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Some economists consider Social Mobility to be more important than inequality in a society's health. Apart from the United States, is there any civilization is considered to have more Social Mobility than any others? Why do theorists/historians think this is so?
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Sorry, we don't allow [throughout history questions](_URL_0_). These tend to produce threads which are collections of trivia, not the in-depth discussions about a particular topic we're looking for. If you have a specific question about a historical event or period or person, please feel free to re-compose your question and submit it again. Alternatively, questions of this type can be directed to more appropriate subreddits, such as /r/history or /r/askhistory.
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[
"Explanations for the relatively low level of social mobility in the US include the better access of affluent children to superior schools and preparation for schools so important in an economy where pay is tilted toward educated workers; high levels of immigration of unskilled laborers and low rate of unionization, which leads to lower wages among the least skilled; public health problems, like obesity and diabetes, which can limit education and employment; the sheer size of the income gap between the rich which makes it harder to climb the proverbial income ladder when the rungs are farther apart; poverty, since those with low income have significantly lower rates of mobility than middle and higher income individuals. The factors which affect social mobility vary across the United States as does social mobility which in favored areas is much higher than in less favored areas.\n",
"People of lower socio-economic status are more likely to have cardiovascular disease than those who have a higher socio-economic status. This inequality gap has occurred in developed countries because people who have a lower socio-economic status often face many of the risk factors of tobacco and alcohol use, obesity as well as having a sedentary lifestyle. Further social and environmental factors such as poverty, pollution, family history, housing and employment contribute to this inequality gap and to risk of having a health condition caused by cardiovascular disease. The increasing inequality gap between the higher and lower income populations continues in countries such as Canada, despite the availability of health care for everyone.\n",
"Individualistic societies have happier populations. Institutes of economic freedom are associated with increases wealth inequality but does not necessarily contribute to decreases in aggregate well-being or subjective well-being at the population level. In fact, income inequality enhances global well-being.\n",
"In a study for which the results were first published in 2009, conduct an exhaustive analysis of social mobility in developed countries. In addition to other correlations with negative social outcomes for societies having high inequality, they found a relationship between high social inequality and low social mobility. Of the eight countries studied—Canada, Denmark, Finland, Sweden, Norway, Germany, the UK and the US, the US had both the highest economic inequality and lowest economic mobility. In this and other studies, in fact, the USA has very low mobility at the lowest rungs of the socioeconomic ladder, with mobility increasing slightly as one goes up the ladder. At the top rung of the ladder, however, mobility again decreases.\n",
"However, social mobility in the U.S. is lower than in some European Union countries if defined regarding income movements. American men born into the lowest income quintile are much more likely to stay there compared to similar people in the Nordic countries or the United Kingdom. Many economists, such as Harvard economist N. Gregory Mankiw, however, state that the discrepancy has little to do with class rigidity; rather, it is a reflection of income disparity: \"Moving up and down a short ladder is a lot easier than moving up and down a tall one.\"\n",
"Another journalist argued that a connection between income inequality and low mobility could be explained by the lack of access for un-affluent children to better (more expensive) schools and if this enabled access to high-paying jobs; or to differences in health care that may limit education and employment.\n",
"Recently, human role has been encouraged by the influence of population growth there has been increasing interest from epidemiologists on the subject of economic inequality and its relation to the health of populations. There is a very robust correlation between socioeconomic status and health. This correlation suggests that it is not only the poor who tend to be sick when everyone else is healthy, heart disease, ulcers, type 2 diabetes, rheumatoid arthritis, certain types of cancer, and premature aging. Despite the reality of the SES Gradient, there is debate as to its cause. A number of researchers (A. Leigh, C. Jencks, A. Clarkwest—see also Russell Sage working papers) see a definite link between economic status and mortality due to the greater economic resources of the better-off, but they find little correlation due to social status differences.\n"
] |
Is it theoretically possible to surround the sun with solar panels and “harness” the sun?
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There's a thought experiment, called a [Dyson Sphere](_URL_0_) (after physicist Freeman Dyson who popularized the thought experiment), that does this.
The engineering required to achieve this is far beyond our current capabilities, making it a highly theoretical concept.
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[
"To maximise the intensity of incoming direct radiation, solar panels should be orientated normal to the sun's rays. To achieve this, arrays can be designed using two-axis trackers, capable of tracking the sun in its daily orbit across the sky, and as its elevation changes throughout the year.\n",
"When applied to solar panels, the Canfield joint tracks the Sun more of the time and will not tangle the power cords attached to them. This is especially valuable to space flight when the spacecraft is performing complicated manoeuvres. Its application was expected to be incorporated into the now-defunct Constellation Program as a key element.\n",
"Orientation towards the sun also means that active solar systems can be fitted, both solar water heating panels and electricity generating solar panels on the roofs, further adding to the free heat and electricity gained from the sun.\n",
"Sometimes, satellite operators purposefully orient the solar panels to \"off point,\" or out of direct alignment from the Sun. This happens if the batteries are completely charged and the amount of electricity needed is lower than the amount of electricity made; off-pointing is also sometimes used on the International Space Station for orbital drag reduction.\n",
"The habitat and its mirrors must be perpetually aimed at the Sun to collect solar energy and light the habitat's interior. O'Neill and his students carefully worked out a method of continuously turning the colony 360 degrees per orbit without using rockets (which would shed reaction mass).\n",
"Solar panels need to have a lot of surface area that can be pointed towards the Sun as the spacecraft moves. More exposed surface area means more electricity can be converted from light energy from the Sun. Since spacecraft have to be small, this limits the amount of power that can be produced.\n",
"The construction of a concrete ring on the Moon's equator to support the solar panels would be performed by robots, that would be teleguided back from Earth. Then, the solar panels would be placed on the concrete layer, and connected to microwave and laser transmitting stations. The energy sent to Earth that way could be captured by receiving stations all through the day. The fact that the ring would surround the entire moon would mean that at least half of it would always be lit by the sun, resulting in constant electric production.\n"
] |
Booker T. Washington's views made widespread changes to education for African-Americans, but did his views affect education for white people today?
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One possible thread to investigate is the relationship between Washington and contemporaries like John Dewey and Ella Flagg Young. There are some interesting primary sources that speak to the time the two men were in the same place at the same time and how those interactions lead to changes across the system.
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[
"After Reconstruction, the two prevailing schools of thought regarding education and labor of the black American were those espoused by W. E. B. Du Bois and Booker T. Washington. These two scholars had opposing ideas on how the African American should fight for equality. Washington believed in an industrial education and in putting aside concerns about civil rights until after economic advancement had been achieved, while Du Bois believed in a classical education, and envisioned a future wherein educated African Americans he called the \"talented tenth\" would lead the African American out of inequality. Granville is an example of the \"talented tenth\" Du Bois believed in. His contributions were mostly made by organizing rather than being a part of labor unions themselves. Dill's efforts also signify the African American contribution to labor. With his education, he advanced in the ranks of the NAACP as editor of The Crisis. He helped gain recognition for the racial inequalities present in employment and labor.\n",
"Black literacy levels, which rose during Reconstruction, continued to increase through this period. The NAACP was established in 1909, and by 1920 the group won a few important anti-discrimination lawsuits. African Americans, such as Du Bois and Wells-Barnett, continued the tradition of advocacy, organizing, and journalism which helped spur abolitionism, and also developed new tactics that helped to spur the Civil Rights Movement of the 1950s and 1960s. The Harlem Renaissance and the popularity of jazz music during the early part of the 20th century made many Americans more aware of black culture and more accepting of black celebrities.\n",
"African American academics Henry Louis Gates and Lani Guinier, while favoring affirmative action, have argued that in practice, it has led to recent black immigrants and their children being greatly overrepresented at elite institutions, at the expense of the historic African American community made up of descendants of slaves. In 2006, Jian Li, a Chinese undergraduate at Yale University, filed a civil rights complaint with the Office for Civil Rights against Princeton University, stating that his race played a role in their decision to reject his application for admission.\n",
"Booker T. Washington, principal of the Tuskegee Institute in Alabama, delivered a speech to the 1895 Cotton States and International Exposition which urged African Americans to focus more upon economic empowerment instead of immediate socio-political empowerment and rights, much to the anger of other civil rights leaders, including W. E. B. Du Bois, a graduate of Fisk University and Harvard, who would become one of the major civil rights activists of the first half of the 20th century.\n",
"These newspapers worked to uplift the race and to change the perception that white Americans held about former slaves. \"Black community leaders stressed that education, strong moral values, honest labor, thrift, and so forth would change the myths that whites had about black's inferiority. Essentially, this meant the ascent from ignorance to literacy.\" Cary and Douglass both used their papers to promote this line of thinking.\n",
"At the turn of the 20th century, Booker T. Washington was regarded, particularly by the white community, as the foremost spokesman for African Americans in the US. Washington, who led the Tuskegee Institute, preached a message of self-reliance. He urged blacks to concentrate on improving their economic position rather than demanding social equality until they had proved that they \"deserved\" it. Publicly, he accepted the continuation of Jim Crow and segregation in the short term, but privately helped to fund national court cases that challenged the laws.\n",
"Bolstered by the civil rights movement, but frustrated by resistance to desegregation, African Americans began to demand authority over the schools in which their children were educated. The ATA called for community-controlled schools, educating with a \"Black value system\" that emphasized \"unity\" and \"collective work and responsibility\" (as opposed to the \"middle class\" value of \"individualism\"). Leftist white allies, including teachers from the recently eclipsed Teachers Union, supported these demands.\n"
] |
Can you get vitamin D from the moon/moonlight?
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Based on values obtained from the Wikipedia for Moonlight and Sunlight, the light of the sun can vary between 120,000 lux and 400-200 lux depending on atmospheric conditions. The average lux value of moonlight is around 0.1. With that in mind while it may be theoretically possible to utilise moonlight to produce vitamin D it's unlikely to reach anywhere the 'therapeutic' dose that the body requires.
|
[
"Vitamin D comes in two forms. Cholecalciferol (vitamin D) is synthesized in the skin after exposure to the sun or consumed from food, usually from animal sources. Ergocalciferol (vitamin D) is derived from ergosterol from UV-exposed mushrooms or yeast and is suitable for vegans. When produced industrially as supplements, vitamin D is typically derived from lanolin in sheep's wool. However, both provitamins and vitamins D and D have been discovered in spp. (especially ) and these edible lichen are harvested in the wild for producing vegan vitamin D. Conflicting studies have suggested that the two forms of vitamin D may or may not be bioequivalent. According to researchers from the Institute of Medicine, the differences between vitamins D and D do not affect metabolism, both function as prohormones, and when activated exhibit identical responses in the body.\n",
"Vitamin D from the diet, or from skin synthesis, is biologically inactive. A protein enzyme must hydroxylate it to convert it to the active form. This is done in the liver and in the kidneys. As vitamin D can be synthesized in adequate amounts by most mammals exposed to sufficient sunlight, it is not an essential dietary factor, and so not technically a vitamin. Instead it could be considered a hormone, with activation of the vitamin D pro-hormone resulting in the active form, calcitriol, which then produces effects via a nuclear receptor in multiple locations. \n",
"Vitamin D (the inactive version) is mainly from two forms: vitamin D3 and vitamin D2. Vitamin D3, or cholecalciferol, is formed in the skin after exposure to sunlight or ultra violet radiation or from D3 supplements or fortified food sources. Vitamin D2, or ergocalciferol, is obtained from D2 supplements or fortified food sources. These two forms of vitamin D are metabolized in the liver and stored as 25-hydroxyvitamin D. Before biological use, the storage form must be converted into an active form. One common active form is 1,25 dihydroxyvitamin D. The term \"vitamin D\" in this article, refers to group of molecules including cholecalciferol, ergocalciferol, 25-hydroxyvitamin D, and the active forms. The role of vitamin D is best characterized as enabling calcium absorption and regulating calcium homeostasis. Vitamin D also play a role in phosphate absorption.\n",
"In general, vitamin D is found in fungi and vitamin D is found in animals. Vitamin D is produced by ultraviolet irradiation of ergosterol found in many fungi. The vitamin D content in mushrooms and \"Cladina arbuscula\", a lichen, increase with exposure to ultraviolet light. This process is emulated by industrial ultraviolet lamps, concentrating vitamin D levels to higher levels.\n",
"Sufficient vitamin D levels can also be achieved through dietary supplementation and/or exposure to sunlight. Vitamin D (cholecalciferol) is the preferred form since it is more readily absorbed than vitamin D. Most dermatologists recommend vitamin D supplementation as an alternative to unprotected ultraviolet exposure due to the increased risk of skin cancer associated with sun exposure. Endogenous production with full body exposure to sunlight is approximately 250 µg (10,000 IU) per day.\n",
"Vitamin D is produced photochemically from 7-dehydrocholesterol in the skin of most vertebrate animals, including humans. The precursor of vitamin D, 7-dehydrocholesterol is produced in relatively large quantities. 7-Dehydrocholesterol reacts with UVB light at wavelengths of 290–315 nm. These wavelengths are present in sunlight, as well as in the light emitted by the UV lamps in tanning beds (which produce ultraviolet primarily in the UVA spectrum, but typically produce 4% to 10% of the total UV emissions as UVB). Exposure to light through windows is insufficient because glass almost completely blocks UVB light.\n",
"UVB induces production of vitamin D in the skin at rates of up to 1,000 IUs per minute. This vitamin helps to regulate calcium metabolism (vital for the nervous system and bone health), immunity, cell proliferation, insulin secretion, and blood pressure. In third-world countries, foods fortified with vitamin D are \"practically nonexistent.\" Most people in the world depend on the sun to get vitamin D.\n"
] |
What does marinating a meat (chicken, fish, steak) in lemon/lime/orange juice do to the meat?
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An acidic environment will denature proteins - like heat does. That's the reason you begin to see white in chicken like if it's cooked. It's the principle behind [ceviche](_URL_0_).
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[
"Typically meat (usually fatty cuts of pork, but can also be chicken or beef) is marinated overnight in a sweet sauce made with pineapple juice, brown sugar, soy sauce, and various spices. It is then pan-fried until the meat is browned. The meat is then simmered in stock and the marinade with added pineapple chunks until the meat is very tender. It is served on white rice.\n",
"It is frequently advised to marinate the meat in an earthenware, glass, plastic, or enamel container rather than one made of bare metal, as the acidic marinade would react with a metal vessel during the extended marinating.\n",
"Lemon juice is used to make lemonade, soft drinks, and cocktails. It is used in marinades for fish, where its acid neutralizes amines in fish by converting them into nonvolatile ammonium salts. In meat, the acid partially hydrolyzes tough collagen fibers, tenderizing the meat, but the low pH denatures the proteins, causing them to dry out when cooked. In the United Kingdom, lemon juice is frequently added to pancakes, especially on Shrove Tuesday.\n",
"Carne asada can be purchased from meat markets either prepared (\"preparada\", i.e., already marinated) or not (\"no preparada\"), for marinating at home. The meat can be marinated in many different ways, from simply rubbing with salt to using spice rubs such as lemon and pepper or garlic salt and lime, before being cooked on a grill. Some recipes incorporate beer into the marinade. It can be chopped so it is more easily put into tacos and burritos.\n",
"The meat is cut in strips and given a marinade in olive oil, onions, garlic, saffron, salt and black pepper. It is then skewered and grilled. Tomatoes are grilled separately and often served on the side with rice or bread, sometimes seasoned with sumac.\n",
"Lemon juice is also used as a short-term preservative on certain foods that tend to oxidize and turn brown after being sliced (enzymatic browning), such as apples, bananas, and avocados, where its acid denatures the enzymes.\n",
"In meats, the acid causes the tissue to break down, which allows more moisture to be absorbed and results in a juicier end product; however, too much acid can be detrimental to the end product. A good marinade has a balance of acid, oil, and spice. If raw marinated meat is frozen, the marinade can break down the surface and turn the outer layer mushy.\n"
] |
how do government officials justify trading 5 terrorists for bowe bergdahl, who's now facing charges, but not making trades for all the aid workers that have been killed?
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The government has a responsibility to recover American soldiers. The government does not have an equivalent responsibility to secure the release of people who voluntarily entered a combat zone.
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[
"On January 26, 2007, the government announced a compensation worth $11.5 million to Syrian-Canadian Maher Arar due to an error from the Royal Canadian Mounted Police. The RCMP was blamed for giving misleading information to U.S. officials and suspected him as a possible terrorist threat and a member of the Islamic terrorist group Al-Qaeda. He was arrested in New York in 2002 and later deported to Syria where he was tortured in a Syrian jail. The government also gave official apologies. Public Safety Minister Stockwell Day criticized the U.S. authorities for not removing Arar on a terrorist watch list based on information from the CIA. U.S. Ambassador to Canada David Wilkins replied that Canada must not dictate to the United States on who is not allowed in the country.\n",
"According to US media, the General Prosecutor of Qatar intervened via an intermediary (i.e. a \"government contractor\" and \"close friend\") to free his relative in exchange of a couple of US citizens arbitrarily detained in Qatar. At his arrival in Doha, the Al-Qaeda member was welcomed by Qatari officials as \"a hero\". A board member of Al-Jazeera wrote a celebratory message on his Twitter account.\n",
"On June 25, 2008 Kareem Ibrahim, Abdel Nur and Abdul Kadir were extradited to the United States. They pleaded not guilty to charges of trying to \"cause greater destruction than in the Sept. 11 attacks\". The men were ordered held without bail pending a hearing scheduled for August 7. Russell Defreitas is being held after an earlier not guilty plea. On June 29 the four men were indicted on charges with conspiring to \"cause death, serious bodily injury and extensive destruction\" at the airport. On August 6, a judge ordered three of the alleged plotters extradited to the United States. On August 2, 2010, Kadir and Defreitas were convicted in the JFK airport bomb plot. In 2011, Ibrahim was found guilty of the JFK Airport bomb plot, and in February 2012, Ibrahim was sentenced to life to prison.\n",
"Hemant Lakhani (1935 – June 19, 2013) was an Indian-born British rice trader and sari salesman. He was convicted in 2005 of illegal arms dealing after purchasing a fake surface-to-air missile from a Russian intelligence agent posing as a disgruntled military officer, then attempting to sell that missile to an informant working for FBI and posing as a Somali terrorist.\n",
"He has pleaded guilty in U.S. District Court to terrorism financing and conspiracy to commit wire fraud. Specifically, the indictment accuses Alishtari of accepting an unspecified amount of money (later specified as $15,000) to transfer $152,000 to Pakistan and Afghanistan to provide night vision goggles, medical supplies, and other equipment to terrorist training camps. The international money laundering charge arises from the prosecution's allegation that Alishtari transferred $25,000 from a bank in New York to a bank in Montreal, with the intent that the funds be used to train and equip terrorists.\n",
"Koeltl is known for his October 2006 decision to sentence civil rights lawyer Lynne Stewart to 28 months in prison for providing material assistance to a terrorist, her client, 1993 World Trade Center bombing mastermind Omar Abdel-Rahman, by secretly passing messages to his radical followers in Egypt. Koeltl rejected the prosecutors' recommendation of 30 years. The Second Circuit Court of Appeals ordered Koeltl to reconsider whether that sentence was too light and to take into account the government's arguments that she had committed perjury at her trial and abused her position as a lawyer. On remand, Koeltl cited remarks Stewart had made after being sentenced that indicated a lack of remorse. He changed the sentence to 10 years in prison. \n",
"\"The Washington Post\" reported the Hamidullah was considered one of the foreigners with the strongest evidence against him, and that the Department of Defense wanted to bring him to the United States, to face charges before a military commission like the controversial Guantanamo military commissions. They reported the DoD was planning to try to bring less than ten foreign captives from Afghanistan to the United States to face charges before a military commission. Quoting officials who would not put their name on record the \"Washington Post\" reported \"“He’s pretty well-connected in the terrorist world,”\" and that he had ties to Chechen rebels, and two Afghan opposition militias, and that he had declared he would \"“return to jihad,”\" if released.\n"
] |
How can the gravitational field of an object slow another object if it cannot expend energy?
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The asteroid loses kinetic energy and gains potential energy.
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[
"For example, if two objects are attracting each other in space through their gravitational field, the attraction force accelerates the objects, increasing their velocity, which converts their potential energy (gravity) into kinetic energy. When the particles either pass through each other without interaction or elastically repel during the collision, the gained kinetic energy (related to speed) begins to revert into potential energy, driving the collided particles apart. The decelerating particles will return to the initial distance and beyond into infinity, or stop and repeat the collision (oscillation takes place). This shows that the system, which loses no energy, does not combine (bind) into a solid object, parts of which oscillate at short distances. Therefore, to bind the particles, the kinetic energy gained due to the attraction must be dissipated by resistive force. Complex objects in collision ordinarily undergo inelastic collision, transforming some kinetic energy into internal energy (heat content, which is atomic movement), which is further radiated in the form of photons - the light and heat. Once the energy to escape the gravity is dissipated in the collision, the parts will oscillate at a closer, possibly atomic, distance, thus looking like one solid object. This lost energy, necessary to overcome the potential barrier to separate the objects, is the binding energy. If this binding energy were retained in the system as heat, its mass would not decrease, whereas binding energy lost from the system as heat radiation would itself have mass. It directly represents the \"mass deficit\" of the cold, bound system.\n",
"Note that for gravitational masses moving past each other in straight lines (or for that matter for electromagnetically charged objects), there is little or no retardation effect on the effect from them, which is mediated by \"static\" components of the fields. So long as no radiation is emitted, conservation of momentum requires that forces between objects (either electromagnetic or gravitational forces) point at objects' instantaneous and up-to-date positions, and not in the direction of their speed-of-light-delayed (retarded) positions. However, since no information can be transmitted from such an interaction, such influences (which seem to exceed that of the influence of light), cannot be used to violate principles of relativity.\n",
"The strength of the gravitational attraction between two objects represents the amount of gravitational energy in the field which attracts them towards each other. When they are infinitely far apart, the gravitational attraction and hence energy approach zero. As two such massive objects move towards each other, the motion accelerates under gravity causing an increase in the positive kinetic energy of the system. At the same time, the gravitational attraction - and hence energy - also increase in magnitude, but the law of energy conservation requires that the net energy of the system not change. This issue can only be resolved if the change in gravitational energy is negative, thus cancelling out the positive change in kinetic energy. Since the gravitational energy is getting stronger, this decrease can only mean that it is negative.\n",
"BULLET::::- For a moving gravity-source the gravitational field can be considered as an extension of the object, and carries inertia and momentum - since a direct collision with the moving object can impart momentum to an external particle, interaction with the object's gravitational field should allow \"momentum exchange\" too. Consequently, a moving gravitational field drags light and matter. This general effect is used by NASA to accelerate space probes, using the gravitational slingshot effect.\n",
"When an object is pushed in the direction of motion, it gains momentum and energy, but when the object is already traveling near the speed of light, it cannot move much faster, no matter how much energy it absorbs. Its momentum and energy continue to increase without bounds, whereas its speed approaches (but never reaches) a constant value—the speed of light. This implies that in relativity the momentum of an object cannot be a constant times the velocity, nor can the kinetic energy be a constant times the square of the velocity.\n",
"As in the case of the Liénard–Wiechert potentials for electromagnetic effects and waves, the static potentials from a moving gravitational mass (i.e., its simple gravitational field, also known as gravitostatic field) are \"updated,\" so that they point to the mass's actual position at constant velocity, with no retardation effects. This happens also for static electric and magnetic effects and is required by Lorentz symmetry, since any mass or charge moving with constant velocity at a great distance, could be replaced by a moving observer at the same distance, with the object now at \"rest.\" In this latter case, the static gravitational field seen by the observer would be required to point to the same position, which is the non-retarded position of the object (mass). Only gravitational waves, caused by acceleration of a mass, and which cannot be removed by a change in a distant observer's inertial frame, must be subject to aberration, and thus originate from a retarded position and direction, due to their finite velocity of travel from their source. Such waves correspond to electromagnetic waves radiated from an accelerated charge.\n",
"The gravitational field, and thus the acceleration of a small body in the space around the massive object, is the negative gradient of the gravitational potential. Thus the negative of a negative gradient yields positive acceleration toward a massive object. Because the potential has no angular components, its gradient is\n"
] |
steubenville rapists
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This ~~[Blog](_URL_1_)~~ gives a pretty good run down of all the controversy.
