from a Wii U console, and Shigeru Miyamoto had not ruled out the possibility of using multiple GamePads with a single console—but also felt that it may be more convenient to use the Nintendo 3DS as a controller in this scenario as well—implying potential compatibility. During Nintendo's E3 2012 presentation, it was confirmed that Wii U games could theoretically support up to two GamePads simultaneously.\n"
] |
what is a typical career path taken to become a us ambassadors?
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You can be anything you want! You just have to earn a lot of money. Then you donate it to a political party, and use that donation as leverage to get the position!
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[
"Since the late 20th century, high-profile ambassadorships typically are selected by the White House and go to prominent political or financial supporters of the president. These amateurs are mostly sent to Western Europe or nations with strong economic ties to the U.S. Professional career ambassadors move up through the State Department hierarchy and typically are posted to smaller countries and those with lower trade with the United States. The vast majority of semiprofessional diplomats were appointed to the most powerful countries. The pattern varies according to presidential style. For example, under President George W. Bush (2001–2009) the foreign service and the U.S. Agency for International Development were underfunded and often used for political rather than diplomatic reasons.\n",
"Many leadership roles at U.S. embassies are filled from the ranks of career FSOs. Recently, about two-thirds of U.S. Ambassadors have been career Foreign Service members primarily drawn from the Department of State, although other foreign affairs agencies have produced Ambassadors from time to time. Almost all of the remaining third are political appointees, though a handful of State Department Senior Executive Service personnel have received Ambassadorships. FSOs also help fill critical management and foreign policy positions at the headquarters of foreign affairs agencies in Washington, D.C.\n",
"The position is generally held by a political appointee rather than a career Foreign Service Officer (FSO); in the United States ambassadors are nominated by the President and confirmed by the U.S. Senate. According to the American Foreign Service Association, only two career FSOs since 1960 have been appointed to the Swiss and Liechtenstein ambassadorship (both times were in the 1970s), whereas the remaining twenty ambassadors were political appointees, typically those known as \"campaign bundlers\" who raise large sums of money for presidential campaigns.\n",
"Ambassadorships are often used as a form of political patronage to reward high-profile or important supporters of the president. The most visible ambassadorships are often distributed either in this way or to the president's ideological or partisan confreres. Most ambassadorships, however, are assigned to foreign service officers who have spent their career in the State Department. Regardless, all ambassadors must be formally appointed by the president and confirmed by the Senate. While all ambassadors serve at the president's pleasure and may be dismissed at any time, career diplomats usually serve tours of roughly three years before receiving a new assignment, and political appointees customarily tender their resignations upon the inauguration of a new president.\n",
"The position is regarded as one of the most prestigious positions in the United States Foreign Service due to the so-called \"Special Relationship\". The ambassadorship has been held by various notable politicians, including five who would later become presidents: John Adams, James Monroe, John Quincy Adams, Martin Van Buren and James Buchanan. However, the modern tendency of American presidents (of both parties) is to appoint keen political fundraisers from previous presidential campaigns, despite the importance and prestige of the office.\n",
"An ambassador may be a career Foreign Service Officer (career diplomat – CD) or a political appointee (PA). In most cases, career foreign service officers serve a tour of approximately three years per ambassadorship whereas political appointees customarily tender their resignations upon the inauguration of a new president. As embassies fall under the State Department's jurisdiction, ambassadors answer directly to the Secretary of State.\n",
"An ambassador may be a career Foreign Service Officer or a political appointee. In most cases, career foreign service officers serve a tour of approximately three years per ambassadorship whereas political appointees customarily tender their resignations upon the inauguration of a new president. As embassies fall under the Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores de la República de Nicaragua (Chancellery of Nicaragua) jurisdiction, ambassadors answer to the Foreign Ministers of Nicaragua, Denis Moncada or to the President of Nicaragua, Daniel Ortega Saavedra.\n"
] |
what do pets think about all day? they must get bored.
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Some do which is sometimes why bored dogs for instance destroy furniture
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[
"As pets, they have been reported to eat mealworms, corn, melon, crickets, waxworms, tomatoes, cooked eggs, fruit, and even moist dog food. They can be shy about being watched while eating, and may stop and stare back motionless if this happens.\n",
"Happiest when working alongside a hunter, the Drent enjoys the company of humans in the great outdoors. Several brisk turns around the park will satisfy it as well. Although it will come home and quietly assume its position on its bed, it should not be mistaken for a sedentary dog - the breed will suffer if insufficiently exercised.\n",
"It is common for animals (even those like hummingbirds that have high energy needs) to forage for food until satiated, and then spend most of their time doing nothing, or at least nothing in particular. They seek to \"satisfice\" their needs rather than obtaining an optimal diet or habitat. Even diurnal animals, which have a limited amount of daylight in which to accomplish their tasks, follow this pattern. Social activity comes in a distant third to eating and resting for foraging animals. When more time must be spent foraging, animals are more likely to sacrifice time spent on aggressive behavior than time spent resting. Extremely efficient predators have more free time and thus often appear more lazy than relatively inept predators that have little free time. Beetles likewise seem to forage lazily due to a lack of foraging competitors. On the other hand, some animals, such as pigeons and rats, seem to prefer to respond for food rather than eat equally available \"free food\" in some conditions.\n",
"Pets may experience stress and anxiety from unfamiliar situations and locations. Cats are especially stressed by change. Instead of travelling with their owner on vacation, pets can be boarded at kennels or kept at home with a friend or pet sitter. However, that also includes unfamiliar situations and locations. This is not an option when moving permanently.\n",
"but they do best when not kept indoor pets in small living spaces. Pulis kept indoors need a lot of exercise to use up their energy, or they can become either shy or overactive. They need to get the kind of exercise they were created for. A Puli without enough exercise can become mischievous and cause trouble. The right kind of exercise includes running, running with a biker, hiking, jogging and field work; not just a walk around the corner. Pulis are best kept in a house with a garden. Cozy and very friendly especially towards children, they are sensitive and prone to resentment.\n",
"Robot pets also keep elderly people from being depressed and also keep them active. In New Zealand, a study was conducted on elders to show the impact of robotic pets on their mental well-being and standards of living. The study found that the senior adults who interacted with the pets had a much more beneficial outlook on life, including a more positive mindset. The company Tombot created a prototype robotic pet that is specifically for elders who are lonely and have low-budgets. These pets will promote an easier yet more affordable lifestyle for older adults and a more low maintenance way to have the companionship of a pet. \n",
"BULLET::::- Jennyanydots a.k.a. the Old Gumbie Cat – She sits around all day and is seemingly very lazy, but at night, she becomes very active as she rules the mice and cockroaches, forcing them to undertake helpful functions and creative projects to curb their naturally destructive habits.\n"
] |
excess reserves
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> Watched Janet Yellen's testimony to congress last week.
For those of who do not want to use up all of our bandwidth, or week-end time, watching 6 hours of very boring you-tube, could you point us to the part that you are talking about?
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[
"Abundance debentures are usually long-term investments which investors should expect to hold for the full 20 years. Although Abundance facilitates a process for debentures to be bought and sold before the end of their life, there is no guarantee that this can be done, or what the value will be. However, 2015 saw Abundance raise over £2 million for its first \"short-term\" debenture—one year—supporting the construction of a wind turbine, which it expects to re-finance with a long-term debenture. \n",
"Negative interest on excess reserves is an instrument of unconventional monetary policy applied by central banks to encourage lending by making it costly for commercial banks to hold their excess reserves at central banks so they will lend more readily to the private sector. Such a policy is usually a response to very slow economic growth, deflation, and deleveraging.\n",
"Economists such as Gregor Irwin and Philip R. Lane have suggested that increased use of pooled reserves could help emerging economies not to require such large reserves and thus have less need for current account surpluses.\n",
"Unproven reserves are based on geological and/or engineering data similar to that used in estimates of proven reserves, but technical, contractual, or regulatory uncertainties preclude such reserves being classified as proven. Unproven reserves may be used internally by oil companies and government agencies for future planning purposes but are not routinely compiled. They are sub-classified as \"probable\" and \"possible\".\n",
"Proven reserves, also called measured reserves, 1P, and reserves, are industry specific terms regarding fossil fuel energy sources. They are defined as a \"Quantity of energy sources estimated with reasonable certainty, from the analysis of geologic and engineering data, to be recoverable from well established or known reservoirs with the existing equipment and under the existing operating conditions.\" A reserve is considered a proven reserve if it is probable that 90% or more of the resource is recoverable while being economically profitable. These terms relate to common fossil fuel reserves such as oil reserves, natural gas reserves, or coal reserves . \n",
"Reserve is the profit achieved by a company where a certain amount of it is put back into the business which can help the business in their rainy days. The preceding sentence may give the unwary reader the sense that this item is an asset, a debit balance. This is false. A reserve is always a credit balance. Retained Earnings typically has a credit balance. If a firm wants to label part of Retained Earnings as a Reserve for Reinvestment, then that labeling does not harm, but neither does it do anything about making assets, liquid or otherwise, available for any day, rainy or otherwise.\n",
"There is a risk that if too much is taken from drawdown that the funds will be depleted. This can happen because the pensioner lives significantly longer than expected. In contrast the annuity is guaranteed to be paid for life. However, if an annuity is not index linked then inflation can eat away at the spending power most significantly at those later years. The other way that the pot can be depleted is if investment performance is poor, for example if stock markets go down significantly and withdrawals are not adjusted to take this into account.\n"
] |
how can gov officials get away with giving seemingly classified information to news outlets?
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> The official was not authorized to speak publicly on the subject
That is not the same thing and does not imply that they gave out classified information. What it means is that the employee was not designated as the public spokesperson for the organization. The information they are giving is not secret, but not the official line either.
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[
"Other critics have cited that there are some documents and data that need to be legitimately kept secret or discreet, and are worried that there is nothing to prevent the officials involved in a search from disclosing this sensitive data. They give examples of trade secrets, acquisition plans, plans for a new product, security data about private customers. The concern is that officials in the process of searching may copy and leak this information without consent. Most are unwilling to trust government officials and employees to not misuse what they seize or negligently disclose confidential information.\n",
"Wouldn't that cover news reporting of leaked information? We can understand laws to keep government officials from leaking sensitive secrets, but once that information is out, do we really want to start prosecuting journalists and others who publish it? That sounds more like Britain's Official Secrets Act than an American law consonant with the 1st Amendment. When Congress passed the Espionage Act, it explicitly rejected a version that would have punished newspapers for printing information \"useful to the enemy.\" That was the right decision then, and there's no rationale for undoing it now.\n",
"A 2013 report to Congress noted that the relevant laws have been mostly used to prosecute foreign agents, or those passing classified information to them, and that leaks to the press have rarely been prosecuted. The legislative and executive branches of government, including US presidents, have frequently leaked classified information to journalists. Congress has repeatedly resisted or failed to pass a law that generally outlaws disclosing classified information. Most espionage law only criminalizes national defense information; only a jury can decide if a given document meets that criterion, and judges have repeatedly said that being \"classified\" does not necessarily make information become related to the \"national defense\". Furthermore, by law, information may not be classified merely because it would be embarrassing or to cover illegal activity; information may only be classified to protect national security objectives.\n",
"However, classified information is frequently \"leaked\" to reporters by officials for political purposes. Several U.S. presidents have leaked sensitive information to get their point across to the public.\n",
"Regardless of whether the right to source confidentiality is protected by law, the process of communicating between journalists and sources can jeopardize the privacy and safety of sources, as third parties can hack electronic communications or otherwise spy on interactions between journalists and sources. News media and their sources have expressed concern over government covertly accessing their private communications. To mitigate these risks, journalists and sources often rely on encrypted messaging. \n",
"Source reliability is one of the major points that hinders collection with this method. If you are viewing the paper of country where the dictator government runs the media, it is unlikely that you are reading an unbiased account of the facts. The same thing applies to use of the internet to gain information. Censorship controls over the internet in some countries will limit the amount of information that is made available.\n",
"There has been much discussion about the use of government privilege to classify information. On the one hand, there is the need to protect government secrecy. On the other, there is always suspicion that \"classified documents\" are merely a way to cover-up government malfeasance or bad faith actions of the executive branch.\n"
] |
why don’t you bleed out when you get an injection?