*Edit for summary:
Although two students were convicted, evidence was uncovered that there were many more people involved in the rape and subsequent cover up. From other students who tweeted jokes about the girl while she was being dragged from party to party; to coaches, teachers, and law enforcement turning a blind eye or even encouraging the victim to keep quiet. Apparently this isn't an isolated incident for Stubenville, in light of all the news coverage other victims have come forward.
There's also coaches giving drugs to students, student party apartments, and underground gambling on high school sports.
Also, here is the link to the original [Local Leaks](_URL_0_) site, it has a bit more videos, info, and references.
|
[
"Kevin Coe (born Frederick Harlan Coe on February 2, 1947) is an American convicted rapist from Spokane, Washington, often referred to in the news media as the South Hill Rapist. As of May 2008, Coe is still a suspect in dozens of rapes, the number of which is unusually large; his convictions received an unusual amount of attention from appeals courts. Coe's mother Ruth was convicted for hiring a hitman against the judge and the prosecutor at her son's trial following his conviction. The bizarre relationship between Coe and his mother became the subject of a nonfiction book, \"Son: A Psychopath and his Victims\", by the crime author Jack Olsen.\n",
"Ronald 'Ronnie' Shelton (1 October 1961 – 25 September 2018), better known as West Side rapist, was an American convicted serial rapist. He was convicted of raping over 30 women in Cleveland, Ohio, over a 6 year period. He may have raped up to 50 women. Shelton was caught on video using an ATM with his victims' bank cards.\n",
"Niklas Erik Axel Eliasson (born 13 November 1986), also known as the Örebro rapist, is a serial rapist who was convicted of 14 assaults on women and sentenced to 12 years in prison. He was considered one of Sweden's worst serial rapists of all time. According to his lawyer, \"[t]here was a feeling and an inner voice that urged and triggered him to attack women.\"\n",
"John Derek Radford (formerly John Worboys; born June 1957) is a British convicted sex offender, known as the Black Cab Rapist. Worboys was convicted in 2009 for attacks on 12 women. Police say he may have had more than 100 victims.\n",
"Lawrence Bernard \"Larry\" Singleton (July 28, 1927 – December 28, 2001) was an American criminal known for perpetrating an infamous rape and mutilation of an adolescent hitch-hiker, Mary Vincent, in California in 1978. He brutally raped Vincent and cut off her arms and left her to die in a ditch off the Interstate 5 in Del Puerto Canyon, California. Vincent managed to crawl up to safety and later acted as a key witness against the rapist. Released from prison on good behavior from his 14-year, 8 month sentence, he went on to murder Roxanne Hayes. On February 19, 1997, Singleton stabbed Hayes in his new home. The police found the nude rapist covered in blood as he stood over the mutilated body of Roxanne Hays. The victim was a mother of three from Tampa, Florida.\n",
"Antoni Imiela (1954 – 8 March 2018) was a German-born convicted rapist who grew up in County Durham, England. He was found guilty of the rape of nine women and girls, and the indecent assault, and attempted rape, of a 10-year-old girl whom he repeatedly punched and throttled. The crimes took place in Surrey, Kent, Berkshire, London, Hertfordshire and Birmingham, and the press dubbed the offender the M25 Rapist after the M25 motorway that passes in the vicinity of all but one of these areas. He died in HMP Wakefield prison on 8 March 2018.\n",
"Troy Graves (born May 4, 1972) is an American serial rapist and murderer of Shannon Schieber. He committed a series of rapes in Philadelphia between 1997 and 1999, where he was known as the \"Center City rapist\". He also committed rapes in Fort Collins, Colorado, in 2001, where he was arrested in 2002. He is serving a life sentence in the Sterling Correctional Facility in Sterling, Colorado.\n"
] |
why does alprazolam stay in your system for 1-6 weeks when the half-life is always the same?
|
There are going to be three main reasons for this. First, the half-life of the drug is the time for half the material to break down, meaning there is rare chances for some of the material to last longer than usual. It's an estimate, not a guarantee.
Second, and more important, is the fact that drugs like Alprazolam break down into secondary products, 4-hydroxyalprazolam and α-hydroxyalprazolam, which themselves can be broken down into other metabolites, before being excreted in the urine.
Like most drugs, the compounds can be deposited into fats or other tissue, leading to a lingering timeline of release, especially when taken over a long period of time.
For example, if you take 1 dose a day, and 1/4 remains in your body after 1 day, then on Day 2 you would have 1.25 dose-equivalents in your body. On Day 3, it would be 1.31, to a limit of 1.333 dose-equivalents in the blood, plus whatever is stored in your tissues.
The third main reason is going to be drug-interaction. Using a CYP3A4 inhibitor, like Tagamet (cimetidine) can delay the intake of Alprazolam into the liver, which would delay the breakdown of the drug, which would allow it to stay in the body longer.
|
[
"BULLET::::- Intermediate-acting compounds have a median half-life of 12–40 hours. They may have some residual effects in the first half of the day if used as a hypnotic. Rebound insomnia, however, is more common upon discontinuation of intermediate-acting benzodiazepines than longer-acting benzodiazepines. Examples are alprazolam, estazolam, flunitrazepam, clonazepam, lormetazepam, lorazepam, nitrazepam, and temazepam.\n",
"The action of one single dose is much longer (6 to 8 hr) than the very short 1.2–2 hr half-life of the drug would indicate. This could be partly because it persists for over 11 hours in synovial fluids.\n",
"Side effects of loprazolam are generally the same as for other benzodiazepines such as diazepam. The most significant difference in side effects of loprazolam and diazepam is it is less prone to day time sedation as the half-life of loprazolam is considered to be intermediate whereas diazepam has a very long half-life. The side effects of loprazolam are the following:\n",
"Butalbital has a half-life of about 35 hours. Acetaminophen has a half-life of about 1.25 to 3 hours, but may be increased by liver damage and after an overdose. Caffeine has a half-life of about 2.5 to 4.5 hours.\n",
"Nordazepam is a partial agonist at the GABA receptor, which makes it less potent than other benzodiazepines, particularly in its amnesic and muscle-relaxing effects. Its elimination half life is between 36 and 200 hours, with wide variation among individuals; factors such as age and gender are known to impact it. The variation of reported half-lifes are attributed to differences in nordazepam metabolism and that of its metabolites as nordazepam is hydroxylated to active metabolites such as oxazepam, before finally being glucuronidated and excreted in the urine. This can be attributed to extremely variable hepatic and renal metabolic functions among individuals depending upon a number of factors (including age, ethnicity, disease, and current or previous use/abuse of other drugs/medicines).\n",
"**The duration of apparent action is usually considerably less than the half-life. With most benzodiazepines, noticeable effects usually wear off within a few hours. Nevertheless, as long as the drug is present it will exert subtle effects within the body. These effects may become apparent during continued use or may appear as withdrawal symptoms when dosage is reduced or the drug is stopped.\n",
"Via the epidural route, a much slower release from epidural space occurs and nicomorphine remains detectable for 1.5 hours or so, and has a longer effect of 18.2 +/- 10.1 hours due to slower release of the active metabolites, morphine and 6-nicotinoylmorphine. Half lives for those compounds is listed in the IV route.\n"
] |
i'm sitting at a stoplight and there are several cars in front of me. they all have there blinkers going at different intervals, except for a short period of time when they completely coincide. what is happening??
|
If car A's turn signal is blinking every 1.3 seconds, and car B's signal is going every 1.4, they won't match up. However, since one car's signal is faster than the other's, it will eventually 'catch up'. While they won't be perfectly in sync, they'll appear to blink together for a second or two before the gap between increases a sufficient amount.
|
[
"The changes included daytime running lights/DRL at the bottom and the blinker (turn signal indicator) is on the daytime light, advising the pedestrian or other road user to which direction it is moving.\n",
"In some areas, a \"prepare to stop\" sign with two alternately flashing yellow lights is installed in locations where a high-speed road (design speed usually at least 55 mph / 90 km/h) leads up to a traffic light, where the traffic light is obscured from a distance (or both conditions), or before the first traffic signal after a long stretch of road with no signals. This is installed so that drivers can view it from a distance. This light begins blinking with enough time for the driver to see it and slow down before the intersection light turns yellow, then red. The flashing yellow light can go out immediately when the light turns green, or it may continue for several seconds after the intersection light has turned green, as it usually takes a line of cars some time to accelerate to cruising speed from a red light. These are relatively common in areas such as the United States, Canada, Western Australia, New South Wales, New Zealand and Liberia. Japan uses a variant signal with two lamps, a green one and a flashing yellow one, for the same purpose.\n",
"BULLET::::- Alternating Vehicle Lights or Wig-wags - This causes the Full beam headlights, or Fog lights to flash in a pattern (usually alternating left-right-left, although it can be together, or in a random pattern), and can also be used at the rear of the vehicle on Brake, Fog or reversing lights to warn vehicles approaching from the rear.\n",
"Many modern cars have a \"one-touch\" feature on their stalks. This is primarily based on (motorway) lane-switching, where a single flick of the indicator will cause it to flash between two and six times.\n",
"In traffic, at a red light, many motorists will start to inch up in anticipation of the light turning green (watching the signal of the perpendicular traffic). This will give them a \"head start\" on other motorists on the road.\n",
"Aside from pedestrian signals, traffic lights are now equipped with countdown timers, too. There were red-light and green-light timers, but the latter were mostly taken down due to the accidents they induced by encouraging drivers to speed up as the green-light timers ended. As for red-light timers, they cannot only inform the time remains for waiting but also make the drivers focus on their own signal instead of green light of the other direction. This reduces clashes between cars that start too early and cars that run yellow light.\n",
"A daytime running lamp (DRL, also daytime running light) is an automotive lighting and bicycle lighting device on the front of a roadgoing motor vehicle or bicycle, automatically switched on when the vehicle is in drive, emitting white, yellow, or amber light. Their job isn't to help the driver see the road but to help other road users see the vehicle.\n"
] |
why tv shows and movies can get the rights to show certain video games, but never the actual sounds/ music.
|
A lot of music, especially, is licensed from someone else for the game. So if they're showing Tony Hawk's Pro Skater 2, they have permission to show the video game. If they want to play the music ("When Worlds Collide" - Powerman 5000), then they have to get permission from Powerman 5000 or their agent/record label to play that music.
|
[
"Because video games are (usually) screen-based media, there are strong links between the study of game music and the study of music in other screen-based media (like film and television). Concepts such as diegesis and acousmatics, which originate in film and film audio studies, are broadly applicable to video game music analyses, often with minimal adjustment. Furthermore, there are similarities between video game and film music techniques as varying stages throughout video game music history. For example, Neil Lerner notes a relationship between music in early/silent cinema and game music aesthetics from the 1970s onwards, on the basis of \"largely nonverbal communication system[s]\" and \"continuous musical accompaniment\". Similarly, Gregor Herzfeld compares the use of high energy music in \"Gran Turismo\" to the use of rock music in action films like \"The Fast and the Furious\", due to associations with risky and/or exciting behavior.\n",
"With advances in technology, video game music has grown to include the same breadth and complexity associated with television and film scores, allowing for much more creative freedom. While simple synthesizer pieces are still common, game music now includes full orchestral pieces and popular music. Music in video games can be heard over a game's title screen, options menu, and bonus content, as well as during the entire gameplay. Modern soundtracks can also change depending on a player's actions or situation, such as indicating missed actions in rhythm games.\n",
"Both using new music streams made specifically for the game, and using previously released/recorded music streams are common approaches for developing sound tracks to this day. It is common for X-games sports-based video games to come with some popular artists recent releases (\"SSX\", \"Tony Hawk\", \"Initial D\"), as well as any game with heavy cultural demographic theme that has tie-in to music (\"\", \"Gran Turismo\", and \"Grand Theft Auto\"). Sometimes a hybrid of the two are used, such as in \"Dance Dance Revolution\".\n",
"BULLET::::5. Video game soundtracks are often released after a game's release, usually consisting of the theme and background music from the game's levels, menus, title screens, promo material (such as entire songs of which only segments were used in the game), cut-screens and occasionally sound-effects used in the game (Examples: \"Sonic Heroes\", \"\")\n",
"Contemporaneously, a soundtrack can go against normality, (most typically used in popular culture franchises) and contains recently released or exclusive never before released original pop music selections, (some of which become high charting records on their own, which due to being released on another franchises title, peaked because of that) and is simply used for promotional purposes for well known artists, or new or unknown artists. These soundtracks contain music not at all heard in the film/television series, and any artistic or lyrical connection is purely coincidental.\n",
"Like previous games in the series, \"Super Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DS and Wii U\" features many original and re-arranged musical pieces from various different gaming franchises. Both versions have multiple musical tracks that can be selected and listened to using the \"My Music\" feature, including pieces taken directly from earlier \"Super Smash Bros.\" titles. The 3DS version features less music altogether than the Wii U version however, and only has two songs per stage because of size limitations. The 3DS version also has a \"Play in Sleep Mode\" option, allowing players to listen to the game's music from the sound menu whilst the system is in sleep mode.\n",
"Contemporaneously, a soundtrack can go against normality, (most typically used in popular culture franchises) and contains recently released and/or exclusive never before released original pop music selections, (some of which become high charting records on their own, which due to being released on another franchises title, peaked because of that) and is simply used for promotional purposes for well known artists, or new or unknown artists. These soundtracks contain music not at all heard in the film/television series, and any artistic or lyrical connection is purely coincidental.\n"
] |
Was it possible in 1943-45 Nazi Germany for a fit, early 20's man to NOT be in the military? What one would have had to do to avoid service?
|
Sort of a tongue-in-cheek follow-up question. Could you be fit early 20s Jewish man and serve in the military and is there any difference in the service required? I'm thinking analogous to African Americans serving in WWII.
|
[
"From June 1935 onward, men aged between 18 and 25 may have served six months before their military service. During World War II compulsory service also included young women and the RAD developed to an auxiliary formation which provided support for the Wehrmacht armed forces.\n",
"As World War II progressed, German manpower available for military service declined and this was exacerbated by the severe losses suffered in Normandy, Tunisia and Stalingrad, for example. Groups of men, previously declared unfit for active service, were drafted or recalled into service. These included those with stomach complaints and it was decided that these men would be concentrated into one formation to facilitate the provision of special foods and to isolate infectious or unpleasant conditions (hence the unofficial description of \"White Bread\" or Magen (Stomach) Division).\n",
"Compulsory military service for all men between 18 and 45 years of age was introduced by Hitler in March 1935. No exemptions were provided for religious or conscientious reasons, and Witnesses who refused to serve or take the oath of allegiance to Hitler were sent to prison or concentration camp, generally for terms of one or two years. At the outbreak of war in August 1939, more serious punishments were applied. A decree was enacted that greatly increased penal regulations during periods of war and states of emergency and included in the decree was an offense of \"demoralization of the armed forces\"; any refusal to perform military service or public inducement to this effect would be punishable by death. Between August 1939 and September 1940, 152 Bible Students appeared before the highest military court of the Wehrmacht, charged with demoralization of the armed forces, and 112 were executed, usually by beheading. Garbe estimates about 250 German and Austrian Jehovah's Witnesses were executed during World War II as a result of military court decisions. In November 1939, another regulation was issued providing for the jailing of anyone who supported or belonged to an \"anti-military association\" or displayed an \"anti-military attitude\", which allowed authorities to impose prison sentences on the charge of IBSA membership. Death penalties were applied frequently after 1943.\n",
"BULLET::::- \"Oberkommando der Wehrmacht\" chief Wilhelm Keitel ordered all retired military officers to be placed \"at the disposal\" of the military regardless of age. Officers discharged under dishonorable circumstances as well as Jews and those married to Jews were excluded.\n",
"However in times of war, specifically WWII, conscription methods became a lot less bureaucratic, with anyone who appeared to be of age forcibly conscripted from areas that had been taken back from German control. Soldiers in these liberated areas would comb haystacks, search forests etc. for those thought to be evading service.\n",
"BULLET::::- Adolf Hitler issued the \"Führer decree on the full employment of men and women in the defence of the Reich\" in order to bring another 500,000 men into the German armed forces by replacing male factory workers with women. Accordingly, all women between 17 and 45 years old were required to register for employment.\n",
"As the occupation went on, service with the STO was widened, with farmers and university students losing their exempt status until 1944, when all fit men aged 18–60 and women aged 18–45 were being called up for service with the STO. Men over 45 and all women serving in the STO were guaranteed not to go to Germany and many were put to work building the Atlantic Wall for the Organisation Todt, but had no way of knowing where they would go. The so-called \"réfractaires\" attempted to avoid being called up and often went into hiding rather work in the \"Reich\". At least 40,000 Frenchmen (80% of the resistance were people under thirty) fled to the countryside, becoming the core of the \"maquis\" guerrillas. They rejected the term \"réfractaire\" with its connotations of laziness and called themselves the \"maquis\", which originated as Corsican Italian slang for bandits, whose root word was \"macchia\", the term for the scrubland and forests of Corsica. Those who lived in the \"macchia\" of Corsica were usually bandits, and those men fleeing to the countryside chose the term \"maquis\" as a more romantic and defiant term than \"réfractaire\". By June 1943, the term \"maquis,\" which had been a little-known word borrowed from the Corsican dialect of Italian at the beginning of 1943, became known all over France. It was only in 1943 that guerilla warfare emerged in France as opposed to the more sporadic attacks against the Germans that had continued since the summer of 1941, and the Resistance changed from an urban movement to a rural movement, most active in central and southern France.\n"
] |
Strange black rock/mineral or meteor(?) I found, can someone identify it?
|
Notice the piece is flat and unrounded. I believe it is a vein, broken free from it's gangue. The mineral is probably an iron carbonate (siderite?), possibly psudomorphic after limonite - crushed powder is probably ruddy brown and it would fizz in 10% HCl. These guys often form in hydrothermal settings around intrusions or in extensional settings; given how undeformed it is (except a bit of brittle fracturing visible in cross-section), I'd suggest the latter.
re, siderite pseudomorph after limonite: _URL_0_
Definitely non-meteoritic.
|
[
"The rock was initially identified as unusual in that it showed, from the analysis with the Mini-TES spectrometer, an infrared spectrum that appeared unusually similar to a reflection of the sky. In-situ measurements of its composition were then made using the APXS, showing the composition to be 93% Iron, 7% nickel, with trace amounts of germanium (~300 ppm) and gallium (<100 ppm). Mössbauer spectra show the iron to be primarily in metallic form, confirming its identity as an iron-nickel meteorite, composed of kamacite with 5–7% nickel. This is essentially identical to the composition of a typical IAB iron meteorite found on Earth. The surface of the rock shows the \"regmaglypts,\" or pits formed by the ablation of a meteorite during passage through the atmosphere, characteristic of meteorites. The largest dimension of the rock is nearing 31cm.\n",
"There are reports that a sacred stone was enshrined at the temple that may have been a meteorite. The Black Stone set into the wall of the Kaaba has often been presumed to be a meteorite, but the little available evidence for this is inconclusive. Although the use of the metal found in meteorites is also recorded in myths of many countries and cultures where the celestial source was often acknowledged, scientific documentation only began in the last few centuries.\n",
"Studies by researchers from Bahia, Pará, Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo indicated that it was a rare type of meteorite, which must have come off one of the largest and brightest asteroids in the solar system, 4 Vesta. The meteorite of is essentially a basaltic rock, consisting mainly of two minerals, feldspar and silicates, known as pyroxenes, in addition to quartz and apatite, in smaller proportions.\n",
"Early descriptions of the object appeared in contemporary editions of the scientific journals \"Nature\" and \"L'Astronomie\", the object identified by scientists as being a fossil meteorite. It was reported that the object was discovered when a workman at the Braun iron foundry in Schöndorf, Austria, was breaking up a block of lignite that had been mined at Wolfsegg. In 1886, mining engineer Adolf Gurlt reported on the object to the Natural History Society of Bonn, noting that the object was coated with a thin layer of rust, was made of iron, and had a specific gravity of 7.75.\n",
"A meteorite was recovered here on July 10, 1977. The meteorite was discovered in alluvium approximately 200,000 years old. It weighed and was classified by the Natural History Museum as a medium Octahedrite, containing (mineral composition determined by X-ray spectral microanalysis): 9.25% nickel, 0.42% cobalt, and 0.30% phosphorus. Some of its structural features testify to repeated metamorphic influences (impact loads and heating), which occurred during both its extraterrestrial existence and its passage through the atmosphere and fall to Earth including: exhibiting striated kamacite, emulsion-like taenite, and the recrystallization of troilite-daubréelite nodules.\n",
"Brown and Black Asteroid is an outdoor sculpture and replica of the Willamette Meteorite by an unknown artist, installed outside the University of Oregon Museum of Natural and Cultural History in Eugene, Oregon, in the United States.\n",
"A rare type of meteorite unique to the Western Hemisphere was discovered near Hart in March 2010. A field worker found a single, large, dense brownish stone weighing 966 grams beside a road located 0.25 miles from the town of Hart. The meteor was subsequently purchased by a collector. The stone was analyzed at the University of Washington and was classified as a Carbonaceous Chondrite (CK3), the most massive example of one of 25 known specimens in the world. The finding was published in The Meteoritical Bulletin, No. 101 (2013) MB 101 with the meteorite being given the official name of \"Hart\".\n"
] |
How "thick" would a gamma ray burst be?
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Gamma Ray Bursts have a usual duration of some seconds to some minutes; the avarage of "normal" gamma rays is a bit more than half a minute. Some of them however had a lifespan of some minutes to hours, with a record of some weeks. Those are very rare, however.
Asking for a planet killer, there is no difference to other Gamma Ray Bursts in duration, but in distance. Close by GRBs can irradiate the atmosphere much stronger and that's all. So all GRBs are potential planet killers, however most of them are simply too far away to be an actual threat for us.
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[
"A gamma-ray burst is an extremely luminous event flash of gamma rays that occurs as the result of an explosion, and is thought to be associated with the formation of a black hole. The burst itself typically only lasts for a few seconds, but gamma-ray bursts frequently produce an \"afterglow\" at longer wavelengths that can be observed for many hours or even days after the burst. Measurements at these wavelengths, which include X-ray, ultraviolet, optical, infrared, and radio, enable follow up study of the event.\n",
"Gamma-ray burst progenitors are the types of celestial objects that can emit gamma-ray bursts (GRBs). GRBs show an extraordinary degree of diversity. They can last anywhere from a fraction of a second to many minutes. Bursts could have a single profile or oscillate wildly up and down in intensity, and their spectra are highly variable unlike other objects in space. The near complete lack of observational constraint led to a profusion of theories, including evaporating black holes, magnetic flares on white dwarfs, accretion of matter onto neutron stars, antimatter accretion, supernovae, hypernovae, and rapid extraction of rotational energy from supermassive black holes, among others.\n",
"The massive-star model probably does not explain all types of gamma-ray burst. There is strong evidence that some short-duration gamma-ray bursts occur in systems with no star formation and no massive stars, such as elliptical galaxies and galaxy halos. The favored theory for the origin of most short gamma-ray bursts is the merger of a binary system consisting of two neutron stars. According to this model, the two stars in a binary slowly spiral towards each other because gravitational radiation releases energy until tidal forces suddenly rip the neutron stars apart and they collapse into a single black hole. The infall of matter into the new black hole produces an accretion disk and releases a burst of energy, analogous to the collapsar model. Numerous other models have also been proposed to explain short gamma-ray bursts, including the merger of a neutron star and a black hole, the accretion-induced collapse of a neutron star, or the evaporation of primordial black holes.\n",
"A gamma-ray burst is a highly luminous flash associated with an explosion in a distant galaxy and producing gamma rays, the most energetic form of electromagnetic radiation, and often followed by a longer-lived \"afterglow\" emitted at longer wavelengths (X-ray, ultraviolet, optical, infrared, and radio).\n",
"Gamma-ray bursts (GRBs) are bursts of highly energetic gamma rays lasting from less than one second to several minutes. They are known to occur at great distances from earth, near the limits of the observable universe.\n",
"In gamma-ray astronomy, gamma-ray bursts (GRBs) are extremely energetic explosions that have been observed in distant galaxies. They are the brightest electromagnetic events known to occur in the universe. Bursts can last from ten milliseconds to several hours. After an initial flash of gamma rays, a longer-lived \"afterglow\" is usually emitted at longer wavelengths (X-ray, ultraviolet, optical, infrared, microwave and radio).\n",
"The light curves of gamma-ray bursts are extremely diverse and complex. No two gamma-ray burst light curves are identical, with large variation observed in almost every property: the duration of observable emission can vary from milliseconds to tens of minutes, there can be a single peak or several individual subpulses, and individual peaks can be symmetric or with fast brightening and very slow fading. Some bursts are preceded by a \"precursor\" event, a weak burst that is then followed (after seconds to minutes of no emission at all) by the much more intense \"true\" bursting episode. The light curves of some events have extremely chaotic and complicated profiles with almost no discernible patterns.\n"
] |
why do drift cars turn their wheels in the opposite dirrection they need to go?