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There is about 50 processes that occur to act together to clot your blood and plug the hole.
Some people could bleed out, they are called haemophiliacs, and their blood clotting system malfunctions in one way or another.
Bonus fun fact for you, if you take too many blood thinners, you can bleed out through your skin, don't even need a hole.
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[
"The drugs are not mixed externally because that can cause them to precipitate. Also, a sequential injection is key to achieve the desired effects in the appropriate order: administration of the pentobarbital essentially renders the person unconscious; the infusion of the pancuronium bromide induces complete paralysis, including that of the lungs and diaphragm rendering the person unable to breathe. If the person being executed were not already completely unconscious, the injection of a highly concentrated solution of potassium chloride could cause severe pain at the site of the IV line, as well as along the punctured vein, but it interrupts the electrical activity of the heart muscle and causes it to stop beating, bringing about the death of the person being executed.\n",
"The poison paralyzes the muscles while the victim stays fully conscious, and eventually dies from asphyxiation. There is currently no antidote, and the standard medical approach is to try to support the respiratory and circulatory system until the effect of the poison wears off.\n",
"Lethal injection is the practice of injecting one or more drugs into a person (typically a barbiturate, paralytic, and potassium solution) for the express purpose of causing immediate death. The main application for this procedure is capital punishment, but the term may also be applied in a broader sense to include euthanasia and other forms of suicide. The drugs cause the person to become unconscious, stops their breathing, and causes a heart arrhythmia, in that order.\n",
"Of all the ways to ingest drugs, injection carries the most risks by far as it bypasses the body's natural filtering mechanisms against viruses, bacteria, and foreign objects. There will always be much less risk of overdose, disease, infections, and health problems with alternatives to injecting, such as smoking, insufflation (snorting or nasal ingestion), or swallowing.\n",
"BULLET::::- Increased chance of overdose — Because IV injection delivers a dose of drug straight into the bloodstream, it is harder to gauge how much to use (as opposed to smoking or snorting, where the dose can be increased relatively incrementally until the desired effect is achieved; this gives a user who is in danger of overdosing a chance to seek medical treatment before respiratory arrest sets in). In addition, because of the rapid onset of intravenous drugs, overdose can occur very quickly, requiring immediate action. Another reason that overdose is a risk is because the purity of street drugs varies a great deal.\n",
"Disadvantages of injections include potential pain or discomfort for the patient and the requirement of trained staff using aseptic techniques for administration. However, in some cases, patients are taught to self-inject, such as SC injection of insulin in patients with insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. As the drug is delivered to the site of action extremely rapidly with IV injection, there is a risk of overdose if the dose has been calculated incorrectly, and there is an increased risk of side effects if the drug is administered too rapidly.\n",
"Common side effects include respiratory depression (decreased breathing), dry mouth, drowsiness, impaired mental function, constipation, and addiction. Side effects of use by injection can include abscesses, infected heart valves, blood-borne infections, and pneumonia. After a history of long-term use, opioid withdrawal symptoms can begin within hours of the last use. When given by injection into a vein, heroin has two to three times the effect of a similar dose of morphine. It typically comes as a white or brown powder.\n"
] |
how does property line surveying work?
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Property lines is often described using features in the terrain and not necessarily coordinates. And even if there is coordinates they may not have been measured with high accuracy, using old datum or the terrain might have changed. So a surveyor is walking around trying to make sense of the previous descriptions of the property lines and writing down his own descriptions. This makes it easier for you to know where the property line is. He often returns with detailed coordinates of the property line. These can be written as two sets of degree, minute, second coordinates. A latitude and longitude. A circle have 365 degrees, a degree have 60 minute and a minute have 60 seconds. So by using two such values you are able to uniquely place a point on the surface of the Earth.