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The front wheels are not pointing in the "opposite" direction from where they need to go. They are pointing **exactly in the direction they need to go**. If you examine a video closely, you'll find that the front wheels don't slip - they're following right around the curve.
It is the back wheels that are swung outwards, thus the car is pointing further into a turn than it is going.
|
[
"However, this system causes \"wind up\" in the transmission (inter-component stress) as all the wheels are forced to rotate at the same speed, which during cornering is impossible. This led to rapid wear and breakage of the bevel gear boxes if the vehicle was used on firm surfaces, such as tarmac or concrete – in off-road conditions, the natural 'slip' of a loose surface, such as mud or gravel reduced wind up. This problem is of special concern for modern-day Stalwart owners – to get a vehicle to a show either requires moving it by low-loader or driving it on the road, risking damage to the transmission. Alternatively, the front and rear driveshafts can be removed, eliminating wind up at the expense of off-road capability.\n",
"A driven wheel does not roll but actually turns faster than the corresponding locomotive movement and the difference between the two is known as the \"slip velocity\". \"Slip\" is the \"slip velocity\" compared to the \"vehicle velocity\". When a wheel rolls freely along the rail the contact patch is in what is known as a \"stick\" condition. If the wheel is driven or braked the proportion of the contact patch with the \"stick\" condition gets smaller and a gradually increasing proportion is in what is known as a \"slip condition\". This diminishing \"stick\" area and increasing \"slip\" area supports a gradual increase in the traction or braking torque that can be sustained as the force at the wheel rim increases until the whole area is \"slip\". The \"slip\" area provides the traction. During the transition from the \"all-stick\" no-torque to the \"all-slip\" condition the wheel has had a gradual increase in slip, also known as creep and creepage. High adhesion locomotives control wheel creep to give maximum effort when starting and pulling a heavy train slowly.\n",
"Pulling the car \"backward\" (hence the name) winds up an internal spiral spring; a flat spiral rather than a helical coil spring. When released, the car is propelled forward by the spring. When the spring has unwound and the car is moving, the motor is disengaged by a clutch or ratchet and the car then rolls freely onward. Often the clutch mechanism is geared so that the pullback distance needed to wind the spring is less than the distance the spring is engaged propelling forward.\n",
"Introduced in the Mercedes-AMG E 63 S 4MATIC+, drift mode allows the car to completely cut the front axle from its all-wheel-drive 4MATIC system and transfer all and of torque to the rear axle of the car. This allows the driver to engage in easier drifts due to the nature of the rear wheel drive function. To enable drift mode, the driver must select Race mode, turn ESP off, and put the automatic gearbox into manual shifting. Next, the driver must pull both the paddles towards them and an option for drift mode arises. To fully enable drift mode, the driver must pull the right paddle and drift mode is now enabled. Drift mode can be equipped with E-Class AMG models only.\n",
"Before entry to the bend, the car is turned towards the bend slightly, but quickly, so as to cause a rotating motion that induces the rear of the car to slide outwards. Power is applied which applies further sideways movement. At the same time, opposite lock steering is applied to keep the car on the desired course. As the car reaches the bend it will have already turned through most of the needed angle, traveling sideways and losing some speed as a result. A smooth application of power at this point will accelerate the car into the bend and then through it, gradually removing the sideways component of travel. \n",
"Like other methods of inducing a drift, the handbrake turn does pose a serious risk of the vehicle flipping over, and caution must be taken when performing the maneuver with a vehicle with a high center of gravity (such as an SUV). The basic danger lies in bad judgment of surroundings, resulting in the sliding vehicle hitting an obstacle (another vehicle, a guardrail or a tree), or bad judgment of speed, resulting in the vehicle driving off the road rather than sliding, or releasing the handbrake when the vehicle is moving sideways so that all tire forces are sideways.\n",
"When used for equally spaced wheels (i.e. rather than cargo trucks with close-set rear axles) the front two wheels are arranged so that both steer, the rear less so than the leading wheel. The varying track radii mean that when the vehicle drives in a curve on firm tarmac each wheel travels a different distance. Without differential action between the wheels on each side, wind-up can occur in the bevels and shafts.\n"
] |
How do we measure time in circuitry?
|
There's a great [engineer guy video on quartz clocks](_URL_0_) that's worth watching.
Basically there are two sides to the system. First, you create a very small "tuning fork" of quartz, which has a very precise resonance frequency (typically 32,768 Hz, for reasons that will be explained). Quartz is piezo-electric, when a voltage is applied it will vibrate and when it vibrates it will generate a voltage. This means that the tiny quartz tuning fork will generate a series of electric pulses at a frequency of 32,768 Hz. Second, a small digital chip is paired with this pulse, it does very little, most of what it does is add. With every pulse from the quartz the chip adds 1 to a count. When it reaches 32,768 it triggers a signal indicating that one second has passed. That signal can then be used in other adders to add up seconds, minutes, hours, etc. In this way a digital clock can keep track of the passage of time.
32,768 is chosen because it is precisely 2^15. Meaning that starting from zero a simple 14 bit adder can count up and once it gets precisely to 32,768 it will trigger overflow/carry over to the 15th bit, which can be used as a signal for keeping track of seconds. Also, the size of a quartz crystal tuned to 32,768 Hz is small enough to be compact, cheap, and use a low amount of power while still being large enough to be produced with incredibly high precision while also producing sound (though very faint) in frequencies that humans can't hear.
|
[
"Note that the resolution of an implementation's measurement of time does not imply the same precision of such measurements. For example, a system might return the current time as a value measured in microseconds, but actually be capable of discerning individual clock ticks with a frequency of only 100 Hz (10 ms).\n",
"The open-circuit time constant method is an approximate analysis technique used in electronic circuit design to determine the corner frequency of complex circuits. It also is known as the zero-value time constant technique. The method provides a quick evaluation, and identifies the largest contributions to time constants as a guide to the circuit improvements.\n",
"An intervalometer, also called an interval meter or interval timer, is a device that is used to measure short intervals of time. Such devices are commonly used to signal, in accurate time intervals, the operation of some other device. This is done by measuring the intermittent pulses released between a starting pulse signal and an ending pulse signal, before a pulse counter measures the number of pulses released into the appropriate time interval. For instance, an intervalometer might activate something every 30 seconds. \n",
"Atomic clocks use the frequency of electronic transitions in certain atoms to measure the second. One of the atoms used is caesium, most modern atomic clocks probe caesium with microwaves to determine the frequency of these electron vibrations. Since 1967, the International System of Measurements bases its unit of time, the second, on the properties of caesium atoms. SI defines the second as 9,192,631,770 cycles of the radiation that corresponds to the transition between two electron spin energy levels of the ground state of the Cs atom.\n",
"To measure the nominal output power, measuring devices with time constants much greater than the line time are used. So the measuring equipment's measure only the highest level (sync pulse) of a line waveform which is 100%.\n",
"Time and frequency transfer describes mechanisms for comparing measurements of time and frequency from one location to another. The technique is commonly used for creating and distributing standard time scales such as International Atomic Time (TAI).\n",
"Professor Warren Meck devised a physiological model for measuring the passage of time. He found the representation of time to be generated by the oscillatory activity of cells in the upper cortex. The frequency of these cells' activity is detected by cells in the dorsal striatum at the base of the forebrain. His model separated explicit timing and implicit timing. Explicit timing is used in estimating the duration of a stimulus. Implicit timing is used to gauge the amount of time separating one from an impending event that is expected to occur in the near future. These two estimations of time do not involve the same neuroanatomical areas. For example, implicit timing often occurs to achieve a motor task, involving the cerebellum, left parietal cortex, and left premotor cortex. Explicit timing often involves the supplementary motor area and the right prefrontal cortex.\n"
] |
Why do certain things that shock/scare us give us the jitters/shock which basically makes us useless and other things give us super strength(hysterical strength)?
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This happened to me on my motorcycle during an near miss crash with another vehicle. I had the jitters and couldn't immediately lift my bike, it's like my mind was so all over the place I couldn't focus my mind enough to continuously drive my muscles to lift my bike. Strange feeling, the best comparison I can make is it's like trying to lift something heavy while laughing hysterically.
|
[
"Shock is the state of not enough blood flow to the tissues of the body as a result of problems with the circulatory system. Initial symptoms may include weakness, fast heart rate, fast breathing, sweating, anxiety, and increased thirst. This may be followed by confusion, unconsciousness, or cardiac arrest as complications worsen.\n",
"One of the key dangers of shock is that it progresses by a positive feedback mechanism. Poor blood supply leads to cellular damage, which results in an inflammatory response to increase blood flow to the affected area. This is normally very useful to match up blood supply level with tissue demand for nutrients. However, if enough tissue causes this, it will deprive vital nutrients from other parts of the body. Additionally, the ability of the circulatory system to meet this increase in demand causes saturation, and this is a major result, of which other parts of the body begin to respond in a similar way; thus, exacerbating the problem. Due to this chain of events, immediate treatment of shock is critical for survival.\n",
"Shock is a common end point of many medical conditions. Shock itself is a life-threatening condition as a result of compromised body circulation. It has been divided into four main types based on the underlying cause: hypovolemic, distributive, cardiogenic, and obstructive. A few additional classifications are occasionally used including: endocrinologic shock.\n",
"... Because a game of Shock is built around real-world issues that you care about, your game is going to be a little deeper than just entertainment -- it's going to be a story that's about something. It's going to have some intellectual heft to it. It's going to get you thinking. For this reason, I think that playing Shock can actually be therapeutic: when you're feeling confused about some topic in the news, if you can't decide how you feel about some pressing social issue, if you see a new invention and wonder what it might mean, you can play a Shock game about it. Role-playing it out might help you and your friends work through your thoughts and explore possible consequences. In Shock, I think we might finally have an RPG that does what the best written SF does -- help us learn to cope with the rapid social and technological changes occurring in the modern world. \n",
"Shock (Ariel Tremmore) is a fictional character, and a supervillain in the Marvel Comics universe. A psychopathic killer, she fought with Daredevil in New York City. Shock possesses the power to induce fear and hallucinations in other people by releasing pheromones through her skin.\n",
"Shock value is the potential of an image, text, action, or other form of communication, such as a public execution, to provoke a reaction of sharp disgust, shock, anger, fear, or similar negative emotions.\n",
"The injury related to electric shock depends on the magnitude of the current. Very small currents may be imperceptible or produce a light tingling sensation. A shock caused by low current that would normally be harmless could startle an individual and cause injury due to suddenly jerking away from the source of electricity, resulting in one striking a stationary object, dropping an object being held or falling. Stronger currents may cause some degree of discomfort or pain, while more intense currents may induce involuntary muscle contractions, preventing the victim from breaking free of the source of electricity. Still larger currents usually result in tissue damage and may trigger fibrillation of the heart or cardiac arrest, any of which may ultimately be fatal. If death results from an electric shock the cause of death is generally referred to as electrocution. \n"
] |
can weather or storms actually be controlled or man made? if so, to what extent and how?
|
Short answer: yes to a very limited extent
Longer answer: not in any realistic, safe, or controllable way.
Weather is super complicated and often pretty hard to predict. Imagine if you had a big bowl of water and you kept sloshing it around, meteorology is guessing/analyzing where individual waves will form.
You can effect the weather by large releases of heat or particulates, but both have enormous ecological impacts and are expensive. Also if you mess with the weather in one place you tend to fuck over somewhere else (a la butterfly effect).
So generally its not safe, cheap, or smart, but we could technically do it minorly.
|
[
"The law outlines general rules of conduct for masters of both sail and steam vessels, to assist them in steering the vessels away from the center and right front (in the Northern Hemisphere and left front in the Southern Hemisphere) quadrants of hurricanes or any other rotating disturbances at sea. Prior to radio, satellite observation and the ability to transmit timely weather information over long distances, the only method a ship's master had to forecast the weather was observation of meteorological conditions (visible cloud formations, wind direction and atmospheric pressure) at his location.\n",
"Forecasts of severe weather events allow appropriate mitigating action to be taken and contingency plans to be put into place by the authorities and the public. The increased time gained by issuing accurate warnings can save lives, for instance by evacuating people from a storm surge area. Authorities and businesses can plan to maintain services around threats such as high winds, floods or snow.\n",
"Included in the \"Sailing Directions for the World\" are Buys Ballot's techniques for avoiding the worst part of any rotating storm system at sea using only the locally observable phenomena of cloud formations, wind speed and barometric pressure tendencies over a number of hours. These observations and application of the principles of Buys Ballot's law help to establish the probability of the existence of a storm and the best course to steer to try to avoid the worst of it—with the best chance of survival.\n",
"Weather ship observations proved to be helpful in wind and wave studies, as commercial shipping tended to avoid weather systems for safety reasons, whereas the weather ships did not. They were also helpful in monitoring storms at sea, such as tropical cyclones. Beginning in the 1970s, their role was largely superseded by cheaper weather buoys. The removal of a weather ship became a negative factor in forecasts leading up to the Great Storm of 1987. The last weather ship was \"Polarfront\", known as weather station M (\"Mike\"), which was removed from operation on January 1, 2010. Weather observations from ships continue from a fleet of voluntary merchant vessels in routine commercial operation.\n",
"In a storm at sea, it may be necessary for the safety of ship and cargo to cut away a mast or to jettison (throw overboard) part of the cargo. In such a case the master, acting for the shipowner or cargo-owner, as the case may be, sacrifices part of the ship or part of the cargo to save the rest of the ship and cargo from a common danger.\n",
"The aspiration to control the weather is evident throughout human history: from ancient rituals intended to bring rain for crops to the U.S. Military Operation Popeye, an attempt to disrupt supply lines by lengthening the North Vietnamese monsoon. The most successful attempts at influencing weather involve cloud seeding; they include the fog- and low stratus dispersion techniques employed by major airports, techniques used to increase winter precipitation over mountains, and techniques to suppress hail. A recent example of weather control was China's preparation for the 2008 Summer Olympic Games. China shot 1,104 rain dispersal rockets from 21 sites in the city of Beijing in an effort to keep rain away from the opening ceremony of the games on 8 August 2008. Guo Hu, head of the Beijing Municipal Meteorological Bureau (BMB), confirmed the success of the operation with 100 millimeters falling in Baoding City of Hebei Province, to the southwest and Beijing's Fangshan District recording a rainfall of 25 millimeters.\n",
"Russian and American scientists have in the past tried to control the weather, for example by seeding clouds with chemicals to try to produce rain when and where it is needed. A new method being developed involves replicating the urban heat island effect, where cities are slightly hotter than the countryside because they are darker and absorb more heat. This creates 28% more rain 20–40 miles from cities compared to upwind. On the timescale of several decades, new weather control techniques may become feasible which would allow control of extreme weather such as hurricanes.\n"
] |
How does one computer share its private key with another computer?
|
The idea of public-key cryptography is that the first computer shares the public key, and keeps the private key to itself. The second computer encrypts data (typically, a randomly generated session key for symmetric cryptography, which is much faster than public-key cryptography) with the first computer's public key and sends it to the first computer. The first computer decrypts the encrypted data with its private key, which no one else can do.
Edit: I should've said "The basic idea"; real-world protocols are of course more complicated.
|
[
"Under the identity-based cryptographic setting, the public key of the user can be an arbitrary string of bits provided that the string can uniquely identify the user in the system. The unique string, for example, can be an email address, a phone number, and a staff ID (if used only internally within an organization). However, the corresponding private key is no longer generated by the user. From the public key, which is a unique binary string, there is a key generation center (KGC), which generates and issues the private key to the user. The KGC has a public key, which is assumed to be publicly known, and the encryption and decryption then work under the unique binary string defined public key and the corresponding private key, respectively, with respect to the KGC’s public key.\n",
"All public key / private key cryptosystems depend entirely on keeping the private key secret. A private key can be stored on a user's computer, and protected by a local password, but this has two disadvantages:\n",
"In the widely used public-key cryptography, creation of keys can be done on the local computer and the creator has complete control over who has access to it, and consequentially their own security policies. In some proposed encryption-decryption chips, a private/public key is permanently embedded into the hardware when it is manufactured, and hardware manufacturers would have the opportunity to record the key without leaving evidence of doing so. With this key it would be possible to have access to data encrypted with it, and to authenticate as it. It is trivial for a manufacturer to give a copy of this key to the government or the software manufacturers, as the platform must go through steps so that it works with authenticated software.\n",
"Many publicly accessible key servers, located around the world, are computers which store and provide OpenPGP keys over the Internet for users of that cryptosystem. In this instance, the computers can be, and mostly are, run by individuals as a pro bono service, facilitating the web of trust model PGP uses.\n",
"A public-private key pair is used to perform public-key cryptography. The public key is known to (and trusted by) the verifier while the corresponding private key is bound securely to the authenticator. In the case of a dedicated hardware-based authenticator, the private key never leaves the confines of the authenticator.\n",
"A simple protocol that does not rely on a human third party involves password changing. This works anywhere one has to type in new passwords the same twice before the password is changed. The first individual will type their secret in the first box, and the second person will type their secret in the second box, if the password is successfully changed then the secret is shared. However the computer is still a third party and must be trusted not to have a key logger.\n",
"In public key cryptography, the key distribution of public keys is done through public key servers. When a person creates a key-pair, they keep one key private and the other, known as the \"public-key\", is uploaded to a server where it can be accessed by anyone to send the user a private, encrypted, message...\n"
] |
why don't companies like nintendo and sony put their retro games on steam?
|
Companies like Nintendo and Sony already have their own game distribution platforms and they're generally very wary of using other distribution channels.
If they distribute games through Steam, they ultimately would have to give up lots of control over the distribution and pricing of the games. Furthermore, Steam will take a cut of the sales revenue that Sony/Nintendo are probably unwilling to give up.
Also, Steam already acts as a competitor in some ways since users may opt to buy video games on Steam/PC rather than consoles, so that's just another reason these companies may be unwilling to negotiate deals with PC distribution platforms like Steam.
|
[
"Nintendo had stated that the Wii Shop Channel would not be used exclusively for retro games, and WiiWare games have appeared in North America as of May 12, 2008. These original games are made available through the WiiWare part of the Wii Shop Channel, as opposed to through the Virtual Console.\n",
"As of August 2011, the PC version has been removed from the Steam Store, due to lack of servers to play on and Atomic Games having seemingly gone dark. Retail versions can still be activated on Steam; Valve has been reported to be giving out Store credits to unsatisfied customers who bought the retail version after the game has been made unavailable for purchase from Steam.\n",
"Compared to physically distributed games, digital games like those offered on the Steam digital distribution service cannot be lost or destroyed, and can be redownloaded at any time. Services like Steam, Origin, and Xbox Live do not offer ways to sell used games once they are no longer desired, even though some services like Steam do have family sharing options. This is also somewhat countered by frequent sales offered by these digital distributors, often allowing major savings by selling at prices below what a retailer is able to offer.\n",
"Because of the original device's backward compatibility with earlier Nintendo products players can enjoy a massive selection of older games on the console in addition to hundreds of newer Wii game titles. However, South Korean units lack GameCube backward compatibility. Also, the redesigned Wii Family Edition and Wii Mini, launched in 2011 and 2013 respectively, had this compatibility stripped out. Nevertheless, there is another service called Virtual Console which allow users to download older games from prior Nintendo platforms (namely the Nintendo Entertainment System, Super NES and Nintendo 64) onto their Wii console, as well as games from non-Nintendo platforms such as the Genesis and TurboGrafx-16.\n",
"While unlicensed GameCube Controllers are constantly on the market from third party manufacturers such as Old Skool and Mad Catz (though the latter has produced products that are officially licensed by Nintendo), they are criticized for generally being made of lower quality products than Nintendo's official GameCube controllers. The official controllers have become scarce at retailers, as an increased demand of the controller started due to the Wii's backward compatibility with GameCube games and the fact that several Wii games support the controller as a primary method of control. In response to the regained popularity, Nintendo decided to re-launch the GameCube controller. These relaunched models of the GameCube have a 3-meter wire cord, which is longer than the original models, which had a 2-meter wire cord. These relaunched models also lack the metal braces inserted inside the controller's triggers to help push the triggers down, something which the 2001-2007 manufactured GameCube controllers do have.\n",
"Starting in the 2000s, the trend of retrogaming spawned the launch of several new consoles that usually imitate the styling of pre-2000s home consoles and only play games that released on those consoles. Some retro style consoles play the games of pre-2010s handheld consoles. Most retro style consoles are dedicated consoles, but many have an SD Card slot that allows the user to add additional games, an internet connection that allows users to download games, or even support the cartridges of older video game systems such as the Nintendo Entertainment System.\n",
"In October 2012, Steam introduced non-gaming applications, which are sold through the service in the same manner as games. Creativity and productivity applications can access the core functions of the Steamworks API, allowing them to use Steam's simplified installation and updating process, and incorporate features including cloud saving and Steam Workshop. Steam also allows game soundtracks to be purchased to be played via Steam Music or integrated with the user's other media players. Valve have also added the ability for publishers to rent and sell digital movies via the service, with initially most being video game documentaries. Following Warner Bros. Entertainment offering the \"Mad Max\" films alongside the September 2015 release of the game based on the series, Lionsgate entered into agreement with Valve to rent over one hundred feature films from its catalog through Steam starting in April 2016, with more films following later. In March 2017, Crunchyroll started offering various anime for purchase or rent through Steam. However, by February 2019, Valve shuttered video from its storefront save for videos directly related to gaming content. While available, users could also purchase Steam Machine related hardware.\n"
] |
What specifically is stopping people from finding an analytical solution to the Navier-Stokes equations under turbulent conditions?
|
It's not my field, so I can't say too much so I will just paraphrase a couple points that Terry Tao made in a [Post](_URL_0_) about why it is hard. (If I say anything horridly wrong, please correct me.) He says that there are three general strategies to solving these kinds of nonlinear PDEs.
* Find explicit solution.
* Perturbation
* Controlling a solution based on some global quantity (like Energy)
We can bet that no one is going to randomly find an explicit solution, it would take a great deal of luck and the arbitrariness of the initial conditions makes this not likely. Perturbation is when you slightly broaden the problem with an artificial parameter. Tao says the main issue with this is that no matter how small the parameter is, the Navier-Stokes equation behaves completely differently between perturbed and non-perturbed versions. When you perturb, the equation behaves a lot like a linear equation, which is not the case in when you don't. The issue with the third method is that no known quantities either do scale very well and this means that we lose control over the finer details of the solution, or they can't control a solution.
This means that there are three possible routes to figuring this problem out:
* Get really lucky and find an explicit solution
* Create a new kind of global quantity that behaves well that we can use to control a solution
* Invent a new method entirely that doesn't rely on any of the known methods.
All three are not going to be easy. There's no way that we can rely on the first option. The second condition is hard because the Navier-Stokes breaks down every known quantity that we can try to track, because it's pretty abusive to geometry and chaotic at all scales and there aren't any quantities from physics besides energy that we can rely on and it doesn't help us. But, you never know, as he says that the Poincare Conjecture (the only Millenium Prize Problem to have been solved) was solved by controlling a new kind of variable, though it was geometric in origin and the Navier-Stokes equation does not behave well in that aspect. That leaves the third option. This is hard because instead of controlling solutions through some quantity, it is possible for quantities to blow up and not behave well under scaling.
I guess the moral is that it allows for very chaotic solutions and that really messes shit up.
|
[
"The numerical solution of the Navier–Stokes equations for turbulent flow is extremely difficult, and due to the significantly different mixing-length scales that are involved in turbulent flow, the stable solution of this requires such a fine mesh resolution that the computational time becomes significantly infeasible for calculation or direct numerical simulation. Attempts to solve turbulent flow using a laminar solver typically result in a time-unsteady solution, which fails to converge appropriately. To counter this, time-averaged equations such as the Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes equations (RANS), supplemented with turbulence models, are used in practical computational fluid dynamics (CFD) applications when modeling turbulent flows. Some models include the Spalart–Allmaras, –, –, and SST models, which add a variety of additional equations to bring closure to the RANS equations. Large eddy simulation (LES) can also be used to solve these equations numerically. This approach is computationally more expensive—in time and in computer memory—than RANS, but produces better results because it explicitly resolves the larger turbulent scales.\n",
"Solutions of the Navier–Stokes equations for a given physical problem must be sought with the help of calculus. In practical terms only the simplest cases can be solved exactly in this way. These cases generally involve non-turbulent, steady flow in which the Reynolds number is small. For more complex cases, especially those involving turbulence, such as global weather systems, aerodynamics, hydrodynamics and many more, solutions of the Navier–Stokes equations can currently only be found with the help of computers. This branch of science is called computational fluid dynamics.\n",
"The incompressible Navier–Stokes equation is a differential algebraic equation, having the inconvenient feature that there is no explicit mechanism for advancing the pressure in time. Consequently, much effort has been expended to eliminate the pressure from all or part of the computational process. The stream function formulation eliminates the pressure but only in two dimensions and at the expense of introducing higher derivatives and elimination of the velocity, which is the primary variable of interest.\n",
"During his career, Professor Jameson has devised a variety of new schemes for solving the Euler and Navier-Stokes equations for inviscid and viscous compressible flows. For example, he devised a multigrid-scheme for the solution of steady flow problems and the dual time stepping scheme for unsteady flows. \n",
"The compressible Navier-Stokes equation describes both the flow field, and the aerodynamically generated acoustic field. Thus both may be solved for directly. This requires very high numerical resolution due to the large differences in the length scale present between the acoustic variables and the flow variables. It is computationally very demanding and unsuitable for any commercial use.\n",
"The Navier-Stokes equation has been employed to describe flow for more than a century. However, the need for having more accurate equations has been noted because of limitations of this equation in the high Knudsen number range. Agrawal employed Onsager-principle consistent distribution function to solve the Boltzmann equation, and derived entirely new sets of equations (as opposed to adding ad hoc terms to the available equations, commonly undertaken in the literature), termed as OBurnett and O13 equations which are superset of the Navier-Stokes equations. This is particularly significant as the proposed equations are of second-order and unconditionally stable; the two issues that have plagued all existing higher-order equations and their variants. These may be the thermodynamically-consistent higher-order equations that scientists have been trying to derive for several decades now! Early results show that the derived equations are indeed accurate. Further, he proposed an innovative iterative approach to solve \"such higher-order equations analytically\", and solved two different problems within Burnett hydrodynamics for the first time ever. The approach is general enough to be applicable to other non-linear partial differential equations. Agrawal has written a book entitled \"Microscale Flow and Heat Transfer: Mathematical Modeling and Flow Physics\" explaining these higher order transport equations. The development of these accurate higher-order continuum transport equations is expected to rejuvenate the entire subject of hydrodynamics. \n",
"The equation of motion for Stokes flow can be obtained by linearizing the steady state Navier-Stokes equations. The inertial forces are assumed to be negligible in comparison to the viscous forces, and eliminating the inertial terms of the momentum balance in the Navier–Stokes equations reduces it to the momentum balance in the Stokes equations:\n"
] |
What distinguishes alpha, beta, and gamma radiation from other types of ionizing radiation? Why doesn't neutron radiation fall into the same category?
|
The "α, β, γ" classification of radiation was made by Rutherford and Villard back around the turn-of-the-century. It was basically empirical (on the basis of how far they penetrated through matter), and they didn't really know what these things were. I.e. they didn't know that gamma rays were actually the same thing as Röntgen's "X-rays", that "beta rays" were actually the same thing as "cathode rays" which JJ Thomson had (at the time) postulated to be electrons. Neutrons and neutron radiation weren't discovered until much later, around 1930. So neutron radiation got a better, more descriptive name than the other three.
But neutron radiation _is_ usually considered ionizing radiation. It can cause ionization in a number of ways. First, by being absorbed by a nucleus (or just deflected by it) which can impart enough energy to cause ionization. Second, free neutrons decay into energetic protons and electrons (and a neutrino), both of which are directly ionizing. Third, it can cause it indirectly by transmuting stable nuclei to radioisotopes after being absorbed.
I suspect it's mentioned less often, perhaps in part just because of the history here, but also because neutron emission is much less common form of decay compared to the other three. Alpha/beta/gamma is a concern whenever you deal with radioisotopes, but not so much neutron radiation unless you're dealing with a nuclear reactor or bomb.
|
[
"Alpha particles, also called alpha ray or alpha radiation, consist of two protons and two neutrons bound together into a particle identical to a helium-4 nucleus. They are generally produced in the process of alpha decay, but may also be produced in other ways. Alpha particles are named after the first letter in the Greek alphabet, α. The symbol for the alpha particle is α or α. Because they are identical to helium nuclei, they are also sometimes written as or indicating a helium ion with a +2 charge (missing its two electrons). If the ion gains electrons from its environment, the alpha particle becomes a normal (electrically neutral) helium atom .\n",
"Alpha particles have the shortest range, and to detect these the window should ideally be within 10 mm of the radiation source due to alpha particle attenuation. However, the Geiger–Müller tube produces a pulse output which is the same magnitude for all detected radiation, so a Geiger counter with an end window tube cannot distinguish between alpha and beta particles. A skilled operator can use varying distance from a radiation source to differentiate between alpha and high energy beta particles.\n",
"A beta particle, also called beta ray or beta radiation (symbol β), is a high-energy, high-speed electron or positron emitted by the radioactive decay of an atomic nucleus during the process of beta decay. There are two forms of beta decay, β decay and β decay, which produce electrons and positrons respectively.\n",
"Alpha particles consist of two protons and two neutrons bound together into a particle identical to a helium nucleus. Alpha particle emissions are generally produced in the process of alpha decay, but may also be produced in other ways. Alpha particles are named after the first letter in the Greek alphabet, α. The symbol for the alpha particle is α or α. Because they are identical to helium nuclei, they are also sometimes written as or indicating a Helium ion with a +2 charge (missing its two electrons). If the ion gains electrons from its environment, the alpha particle can be written as a normal (electrically neutral) helium atom .\n",
"Whole body counting may be unable to distinguish between radioisotopes that have similar gamma energies. Alpha and beta radiation is largely shielded by the body and will not be detected externally, but the coincident gamma from alpha decay may be detected, as well as radiation from the parent or daughter nuclides.\n",
"Gamma (γ) radiation consists of photons with a wavelength less than 3x10 meters (greater than 10 Hz and 41.4 keV). Gamma radiation emission is a nuclear process that occurs to rid an unstable nucleus of excess energy after most nuclear reactions. Both alpha and beta particles have an electric charge and mass, and thus are quite likely to interact with other atoms in their path. Gamma radiation, however, is composed of photons, which have neither mass nor electric charge and, as a result, penetrates much further through matter than either alpha or beta radiation.\n",
"When alpha particle emitting isotopes are ingested, they are far more dangerous than their half-life or decay rate would suggest, due to the high relative biological effectiveness of alpha radiation to cause biological damage. Alpha radiation is an average of about 20 times more dangerous, and in experiments with inhaled alpha emitters, up to 1000 times more dangerous than an equivalent activity of beta emitting or gamma emitting radioisotopes.\n"
] |
how was code invented before code?
|
you programmed in binary by flipping toggle switches. after that came punch cards.
|
[
"Codes and information by machines were first conceptualized by Charles Babbage in the early 1800s. Babbage imagined that these codes would give him instructions for his Motor of Difference and Analytical Engine, machines that Babbage had designed to solve the problem of error in calculations.\n",
"The history of character codes illustrates the evolving need for machine-mediated character-based symbolic information over a distance, using once-novel electrical means. The earliest codes were based upon manual and hand-written encoding and cyphering systems, such as Bacon's cipher, Braille, International maritime signal flags, and the 4-digit encoding of Chinese characters for a Chinese telegraph code (Hans Schjellerup, 1869). With the adoption of electrical and electro-mechanical techniques these earliest codes were adapted to the new capabilities and limitations of the early machines. The earliest well-known electrically-transmitted character code, Morse code, introduced in the 1840s, used a system of four \"symbols\" (short signal, long signal, short space, long space) to generate codes of variable length. Though most commercial use of Morse code was via machinery, it was also used as a manual code, generatable by hand on a telegraph key and decipherable by ear, and persists in amateur radio use. Most codes are of fixed per-character length or variable-length sequences of fixed-length codes (e.g. Unicode).\n",
"Baudot invented his original code in 1870 and patented it in 1874. It was a 5-bit code, with equal on and off intervals, which allowed for transmission of the Roman alphabet, and included punctuation and control signals. It was based on an earlier code developed by Carl Friedrich Gauss and Wilhelm Weber in 1834. It was a Gray code (when vowels and consonants are sorted in their alphabetical order), nonetheless, the code by itself was not patented (only the machine) because French patent law does not allow concepts to be patented.\n",
"In communications and information processing, code is a system of rules to convert information—such as a letter, word, sound, image, or gesture—into another form or representation, sometimes shortened or secret, for communication through a communication channel or storage in a storage medium. An early example is the invention of language, which enabled a person, through speech, to communicate what they saw, heard, felt, or thought to others. But speech limits the range of communication to the distance a voice can carry, and limits the audience to those present when the speech is uttered. The invention of writing, which converted spoken language into visual symbols, extended the range of communication across space and time.\n",
"The first computer codes were specialized for their applications: e.g., Alonzo Church was able to express the lambda calculus in a formulaic way and the Turing machine was an abstraction of the operation of a tape-marking machine.\n",
"Ginny Hendry characterized creation of code as a challenge to current coders to create code that is \"like other legacies in our lives—like the antiques, heirlooms, and stories that are cherished and lovingly passed down from one generation to the next. What if legacy code was something we took pride in?\".\n",
"Technically, five-bit codes began in the 17th century, when Francis Bacon developed the cipher now called Bacon's cipher. The cipher was not designed for machine telecommunications (it was instead a method of encrypting a hidden message into another) and, although in theory it could be adapted to that purpose, it only covered 24 of the 26 letters of the English alphabet (two sets of letters, I/J and U/V, were expressed with the same code) and contained no punctuation, spaces, numbers or control characters, rendering it of little use.\n"
] |
if you lose your genitals will you lose your sex drive too?
|
No.
Your sex organs are not the only "source" for your sex drive. It affect it in some ways, although there is no consensus about how much.
In losing them, you'd fail to act upon these desires, but your capacity to feel them would not disappear completely.
|
[
"Physical factors that can lead to sexual dysfunctions include the use of drugs, such as alcohol, nicotine, narcotics, stimulants, antihypertensives, antihistamines, and some psychotherapeutic drugs. For women, almost any physiological change that affects the reproductive system—premenstrual syndrome, pregnancy and the postpartum period, menopause—can have an adverse effect on libido. Injuries to the back may also impact sexual activity, as can problems with an enlarged prostate gland, problems with blood supply, or nerve damage (as in sexual dysfunction after spinal cord injuries). Diseases such as diabetic neuropathy, multiple sclerosis, tumors, and, rarely, tertiary syphilis may also impact the activity, as could the failure of various organ systems (such as the heart and lungs), endocrine disorders (thyroid, pituitary, or adrenal gland problems), hormonal deficiencies (low testosterone, other androgens, or estrogen) and some birth defects.\n",
"Women with damage or tears to their perineum resume sex later than women with an intact perineum, and women who needed perineal sutures report poorer sexual relations. Perineal damage is also associated with painful sex. Women who have an anal tear are less likely to have resumed sex after six months and one year, but they have normal sexual function 18 months later.\n",
"If the genitals become diseased, as in the case of cancer, sometimes the diseased areas are surgically removed. Females may undergo vaginectomy or vulvectomy (to the vagina and vulva, respectively), while males may undergo penectomy or orchiectomy (removal of the penis and testicles, respectively). Reconstructive surgery may be performed to restore what was lost, often with techniques similar to those used in sex reassignment surgery.\n",
"BULLET::::- Have persistent denial relating to their anatomy. This can be shown through a belief that they will grow up to be the opposite sex, that their genitals are disgusting or will disappear, or that it would be better not to have their genitals.\n",
"Removing or damaging a condom during sex increases the risks of pregnancy and the transmission of sexually transmitted infections (STIs). Victims may feel betrayal and many victims see it as a \"grave violation of dignity and autonomy\". Many may also experience emotional and psychological distress, especially those who have experienced sexual violence in the past.\n",
"The data from hospital emergency rooms show that male rape victims are more likely to have non-genital injuries than females, and that they are more likely to neglect seeking medical attention if the injuries are not significant. Hodge and Canter (1998) report that homosexual male victims are more likely to sustain serious injuries than heterosexual male victims. Sometimes victims become infected by a sexually transmitted disease as the result of rape, but it is infrequent and includes only a small portion of male victims.\n",
"Douching after intercourse is estimated to reduce the chances of conception by only about 30%. In comparison, proper male condom use reduces the chance of conception by as much as 98%. In some cases douching may force the ejaculate further into the vagina, increasing the chance of pregnancy. A review of studies by researchers at the University of Rochester Medical Center (N.Y.) showed that women who douched regularly and later became pregnant had higher rates of ectopic pregnancy, infections, and low birth weight infants than women who only douched occasionally or who never douched.\n"
] |
What would it take to make a virus like Ebola or HIV airborne?
|
I think there already is at least one strain of ebola that is airborne, but is harmless to humans. Ebola Reston or something. Thank you Hotzone.
|
[
"One possible application is to genetically modify mosquitoes and other disease vectors so that they cannot transmit diseases such as malaria and dengue fever. Researchers claimed that by applying the technique to 1% of the wild population of mosquitoes, they could eradicate malaria within a year.\n",
"Even after a successful recovery from an Ebola infection, semen may contain the virus for at least two months. Breast milk may contain the virus for two weeks after recovery, and transmission of the disease to a consumer of the breast milk may be possible. By October 2014 it was suspected that handling a piece of contaminated paper may be enough to contract the disease. Contamination on paper makes it harder to keep records in Ebola clinics, as data about patients written on paper that gets written down in a \"hot\" zone is hard to pass to a \"safe\" zone, because if there is any contamination it may bring Ebola into that area.\n",
"In order for the viral disease to develop several steps need to be taken. First, the virus has to enter the body and implant itself into a tissue ( e.g. respiratory tissue). Second, the virus has to reproduce extracellular after invading in order to make ample copies of itself. Third, the synthesized viruses must spread throughout the body via circulatory systems or nerve cells.\n",
"It was found that 472 nucleotides from the 3' end and 731 nucleotides from the 5' end are sufficient for replication of a viral \"minigenome\", though not sufficient for infection. Virus sequencing from 78 patients with confirmed Ebola virus disease, representing more than 70% of cases diagnosed in Sierra Leone from late May to mid-June 2014, provided evidence that the 2014 outbreak was no longer being fed by new contacts with its natural reservoir. Using third-generation sequencing technology, investigators were able to sequence samples as quickly as 48 hours. Like other RNA viruses, Ebola virus mutates rapidly, both within a person during the progression of disease and in the reservoir among the local human population. The observed mutation rate of 2.0 x 10 substitutions per site per year is as fast as that of seasonal influenza. This is likely to represent incomplete purifying selection as the virus is repeatedly passed from human to human, and may pose challenges for the development of a vaccine to the virus.\n",
"Being acellular, viruses such as Ebola do not replicate through any type of cell division; rather, they use a combination of host- and virally encoded enzymes, alongside host cell structures, to produce multiple copies of themselves. These then self-assemble into viral macromolecular structures in the host cell. The virus completes a set of steps when infecting each individual cell. The virus begins its attack by attaching to host receptors through the glycoprotein (GP) surface peplomer and is endocytosed into macropinosomes in the host cell. To penetrate the cell, the viral membrane fuses with vesicle membrane, and the nucleocapsid is released into the cytoplasm. Encapsidated, negative-sense genomic ssRNA is used as a template for the synthesis (3'-5') of polyadenylated, monocistronic mRNAs and, using the host cell's ribosomes, tRNA molecules, etc., the mRNA is translated into individual viral proteins.\n",
"The virus is spread by contact with infected fish or their secretions, or contact with equipment or people who have handled infected fish. The virus can survive in seawater, so a major risk factor for any uninfected farm is its proximity to an already infected farm.\n",
"Viral vector based gene delivery uses a viral vector to deliver genetic material to the host cell. This is done by using a virus that contains the desired gene and removing the part of the viruses genome that is infectious. Viruses are efficient at delivering genetic material to the host cell's nucleus, which is vital for replication. \n"
] |
What is the full chemical process when tea is brewed with tea leaves, a pot and a kettle?
|
It's mostly just dissolving solid mateirals into the hot water. Then, they diffuse.
So, chemically, it's pretty much the same as mixing sugar, salt, whatever into water.
The compounds become solvated and form hydrogen bonds, then can diffuse through the water.
|
[
"Boiling tea leaves in water extracts the tannins, theobromine, and caffeine out of the leaves and into the water. Solid-liquid extractions at laboratory scales can use Soxhlet extractors (such as oil from olive cake see at right).\n",
"The first tea course starts with baking the tea leaves in a clay pot over a small flame, shaking the leaves often whilst they bake. When they turn slightly brown and give off a distinct fragrance, heated water is added to the pot. The water should immediately begin bubbling. When the bubbling ceases a small amount of bitterly fragrant, concentrated tea remains. Due to the sound the hot water makes when it enters the clay pot the first course tea was, in previous times, also known as Lei Xiang Cha 雷响茶 (Sound of Thunder Tea).\n",
"Chrysanthemum tea is a flower-based infusion beverage made from chrysanthemum flowers of the species \"Chrysanthemum morifolium\" or \"Chrysanthemum indicum\", which are most popular in East Asia, especially China. To prepare the tea, chrysanthemum flowers (usually dried) are steeped in hot water (usually 90 to 95 degrees Celsius after cooling from a boil) in either a teapot, cup, or glass; often rock sugar or cane sugar is also added, and occasionally also wolfberries. The resulting drink is transparent and ranges from pale to bright yellow in color, with a floral aroma. In Chinese tradition, once a pot of chrysanthemum tea has been drunk, hot water is typically added again to the flowers in the pot (producing a tea that is slightly less strong); this process is often repeated several times. Chrysanthemum tea was first drunk during the Song Dynasty (960–1279).\n",
"The tea is made by boiling green tea leaves with saffron strands, cinnamon bark, cardamom pods, and occasionally Kashmiri roses to add a great aroma. Generally, it is served with sugar or honey and crushed nuts, usually almonds or walnuts. Some varieties are made as an herbal infusion only, without the green tea leaves.\n",
"Tea is a beverage made by steeping processed leaves, buds, or twigs of the plant Camellia sinensis in hot water for a few minutes. The processing can include oxidation (called \"fermentation\" in the tea industry), heating, drying and the addition of herbs, flowers, spices and fruits. There are four main types of tea: black, oolong, green, and white. Tea is a natural source of caffeine, theophylline, theanine, and antioxidants; but it has almost no fat, carbohydrates, or protein\n",
"The concentrate, produced by repeatedly boiling tea leaves, will keep for several days and is commonly used in towns. The tea is then combined with salt and butter in a special tea churn (), and churned vigorously before serving hot. Now an electric blender is often used.\n",
"Another method is to boil water and add handfuls of the tea into the water, which is allowed to steep until it turns almost black. Salt is then added, along with a little soda if wanted. The tea is then strained through a horse-hair or reed colander into a wooden butter churn, and a large lump of butter is added. This is then churned until the tea reaches the proper consistency and transferred to copper pots that sit on a brazier to keep them warm. When a churn is not available, a wooden bowl and rapid stirring will suffice.\n"
] |
could someone explain why astronomers use julian dates?
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Astronomers like Julian dates because they make math simpler for events that don't have anything to do with the Earth year. If a variable star has a period of 270 days, it is a lot easier to add subtract 270 than it is to count through all the months to figure the exact date.
Why 4713 BC? It is pretty arbitrary, but it is useful because it predates any historical events, so you don't have the BC/AD problem.
The reason for that particular date is pretty obscure. When they came up with it in the 1500's, there was a 15 year cycle, a 19 year cycle, and a 28 year cycle astronomers cared about. 4713 BC was the last time all three cycles started at the same time.
|
[
"The term \"Julian date\" may also refer, outside of astronomy, to the day-of-year number (more properly, the ordinal date) in the Gregorian calendar, especially in computer programming, the military and the food industry, or it may refer to dates in the Julian calendar. For example, if a given \"Julian date\" is \"October 5, 1582\", this means that date in the Julian calendar (which was October 15, 1582, in the Gregorian calendar—the date it was first established). Without an astronomical or historical context, a \"Julian date\" given as \"36\" most likely means the 36th day of a given Gregorian year, namely February 5. Other possible meanings of a \"Julian date\" of \"36\" include an astronomical Julian Day Number, or the year AD 36 in the Julian calendar, or a duration of 36 astronomical Julian years). This is why the terms \"ordinal date\" or \"day-of-year\" are preferred. In contexts where a \"Julian date\" means simply an ordinal date, calendars of a Gregorian year with formatting for ordinal dates are often called \"\"Julian calendars\"\", but this could also mean that the calendars are of years in the Julian calendar system.\n",
"Historical Julian dates were recorded relative to GMT or Ephemeris Time, but the International Astronomical Union now recommends that Julian dates be specified in Terrestrial Time, and that when necessary to specify Julian dates using a different time scale, that the time scale used be indicated when required, such as JD(UT1). The fraction of the day is found by converting the number of hours, minutes, and seconds after noon into the equivalent decimal fraction. Time intervals calculated from differences of Julian Dates specified in non-uniform time scales, such as Coordinated Universal Time (UTC), may need to be corrected for changes in time scales (e.g. leap seconds).\n",
"The French mathematician and astronomer Pierre-Simon Laplace first expressed the time of day as a decimal fraction added to calendar dates in his book, \"\", in 1799. Other astronomers added fractions of the day to the Julian day number to create Julian Dates, which are typically used by astronomers to date astronomical observations, thus eliminating the complications resulting from using standard calendar periods like eras, years, or months. They were first introduced into variable star work by Edward Charles Pickering, of the Harvard College Observatory, in 1890.\n",
"The \"Julian year\", being a uniform measure of duration, should not be confused with the variable length historical years in the Julian calendar. An astronomical Julian year is never individually numbered. Astronomers follow the same calendar conventions that are accepted in the world community: They use the Gregorian calendar for events since its introduction on (or later, depending on country), and the Julian calendar for events before that date.\n",
"The Barycentric Julian Date (BJD) is the Julian Date (JD) corrected for differences in the Earth's position with respect to the barycentre of the Solar System. Due to the finite speed of light, the time an astronomical event is observed depends on the changing position of the observer in the Solar System. Before multiple observations can be combined, they must be reduced to a common, fixed, reference location. This correction also depends on the direction to the object or event being timed.\n",
"Originally the Julian Period was used only to count years, and the Julian calendar was used to express historical dates within years. In his book \"Outlines of Astronomy\", first published in 1849, the astronomer John Herschel added the counting of days elapsed from the beginning of the Julian Period:\n",
"The \"Julian day number\" is based on the \"Julian Period\" proposed by Joseph Scaliger, a classical scholar, in 1583, at the time of the Gregorian calendar reform, as it is the least common multiple of three calendar cycles used with the Julian calendar:\n"
] |
placebo side-effects - i think i understand the placebo effect but how can your body create a side effect?