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[
"In the United States, a plat ( or ) (plan or cadastral map) is a map, drawn to scale, showing the divisions of a piece of land. United States General Land Office surveyors drafted township plats of Public Lands Surveys to show the distance and bearing between section corners, sometimes including topographic or vegetation information. City, town or village plats show subdivisions into blocks with streets and alleys. Further refinement often splits blocks into individual lots, usually for the purpose of selling the described lots; this has become known as subdivision.\n",
"A plat of subdivision or plan of subdivision appears when a landowner or municipality divides land into smaller parcels. If a landowner owns an acre of land, for instance, and wants to divide it into three pieces, a surveyor would have to take precise measurements of the land and submit the survey to the governing body, which would then have to approve it. A plat of subdivision also applies when a landowner/building owner divides a multi-family building into multiple units. This can apply for the intention of selling off the individual units as condominiums to individual owners. \n",
"One of the primary roles of the land surveyor is to determine the boundary of real property on the ground. The surveyor must determine where the adjoining landowners wish to put the boundary. The boundary is established in legal documents and plans prepared by attorneys, engineers, and land surveyors. The surveyor then puts monuments on the corners of the new boundary. They might also find or resurvey the corners of the property monumented by prior surveys.\n",
"One of the primary roles of the land surveyor is to determine the boundary of real property on the ground. That boundary has already been established and described in legal documents and official plans and maps prepared by attorneys, engineers, and other land surveyors. The corners of the property will either have been monumented by a prior surveyor, or monumented by the surveyor hired to perform a survey of a new boundary which has been agreed upon by adjoining land owners.\n",
"A \"cadastral map\" is a map that shows the boundaries and ownership of land parcels. Some cadastral maps show additional details, such as survey district names, unique identifying numbers for parcels, certificate of title numbers, positions of existing structures, section or lot numbers and their respective areas, adjoining and adjacent street names, selected boundary dimensions and references to prior maps.\n",
"BULLET::::- \"Cadastral or boundary surveying\": a survey that establishes or re-establishes boundaries of a parcel using a legal description. It involves the setting or restoration of monuments or markers at the corners or along the lines of the parcel. These take the form of iron rods, pipes, or concrete monuments in the ground, or nails set in concrete or asphalt. The \"ALTA/ACSM\" Land Title Survey is a standard proposed by the American Land Title Association and the American Congress on Surveying and Mapping. It incorporates elements of the boundary survey, mortgage survey, and topographic survey.\n",
"Typically the system uses physical features of the local geography, along with directions and distances, to define and describe the boundaries of a parcel of land. The boundaries are described in a running prose style, working around the parcel in sequence, from a point of beginning, returning to the same point; compare with the oral ritual of beating the bounds. It may include references to other adjoining parcels (and their owners), and it, in turn, could also be referred to in later surveys. At the time the description is compiled, it may have been marked on the ground with permanent monuments placed where there were no suitable natural monuments.\n"
] |
why do computers need screen savers but not tvs?
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Because of [screen burn-in](_URL_0_).
If you let an old CRT screen display the same image for a longer period of time, that image can be permanently burnt into the screen. (check the link for examples.)
On TVs this wasn't a huge problem since TVs don't tend to show a lot of static images for long periods of time. Although you could sometimes find a TV with the faint ghost of a channel logo in one corner because it had been on one channel for too long.
On computer monitors the problem was much greater since you could end up with an entire document burnt into your screen if you forgot to turn it off. So screen savers were implemented that could either blank the screen or show a continuously moving image, screen savers literally saved screens.
Burn-ins aren't that likely to happen on modern displays. It used to be a problem with plasma TVs and it can apparently even happen on an LCD display although I've never seen it. Plus most TVs and computers today will turn the screen off automatically if it sits idle for too long and that's a better solution than a screen saver since it saves power.
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[
"Most modern computer screens are LCDs. To provide an image on a screen, LCD technology emits light from the screen towards the reader. This makes reading this screen harder than reading a printed sheet of paper where a reader will see the image because it reflects light. For this reason some people argue that a computer screen is not suitable to read long articles.\n",
"A screensaver (or screen saver) is a computer program that blanks the screen or fills it with moving images or patterns when the computer is not in use. The original purpose of screensavers was to prevent phosphor burn-in on CRT and plasma computer monitors (hence the name). Though modern monitors are not susceptible to this issue, screensavers are still used for other purposes. Screensavers are often set up to offer a basic layer of security, by requiring a password to re-access the device. Some screensavers use the otherwise unused computer resources to do useful work, such as processing for distributed computing projects.\n",
"Monitors running screensavers consume the same amount of power as when running normally, which can be anywhere from a few watts for small LCD monitors to several hundred for large plasma displays. Most modern computers can be set to switch the monitor into a lower power mode, blanking the screen altogether. A power-saving mode for monitors is usually part of the power management options supported in most modern operating systems, though it must also be supported by the computer hardware and monitor itself.\n",
"Since LCD screens do not use phosphors, they rarely suffer image burn-in when a static image is displayed on a screen for a long time, e.g., the table frame for an airline flight schedule on an indoor sign. LCDs are, however, susceptible to image persistence. The LCD screen is more energy-efficient and can be disposed of more safely than a CRT can. Its low electrical power consumption enables it to be used in battery-powered electronic equipment more efficiently than CRTs can be. By 2008, annual sales of televisions with LCD screens exceeded sales of CRT units worldwide, and the CRT became obsolete for most purposes.\n",
"Using a screensaver with a flat panel or LCD screen not powering down the screen can actually decrease the lifetime of the display, since the fluorescent backlight remains lit and ages faster than it would if the screen is turned off and on frequently. . As fluorescent tubes age they grow progressively dimmer, and they can be expensive or difficult to replace. A typical LCD screen loses about 50% of its brightness during a normal product lifetime In most cases, the tube is an integral part of the LCD and the entire assembly needs to be replaced. This is not true of LED backlit displays.\n",
"Modern computer monitors are easily interchangeable with conventional television sets. However, as computer monitors do not necessarily include integrated speakers, it may not be possible to use a computer monitor without external components.\n",
"Unlike other display technologies, electronic paper does not use any power while displaying an image. CRT monitors typically use more power than LCD monitors. They also contain significant amounts of lead. LCD monitors typically use a cold-cathode fluorescent bulb to provide light for the display. Some newer displays use an array of light-emitting diodes (LEDs) in place of the fluorescent bulb, which reduces the amount of electricity used by the display. Fluorescent back-lights also contain mercury, whereas LED back-lights do not.\n"
] |
Why did China move to simplified characters instead of the traditional ones?