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Basically if you believe hard enough, your body will try and make it true. Obviously it can’t do as much as a drug for testing can do, but the placebo effect is quite a powerful thing.
|
[
"It has been shown that, due to the nocebo effect, warning patients about side effects of drugs can contribute to the causation of such effects, whether the drug is real or not. This effect has been observed in clinical trials: according to a 2013 review, the dropout rate among placebo-treated patients in a meta-analysis of 41 clinical trials of Parkinson's disease treatments was 8.8%. A 2013 review found that nearly 1 out of 20 patients receiving a placebo in clinical trials for depression dropped out due to adverse events, which were believed to have been caused by the nocebo effect. A 2018 review found that half of patients taking placebos in clinical trials report intervention-related adverse events.\n",
"Measuring the extent of the placebo effect is difficult due to confounding factors. By contrast, placebos do not appear to affect the actual diseases. For example, a patient may feel better after taking a placebo due to regression to the mean (i.e. a natural recovery or change in symptoms). It is harder still to tell the difference between the placebo effect and the effects of response bias, observer bias and other flaws in trial methodology, as a trial comparing placebo treatment and no treatment will not be a blinded experiment. In their 2010 meta-analysis of the placebo effect, Asbjørn Hróbjartsson and Peter C. Gøtzsche argue that \"even if there were no true effect of placebo, one would expect to record differences between placebo and no-treatment groups due to bias associated with lack of blinding.\"\n",
"A nocebo effect is said to occur when negative expectations of the patient regarding a treatment cause the treatment to have a more negative effect than it otherwise would have. For example, when a patient anticipates a side effect of a medication, they can suffer that effect even if the \"medication\" is actually an inert substance. The complementary concept, the \"placebo\" effect, is said to occur when positive expectations improve an outcome. Both placebo and nocebo effects are presumably psychogenic, but they can induce measurable changes in the body. One article that reviewed 31 studies on nocebo effects reported a wide range of symptoms that could manifest as nocebo effects including nausea, stomach pains, itching, bloating, depression, sleep problems, loss of appetite, sexual dysfunction and severe hypotension. Mental states such as beliefs and expectations can strongly influence the outcome of disease, the experience of pain, and even success of surgery.\n",
"The worsening of the subject's symptoms or reduction of beneficial effects is a direct consequence of their exposure to the placebo, but those symptoms have not been chemically generated by the placebo. Because this generation of symptoms entails a complex of \"subject-internal\" activities, in the strictest sense, we can never speak in terms of simulator-centered \"nocebo effects\", but only in terms of subject-centered \"nocebo responses\". Although some observers attribute nocebo responses (or placebo responses) to a subject's gullibility, there is no evidence that an individual who manifests a nocebo/placebo response to one treatment will manifest a nocebo/placebo response to any other treatment; i.e., there is no fixed nocebo/placebo-responding trait or propensity.\n",
"Side effects seen more often with levomilnacipran than with placebo in clinical trials included nausea, dizziness, sweating, constipation, insomnia, increased heart rate and blood pressure, urinary hesitancy, erectile dysfunction and delayed ejaculation in males, vomiting, tachycardia, and palpitations.\n",
"Common side effects (in more than 10% of people) are headache, fatigue and nausea. In studies, severe side effects were experienced in 3% of patients, and 0.2% terminated the therapy because of adverse events. These effects occurred with similar frequencies in people treated with placebo.\n",
"A phenomenon opposite to the placebo effect has also been observed. When an inactive substance or treatment is administered to a recipient who has an expectation of it having a \"negative\" impact, this intervention is known as a nocebo (Latin \"nocebo\" = \"I shall harm\"). A nocebo effect occurs when the recipient of an inert substance reports a negative effect or a worsening of symptoms, with the outcome resulting not from the substance itself, but from negative expectations about the treatment.\n"
] |
Why is a telescope not called a macroscope if its the opposite of a microscope?
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If you look at the etymology, 'tele' is Ancient Greek for 'far away'. So a 'telescope' is something used to look at things 'far away'.
If it was a 'macroscope', it'd be used to look at big things.
|
[
"A regular microscope uses a lens or set of lenses to enlarge an object through angular magnification alone, giving the viewer an erect enlarged virtual image. The use of a single convex lens or groups of lenses are found in simple magnification devices such as the magnifying glass, loupes, and eyepieces for telescopes and microscopes.\n",
"Microscopes were first developed with just two lenses: an objective lens and an eyepiece. The objective lens is essentially a magnifying glass and was designed with a very small focal length while the eyepiece generally has a longer focal length. This has the effect of producing magnified images of close objects. Generally, an additional source of illumination is used since magnified images are dimmer due to the conservation of energy and the spreading of light rays over a larger surface area. Modern microscopes, known as \"compound microscopes\" have many lenses in them (typically four) to optimize the functionality and enhance image stability. A slightly different variety of microscope, the comparison microscope, looks at side-by-side images to produce a stereoscopic binocular view that appears three dimensional when used by humans.\n",
"Thus, the larger the aperture of the lens, and the smaller the wavelength, the finer the resolution of an imaging system. This is why telescopes have very large lenses or mirrors, and why optical microscopes are limited in the detail which they can see.\n",
"BULLET::::- A microscope, which makes a small object appear as a much larger image at a comfortable distance for viewing. A microscope is similar in layout to a telescope except that the object being viewed is close to the objective, which is usually much smaller than the eyepiece.\n",
"The most common type of microscope (and the first invented) is the optical microscope. This is an optical instrument containing one or more lenses producing an enlarged image of a sample placed in the focal plane. Optical microscopes have refractive glass (occasionally plastic or quartz), to focus light on the eye or on to another light detector. Mirror-based optical microscopes operate in the same manner. Typical magnification of a light microscope, assuming visible range light, is up to 1250x with a theoretical resolution limit of around 0.250 micrometres or 250 nanometres. This limits practical magnification to ~1500x. Specialized techniques (e.g., scanning confocal microscopy, Vertico SMI) may exceed this magnification but the resolution is diffraction limited. The use of shorter wavelengths of light, such as ultraviolet, is one way to improve the spatial resolution of the optical microscope, as are devices such as the near-field scanning optical microscope.\n",
"Most telescope designs produce an inverted image at the focal plane; these are referred to as \"inverting telescopes\". In fact, the image is both turned upside down and reversed left to right, so that altogether it is rotated by 180 degrees from the object orientation. In astronomical telescopes the rotated view is normally not corrected, since it does not affect how the telescope is used. However, a mirror diagonal is often used to place the eyepiece in a more convenient viewing location, and in that case the image is erect, but still reversed left to right. In terrestrial telescopes such as spotting scopes, monoculars and binoculars, prisms (e.g., Porro prisms) or a relay lens between objective and eyepiece are used to correct the image orientation. There are telescope designs that do not present an inverted image such as the Galilean refractor and the Gregorian reflector. These are referred to as \"erecting telescopes\".\n",
"Optical microscopes can focus on objects the size of a wavelength or larger, giving restrictions still to advancement in discoveries with objects smaller than the wavelengths of visible light. Later in the 1920s, the electron microscope was developed, making it possible to view objects that are smaller than optical wavelengths, once again, changing the possibilities in science.\n"
] |
could someone eli5 why java is so insecure?
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Because Java is everywhere! The more popular something is the more it will be exploited.
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[
"A basic philosophy of Java is that it is inherently safe from the standpoint that no user program can crash the host machine or otherwise interfere inappropriately with other operations on the host machine, and that it is possible to protect certain methods and data structures belonging to trusted code from access or corruption by untrusted code executing within the same JVM. Furthermore, common programmer errors that often led to data corruption or unpredictable behavior such as accessing off the end of an array or using an uninitialized pointer are not allowed to occur. Several features of Java combine to provide this safety, including the class model, the garbage-collected heap, and the verifier.\n",
"In recent years, researchers have discovered numerous security flaws in some widely used Java implementations, including Oracle's, which allow untrusted code to bypass the sandboxing mechanism, exposing users to malicious attacks. These flaws affect only Java applications which execute arbitrary untrusted bytecode, such as web browser plug-ins that run Java applets downloaded from public websites. Applications where the user trusts, and has full control over, all code that is being executed are unaffected.\n",
"On January 10, 2013, three computer specialists spoke out against Java, telling Reuters that it was not secure and that people should disable Java. Jaime Blasco, Labs Manager with AlienVault Labs, stated that \"Java is a mess. It’s not secure. You have to disable it.\"\n",
"A vulnerability in the Java platform will not necessarily make all Java applications vulnerable. When vulnerabilities and patches are announced, for example by Oracle, the announcement will normally contain a breakdown of which types of application are affected (example).\n",
"The security manager in the Java platform (which, as mentioned above, is designed to allow the user to safely run untrusted bytecode) has been criticized in recent years for making users vulnerable to malware, especially in web browser plugins which execute Java applets downloaded from public websites, more informally known as \"Java in the browser\".\n",
"In Java, anonymous classes can sometimes be used to simulate closures; however, anonymous classes are not always proper replacements to closures because they have more limited capabilities. Java 8 supports lambda expressions as a replacement for some anonymous classes. However, the presence of checked exceptions in Java can make functional programming inconvenient, because it can be necessary to catch checked exceptions and then rethrow them—a problem that does not occur in other JVM languages that do not have checked exceptions, such as Scala.\n",
"The Java platform provides a security architecture which is designed to allow the user to run untrusted bytecode in a \"sandboxed\" manner to protect against malicious or poorly written software. This \"sandboxing\" feature is intended to protect the user by restricting access to certain platform features and APIs which could be exploited by malware, such as accessing the local filesystem, running arbitrary commands, or accessing communication networks.\n"
] |
when you ignite your propane barbecue, why does the flame not travel down the hose and into the tank?
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The propane needs oxygen to be able to burn (burning is just chemically combining with an oxidizer), and there's no oxygen in the hose. As long as the pressure is such that the propane is constantly pushed out, then oxygen can't get in, and the propane in the hose can't burn.
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[
"Butane and propane are very flammable petroleum products; they are used as fuels for gas barbecue grills, disposable lighters, etc. Like gasoline, to which it chemically is closely related, propane has a tendency to explode if mixed with oxygen and ignited in an enclosed container.\n",
"Propane is a popular choice for barbecues and portable stoves because the low boiling point of makes it vaporize as soon as it is released from its pressurized container. Therefore, no carburetor or other vaporizing device is required; a simple metering nozzle suffices. Propane powers buses, forklifts, taxis, outboard boat motors, and ice resurfacing machines and is used for heat and cooking in recreational vehicles and campers. Propane is also used in some locomotive diesel engines as a fuel added into the turbocharger yielding much better combustion.\n",
"However, propane produces heat, which (when firing for an extended period at high rates of fire) can cause burns if improperly handled. It can also be a fire hazard: the Tippmann C3 releases small amounts of flames from the vents in the combustion chamber and out of the barrel when firing. If a marker develops a leak from improper maintenance, it could cause a fire.\n",
"The hose barb is connected to a gas nozzle on the laboratory bench with rubber tubing. Most laboratory benches are equipped with multiple gas nozzles connected to a central gas source, as well as vacuum, nitrogen, and steam nozzles. The gas then flows up through the base through a small hole at the bottom of the barrel and is directed upward. There are open slots in the side of the tube bottom to admit air into the stream using the Venturi effect, and the gas burns at the top of the tube once ignited by a flame or spark. The most common methods of lighting the burner are using a match or a spark lighter.\n",
"A gas burner is a device that produces a controlled flame by mixing a fuel gas such as acetylene, natural gas, or propane with an oxidizer such as the ambient air or supplied oxygen, and allowing for ignition and combustion.\n",
"In some versions the nozzle was fitted with a 10-chambered cylinder which contained the ignition cartridges. These could be fired once, each giving the operator 10 bursts of flame. In practice this gave 10 one-second bursts. It was also possible to spray fuel without igniting it to ensure there was plenty splashed around the target, then fire an ignited burst to light up the whole lot.\n",
"Liquid gasoline itself is not actually burned, but its fumes ignite, causing the remaining liquid to evaporate and then burn. Gasoline is extremely volatile and easily combusts, making any leakage potentially extremely dangerous. Gasoline sold in most countries carries a published octane rating. The octane number is an empirical measure of the resistance of gasoline to combusting prematurely, known as knocking. The higher the octane rating, the more resistant the fuel is to autoignition under high pressures, which allows for a higher compression ratio. Engines with a higher compression ratio, commonly used in race cars and high-performance regular-production automobiles, can produce more power; however, such engines require a higher octane fuel. Increasing the octane rating has, in the past, been achieved by adding 'anti-knock' additives such as lead-tetra-ethyl. Because of the environmental impact of lead additives, the octane rating is increased today by refining out the impurities that cause knocking.\n"
] |
What are the possible evolutionary causes of missing baculum (penis bone) and penile spines in humans?
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Sorry you're incorrect, pearly penile papules are not a "condition" they are 100% normal, and are considered a simple anatomical variation. Please do not mistake these as any kind of STD or a vestigial form of a penis spines as they are histologically very different (keratinized epithelial vs vascularized connective tissue)
_URL_0_
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[
"In the primate line, a regulatory DNA sequence associated with the formation of small keratinized penile spines was lost. This simplification of penis anatomy may be associated with the sexual habits of humans. In some species which retain the full expression of penile spines, penile spines contribute to increased sexual sensation and quicker orgasms. An hCONDEL (highly conserved region of DNA that contains deletions in humans) located near the locus of the androgen receptor gene may be responsible for the loss of penile spines in humans.\n",
"Hirsuties coronae glandis (also known as hirsutoid papillomas and pearly penile papules; PPP) are small protuberances that may form on the ridge of the glans of the human penis. They are a form of acral angiofibromas. They are a normal anatomical variation in humans and are sometimes described as vestigial remnants of penile spines, sensitive features found in the same location in other primates. In species in which penile spines are expressed, as well as in humans who have them, the spines are thought to contribute to sexual pleasure and quicker orgasms. It has been theorized that pearly penile papules stimulate the female vagina during sexual intercourse. In addition, pearly penile papules secrete oil that moistens the glans of the penis.\n",
"Phimosis in older children and adults can vary in severity, with some able to retract their foreskin partially (relative phimosis), while others are completely unable to retract their foreskin, even when the penis is in a flaccid state (full phimosis).\n",
"The most acute complication is paraphimosis. In this condition, the glans is swollen and painful, and the foreskin is immobilized by the swelling in a partially retracted position. The proximal penis is flaccid. Some studies found phimosis to be a risk factor for urinary retention and carcinoma of the penis.\n",
"Inflammation of the glans penis is known as balanitis, and, occurs in 3–11% of males (up to 35% of diabetic males). Edwards reported that it is generally more common in males who have poor hygiene habits or have not been circumcised. It has many causes, including irritation, or infection with a wide variety of pathogens. Careful identification of the cause with the aid of patient history, physical examination, swabs and cultures, and biopsy are essential in order to determine the proper treatment.\n",
"The baculum (also penis bone, penile bone, or os penis, or os priapi) is a bone found in the penis of many placental mammals. It is absent in the human penis, but present in the penises of other primates, such as the gorilla and chimpanzee. The bone is located above the male urethra, and it aids sexual reproduction by maintaining sufficient stiffness during sexual penetration. The homologue to the baculum in female mammals is known as the baubellum or os clitoridis – a bone in the clitoris.\n",
"In most cases, the foreskin is less developed and does not wrap completely around the penis, leaving the underside of the glans uncovered. Also, a downward bending of the penis, commonly referred to as chordee, may occur. Chordee is found in 10% of distal hypospadias and 50% of proximal hypospadias cases at the time of surgery. Also, the scrotum may be higher than usual on either side of the penis (called penoscrotal transposition). \n"
] |
Has there ever been a society where 2 very different languages coexisted together?
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This is extremely common.
Quechua and Spanish in Peru
Guarani and Spanish in Paraguay
English is a lingua franca through most of south eastern Papua New Guinea, where Oceanic languages are spoken.
Hindi/English/local languages in India
etc.
|
[
"In their declensional and conjugational endings, the two languages innovated in divergent ways, with neither clearly simpler than the other. For example, both languages show significant innovations in the present active indicative endings but in radically different ways, so that only the second-person singular ending is directly cognate between the two languages, and in most cases neither variant is directly cognate with the corresponding Proto-Indo-European (PIE) form. The agglutinative secondary case endings in the two languages likewise stem from different sources, showing parallel development of the secondary case system after the Proto-Tocharian period. Likewise, some of the verb classes show independent origins, e.g. the class II preterite, which uses reduplication in Tocharian A (possibly from the reduplicated aorist) but long PIE \"ē\" in Tocharian B (possibly from the long-vowel perfect found in Latin \"lēgī\", \"fēcī\", etc.).\n",
"As one might expect from a spoken language which traditionally lacked a consistent writing system, and which has been carried by speakers to several different territories where other languages prevail, several regional differences have developed. However, the major differences seem to have originated in the beginning of the 19th century in the two Mennonite settlements in New Russia (today Ukraine), known as Chortitza (Old Colony) and Molotschna (New Colony), as noted above. Some of the major differences between these two varieties are:\n",
"On the other hand, it is also the case that some languages that have developed from agglutinative proto-languages have lost this feature. For example, contemporary Estonian, which is so closely related to Finnish that the two languages are mutually intelligible, has shifted towards the fusional type. (It has also lost other features typical of the Uralic families, such as vowel harmony.)\n",
"It is sometimes assumed that when multiple languages exist in a setting, there must therefore be multiple language barriers. Multilingual societies generally have lingua francas and traditions of its members learning more than one language, an adaptation; while not entirely removing barriers of understanding, it belies the notion of impassable language barriers.\n",
"Gaston Coeurdoux and others made observations of the same type. Coeurdoux made a thorough comparison of Sanskrit, Latin and Greek conjugations in the late 1760s to suggest a relationship among them. Meanwhile, Mikhail Lomonosov compared different language groups, including Slavic, Baltic (\"Kurlandic\"), Iranian (\"Medic\"), Finnish, Chinese, \"Hottentot\" (Khoekhoe), and others, noting that related languages (including Latin, Greek, German and Russian) must have separated in antiquity from common ancestors.\n",
"The other major language family in Europe besides Indo-European are the Uralic languages. The Sami languages, sometimes mistaken for a single language, are a dialect continuum, albeit with some disconnections like between North, Skolt and Inari Sami. The Baltic-Finnic languages spoken around the Gulf of Finland form a dialect continuum. Thus, although Finnish and Estonian are separate languages, there is no definite linguistic border or isogloss that separates them. Recognition of this fact is however more difficult today because many of the intervening languages have declined or gone extinct.\n",
"Examples of fusional Indo-European languages are: Kashmiri, Sanskrit, Pashto, New Indo-Aryan languages such as Punjabi, Hindustani, Bengali; Greek (classical and modern), Latin, Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese, Romanian, Irish, German, Faroese, Icelandic, Albanian, all Baltic and Slavic languages. Northeast Caucasian languages are weakly fusional.\n"
] |
why do headlights at night seem to blind me while headlights in the day do not if their intensity stays the same?
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Your pupils are larger at night as there's less ambient light. Bright headlights in that situation let in more light than you can handle.
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[
"Night driving is difficult and dangerous due to the blinding glare of headlights from oncoming traffic. Headlamps that satisfactorily illuminate the road ahead without causing glare have long been sought. The first solutions involved resistance-type dimming circuits, which decreased the intensity of the headlamps. This yielded to tilting reflectors, and later to dual-filament bulbs with a high and a low beam.\n",
"Night time drivers should reduce speed and use high beam headlights when possible to give themselves maximum time to avoid a collision. However, when headlights approach a nocturnal animal, it is hard for the creature to see the approaching car (nocturnal animals see better in low than in bright light). Furthermore, the glare of oncoming vehicle headlights can dazzle some species, such as rabbits; they will freeze in the road rather than flee. It may be better to flash the headlights on and off, rather than leaving them on continuously while approaching an animal.\n",
"BULLET::::- The loss of night vision because of the accommodation reflex of drivers' eyes is the greatest danger. As drivers emerge from an unlighted area into a pool of light from a street light their pupils quickly constrict to adjust to the brighter light, but as they leave the pool of light the dilation of their pupils to adjust to the dimmer light is much slower, so they are driving with impaired vision. As a person gets older the eye's recovery speed gets slower, so driving time and distance under impaired vision increases.\n",
"Glare is difficulty of seeing in the presence of bright light such as direct or reflected sunlight or artificial light such as car headlamps at night. Because of this, some cars include mirrors with automatic anti-glare functions.\n",
"A modest steady light at the intersection of two roads is an aid to navigation because it helps a driver see the location of a side road as they come closer to it and they can adjust their braking and know exactly where to turn if they intend to leave the main road or see vehicles or pedestrians. A beacon light's function is to say \"here I am\" and even a dim light provides enough contrast against the dark night to serve the purpose. To prevent the dangers caused by a car driving through a pool of light, a beacon light must never shine onto the main road, and not brightly onto the side road. In residential areas, this is usually the only appropriate lighting, and it has the bonus side effect of providing spill lighting onto any sidewalk there for the benefit of pedestrians. On Interstate highways this purpose is commonly served by placing reflectors at the sides of the road.\n",
"An electric photocell located in the dashboard detected lighting conditions and activated the headlights as appropriate. Usually, this would mean turning on the headlights at dusk and shutting them off after sunrise. During daytime driving, the photocell would be able to keep the headlights off when driving under a bridge, through a short tunnel, etc.\n",
"Because of the dangers discussed above, roadway lights are properly used sparingly and only when a particular situation justifies increasing the risk. This usually involves an intersection with several turning movements and much signage, situations where drivers must take in much information quickly that is not in the headlights' beam. In these situations (A freeway junction or exit ramp) the intersection may be lit so that drivers can quickly see all hazards, and a well designed plan will have gradually increasing lighting for approximately a quarter of a minute before the intersection and gradually decreasing lighting after it. The main stretches of highways remain unlighted to preserve the driver's night vision and increase the visibility of oncoming headlights. If there is a sharp curve where headlights will not illuminate the road, a light on the outside of the curve is often justified.\n"
] |
how do supermarket trolleys get "stuck" to escalators and then suddenly work again once they've moved off?
|
Magnets is exactly right. The magnet holds the trolley to the escalator, and the grooves just help to keep the trolley centered so it can be pushed off at the end.
|
[
"The push trolleys are a potential safety hazard as they occupy track (albeit temporarily) and, if the trolley is not removed from track in time, it can collide with a train and cause an accident. Therefore, on sections having gradients or poor visibility, the push trolleys are not allowed without traffic blocks. '\n",
"A rail push trolley or simply a push-trolley is a hand-pushed trolley used to inspect the rails and other track-side railway infrastructure. It is a simple trolley, pushed by two or four persons (called trolleymen), with hand brakes to stop the trolley. When the trolley slows down, two trolleymen jump off the trolley, and push it till it picks up speed. Then they jump into the trolley again, and the cycle continues. The trolleymen take turns in pushing the trolley so that the speed is maintained and two persons do not get tired. Four persons are also required to safely lift the trolley off the rail tracks when a train approaches.\n",
"A trolleytruck (also known as a freight trolley or trolley truck) is a trolleybus-like vehicle used for carrying cargo instead of passengers. A trolleytruck is usually a type of electric truck powered by two overhead wires, from which it draws electricity using two trolley poles or two pantographs. Two current collectors are required in order to supply and return current, because the return current cannot pass to the ground (as is done by streetcars on rails) since trolleytrucks use tires that are insulators. Lower powered trucks, such as might be seen on the streets of a city, tend to use trolley poles for current collection. Higher powered trucks, such as those used for large construction or mining projects, may exceed the power capacity of trolley poles and have to use pantographs instead. Trolleytrucks have been used in various places around the world and are still in use in cities in Russia and Ukraine, as well as at mines in North America and Africa. Because they draw power from the mains, trolleytrucks can use renewable energy sources – modern trolleytrucks systems are under test in Sweden and Germany along highways using diesel–electric hybrids to reduce emissions.\n",
"Some retailers, including the ALDI chain of supermarkets, use a system where each cart has a lock mounted on the handle, connecting it to the cart in front of it when nested together, or to a chain mounted on a cart collection corral. The lock releases when a suitable coin or token is inserted, and the user gets their coin or token ejected back out of the lock when the cart is reattached to another trolley. This encourages shoppers to bring their carts back, solving both theft and the issue of carts being left around parking lots. The system is slightly flawed, however, in that carts can be attached to each other away from the corral and tokens retrieved from all but the front-most cart.\n",
"A shopping cart conveyor is a device used in multi-level retail stores for moving shopping carts parallel and adjacent to an escalator. Shoppers can load their shopping carts onto the conveyor, step onto the escalator, ride the escalator with the cart beside them and collect the cart with the contained merchandise at the next level.\n",
"Most retailers in North America utilize a cart retrieval service, which collects carts found off the store's premises and returns them to the store for a fee. The primary strength of this system is the ability of pedestrian customers to take purchases home and allow retailers to recapture abandoned carts in a timely manner at a fraction of the cost of a replacement cart. It also allows retailers to maintain their cart inventories without an expensive capital outlay. A drawback of this method is that it is reactive, instead of proactively preventing the carts from leaving the store premises.\n",
"Another method is to mount a pole taller than the entrance, onto the shopping cart, so that the pole will block exit of the cart. However, this method requires that the store aisles be higher than the pole, including lights, piping, any overhead signage and fixtures. It also prevents customers from carting their purchases to their cars in the store's carts. Many customers learn to bring their own folding or otherwise collapsible cart with them, which they can usually hang on the store's cart while shopping.\n"
] |
how can shows such as house of cards have differing writers and directors every few episodes, yet still remain consistent in tone and feel?
|
The producer for the series hires people with a similar sensibility and gives guidance so that they maintain a consistent tone.
|
[
"The show format is different compared to previous seasons: each of the fifteen episodes focuses on one individual character—with every episode happening at the same time within the show's universe—showing the character's activities since the conclusion of the third season. According to Jason Bateman, \"If I'm driving down the street in my episode and Gob's going down the sidewalk on his Segway, you could stop my episode, go into his episode, and follow him and see where he's going\". Part of the reason for this format was the challenge with getting the cast together to shoot on the same dates. \"We shot for Netflix and of course everybody was busy, so everybody had a different shooting schedule. I did scenes with light stands with an X in tape put on them. I would have a conversation with Jeffrey Tambor, then I would turn to my right and have a conversation with Jessica Walters, but both of them were light stands instead,\" said Henry Winkler in a November 2017 interview with Uproxx.\n",
"Multiple episodes are usually grouped together into a series through a unifying story arc. Episodes may not always contain the same characters, but each episode draws from a broader group of characters, or cast, all of whom exist in the same story world.\n",
"Shared people and resources in a common fictional setting are the connecting links between the shows, e.g., Hudson University and the \"New York Ledger\" tabloid newspaper. Many supporting characters, such as district attorneys, psychologists, and medical examiners are also shared among the shows. Occasionally, crossovers of main characters or shared storylines between two of the shows will occur. A few major characters have also left the cast of one show within the franchise only to eventually join another. The music, style, and credits of the shows tend to be similar, with the voiceover in the opening of every series performed by Steven Zirnkilton. The shows share the iconic \"dun, dun\" sound effect of a jail cell locking, created, along with the theme songs, by Mike Post. Past episodes of the American series are in syndication with local over-the-air stations, along with cable channels such as USA Network and Bravo (both owned by the franchise's production company, NBCUniversal), TNT, WGN America, Ion Television, and AMC Networks' SundanceTV and WeTV, showing episodes sometimes up to six times a day.\n",
"As a show where the main character is travelling to different locations in each episode, the show doesn't feature a large cast of primary characters. Similarly to shows like \"The X-Files\", most episodes feature a supporting cast that appears for just a single scene.\n",
"Each episode follows a similar format, featuring three different houses. One home is under construction or renovation, and the episode follows the process throughout the remodel. The other two houses are shown as segments during the show.\n",
"Although a title sequence may be modified during a series to update cast changes or incorporate new \"highlight\" shots from later episodes, it will tend to remain largely the same for an entire season. Some shows have had several quite different title sequences and theme music throughout their runs, while in contrast some ever-popular shows have retained their original title sequences for decades with only minor alterations. Conversely, retaining a series' original title sequence can allow a producer to change many key elements within a programme itself, without losing the show's on-screen identity. Other variations include changing only the theme music whilst keeping the visuals or vice versa.\n",
"One element that makes the series unique is its two-tier story approach. Most of the episodes feature two different stories that each take up the first and second halves. Every second story, however, usually built on a character who played a minor (or supporting) role in the first.\n"
] |
Have there been studies documenting the effects of hallucinogens on people with blindness or other sensory deprivation? What did they find?
|
This is really complex. If I were you, I'd check out the book "Hallucinations" by Oliver Sacks, as he talks about this extensively. In short, people who become blind can have hallucinations after - this disease is called Charles Bonnet Syndrome. It generally believed that when the brain is deprived of visual stimuli and thus deprived of activity in visual areas, it makes its own activity, causing people who have developed blindness to sometimes experience visual hallucination. This is all I can really say about it without cracking out the book to get you specific details.
|
[
"The cited resemblance of the imagery to LSD- and psilocybin-induced hallucinations is suggestive of a functional resemblance between artificial neural networks and particular layers of the visual cortex.\n",
"Hallucinations of strange creatures had been reported by Szara in the \"Journal of Mental Science\" (now the \"British Journal of Psychiatry\") (1958) \"Dimethyltryptamine Experiments with Psychotics\", Stephen Szara described how one of his subjects under the influence of DMT had experienced \"strange creatures, dwarves or something\" at the beginning of a DMT trip.\n",
"No clear connection has been made between psychedelic drugs and organic brain damage. However, hallucinogen persisting perception disorder (HPPD) is a diagnosed condition wherein certain visual effects of drugs persist for a long time, sometimes permanently, although science and medicine have yet to determine what causes the condition.\n",
"The evidence for this statement has been accumulating for more than a century. Studies of benign hallucinatory experiences go back to 1886 and the early work of the Society for Psychical Research, which suggested approximately 10% of the population had experienced at least one hallucinatory episode in the course of their life. More recent studies have validated these findings; the precise incidence found varies with the nature of the episode and the criteria of \"hallucination\" adopted, but the basic finding is now well-supported.\n",
"The evidence for this statement has been accumulating for more than a century. Studies of benign hallucinatory experiences go back to 1886 and the early work of the Society for Psychical Research, which suggested approximately 10% of the population had experienced at least one hallucinatory episode in the course of their life. More recent studies have validated these findings; the precise incidence found varies with the nature of the episode and the criteria of \"hallucination\" adopted, but the basic finding is now well-supported.\n",
"Visual hallucinations occur in roughly a third of people with schizophrenia, although rates as high as 55% are reported. Content frequently involves animate objects, although perceptual abnormalities such as changes in lighting, shading, streaks, or lines may be seen. Visual abnormalities may conflict with proprioceptive information, and visions may include experiences such as the ground tilting. Lilliputian hallucinations are less common in schizophrenia, and occur more frequently in various types of encephalopathy (e.g., Peduncular hallucinosis).\n",
"Recently, a research group out of the University of Sussex created a \"Hallucination Machine\", applying the DeepDream algorithm to a pre-recorded panoramic video, allowing users to explore virtual reality environments to mimic the experience of psychoactive substances and/or psychopathological conditions. They were able to demonstrate that the subjective experiences induced by the Hallucination Machine differed significantly from control (non-‘hallucinogenic’) videos, while bearing phenomenological similarities to the psychedelic state (following administration of psilocybin).\n"
] |
why can’t you donate menstural blood?
|
Well more or less because its basically uterus wallpaper not exactly just blood like you would find in your veins.
|
[
"In patients prone to iron overload, blood donation prevents the accumulation of toxic quantities. Donating blood may reduce the risk of heart disease for men, but the link has not been firmly established and may be from selection bias because donors are screened for health problems.\n",
"Individuals seeking to donate blood must be in good health, have a regular pulse and must not have had a viral injection (catarrh or pharyngitis) within the past 7 days. Men who have sex with men are not explicitly banned from donating.\n",
"Nevertheless, when comedian and playwright Carolina Silva Santisteban applied to donate blood in early 2018, her application was rejected on the basis of her sexual orientation. Theoretically, blood donation rules in Peru do not prevent homosexual applicants from donating, if they are otherwise in good health, though in practive several blood drives have rejected such applicants.\n",
"Many countries have laws that prohibit donations of blood or tissue for organ transplants from men who have sex with men (MSM), a classification of men who engage (or have engaged in the past) in sex with other men, regardless of whether they identify themselves as bisexual, gay or otherwise. Restrictions on donors are sometimes called \"deferrals\", since blood donors who are found ineligible may be found eligible at a later date. However, many deferrals are indefinite meaning that donation may not be accepted at any point in the future, thus constituting a de facto ban.\n",
"Gay and bisexual men in Malta are not allowed to donate blood. In May 2016, Minister for Health Chris Fearne announced that a technical committee set up in 2015 to review the ban had recently completed its report and recommended scrapping the current indefinite deferral on donations. The new policy, if implemented, would still exclude donations from men who have had sex with another man any time in the previous 12 months. In September 2016, the youth wing of the Labour Party announced their support for lifting the ban. There are plans to allow LGBT individuals in a stable monogamous relationship to donate blood by sometime in early 2019.\n",
"The 2012 campaign focused on the idea that any person can become a hero by giving blood. Blood cannot yet be manufactured artificially, so voluntary blood donation remains vital for healthcare worldwide. Many anonymous blood donors save lives every day through their blood donations.\n",
"Problems with apheresis include the expense of the equipment used for collection. Whole blood platelets also do not require any additional donor recruitment, as they can be made from blood donations that are also used for packed red blood cells and plasma components.\n"
] |
how do superchargers make cars go faster? or why?
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Put simplistically, the power from an engine is made from the combustion of fuel and air. A supercharger compresses the incoming air, allowing more to enter the engine. More fuel is added to the engine via the fuel injectors, and the two combined combust to create more power than would have otherwise been made.
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[
"One disadvantage of supercharging is that compressing the air increases its temperature. When a supercharger is used on an internal combustion engine, the temperature of the fuel/air charge becomes a major limiting factor in engine performance. Extreme temperatures will cause detonation of the fuel-air mixture (spark ignition engines) and damage to the engine. In cars, this can cause a problem when it is a hot day outside, or when an excessive level of boost is reached.\n",
"Supercharging increases the power output limits of an internal combustion engine relative to its displacement. Most commonly, the supercharger is always running, but there have been designs that allow it to be cut out or run at varying speeds (relative to engine speed). Mechanically driven supercharging has the disadvantage that some of the output power is used to drive the supercharger, while power is wasted in the high pressure exhaust, as the air has been compressed twice and then gains more potential volume in the combustion but it is only expanded in one stage.\n",
"A supercharger is an air compressor that increases the pressure or density of air supplied to an internal combustion engine. This gives each intake cycle of the engine more oxygen, letting it burn more fuel and do more work, thus increasing power.\n",
"The centrifugal supercharger draws its power from the movement of the drive where it is attached. At this point, the supercharger powers an impeller – or small rotating wheel. The impeller draws air into a small compressor housing (volute) and centrifugal force sends the air into the diffuser. The result is air that is highly pressurized, but that travels at low speed. The high-pressure, low-speed air is then fed into the engine, where the additional pressure gives the engine the ability to burn more fuel and have a higher level of combustion. This results in a faster, more responsive vehicle due to greater engine volumetric efficiency.\n",
"A mechanically driven supercharger has to take its drive power from the engine. Taking a single-stage single-speed supercharged engine, such as an early Rolls-Royce Merlin, for instance, the supercharger uses up about . Without a supercharger, the engine could produce about 750 horsepower (560 kilowatts), but with a supercharger, it produces about —an increase of about 400 hp (750 - 150 + 400 = 1000 hp), or a net gain of . This is where the principal disadvantage of a supercharger becomes apparent. The engine has to burn extra fuel to provide power to drive the supercharger. The increased air density during the input cycle increases the specific power of the engine and its power-to-weight ratio, but at the cost of an increase in the specific fuel consumption of the engine. In addition to increasing the cost of running the aircraft a supercharger has the potential to reduce its overall range for a specific fuel load.\n",
"Superchargers- Superchargers are used for engine-power enhancement as well, but only work off the principle of compression. They use the mechanical power from the engine to spin a screw or vane, some way to suck in and compress the air into the engine.\n",
"There are two main types of superchargers defined according to the method of gas transfer: positive displacement and dynamic compressors. Positive displacement blowers and compressors deliver an almost constant level of pressure increase at all engine speeds (RPM). Dynamic compressors do not deliver pressure at low speeds; above a threshold speed, pressure increases with engine speed.\n"
] |
how do television ratings translate into monetary benefit for the stars of the show?
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That's basically it.
The amount actors are paid is based on the previous season's ratings/advertising. So usually the during the first season of the show, the actors aren't paid very much.
The exception would be for actors who themselves carry aadvertising value and are assumed to bring more viewers to the show. Like Matthew McConaughey... they assume him just being in the show will bring more viewers, and thus more advertisers.
|
[
"Ratings for the series were low, due in part to the sudden explosion of reality programming and ABC's decision to dedicate much of its primetime schedule to the then-popular \"Who Wants to Be a Millionaire\".\n",
"Once a television series passed this criteria, they were ranked on a ten-point scale by either one of or both of the critics in six categories: \"Innovation\" (whether or not it did stuff that had been seen in the medium before), \"Influence\" (how a show served as inspiration for those that came after it), \"Consistency\" (whether or not the show's quality fluctuated season-by-season), \"Performance\" (how good the actors/performers were on the show), \"Storytelling\" (the quality of the writing on the show), and \"Peak\" (how great the show was at its best compared to the rest of American television's history). Shows which aired for only one season were slightly penalized, receiving a maximum of nine points for most categories except for \"Consistency\", where they were only given a seven as a maximum. The series which were among the 100 highest placed in the points tally were counted in the rankings.\n",
"Finally, rating percentage plays a heavy role in the success of a drama artist. The numbers of an artist's previous work are used by TV producers to determine whether or not the artist is a marketing success. If the ratings drawn by the artist's previous work are good, he or she will receive offers to star in dramas that are better written and produced.\n",
"Viewers for Quality Television was an American nonprofit organization founded in 1984 to advocate network television series that members of the organization voted to be of the \"highest quality.\" The group's goal was to rescue \"...critically acclaimed programs from cancellation despite their Nielsen program rating.\" \"Will & Grace\" received one award from eleven nominations.\n",
"The show is about upbringing people who have struggled in their life but never left their spirit to achieve something. The show will help these people to achieve dreams which they've dreamed of. The show will financially help these people by inviting Celebrities who will do the same daily job which these people do like driving auto rickshaw or selling something. The amount which the celebrity will earn will be multiplied by 100.\n",
"The ratings rarely went over 1.6 million despite the show extending its hours (early morning and afternoon live streaming). The lack of ratings was put down to the lack of tabloid interest in the show, despite the sponsoring of the show by popular celebrity magazine 'Heat' and the constant arguments and major events that happened in the house.\n",
"Featured stars included the cast members of \"The Sullivans\", \"The Young Doctors\", \"Prisoner\", and \"A Country Practice\". Each celebrity plays for a home viewer, who wins all cash and prizes earned during the show. The ultimate winner's home viewer also wins an extra prize, usually a car.\n"
] |
Are there any organic materials that harden over time or when exposed to the air?
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An insect's exoskeleton is made of chitin, which hardens upon contact with the air. It doesn't continuously harden, it gets to a certain toughness then proceeds no farther.
The problem with something continuously hardening over time is that as it hardens it will become brittle. Most organic materials require a certain amount of flexibility.
A possible solution is to have the dragon's scales continuously grow over time, so that its armor gets thicker (and thus tougher) over time. The problem is that as the armour gets thicker the dragon gets heavier and movement (especially flying) become more difficult.
If you're looking for a tough organic substance, the claws of a pistol shrimp and a mantis shrimp are incredibly tough. They can survive cavitation and can punch through aquarium glass. Their claws have a high percentage of calcium and are thicker.
|
[
"There are two main groups of substances that biomagnify. Both are lipophilic and not easily degraded. Novel organic substances are not easily degraded because organisms lack previous exposure and have thus not evolved specific detoxification and excretion mechanisms, as there has been no selection pressure from them. These substances are consequently known as \"persistent organic pollutants\" or POPs.\n",
"Associated materials deteriorate depending on the origin whether they are organic or inorganic materials. Organic materials usually fail in a relatively short period of time, primarily due to biodegradation. With inorganic materials are these processes considerably longer and more complex. Amount of gases, humidity, depth and composition of soil are very important. In case of salty and sweet water finds essential are amount of gases dissolved in water, depth of water, direction of currents, and microscopic and macroscopic living organisms.\n",
"Precursors must be volatile, but not subject to decomposition, as most precursors are very sensitive to oxygen/air, thus causing a limitation on the substrates that may be used. Some biological substrates are very sensitive to heat and may have fast decomposition rates that are not favored and yield larger impurity levels. There are a multitude of thin-film substrate materials available, but the important substrates needed for use in microelectronics can be hard to obtain and may be very expensive.\n",
"Some polymers may also decompose into the monomers or other toxic substances when heated. In 2011, it was reported that \"almost all plastic products\" sampled released chemicals with estrogenic activity, although the researchers identified plastics which did not leach chemicals with estrogenic activity.\n",
"There are also other types of degradable materials that are not considered to be biopolymers, because they are oil-based, similar to other conventional plastics. These plastics are made to be more degradable through the use of different additives, which help them degrade when exposed to UV rays or other physical stressors. yet, biodegradation-promoting additives for polymers have been shown not to significantly increase biodegradation.\n",
"Biological Organic Materials are quite common in the world of piercings and are what were used historically by many cultures. Like wood, they seem well suited as body jewelry as they are easily shaped and bone, horn, ivory etc. may be finished to an acceptably smooth surface. Biological organic materials seem to allow your body to \"breathe.\" They get less cold than other hard solid materials due to their insulating properties during winter. However, like wood, they can dry and crack.\n",
"In addition, oxo-degradable plastics are commonly percieved to be biodegradable. However, they are simply conventional plastics with additives called prodegredants that accelerate the oxidation process. While oxo-degradable plastics rapidly break down through exposure to sunlight and oxygen , they persist as huge quantities of microplastics rather than any biological material. \n"
] |
Do astronauts shave in space or do they wait till they get back? Mostly they look clean shaven - so I guess yes. However, with everything in space about 16 times more complicated than back on the planet...I just wondered
|
Here is a [description from the Canadian Space Agency](_URL_0_).
|
[
"BULLET::::- Apollo 10 returned to Earth, after a successful 8-day test of all the components needed for the upcoming first manned Moon landing. The aircraft carrier \"USS Princeton\" was within three miles of the splashdown target in the South Pacific and recovered the capsule. The three astronauts— Cernan, Stafford and Young— were the first to have returned from space clean-shaven after demonstrating that they could use an ordinary razor and cream without the danger of hair bristles floating in the cabin.\n",
"A typical day began at 6 a.m. Central Time Zone. Although the toilet was small and noisy, both veteran astronauts—who had endured earlier missions' rudimentary waste-collection systems—and rookies complimented it. The first crew enjoyed taking a shower once a week, but found drying themselves in weightlessness and vacuuming excess water difficult; later crews usually cleaned themselves daily with wet washcloths instead of using the shower. Astronauts also found that bending over in weightlessness to put on socks or tie shoelaces strained their stomach muscles.\n",
"A human consideration for suits is the need to go the bathroom. Various methods have been employed in suits, and in the Shuttle-era NASA used maximum absorbency garments to enable stays of 10 hours in space and partial pressure suits.\n",
"Each astronaut had a private sleeping area the size of a small walk-in closet, with a curtain, sleeping bag, and locker. Designers also added a shower and a toilet for comfort and to obtain precise urine and feces samples for examination on Earth.\n",
"Because of the helmet design, which rested on the astronaut's shoulders and allowed them to move their head around freely, astronauts were now required to wear a communications cap similar to those worn by Apollo astronauts, and because they were white (later changed to brown), the suit resembled the Vostok pressure suit worn by Yuri Gagarin. The suits were designed to withstand pressures up to 40,000 feet (12 kilometers), and submersion in the ocean for up to 24 hours at 5°C (40°F).\n",
"Spacesuits are required for astronauts to survive in space; they are the most essential piece of equipment with many features to help protect them from the dangers of space. Due to space being a vacuum, the suits are required to have oxygen, which is stored in tanks allowing astronauts to work or remain outside for 6 to 8.5 hours before having to return to the spacecraft. Water is also required to survive in space and the space suits have water supply bags in two sizes, , so astronauts do not suffer dehydration when outside the spacecraft. The suits are made from several layers of material; within these layers there is tubing all around which is filled with chilled water to help cool the suit. The suit is also insulated so the astronaut does not become too cold; the astronaut's body heat is what is keeping them warm. The several layers protect the astronaut from space dust, which can travel faster than a bullet. The visors on the suit helmets are made with a special gold liner which protects the eyes of the astronaut from sunlight.\n",
"Astronauts wear trunklike diapers called \"Maximum Absorbency Garments\", or MAGs, during liftoff and landing. On space shuttle missions, each crew member receives three diapers—for launch, reentry and a spare in case reentry has to be waved off and tried later. The super-absorbent fabric used in disposable diapers, which can hold up to 400 times its weight, was developed so Apollo astronauts could stay on spacewalks and extra-vehicular activity for at least six hours. Originally, only female astronauts would wear Maximum Absorbency Garments, as the collection devices used by men were unsuitable for women; however, reports of their comfort and effectiveness eventually convinced men to start wearing the diapers as well. Public awareness of astronaut diapers rose significantly following the arrest of Lisa Nowak, a NASA astronaut charged with attempted murder, who gained notoriety in the media when the police reported she had driven 900 miles, with an adult diaper so she would not have to stop to urinate. The diapers became fodder for many television comedians, as well as being included in an adaptation of the story in \"\", despite Nowak's denial that she wore them.\n"
] |
Why did the Romans build on top of things?
|
The phenomenon you are noticing is called "stratigraphy", which is the idea that things are built on top of older things, and you can tell which things are older by figuring out the order in which each part was laid down. It's one of the most basic and essential parts of archaeology.
Now, why did people build on top of older ruins? There are several reasons. First, when ancient people had a place they built on, and made a settlement or a city, it was because that place was a really good place to build a city. Take some of the major sites in the southern Levant for example, such as Tel Megiddo, which sits right on one of the only pathways through the Carmel mountain range, and is basically a gatekeeper between anyone coming from the south (such as Egypt) to the north (heading to Lebanon or Syria (aka the Phoenicians or the Arameans)). Or Tel Ashkelon, which was a major trading port between Gaza and Jaffa. When people have a good place to build, they want to stay there. It makes no sense to suddenly move a few miles if your water system is still there, and the trade routes are still there. The economy is much less movable than some dirt. So, why build on top instead of tearing everything down?
The simple answer is it's easier. It is much easier to knock down a broken down building and level it off with dirt than it is to break up the pieces and take them away. This is way before any heavy machinery, there are no backhoes here. And sometimes buildings are built with big, heavy stones, and its so much easier to just cover it over rather than move it. Also, dirt tends to accumulate among settlements, just from people's waste and all the things they bring into their settlement, and the buildings are a wind trap for airborne sediment, so the dirt level is rising already, people just help it along a little bit sometimes.
You are exactly right about the level of a city rising as time went on, and people built over older things over and over. At Tel Ashkelon, in one of the excavation areas, which was occupied for about 3500 years, you have at least 24 different major rebuilds (not counting minor ones where they just expand a building or add a few walls), all within about 8 meters of vertical accumulation.
This method of sediment deposition results in a distinctive shape of the hill. Hills which are basically composed of cities built on top of broken cities and on and on have a special name. They are called *tels*. They often have a flattish top and slightly steeper sides, as you can see in [this picture of Tel Megiddo](_URL_0_) and [this picture of Kedesh, a site in Israel](_URL_1_).
So basically it's really common in the eastern Mediterranean and most ancient societies, because once a settlement is founded, there are lots of good reasons to live there, and so people keep living there, and it's just easier to knock stuff down and build over it than it is to remove it all.