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Short version: because traditional characters, while they make more sense while learning them, are a pain in the ass to write and look very intimidating. The stated benefit was that more people would become literate, which happened (for various reasons)
Longer version deals with Mao's apparent desire to replicate the First Emperor, revolutionary doctrine saying out with the old, and just general "uplifting the workers" themes in Communism. The benefits of switching to simplified can be seen by comparing the character 认, "to know" with its traditional counterpart, which I can't write on mobile.
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[
"The nature of Chinese characters makes it very easy to produce allographs (variants) for many characters, and there have been many efforts at orthographical standardization throughout history. In recent times, the widespread usage of the characters in several nations has prevented any particular system becoming universally adopted and the standard form of many Chinese characters thus varies in different regions.\n",
"The use of traditional Chinese characters versus simplified Chinese characters varies greatly, and can depend on both the local customs and the medium. Before the official reform, character simplifications were not officially sanctioned and generally adopted vulgar variants and idiosyncratic substitutions. Orthodox variants were mandatory in printed works, while the (unofficial) simplified characters would be used in everyday writing or quick notes. Since the 1950s, and especially with the publication of the 1964 list, the People's Republic of China has officially adopted simplified Chinese characters for use in mainland China, while Hong Kong, Macau, and the Republic of China (Taiwan) were not affected by the reform. There is no absolute rule for using either system, and often it is determined by what the target audience understands, as well as the upbringing of the writer.\n",
"BULLET::::- Another common practical reason for the continuation of traditional characters is the expansive cultural legacy of Chinese history and art prior to simplification. The written form did evolve over the centuries but the traditional character set used today is much more closely related to the written Chinese which has been in use for thousands of years. As such the traditional characters are said to provide access to Chinese culture prior to simplification.\n",
"Continuing the work of previous reformers, in 1956 the People's Republic of China promulgated the Scheme of Simplified Chinese Characters, later referred to as the \"First Round\" or \"First Scheme.\" The plan was adjusted slightly in the following years, eventually stabilizing in 1964 with a definitive list of character simplifications. These are the simplified Chinese characters that are used today in Mainland China and Singapore. Taiwan, Hong Kong, and Macau did not adopt the simplifications, and the characters used in those places are known as traditional Chinese characters.\n",
"In the Philippines, the use of simplified characters is getting more and more popular. Before the 1970s, Chinese schools in the Philippines were under the supervision of the Ministry of Education of the Republic of China. Hence, most books were using the Traditional Characters. Traditional Characters remained prevalent until the early 2000s. However, institutions like the Confucius Institute, being the cultural arm of the People's Republic of China, are strong proponents of the use of Simplified Characters. Also, many new schools are now importing their Mandarin textbooks from Singapore instead of Taiwan.\n",
"BULLET::::- Acceptance of simplified characters is increasing, mirroring acceptance of the pinyin romanization system that was once a PRC and now an international standard, although with much greater resistance and to a significantly lesser extent. In the 1960s and 1970s, Chinese as a foreign language was taught in countries like France and the United States solely in traditional characters. In the 1990s, universities in the United States were split between simplified and traditional, with simplified growing and traditional being taught mainly for the benefit of those who wish to learn Classical Chinese, or Chinese for use in Hong Kong, Taiwan, Macau, or overseas Chinese communities. Today, in terms of teaching and learning Chinese as a foreign language outside of China, the simplified characters has \"become the first choice because of student demand\". Regardless, some instructors allow students the choice to write in either simplified or traditional characters.\n",
"Although most of the simplified Chinese characters in use today are the result of the works moderated by the government of the People's Republic of China (PRC) in the 1950s and 60s, character simplification predates the PRC's formation in 1949. Cursive written text almost always includes character simplification. Simplified forms used in print are attested as early as the Qin dynasty (221–206 BC).\n"
] |
Is there any evidence or possibility of truth to the theory that Psilocybin Mushrooms Contributed to Human Evolution?
|
No. It's a fun theory to entertain if you do a lot of drugs, but that's not how evolution (at this stage) works. Basically, evolution comes from mutations that are passed down through heredity. In other words, even if you gained a higher level of consciousness through pscilocybin mushrooms, this trait wouldn't be passed on to your offspring. Perhaps the innate desire to eat them would be passed on, but then we would still be eating them just to stay more "intelligent" than apes.
|
[
"Therefore, according to McKenna, access to and ingestion of mushrooms was an evolutionary advantage to humans' omnivorous hunter-gatherer ancestors, also providing humanities first religious impulse. He believed that psilocybin mushrooms were the \"evolutionary catalyst\" from which language, projective imagination, the arts, religion, philosophy, science, and all of human culture sprang.\n",
"While Wasson views historical mushroom use primarily as a facilitator for the shamanic or spiritual experiences core to these rites and traditions, McKenna takes this further, positing that the ingestion of psilocybin was perhaps primary in the formation of language and culture and identifying psychedelic mushrooms as the original \"Tree of Knowledge\". There is indeed some research supporting the theory that psilocybin ingestion temporarily increases neurochemical activity in the language centers of the brain, indicating a need for more research into the uses of psychoactive plants and fungi in human history.\n",
"Imagery found on prehistoric murals and rock paintings of modern-day Spain and Algeria suggests that human usage of psilocybin mushrooms predates recorded history. In Mesoamerica, the mushrooms had long been consumed in spiritual and divinatory ceremonies before Spanish chroniclers first documented their use in the 16th century. In 1959, the Swiss chemist Albert Hofmann isolated the active principle psilocybin from the mushroom \"Psilocybe mexicana\". Hofmann's employer Sandoz marketed and sold pure psilocybin to physicians and clinicians worldwide for use in psychedelic psychotherapy. Although the increasingly restrictive drug laws of the late 1960s curbed scientific research into the effects of psilocybin and other hallucinogens, its popularity as an entheogen (spirituality-enhancing agent) grew in the next decade, owing largely to the increased availability of information on how to cultivate psilocybin mushrooms.\n",
"Psilocybin mushrooms possess psychedelic properties. Commonly known as \"magic mushrooms\" or shrooms\", they are openly available in smart shops in many parts of the world, or on the black market in those countries that have outlawed their sale. Psilocybin mushrooms have been reported as facilitating profound and life-changing insights often described as mystical experiences. Recent scientific work has supported these claims, as well as the long-lasting effects of such induced spiritual experiences.\n",
"Because of a lack of clarity about laws about psilocybin mushrooms, retailers in the late 1990s and early 2000s commercialized and marketed them in smartshops in the Netherlands and the UK, and online. Several websites emerged that have contributed to the accessibility of information on description, use, effects and exchange of experiences among users. Since 2001, six EU countries have tightened their legislation on psilocybin mushrooms in response to concerns about their prevalence and increasing usage. In the 1990s, hallucinogens and their effects on human consciousness were again the subject of scientific study, particularly in Europe. Advances in neuropharmacology and neuropsychology, and the availability of brain imaging techniques have provided impetus for using drugs like psilocybin to probe the \"neural underpinnings of psychotic symptom formation including ego disorders and hallucinations\". Recent studies in the United States have attracted attention from the popular press and thrust psilocybin back into the limelight.\n",
"McKenna's hypothesis was that low doses of psilocybin improve visual acuity, particularly edge detection, meaning that the presence of psilocybin in the diet of early pack hunting primates caused the individuals who were consuming psilocybin mushrooms to be better hunters than those who were not, resulting in an increased food supply and in turn a higher rate of reproductive success. Then at slightly higher doses, he contended, the mushroom acts to sexually arouse, leading to a higher level of attention, more energy in the organism, and potential erection in the males, rendering it even more evolutionarily beneficial, as it would result in more offspring. At even higher doses, McKenna proposed that the mushroom would have acted to \"dissolve boundaries,\" promoting community bonding and group sexual activities. Consequently, there would be a mixing of genes, greater genetic diversity, and a communal sense of responsibility for the group offspring. At these higher doses, McKenna also argued that psilocybin would be triggering activity in the \"language-forming region of the brain\", manifesting as music and visions, thus catalyzing the emergence of language in early hominids by expanding \"their arboreally evolved repertoire of troop signals.\" He also pointed out that psilocybin would dissolve the ego and \"religious concerns would be at the forefront of the tribe's consciousness, simply because of the power and strangeness of the experience itself.\"\n",
"Although dozens of species of psychedelic mushrooms are found in Europe, there is little documented usage of these species in Old World history besides the use of \"Amanita muscaria\" among Siberian peoples. The few existing historical accounts about psilocybin mushrooms typically lack sufficient information to allow species identification, and usually refer to the nature of their effects. For example, Flemish botanist Carolus Clusius (1526–1609) described the \"bolond gomba\" (crazy mushroom), used in rural Hungary to prepare love potions. English botanist John Parkinson included details about a \"foolish mushroom\" in his 1640 herbal \"Theatricum Botanicum\". The first reliably documented report of intoxication with \"Psilocybe semilanceata\"—Europe's most common and widespread psychedelic mushroom—involved a British family in 1799, who prepared a meal with mushrooms they had picked in London's Green Park.\n"
] |
why is the proportion of left-handed people so small in comparison to right-handed people? shouldn't it be closer to 50:50 than the 10:90 ratio we see today?
|
Once humans starting using tools, handedness started to matter. A left handed person would be a disadvantage using tools make for right handed people.
On the other hand, with weapons, being left handed could be an advantage, if everyone was used to fighting right handed people. So there would be an evolutionary reason to keep some left handed people around.
|
[
"However, more recently, in a 2014 study published by the National Bureau of Economic Research, Harvard economist Joshua Goodman finds that left-handed people earn 10 to 12 percent less over the course of their lives than right-handed people. Goodman attributes this disparity to higher rates of emotional and behavioral problems in left-handed people.\n",
"BULLET::::- \"Left-handedness\" is far less common than right-handedness. Left-handed people are more skillful with their left hands when performing tasks. Studies suggest that approximately 10% of the world population is left-handed.\n",
"Studies in the U.K., U.S. and Australia have revealed that left-handed people differ from right-handers by only one IQ point, which is not noteworthy ... Left-handers' brains are structured differently from right-handers' in ways that can allow them to process language, spatial relations and emotions in more diverse and potentially creative ways. Also, a slightly larger number of left-handers than right-handers are especially gifted in music and math. A study of musicians in professional orchestras found a significantly greater proportion of talented left-handers, even among those who played instruments that seem designed for right-handers, such as violins. Similarly, studies of adolescents who took tests to assess mathematical giftedness found many more left-handers in the population.\n",
"Left-handedness always occurs at a lower frequency than right-handedness. Generally, left-handedness is found within 10.8% of the overall population. However, left-handedness is more common in twins than in single individuals, occurring in 21% of people who are twins.\n",
"Conversely, Joshua Goodman found evidence that left-handers were overrepresented amongst high end of the cognitive spectrum was weak due to methodological and sampling issues in conducted studies. Goodman also found that left-handers were overrepresented at the low end of the cognitive spectrum, with the mentally disabled being twice as likely to be left-handed compared to the general population, as well as generally lower cognitive and non-cognitive abilities amongst left-handed children. Moreover, Ntolka and Papadatou-Pastou in a systematic review and meta-analysis found that it is right-handers who have higher IQ scores, but this difference is negligible (about 1.5 points).\n",
"In a 2006 U.S. study, researchers from Lafayette College and Johns Hopkins University concluded that there was no statistically significant correlation between handedness and earnings for the general population, but among college-educated people, left-handers earned 10 to 15% more than their right-handed counterparts.\n",
"BULLET::::- \"Right-handedness\" is by far the most common type. Right-handed people are more skillful with their right hands when performing tasks. Studies suggest that approximately 90% of the world's population is right-handed.\n"
] |
Can tungsten survive lava?
|
Tungsten **melts** at 3422°C (it boils at a much higher temperature). Pāhoehoe is one of the hotter types of lava, at about 1200°C.