Does this answer your question?
|
[
"The Romans were the first builders in Europe, perhaps the first in the world, to fully appreciate the advantages of the arch, the vault and the dome. Throughout the Roman empire, their engineers erected arch structures such as bridges, aqueducts, and gates. They also introduced the triumphal arch as a military monument. Vaults began to be used for roofing large interior spaces such as halls and temples, a function that was also assumed by domed structures from the 1st century BC onwards.\n",
"The Romans widely employed, and further developed, the arch, vault and dome (see the Roman Architectural Revolution), all of which were little used before, particularly in Europe. Their innovative use of Roman concrete facilitated the building of the many public buildings of often unprecedented size throughout the empire. These include Roman temples, Roman baths, Roman bridges, Roman aqueducts, Roman harbours, triumphal arches, Roman amphitheatres, Roman circuses palaces, mausolea and in the late empire also churches.\n",
"Social elements such as wealth and high population densities in cities forced the ancient Romans to go discover new (architectural) solutions of their own. The use of vaults and arches together with a sound knowledge of building materials, for example, enabled them to achieve unprecedented successes in the construction of imposing structures for public use. Examples include the aqueducts of Rome, the Baths of Diocletian and the Baths of Caracalla, the basilicas and perhaps most famously of all, the Colosseum. They were reproduced at smaller scale in most important towns and cities in the Empire. Some surviving structures are almost complete, such as the town walls of Lugo in Hispania Tarraconensis, or northern Spain.\n",
"The ancient Romans made great bounds in structural engineering, pioneering large structures in masonry and concrete, many of which are still standing today. They include aqueducts, thermae, columns, lighthouses, defensive walls and harbours. Their methods are recorded by Vitruvius in his De Architectura written in 25 BC, a manual of civil and structural engineering with extensive sections on materials and machines used in construction. One reason for their success is their accurate surveying techniques based on the dioptra, groma and chorobates.\n",
"Compared to the Greeks, the Romans made less use of stone sculpture on buildings, apparently having few friezes with figures. Important pediments, such as the Pantheon for example, originally had sculpture, but hardly any have survived. Terracotta relief panels called Campana reliefs have survived in good numbers. These were used to decorate interior walls, in strips.\n",
"It was in the area of architecture that Roman art produced its greatest innovations. Because the Roman Empire extended over so great of an area and included so many urbanized areas, Roman engineers developed methods for city building on a grand scale, including the use of concrete. Massive buildings like the Pantheon and the Colosseum could never have been constructed with previous materials and methods. Though concrete had been invented a thousand years earlier in the Near East, the Romans extended its use from fortifications to their most impressive buildings and monuments, capitalizing on the material's strength and low cost. The concrete core was covered with a plaster, brick, stone, or marble veneer, and decorative polychrome and gold-gilded sculpture was often added to produce a dazzling effect of power and wealth.\n",
"Rounded arches, vaults, and domes distinguish Roman architecture from that of Ancient Greece and were facilitated by the use of concrete and brick. By varying the weight of the aggregate material in the concrete, the weight of the concrete could be altered, allowing lighter layers to be laid at the top of concrete domes. But concrete domes also required expensive wooden formwork, also called shuttering, to be built and kept in place during the curing process, which would usually have to be destroyed to be removed. Formwork for brick domes need not be kept in place as long and could be more easily reused.\n"
] |
why can you bring extremely fire hazardous items as hand luggage on an airplane?
|
Fires are a threat that aircrews are trained to deal with and lie within their response capabilities.
Anti-terrorism forces worry about things that could take down an airplane (fuselage penetrating explosives) or allow a plane to be highjacked and used for terrorism. Fires are neither.
|
[
"Some incidents have been the result of travelers carrying either weapons or items that could be used as weapons on board aircraft so that they can hijack the plane. Travelers are screened by metal detectors and/or millimeter wave scanners. Explosive detection machines used include X-ray machines and explosives trace-detection portal machines (a.k.a. \"puffer machines\"). In the United States, the TSA is working on new scanning machines that are still effective searching for objects that aren't allowed in the airplanes but that don't depict the passengers in a state of undress that some find embarrassing. Explosive detection machines can also be used for both carry-on and checked baggage. These detect volatile compounds given off from explosives using gas chromatography.\n",
"Studies have found that passengers often pause to retrieve cabin baggage during an emergency evacuation, despite instructions to the contrary in pre-flight safety briefings. This is not a new phenomenon, as it was observed during the evacuation of a Boeing 737 that caught fire in 1984. At least one passenger re-entered a Boeing 777 that crashed in 2008 to retrieve personal belongings. Video of the evacuation of a Sukhoi Superjet that caught fire on landing in 2019 clearly shows passengers on the emergency slides with large suitcases, raising questions as to whether this contributed to the loss of life. Remote locking of overhead baggage bins is being considered as a solution to the issue.\n",
"At some point during the flight, believed to be during the beginning of its landing approach, a fire developed in the cargo section on the main deck which was probably not extinguished before impact. The 'smoke evacuation' checklist calls for the aircraft to be depressurised, and for two of the cabin doors to be opened. No evidence exists that the checklist was followed, or that the doors were opened. A crew member might have gone into the cargo hold to try to fight the fire. A charred fire extinguisher was later recovered from the wreckage on which investigators found molten metal.\n",
"Smoke detectors in the cargo holds can alert the flight crew of a fire long before the problem becomes apparent in the cabin, and a fire suppression system buys valuable time to land the plane safely. In February 1998, the FAA issued revised standards requiring all Class D cargo holds to be converted by early 2001 to Class C or E; these types of holds have additional fire detection and suppression equipment.\n",
"The most common equipment in buildings to facilitate emergency evacuations are fire alarms, exit signs, and emergency lights. Some structures need special emergency exits or fire escapes to ensure the availability of alternative escape paths. Commercial passenger vehicles such as buses, boats, and aircraft also often have evacuation lighting and signage, and in some cases windows or extra doors that function as emergency exits. Commercial emergency aircraft evacuation is also facilitated by evacuation slides and pre-flight safety briefings. Military aircraft are often equipped with ejection seats or parachutes. Water vessels and commercial aircraft that fly over water are equipped with personal flotation devices and life rafts.\n",
"The fire on the ground after the plane crashed destroyed most of the aircraft to the point of making study of the remains nearly impossible. The investigation lasted five months, during which the chairman of the investigation commission was replaced before the full report was completed. The official conclusion was that a fire in the rear luggage compartment spread in across the compartment sections before the crew could begin to extinguish it. The attempts to extinguish the fire were unsuccessful, and the smoke and fumes from the fire spread into the cabin, the aircraft was forced to choose an emergency landing. However, due to low visibility, the distance from the airport, and the increasing amount of fumes in the cockpit, the aircraft was forced to make a landing in the forest below. The exact cause of the fire was not discovered, but it was suggested that an incendiary device or contraband flammable materials could have been in passenger baggage because the luggage was not inspected before the flight. The commission was able to exclude the possibility of leakage of hydraulic fluid or damage to the wiring in internal aircraft components causing a fire.\n",
"Due to the mass casualty potential of an aviation emergency, the speed with which emergency response equipment and personnel arrive at the scene of the emergency is of paramount importance. Their arrival and initial mission to secure the aircraft against all hazards, particularly fire, increases the survivability of the passengers and crew on board. Airport firefighters have advanced training in the application of firefighting foams, dry chemical and clean agents used to extinguish burning aviation fuel in and around an aircraft in order to maintain a path for evacuating passengers to exit the fire hazard area. Further, should fire either be encountered in the cabin or extend there from an external fire, the ARFF responders must work to control/extinguish these fires as well.\n"
] |
Why does a small crack make a "strong" material so much weaker?
|
This happens because [stress concentration](_URL_0_) occurs around the crack. Even though the average stress throughout the material sample is only slightly higher, the localized stresses at the end(s) of the crack are much higher.
The maximum stress around a crack is proportional to (a/b)^(1/2), where *a* is the length of the crack and *b* is the width. So, if the crack is very long and narrow (as many are), you can see that the stress concentration at the end of the crack will be very high, which will cause the material to fail and the crack to propagate further. This process repeats as long as the crack is still around.
This formula for stress concentration can also be used to explain why "drilling cracks" is a common temporary solution--it increases the radius of the end of the crack, which has the effect of reducing the stress concentration.
|
[
"In a low yield strength material, crack tip can be blunted easily and larger crack tip radius is formed. Thus, in a given metal glass, toughness in a low-strength metal is usually higher than higher-strength metals because less plasticity is available for toughening. Therefore, some safety-critical structural part such as pressure vessels and pipelines to aluminum alloy air frames are manufactured in relatively low strength version. Nonetheless, toughness should be improved without sacrificing its strength in metal. Designing a new alloy or improving its processing can achieve this goal.\n",
"A material having compressive residual stress helps to prevent brittle fracture because the initial crack is formed under compressive (negative tensile) stress. To cause brittle fracture by crack propagation of the initial crack, the external tensile stress must overcome the compressive residual stress before the crack tips experience sufficient tensile stress to propagate.\n",
"While uncontrolled residual stresses are undesirable, some designs rely on them. In particular, brittle materials can be toughened by including compressive residual stress, as in the case for toughened glass and pre-stressed concrete. The predominant mechanism for failure in brittle materials is brittle fracture, which begins with initial crack formation. When an external tensile stress is applied to the material, the crack tips concentrate stress, increasing the local tensile stresses experienced at the crack tips to a greater extent than the average stress on the bulk material. This causes the initial crack to enlarge quickly (propagate) as the surrounding material is overwhelmed by the stress concentration, leading to fracture.\n",
"Plastics and plastic-based composites may suffer swelling, debonding and loss of strength when exposed to organic fluids and other corrosive environments, such as acids and alkalies. Under the influence of stress and environment, many structural materials, particularly the high-specific strength ones become brittle and lose their resistance to fracture. While their fracture toughness remains unaltered, their threshold stress intensity factor for crack propagation may be considerably lowered. Consequently, they become prone to premature fracture because of sub-critical crack growth. This article aims to give a brief overview of the various degradation processes mentioned above.\n",
"A popular misconception is that all materials that bend are \"weak\" and those that don't are \"strong\". In reality, many materials that undergo large elastic and plastic deformations, such as steel, are able to absorb stresses that would cause brittle materials, such as glass, with minimal plastic deformation ranges, to break.\n",
"The toughness of a material is the maximum amount of energy it can absorb before fracturing, which is different from the amount of force that can be applied. Toughness tends to be small for brittle materials, because elastic and plastic deformations allow materials to absorb large amounts of energy.\n",
"Cracks are linear openings that form in materials to relieve stress. When an elastic material stretches or shrinks uniformly, it eventually reaches its breaking strength and then fails suddenly in all directions, creating cracks with 120 degree joints, so three cracks meet at a node. Conversely, when an inelastic material fails, straight cracks form to relieve the stress. Further stress in the same direction would then simply open the existing cracks; stress at right angles can create new cracks, at 90 degrees to the old ones. Thus the pattern of cracks indicates whether the material is elastic or not. In a tough fibrous material like oak tree bark, cracks form to relieve stress as usual, but they do not grow long as their growth is interrupted by bundles of strong elastic fibres. Since each species of tree has its own structure at the levels of cell and of molecules, each has its own pattern of splitting in its bark.\n"
] |
How do we define irrational exponents?
|
* _URL_0_
You can also use the sub search function:
* _URL_1_
|
[
"Since any irrational number can be expressed as the limit of a sequence of rational numbers, exponentiation of a positive real number \"b\" with an arbitrary real exponent \"x\" can be defined by continuity with the rule\n",
"By a similar argument, any constant created by concatenating \"0.\" with all primes in an arithmetic progression \"dn\" + \"a\", where \"a\" is coprime to \"d\" and to 10, will be irrational. E.g. primes of the form 4\"n\" + 1 or 8\"n\" + 1. By Dirichlet's theorem, the arithmetic progression \"dn\"·10 + \"a\" contains primes for all \"m\", and those primes are also in \"cd\" + \"a\", so the concatenated primes contain arbitrarily long sequences of the digit zero.\n",
"Additive disjunction represents alternative occurrence of resources, the choice of which the machine controls. For example, suppose the vending machine permits gambling: insert a dollar and the machine may dispense a candy bar, a packet of chips, or a soft drink. We can express this situation as . The constant 0 represents a product that cannot be made, and thus serves as the unit of ⊕ (a machine that might produce or is as good as a machine that always produces because it will never succeed in producing a 0). So unlike above, we cannot deduce from this.\n",
"The Liouville-Roth irrationality measure (irrationality exponent, approximation exponent, or Liouville–Roth constant) of a real number \"x\" is a measure of how \"closely\" it can be approximated by rationals. Generalizing the definition of Liouville numbers, instead of allowing any \"n\" in the power of \"q\", we find the largest possible value for \"μ\" such that formula_38 is satisfied by an infinite number of integer pairs (\"p\", \"q\") with \"q\" 0. This maximum value of \"μ\" is defined to be the irrationality measure of \"x\". For any value \"μ\" less than this upper bound, the infinite set of all rationals \"p\"/\"q\" satisfying the above inequality yield an approximation of \"x\". Conversely, if \"μ\" is greater than the upper bound, then there are at most finitely many (\"p\", \"q\") with \"q\" 0 that satisfy the inequality; thus, the opposite inequality holds for all larger values of \"q\". In other words, given the irrationality measure \"μ\" of a real number \"x\", whenever a rational approximation \"x\" ≅ \"p\"/\"q\", \"p\",\"q\" ∈ N yields \"n\" + 1 exact decimal digits, we have\n",
"Exponentiation is a mathematical operation, written as , involving two numbers, the \"base\" and the \"exponent\" or \"power\" . When is a positive integer, exponentiation corresponds to repeated multiplication of the base: that is, is the product of multiplying bases:\n",
"The process of transforming an irrational fraction to a rational fraction is known as rationalization. Every irrational fraction in which the radicals are monomials may be rationalized by finding the least common multiple of the indices of the roots, and substituting the variable for another variable with the least common multiple as exponent. In the example given, the least common multiple is 6, hence we can substitute formula_14 to obtain\n",
"This will lead to an \"additive zero\" of the form (\"a\", \"a\"), an \"additive inverse\" of (\"a\", \"b\") of the form (\"b\", \"a\"), a multiplicative unit of the form (\"a\" + 1, \"a\"), and a definition of subtraction\n"
] |
Is the ANY evidence at all of Native Americans travelling to Europe before Columbus?
|
There's always room for discussion, but perhaps the section [Travel and contact across the Atlantic before Columbus](_URL_0_) in our FAQ will answer your inquiry.
|
[
"Even in Columbus' time there was much speculation that other Europeans had made the trip in ancient or contemporary times; Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo y Valdés records accounts of these in his \"General y natural historia de las Indias\" of 1526, which includes biographical information on Columbus. Aboriginal first contact period is not well defined. The earliest accounts of contact occurred in the late 10th century, between the Beothuk and Norsemen. According to the Sagas of Icelanders, the first European to see what is now Canada was Bjarni Herjólfsson, who was blown off course en route from Iceland to Greenland in the summer of 985 or 986 CE.\n",
"Brazilian researcher Niede Guidon, who led the Pedra Furada sites excavations \"... said she believed that humans … might have come not overland from Asia but by boat from Africa\", with the journey taking place 100,000 years ago, well before the accepted dates for the earliest human migrations that led to the prehistoric settlement of the Americas. Michael R. Waters, a geoarchaeologist at Texas A&M University, noted the absence of genetic evidence in modern populations to support Guidon's claim.\n",
"For a long time it was generally believed that Columbus and his crew had been the first Europeans to make landfall in the Americas. In fact they were not the first explorers from Europe to reach the Americas, having been preceded by the Viking expedition led by Leif Erikson in the 11th century; however, Columbus's voyages were the ones that led to ongoing European contact with the Americas, inaugurating a period of exploration, conquest, and colonization whose effects and consequences persist to the present.\n",
"Some sources claim that Christopher Columbus was the first European to arrive at the island during his second voyage in 1493. It is believed that the island was populated by Carib Indians during the colonization. After Agüeybaná and Agüeybaná II led the Taíno rebellion of 1511, Taíno Indians from the main island sought refuge on Culebra and allied with Caribs to launch random attacks at the island estates.\n",
"BULLET::::- Christopher Columbus was not the first European to visit the Americas: Leif Erikson, and possibly other Vikings before him, explored Vinland, which was either the island of Newfoundland, part of modern Canada, or a term for Newfoundland and parts of the North American mainland. Ruins at L'Anse aux Meadows prove that at least one Norse settlement was built in Newfoundland, confirming a narrative in the Saga of Erik the Red. Columbus also never reached any land that now forms part of the mainland United States of America; most of the landings Columbus made on his four voyages, including the initial October 12, 1492 landing (the anniversary of which forms the basis of Columbus Day), were on Caribbean islands that are now independent countries.\n",
"Phoenicians and later Carthaginians routinely navigated the coasts of the northeastern Atlantic and presumably their trading vessels, blown off course in a storm, could have reached North America. Such accidental one-way contact, as intimated in the last paragraph of Stark's report, could account for the presence of bronze artefacts as well as being compatible with the lack of evidence for a regular settlement, and the absence of indications in Native American oral history (as such shipwrecks would be few in number and just a local curiosity, soon to be forgotten). \n",
"One primary criticism of this theory is that if either a Sinclair or a Templar voyage reached the Americas, they did not, unlike Columbus, return with a historical record of their findings. In fact, there is no known published documentation from that era to support the theory that such a voyage took place. The physical evidence relies on speculative reasoning to support the theory, and all of it can be interpreted in other ways. For example, according to one historian, the carvings in Rosslyn Chapel may not be of American plants at all but are nothing more than stylized carvings of wheat and strawberries.\n"
] |
what are the reasons behind the various sizes of books?
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It depends on who the book is targeted at. Harry Potter for example, wide pages, big letters, lots of spacing, easy for a child to read. Then Game of Thrones, short pages, smaller font, closely spaced. Made to be read by adults. Also, the length of the book. HP books are wide but not a lot of pages. GoT has a lot of pages, so it's better to make small pages. (Wish I could word this better)
|
[
"The size of a book is generally measured by the height against the width of a leaf, or sometimes the height and width of its cover. A series of terms is commonly used by libraries and publishers for the general sizes of modern books, ranging from \"folio\" (the largest), to \"quarto\" (smaller) and \"octavo\" (still smaller). Historically, these terms referred to the format of the book, a technical term used by printers and bibliographers to indicate the size of a leaf in terms of the size of the original sheet. For example, a quarto (from Latin \"quartō\", ablative form of \"quartus\", fourth) historically was a book printed on a sheet of paper folded twice to produce four leaves (or eight pages), each leaf one fourth the size of the original sheet printed. Because the actual format of many modern books cannot be determined from examination of the books, bibliographers may not use these terms in scholarly descriptions.\n",
"Today, octavo and quarto are the most common book sizes, but many books are produced in larger and smaller sizes as well. Other terms for book size have developed, an \"elephant folio\" being up to tall, an \"atlas folio\" , and a \"double elephant folio\" tall.\n",
"With the invention of the printing press, books began to be manufactured in large numbers. As paper began to be produced in bulk, page size and shape were increasingly determined by the size and shape of mould which was most practical for producers. As pages became more standardized, so did the size and shape of margins. In general, margins in books have grown smaller over time. The wide margins common during the Renaissance have given way to much narrower proportions. However, there is still much variation depending on the size and purpose of the book. \n",
"The size and proportions of a book will thus depend on the size of the original sheet of paper used in producing the book. For example, if a sheet by is used to print a quarto, the resulting book will be approximately tall and wide, before trimming. Because the size of paper used has differed over the years and localities, the sizes of books of the same format will also differ. A typical octavo printed in Italy or France in the thus is roughly the size of a modern mass market paperback book, but an English octavo is noticeably larger, more like a modern trade paperback or hardcover novel.\n",
"Edo period paper came in several standard sizes; the size of books was, accordingly, standard. Though there are surely exceptions, larger books generally contained more formal, serious, material, while smaller books were less formal and less serious. For example, many manuscript copies of scholarly texts are found in the \"ōbon\" size, while satirical novels were often produced in smaller sizes.\n",
"Many books have claim to the title of smallest book in the world at the time of their publication. The title can apply to a variety of accomplishments: smallest overall size, smallest book with movable type, smallest printed book, smallest book legible to the naked eye, and so on.\n",
"Size appears to be a factor in book selection. ... The size most acceptable to the children in the primary grades appears to be about seven and one-half inches long by five inches wide and one inch thick. ... Twenty-five percent of the book space seems the minimum amount of space to be devoted to pictures to make a book acceptable for little children. Large, full-page pictures are preferred to smaller ones inserted irregularly in the text. ... Colors preferred by the younger children are rather crude and elementary, having a high degree of saturation and a great deal of brightness. Older children gradually grow into a preference for softer tints and tones.\n"
] |
how do cereal makers decide which vitamins and minerals to fortify a certain cereal with?
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The reason I'm asking is because I was looking at the back of random cereal boxes at the store, and thought it was weird how much of a huge spectrum of vitamins and minerals there are. They have very different choices in different cereals, even by the same makers!
It even just varies greatly with kid cereals from the same company. Do they choose by flavor or the texture of the cereal or something? Also, why is this common anyway? I'm guessing for marketing to look like some of the kids cereals aren't junk food or something. Thanks!
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[
"Breakfast cereals therefore often are fortified with minerals and vitamins and these additives may be regulated. For example, if breakfast cereal in Canada is fortified, they must contain the following specific amounts per 100 grams of cereal: Thiamine (2.0 mg), Niacin (4.8 mg), Vitamin B6 (0.6 mg), Folic Acid (0.06 mg), Pantothenic Acid (1.6 mg), Magnesium (160.0 mg), Iron (13.3 mg), Zinc (3.5 mg).\n",
"When choosing which solid to introduce first, it is important to understand what the infant actually needs. Iron-fortified infant cereal is typically the first solid introduced due to its high iron content. Cereals can be made of rice, barley, or oatmeal. Foods must be introduced one a time over a five- to seven-day period, to be able to detect any allergic responses. Orange juice is the best thing to mix with the cereal, because the vitamin C enhances the absorption of iron. Juices like apple, pear, prune, peach, and grape need to be avoided because of the risk of gastric upset. Overall, solids can be introduced in any order after the cereal is introduced. It is important to know that solids cannot completely replace formula or breast milk until after twelve months of age.\n",
"According to Chavan and Kadam (1989), most reports agree that sprouting treatment of cereal grains generally improves their vitamin value, especially the B-group vitamins. Certain vitamins such as α-tocopherol (Vitamin-E) and β-carotene (Vitamin-A precursor) are produced during the growth process (Cuddeford, 1989).\n",
"Kellogg's introduced Product 19 in 1967 in response to General Mills' Total, which claimed to contain the entire daily nutritional requirement of vitamins and minerals. Like Total, Product 19 was fortified with the US recommended daily allowance of vitamins and minerals. Unlike Total, Product 19 was a multi-grain cereal. It was packaged in a relatively plain red and white box, originally with charts and text, and was marketed to older consumers and the health-conscious. The original slogan was \"Instant Nutrition - New cereal food created especially for working mothers, otherwise busy mothers and everybody in a hurry.\" In the early 1970s ads for Product 19 featured Tom Harmon; the last boxes depicted a person doing yoga. Within Kellogg's range of cereals, it was targeted to customers seeking to lose weight.\n",
"Nesquick Cereal (Original Variety) Ingredients: \"Cereal Grains (whole grain wheat, maize semolina, rice flour), sugar, cocoa powder, dextrose, palm oil, salt, Fat-Reduced Cocoa Powder, trisodium phosphate, Flavouring: Vanillin, Vitamins and Minerals: vitamin C, niacin, pantothenic acid, vitamin B6, riboflavin (B2), thiamin (B1), folic acid (Folacin), vitamin B12, calcium carbonate and iron.\n",
"Dietitians may recommend that minerals are best supplied by ingesting specific foods rich with the chemical element(s) of interest. The elements may be naturally present in the food (e.g., calcium in dairy milk) or added to the food (e.g., orange juice fortified with calcium; iodized salt fortified with iodine). Dietary supplements can be formulated to contain several different chemical elements (as compounds), a combination of vitamins and/or other chemical compounds, or a single element (as a compound or mixture of compounds), such as calcium (calcium carbonate, calcium citrate) or magnesium (magnesium oxide), or iron (ferrous sulfate, iron bis-glycinate).\n",
"Manufactured foods fortified with vitamin D include some fruit juices and fruit juice drinks, meal replacement energy bars, soy protein-based beverages, certain cheese and cheese products, flour products, infant formulas, many breakfast cereals, and milk.\n"
] |
Why would space planes not be a suitable method of interplanetary travel in comparison to typical rocket designs?
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Our main problem in space exploration is the cost of launching into orbit. It's in the order of several thousand US$ per kg.