So nothing would happen. It would get hot, but not melt. There are plenty of elements/metals that have melting temperatures hotter than 1200°C, like titanium, platinum, etc.
|
[
"Because tungsten is a rare metal and its compounds are generally inert, the effects of tungsten on the environment are limited. The abundance of tungsten in the Earth's crust is thought to be about 1.5 parts per million. It is one of the more rare elements.\n",
"A hard, rare metal under standard conditions when uncombined, tungsten is found naturally on Earth only in chemical compounds. It was identified as a new element in 1781, and first isolated as a metal in 1783. Its important ores include wolframite and scheelite. The free element is remarkable for its robustness, especially the fact that it has the highest melting point of all the non-alloyed metals and the second highest of all the elements after carbon. Also remarkable is its high density of 19.3 times that of water, comparable to that of uranium and gold, and much higher (about 1.7 times) than that of lead. Tungsten with minor amounts of impurities is often brittle and hard, making it difficult to work. However, very pure tungsten, though still hard, is more ductile, and can be cut with a hard-steel hacksaw.\n",
"Tungsten is one of the oldest metal ions to be incorporated in biological systems, preceding the Great Oxygenation Event. Before the abundance of oxygen in Earth's atmosphere, oceans teemed with sulfur and tungsten, while molybdenum, a metal that is highly similar chemically, was inaccessible in solid form. The abundance of tungsten and lack of free molybdenum likely explains why early marine organisms incorporated the former instead of the latter. However, as cyanobacteria began to fill the atmosphere with oxygen, molybdenum became available (molybdenum becomes soluble when exposed to oxygen) and molybdenum began to replace tungsten in the majority of metabolic processes, which is seen today, as tungsten is only present in the biological complexes of prokaryotes (methanogens, gram-positive bacteria, gram-negative aerobes and anaerobes), and is only obligated in hyperthermophilic archaea such as P. furiosus. Tungesten's extremely high melting point (3,422 °C), partially explains its necessity in these archaea, found in extremely hot areas.\n",
"Because it retains its strength at high temperatures and has a high melting point, elemental tungsten is used in many high-temperature applications, such as light bulb, cathode-ray tube, and vacuum tube filaments, heating elements, and rocket engine nozzles. Its high melting point also makes tungsten suitable for aerospace and high-temperature uses such as electrical, heating, and welding applications, notably in the gas tungsten arc welding process (also called tungsten inert gas (TIG) welding).\n",
"Some near-surface brines in the western United States contain anomalously high concentrations of dissolved tungsten. Should recovery ever prove economic, some brines could be significant sources of tungsten. For instance, brines beneath Searles Lake, California, with concentrations of about 56 mg/l tungsten (70 mg/l WO), contain about 8.5 million short tons of tungsten. Although 90% of the dissolved tungsten is technically recoverable by ion exchange resins, recovery is uneconomic.\n",
"An earlier material, Eglin Steel, ES-1, resolved these issues but the tungsten used in it was expensive, difficult to melt, and the resulting tungsten carbide particles made the material difficult to process in thick sections. However, the tungsten also gave ES-1 excellent high-temperature strength.\n",
"In World War II, tungsten played a significant role in background political dealings. Portugal, as the main European source of the element, was put under pressure from both sides, because of its deposits of wolframite ore at Panasqueira. Tungsten's resistance to high temperatures and its strengthening of alloys made it an important raw material for the arms industry.\n"
] |
ferrofluid carrier fluid?
|
Did you make the carrier fluid yourself?
What was it already made out of?
A quick perusal of google suggests it's most commonly made with Kerosene and Oleic acid.
|
[
"The difference between ferrofluids and magnetorheological fluids (MR fluids) is the size of the particles. The particles in a ferrofluid primarily consist of nanoparticles which are suspended by Brownian motion and generally will not settle under normal conditions. MR fluid particles primarily consist of micrometre-scale particles which are too heavy for Brownian motion to keep them suspended, and thus will settle over time because of the inherent density difference between the particle and its carrier fluid. These two fluids have very different applications as a result.\n",
"Ferrofluids are colloidal liquids made of nanoscale ferromagnetic, or ferrimagnetic, particles suspended in a fluid (usually an organic solvent or water). Each tiny particle is thoroughly coated with a surfactant to inhibit clumping. Large ferromagnetic particles can be ripped out of the homogeneous colloidal mixture, forming a separate clump of magnetic dust when exposed to strong magnetic fields. The magnetic attraction of nanoparticles is weak enough that the surfactant's Van der Waals force is sufficient to prevent magnetic clumping or agglomeration. Ferrofluids usually do not retain magnetization in the absence of an externally applied field and thus are often classified as \"superparamagnets\" rather than ferromagnets.. In 2019, researchers at the University of Massachusetts and Beijing University of Chemical Technology succeeded in creating a permanently magnetic ferrofluid which retains its magnetism when the external magnetic field is removed. The researchers also found that the droplet's magnetic properties were preserved even if the shape was physically changed or it was divided. \n",
"Particles in ferrofluids are dispersed in a liquid, often using a surfactant, and thus ferrofluids are colloidal suspensions – materials with properties of more than one state of matter. In this case, the two states of matter are the solid metal and liquid it is in. This ability to change phases with the application of a magnetic field allows them to be used as seals, lubricants, and may open up further applications in future nanoelectromechanical systems.\n",
"A peristaltic pump is a positive-displacement pump in which a motor pinches advancing portions of a flexible tube to propel a fluid within the tube. The pump isolates the fluid from the machinery, which is important if the fluid is abrasive or must remain sterile.\n",
"Ferrofluidic is the brand name of a staged magnetic liquid rotary sealing mechanism made by the Ferrotec Corporation and was first patented by the predecessor company's co-founder R.E.Rosensweig (USP 3,620,584). The seals are the most important commercialization of ferrofluids to date. The seals are used in rotating equipment to enable rotary motion while maintaining a hermetic seal by means of a physical barrier in the form of a ferrofluid. The ferrofluid is suspended in place by use of a permanent magnet. \n",
"Ferrofluids can also be used in semi-active dampers in mechanical and aerospace applications. While passive dampers are generally bulkier and designed for a particular vibration source in mind, active dampers consume more power. Ferrofluid based dampers solve both of these issues and are becoming popular in the helicopter community, which has to deal with large inertial and aerodynamic vibrations.\n",
"A process for making a ferrofluid was invented in 1963 by NASA's Steve Papell to create liquid rocket fuel that could be drawn toward a pump inlet in a weightless environment by applying a magnetic field. The name ferrofluid was introduced, the process improved, more highly magnetic liquids synthesized, additional carrier liquids discovered, and the physical chemistry elucidated by R. E. Rosensweig and colleagues; in addition Rosensweig evolved a new branch of fluid mechanics termed ferrohydrodynamics.\n"
] |
how can an mri show the side of the body if the person is lying on their back?
|
It scans all around you, not just from one direction.
[MRI machine](_URL_0_). See how it is round and surrounds your entires body?
|
[
"Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) may also be performed to assess the degree of certain anomalies such as abdominal wall and pericardial defects. An MRI uses a magnetic field and radio waves to produce cross-sectional images of particular organs and bodily tissues.\n",
"BULLET::::- Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) without contrast is a diagnostic test that produces three-dimensional images of body structures using powerful magnets and computer technology. It can show the spinal cord, nerve roots, and surrounding areas, as well as enlargement, degeneration, and tumors. It shows soft tissues better than CAT scans. An MRI performed with a high magnetic field strength usually provides the most conclusive evidence for diagnosis of a disc herniation. T2-weighted images allow for clear visualization of protruded disc material in the spinal canal.\n",
"The diagnosis process might include a physician who tests that the movement, strength, and sensation of the arms and legs are normal. The spine is examined for its range of motion and any pain that may arise from movement. Blood work might be utilized in addition to radiographic imaging in order to identify spinal cord diseases. Basic imaging techniques, which includes x-ray imaging, can reveal degenerative changes of the spine, while more advanced imaging techniques, such as computed tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), can allow visualization of more detailed anatomical structures, including that of the associated nerves and muscles. The most detailed and specific testing is electrodiagnostic, which helps to uncover whether the appropriate electrical signals are being sent to each muscle from the correlate nerves. This aids in localizing a problem's source. There are risks to be considered with any diagnostic testing. For example, in the case of CT imaging, there is obvious benefit over x-ray in that a more thorough picture of the anatomy is exposed, but there is a trade-off in that CT has around a 10-fold increased radiation exposure; alternatively, while MRI provides highly detailed imaging of the anatomy with the benefit of no radiation exposure to the patient, the high cost of this test must be taken into account.\n",
"MRI images are useful in displaying atrophied portions of neuroanatomical positions within the brain. As a result, it is especially effective in identifying regions within different areas of the brain that have been negatively affected due to the complications associated with CBD. To be specific, MRI of CBD typically shows posterior parietal and frontal cortical atrophy with unequal representation in corresponding sides. In addition, atrophy has been noted in the corpus callosum.\n",
"MRI can be used to discern incomplete ruptures from degeneration of the Achilles tendon, and MRI can also distinguish between paratenonitis, tendinosis, and bursitis. This technique uses a strong uniform magnetic field to align millions of protons running through the body. These protons are then bombarded with radio waves that knock some of them out of alignment. When these protons return they emit their own unique radio waves that can be analysed by a computer in 3D to create sharp cross sectional image of the area of interest. MRI can provide unparalleled contrast in soft tissue for an extremely high quality photograph making it easy for technicians to spot tears and other injuries.\n",
"Diagnosis of a back injury begins with a physical examination and thorough medical history by health-care personnel. Some injuries, such as sprains and strains or herniated discs, can be diagnosed in this manner. To confirm these diagnoses, or to rule out other injuries or pathology, imaging of the injured region can be ordered. X-rays are often used to visualize pathology of bones and can be ordered when a vertebral fracture is suspected. CT scans produce higher resolution images when compared to x-rays and can be used to view more subtle fractures which may otherwise go undetected on x-ray. MRI is commonly referred to as the gold standard for visualizing soft tissue and can be used to assist with diagnosing many back injuries, including herniated discs and neurological disorders, bleeding, and edema.\n",
"Plain x-rays of the shoulder can be used to detect some joint pathology and variations in the bones, including acromioclavicular arthritis, variations in the acromion, and calcification. However, x-rays do not allow visualization of soft tissue and thus hold a low diagnostic value. Ultrasonography, arthrography and MRI can be used to detect rotator cuff muscle pathology. MRI is the best imaging test prior to arthroscopic surgery. Due to lack of understanding of the pathoaetiology, and lack of diagnostic accuracy in the assessment process by many physicians, several opinions are recommended before intervention.\n"
] |
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