So, first of all, consider how much fuel you need to achieve orbit. [Here's a picture of a Space Shuttle on the launch pad](_URL_0_). Note how the huge fuel tank is larger than the spaceplane itself. Putting some numbers, it was a total mass of 2000 tons on the launch pad out of which only 80 tons made it to Low Earth Orbit (LEO). It didn't have enough fuel to reach another planet, the Moon or even just geosynchronous orbit - if you want to do that you'll have to increase the mass at liftoff by a significant factor.
Then, when landing, the spaceplane was only able to land itself, at most it could be loaded with an extra 20 tons in its cargo bay. No way it could land a comparable fuel tank to take off again from a foreign planet. Consider also the difficulties of flying in a different atmosphere, or landing without a man-made runway.
Second, in order to make them lighter and cheaper, spacecraft are usually designed specifically for their mission goals and for the environment they will have to operate in. The Space Shuttle was not able to support human life in missions longer than a few weeks (no significant recycling of life support resources like water or oxygen), was not able to protect astronauts from radiation in the long term, and would not have been able to work correctly in a harsher thermal environment.
If you do design a spacecraft for a variety of environments or for goals other than the ones intended, in aerospace jargon this is called "overdesigned". Basically it means you're using more mass than you actually need. Making things unnecessarily heavy means making them unnecessarily expensive, i.e. wasting the space agency's money. If a company does this then it is unlikely to be chosen for further contracts with the same space agency in the future (but they are actually unlikely to do it because the design is reviewed and negotiated with the agency at all times).
Both aspects would change if we ever develop a propulsion technology that makes access to space significantly cheaper, using only a small mass of fuel that can fit inside the spaceplane. But today this is not part of the foreseeable future.
|
[
"The general approach to how space travel is engineered is highly accurate; in particular, the design of the ships was based on actual engineering considerations rather than attempts to look aesthetically \"futuristic\". Many other science-fiction films give spacecraft an aerodynamic shape, which is superfluous in outer space (except for craft such as the Pan Am shuttle that are designed to function both in atmosphere and in space). Kubrick's science advisor, Frederick Ordway, notes that in designing the spacecraft \"We insisted on knowing the purpose and functioning of each assembly and component, down to the logical labeling of individual buttons and the presentation on screens of plausible operating, diagnostic and other data.\" Onboard equipment and panels on various spacecraft have specific purposes such as alarm, communications, condition display, docking, diagnostic, and navigation, the designs of which relied heavily on NASA's input. Aerospace specialists were also consulted on the design of the spacesuits and space helmets. The space dock at Moon base Clavius shows multiple underground layers which could sustain high levels of air pressure typical of Earth. The lunar craft design takes into account the lower gravity and lighting conditions on the Moon. The Jupiter-bound \"Discovery\" is meant to be powered by a nuclear reactor at its rear, separated from the crew area at the front by hundreds of feet of fuel storage compartments. Although difficult to be recognized as such, actual nuclear reactor control panel displays appear in the astronaut's control area.\n",
"Space industry analyst Ajay Kothari has noted that SpaceX reusable technology could do for space transport \"what jet engines did for air transportation sixty years ago when people never imagined that more than 500 million passengers would travel by airplanes every year and that the cost could be reduced to the level it is—all because of passenger volume and reliable reusability.\"\n",
"Space travel is routine between planets in the Solar System. Ships function very much like naval warships or research vessels. There are technologies such as \"overdrive\" which allows a ship to travel much faster than light in normal space, and apparently artificial gravity within a ship. Atomic power is used everywhere, even in a space suit propulsion unit. Ships are equipped with \"blasters\", not necessarily for use as weapons, but for destroying space debris which would otherwise collide with the ship.\n",
"Three types of spaceplane have successfully launched to orbit, reentered Earth's atmosphere, and landed: the Space Shuttle, Buran, and the X-37. Another, Dream Chaser, is under development. As of 2019 all past, current, and planned orbital vehicles launch vertically on a separate rocket. Orbital spaceflight takes place at high velocities, with orbital kinetic energies typically at least 50 times greater than suborbital trajectories. Consequently, heavy heat shielding is required during reentry as this kinetic energy is shed in the form of heat. Many more spaceplanes have been proposed, but none have reached flight status.\n",
"The spaceship of the film is very obviously not aerodynamic as it is not made for planetary exploration. It flies through the cosmic void, not through air. In the void there is no resistance and therefore no need for aerodynamics. It is designed for only one purpose, says Nicolas Bazz, interstellar travel, as fast as physically possible.\n",
"Spaceplanes must operate in space, like traditional spacecraft, but also must be capable of atmospheric flight, like an aircraft. These requirements drive up the complexity, risk, dry mass, and cost of spaceplane designs. The following sections will draw heavily on the US Space Shuttle as the biggest, deadliest, most complex, most expensive, most flown, and only crewed orbital spaceplane, but other designs have been successfully flown.\n",
"Other practical motivations for interplanetary travel are more speculative, because our current technologies are not yet advanced enough to support test projects. But science fiction writers have a fairly good track record in predicting future technologies — for example geosynchronous communications satellites (Arthur C. Clarke) and many aspects of computer technology (Mack Reynolds).\n"
] |
John Adams wrote that the US constitution was, "made for a moral and religious people," and that it is, "wholly inadequate to the government of any other." What elements of the constitution did he believe were suited for a religious society but not an irreligious one?
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It is interesting how many sites quote these particular lines, but provide no context, or even bother to cite the origin. Most of them do so with the obvious intent of saying that the US is a religious country, and has to be a religious country because John Adams said it had to be religious country. It's useful to look at it in context.
It's from his [address to the Massachusetts Militia in October of 1798:](_URL_2_)
> While our Country remains untainted with the Principles and manners, which are now producing desolation in so many Parts of the World: while the \[ USA \] continues Sincere and incapable of insidious and impious Policy: We shall have the Strongest Reason to rejoice in the local destination assigned Us by Providence. But should the People of America, once become capable of that deep .... simulation towards one another and towards foreign nations, which assumes the Language of Justice and moderation while it is practicing Iniquity and Extravagance; and displays in the most captivating manner the charming Pictures of Candour frankness & sincerity while it is rioting in rapine and Insolence: this Country will be the most miserable Habitation in the World. Because We have no Government armed with Power capable of contending with human Passions unbridled by morality and Religion. Avarice, Ambition ,Revenge or Galantry, would break the strongest Cords of our Constitution as a Whale goes through a Net. Our Constitution was made only for a moral and religious People. It is wholly inadequate to the government of any other
It is comparatively easy these days to split off "moral" from "religious". But in this period ( and well into the 20th c.) to say someone was spiritually-guided carried an assumption they were morally-guided as well. Religion was thought to be the main impetus to virtue. Some philosophers like David Hume could argue against that, and show by example that the two did not have to be linked, but the notion of a moral atheist was pretty rare: most people would believe that the only thing that kept humans from doing terrible things was their fear and love of God. Here Adams is using the terms together to make an argument for the Constitution very common to the 1790's: that its success depended upon the active participation in the government by law-abiding honest people. But it also shows one concern that Adams had in particular. Many of the founders, like Madison and Jefferson, thought of Americans as being relatively equal, and content to be equal. Unlike them, Adams ( after the Revolution) thought that humans tended to strive for superiority, and that, even without a hereditary aristocracy in the US, there would arise an aristocratic elite and an unruly mob wishing to loot and supplant it. He was pretty comfortable with the idea of that elite class being a good force ( maybe here, more "armed with Power" ) perhaps even thought the US could have the equivalent of a House of Lords. He thought that the balancing of powers in the Constitution also provided some defense against the conflict, but he was always very uneasy about the danger of mob rule. In 1798, he would be quite aware of the French Revolution "producing desolation": that certainly would have put him in mind of the possibilities of a populace no longer moral and religious.
& #x200B;
John Adams : A Defense of the Constitutions of Government of the United States: [_URL_0_](_URL_1_)
|
[
"Historians have frequently interpreted Federalist No. 10 to imply that the Founding Fathers of the United States intended the government to be nonpartisan. James Madison defined a faction as \"a number of citizens, whether amounting to a minority or majority of the whole, who are united and actuated by some common impulse of passion, or of interest, adverse to the rights of other citizens, or to the permanent and aggregate interests of the community.\" As political parties had interests which were adverse to the rights of citizens and to the general welfare of the nation, several Founding Fathers preferred a nonpartisan form of government.\n",
"BULLET::::- \"federalist\": statesmen and public figures supporting the proposed Constitution of the United States between 1787 and 1789. The most prominent advocates were James Madison, Alexander Hamilton and John Jay. They published \"The Federalist Papers\", which delineated the tenets of the early federalist movement to promote and adopt the proposed Constitution.\n",
"Adams returned to Boston in 1779 to attend a state constitutional convention. The Massachusetts General Court had proposed a new constitution the previous year, but voters rejected it, and so a convention was held to try again. Adams was appointed to a three-man drafting committee with his cousin John Adams and James Bowdoin. They drafted the Massachusetts Constitution, which was amended by the convention and approved by voters in 1780. The new constitution established a republican form of government, with annual elections and a separation of powers. It reflected Adams's belief that \"a state is never free except when each citizen is bound by no law whatever that he has not approved of, either directly, or through his representatives\". By modern standards, the new constitution was not \"democratic\"; Adams, like most of his peers, believed that only free males who owned property should be allowed to vote, and that the senate and the governor served to balance any excesses that might result from majority rule.\n",
"Jefferson was describing to the Baptists that the United States Bill of Rights prevents the establishment of a national church, and in so doing they did not have to fear government interference in their right to expressions of religious conscience. The Bill of Rights, adopted in 1791 as ten amendments to the Constitution of the United States, was one of the earliest political expressions of religious freedom. Others were the Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom, also authored by Jefferson and adopted by Virginia in 1786; and the French Declaration of the Rights of the Man and of the Citizen of 1789.\n",
"Adams first saw the new United States Constitution in late 1787. To Jefferson, he wrote that he read it \"with great satisfaction.\" Adams expressed regret that the president would be unable to make appointments without Senate approval and over the absence of a Bill of Rights. \"Should not such a thing have preceded the model?\" he asked.\n",
"Leading nationalists, George Washington, Alexander Hamilton and Benjamin Franklin (see \"Annapolis Convention\"), called the Constitutional Convention in 1787. It drew up a new constitution that was submitted to state ratification conventions for approval. (The old Congress of the Confederation approved the process.) James Madison was the most prominent figure; he is often referred to as \"the father of the Constitution\".\n",
"The Constitution affirmed the \"duty\" of the individual to worship the \"Supreme Being,\" and that he had the right to do so without molestation \"in the manner most agreeable to the dictates of his own conscience.\" It established a system of public education that would provide free schooling for three years to the children of all citizens. Adams was a strong believer in good education as one of the pillars of the Enlightenment. He believed that people \"in a State of Ignorance\" were more easily enslaved while those \"enlightened with knowledge\" would be better able to protect their liberties. Adams became one of the founders of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1780.\n"
] |
Was there ever a black American mafia as structured as the Italian and Irish?
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Absolutely, in many major (and minor) American cities, there were wings of what we would call the "Black Mafia." Typically unrelated but very powerful crime syndicates in the African-American parts of town. Phildelphia, Chicago, New York and Detroit each had their own families, syndicates, brothels, and gangs. I'll outline one of the more prominent groups that existed with The Harlem Mafia.
***The Harlem Mob***
One of the most famous figures that dominated the Harlem scene was Stephanie "Madame" St. Clair. A Creole Black Harlemite who ran several rackets and gangs across Harlem, owned the Black police force, and was known as "The Tiger of Marseille." When notorious gangster Dutch Schultz tried to edge in on the numbers games in Harlem, St. Clair reportedly said: “Ze God-damned Dutchman can keees my ass,” she hissed. “He zinks I’m some stupid nigga? I show him he zinks wrong!” St. Clair would use her enemy in Schultz to leverage favor with the Italian mobster Lucky Luciano, having him act as protection for the Harlem mob while only paying the Italians a pittance, insuring Black Mafia control of Harlem.
Following (and working with) St. Clair comes probably the most famous black mobster in Ellsworth "Bumpy" Johnson, the Black Kingpin of Harlem. He was a Numbers Game operator, enforcer, drug dealer and Mob Boss who operated in Harlem from the 1930's to the 1960's. He became such a prestigious figure that he appeared in Jet Magazine [once](_URL_0_) after he left the hospital for being shot and [again](_URL_1_) when being arrested for selling heroin. It was under the control of St. Clair and Johnson that famous nightclubs like the Cotton Club were able to flourish in Harlem.
**Sources**
*Harlem Godfather: The Rap on My Husband, Ellsworth "Bumpy" Johnson* Mayme Johnson
*The Cotton Club* James Haskins
|
[
"As Italian immigration grew in the early 20th century many joined ethnic gangs, including Al Capone, who got his start in crime with the Five Points Gang. The Mafia (also known as \"Cosa Nostra\") first developed in the mid-19th century in Sicily and spread to the East Coast of the United States during the late 19th century following waves of Sicilian and Southern Italian emigration. Lucky Luciano established Cosa Nostra in Manhattan, forming alliances with other criminal enterprises, including the Jewish mob, led by Meyer Lansky, the leading Jewish gangster of that period. From 1920–1933, Prohibition helped create a thriving black market in liquor, upon which the Mafia was quick to capitalize.\n",
"As Italian immigration grew in the early 20th century, many joined ethnic gangs. A prominent example is Al Capone, who got his start in crime with the Five Points Gang. The Mafia (also known as \"Cosa Nostra\") first developed in the mid-19th century in Sicily, and spread to the East Coast of the United States during the late 19th century, following waves of Sicilian and Southern Italian emigration. Lucky Luciano established Cosa Nostra in Manhattan, and formed alliances with other criminal enterprises. This included the Jewish mob, which was led by Meyer Lansky, who was the leading Jewish gangster of that period. From 1920 to 1933, Prohibition helped create a thriving black market in liquor, which the Mafia was quick to capitalize on.\n",
"Italian immigrants to the United States in the early 19th century formed various small-time gangs which gradually evolved into sophisticated crime syndicates which dominated organized crime in America for several decades. Although government crackdowns and a less-tightly knit Italian-American community have largely reduced their power, they remain an active force in the underworld.\n",
"The \"Black Mafia\" was formed to coordinate and consolidate historic inner-city crime in numbers, prostitution, and extortion of legitimate businesses, while combining with the rising drug demand in Philadelphia. It can be argued that their success drove legitimate black business and capital, such as the numerous successful African American owned banks, medical practices, stores, landlords, and other African American businesses to escape the city as segregation pressures faded. Angelo Bruno, the don of the Philadelphia crime family, discouraged drug dealing in South Philadelphia, but could not prevent deals being made by the New York mafia families such as the Gambino Crime Family, which were doing business with the growing black organized crime that became the Black Mafia until black New York drug lord Frank Mathews became their supplier. Bruno turned a blind eye to many of the renegade Italian gangsters who \"did business\" with, or supplied, the black drug lords, so long as they met their financial obligations to him and to the New York families. In fact, a rough outline of Italian organized crime (OC) east of Broad Street, with Black OC west of Broad Street, became a shorthand to describe South Philadelphia's hidden forces for decades, damning efforts at urban renewal.\n",
"There were many crime syndicates in Italian Harlem from the early Black Hand to the bigger and more organized Italian gangs that formed the Italian-American Mafia. It was the founding location of the Genovese crime family, one of the Five Families that dominated organized crime in New York City.\n",
"Italian immigrants to the United States in the early 20th century formed various small-time gangs which gradually evolved into sophisticated crime syndicates which dominated organized crime in America for several decades. Although government crackdowns and a less-tightly knit Italian-American community have largely reduced their power, they remain an active force in the underworld\n",
"By the early 1900s, the infamous Black Hand had followed Italian immigrants to Toronto as it had in most major North American cities at the time. Italian organized crime remains prevalent, with the Calabrian 'Ndrangheta such as the Siderno Group, as well as the Sicilian Mafia. During prohibition, Toronto became a major centre for bootlegging operations into the United States, which also saw an increased presence of Italian-American organized crime — specifically the Buffalo crime family.\n"
] |
About innovations and disruptions in the past 100 years I feel that there was a true peak of innovations in the early 20th century (1900- 1930). Is there any proof in academic literature of this as well as explanations why there have been so many innovations during that time? Or am I just biased?
|
The innovations pioneered around that period were arguably more broadly and popularly *impactful* than other periods, but that doesn't mean they were more numerous. The changes in that era were profound - a way of life that had continued fairly unchanged for many centuries was fundamentally altered in developed nations. Previously, one would travel by horse or foot, burn candles for light, communicate verbally or by writing, and poop in a hole. Suddenly, people had cars and trains, electric light and power, radio, and indoor plumbing. (Some of these were older inventions made popular and affordable by industrialization; this too is part of the innovations.) While innovation has continued, and arguably increased, the "low hanging fruit" of changing human lifestyles has pretty much been picked. Cell phones and Internet are wonderful, but they are as much *improvements* of the concept of radio as they are inherently revolutionary. A smart car is vastly more complicated than a Model T, but is still a car. Microwaves are neat, but radiating my hot dogs instead of boiling them is hardly earth-shaking. Moon travel and nuclear weapons don't really effect everyday life the way a light bulb does. I'd argue you may have a bias based on the commonplace impact of earlier industrial innovations, the nature of which arguably made them seem more numerous. Material science or computer coding aren't as apparent or basic of changes as previously.
|
[
"Until the 1980s, it was universally believed by academic historians that technological innovation was the heart of the Industrial Revolution and the key enabling technology was the invention and improvement of the steam engine. However, recent research into the Marketing Era has challenged the traditional, supply-oriented interpretation of the Industrial Revolution.\n",
"A massive amount of new technologies were developed in the 20th century. Technologies such as electricity, the incandescent light bulb, the automobile and the phonograph, first developed at the end of the 19th century, were perfected and universally deployed. The first airplane flight occurred in 1903, and by the end of the century large airplanes such as the Boeing 777 and Airbus A330 flew thousands of miles in a matter of hours. The development of the television and computers caused massive changes in the dissemination of information.\n",
"There is a regard for scientific advancement and technological innovation in American culture, resulting in the flow of many modern innovations. The great American inventors include Robert Fulton (the steamboat); Samuel Morse (the telegraph); Eli Whitney (the cotton gin, interchangeable parts); Cyrus McCormick (the reaper); and Thomas Edison (with more than a thousand inventions credited to his name). Most of the new technological innovations over the 20th and 21st centuries were either first invented in the United States, first widely adopted by Americans, or both. Examples include the lightbulb, the airplane, the transistor, the atomic bomb, nuclear power, the personal computer, the iPod, video games, online shopping, and the development of the Internet.\n",
"One of the prominent traits of the 20th century was the dramatic growth of technology. Organized research and practice of science led to advancement in the fields of communication, engineering, travel, medicine, and war.\n",
"One of the prominent traits of the 20th century was the dramatic growth of technology. Organized research and practice of science led to advancement in the fields of communication, engineering, travel, medicine, and war.\n",
"Due to continuing industrialization and expanding trade, many significant changes of the century were, directly or indirectly, economic and technological in nature. Inventions such as the light bulb, the automobile, and the telephone in the late 19th century, followed by supertankers, airliners, motorways, radio, television, antibiotics, nuclear power, frozen food, computers and microcomputers, the Internet, and mobile telephones affected people's quality of life across the developed world. Scientific research, engineering professionalization and technological development—much of it motivated by the Cold War arms race—drove changes in everyday life.\n",
"An explosion of new discoveries and inventions took place, a process called the Second Industrial Revolution. The electric light, telephone, steam turbine, internal combustion engine, automobile, phonograph, typewriter and tabulating machine were some of the many inventions of the period. New processes for making steel and chemicals such as dyes and explosives were invented. The pneumatic tire, improved ball bearings, machine tools and newly developed metal stamping techniques enabled the large scale production of bicycles in the 1890s. Another significant development was the widespread introduction of electric street railways (trams, trolleys or streetcars) in the 1890s.\n"
] |
How do companies like Jack Daniels that make a product that needs to be aged for years predict how much product they will need in the future?
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Whiskey sells on such a large scale, and the market changes so little. A large chunk of big name liquors get sold directly to bars, whose annual usage has very distinct trends. This cuts a huge chunk of unknown out of their sales figures. And while more and more people are turning 21, people in their early 20s are not the primary consumers of whiskey. So the buying habits of Jack Daniels customers shouldn't be difficult to predict four years in advance. The market overall doesn't change much.
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[
"To accurately determine the success of a new product it is important to understand the detriment its sales are having to older products in a company’s line up. The danger is the new products are taking from old products made by the business instead of increasing market share by taking consumers from competing products made by different businesses. A model was created in 2012 to gauge the change in sales. It is Sales change for focal new model (at time t) =\n",
"According to Alberta Treasury Branch research \"baby boomer SMEs owners/operators are nearing retirement age. In fact, four in ten (42%) of the financial decision makers we talked to are 55 years of age or older. Another ATB survey (ATB Customer Advisory Panel Feb 21, 2013 - Mar 7, 2013) found nearly six in ten (58%) businesses do not have a succession plan in place. And of those 55 years of age or older, almost half (48%) do not have a succession plan. Top reasons cited were: \"it's too early to plan\", \"I don't know\", \"I don't want to think about leaving\", and \"I don't have time to deal with the issue\".\n",
"If the only way a new product can be profitably introduced is to restrain the legitimate competition of older products, then one must seriously wonder whether consumers are genuinely benefited by the new product.\n",
"If the only way a new product can be profitably introduced is to restrain the legitimate competition of older products, then one must seriously wonder whether consumers are genuinely benefited by the new product.\n",
"While horizons of many corporations have grown shorter, some industries still require long term decision-making by the nature of their work. Examples include energy companies which need to take a view about energy prices over two decades ahead in calculating the potential returns from investing in a new oil field, and the pharmaceutical industry where it can take up to fifteen years to bring a drug to market, requiring a view about what health service demand will be for such a treatment some twenty years hence, and whether governments will be likely to pay for it.\n",
"For many years, the company's strategy was to maintain eight to twelve simple, inexpensive products such as Frisbees, Super Balls, and Hula Hoops. New products were developed for tryout periods. Old ones were retired, for a few years or permanently, as their popularity waned. Since the toys were simple and inexpensive, they could be sold by a wide range of retailers, from large Department Stores to five and dime stores.\n",
"Since products are usually second-hand, surplus, or used there is seldom a long development cycle associated with the products that are marketed via this method. However, in the case of individuals who are looking to sell a product or service they have developed to be sold on the small-scale, there is a product development life cycle. However, even when a product goes through a development life cycle when marketed in this manner, seldom does traditional marketing research occur. Oftentimes individuals are looking to make a quick profit, and simply place their product in the market place in hopes that it will be sold.\n"
] |
How far can a raindrop travel horizontally begore hitting the ground?
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I don't see anything besides wind speeds and the altitude of the cloud coming into play. Best bet would probably be to look up the most windy hurricane and find out how far away from the edge of its clouds people felt the rain.
|
[
"In \"splash erosion\", the impact of a falling raindrop creates a small crater in the soil, ejecting soil particles. The distance these soil particles travel can be as much as 0.6 m (two feet) vertically and 1.5 m (five feet) horizontally on level ground.\n",
"In \"splash erosion\", the impact of a falling raindrop creates a small crater in the soil, ejecting soil particles. The distance these soil particles travel can be as much as 0.6 m (two feet) vertically and 1.5 m (five feet) horizontally on level ground.\n",
"When a raindrop hits the interior of the cup with the proper angle and velocity it can produce considerable force, and can create a splash that drives the water up along the sides of the cup (also known as \"splash cups\"), tearing the funiculus, and ejecting the peridioles. The peridioles are followed by their funicular cord and basal hapteron. When they hit a nearby plant stem or stick, the hapteron sticks to it, and the funicular cord wraps around the stem or stick powered by the force of the still-moving peridiole (similar to a tetherball). The peridiole, attached to the plant, may be eaten by herbivorous mammals, and the subsequent passage through its digestive tract will soften the hard shell enough to facilitate later sporulation.\n",
"Raindrops impact at their terminal velocity, which is greater for larger drops due to their larger mass to drag ratio. At sea level and without wind, drizzle impacts at or , while large drops impact at around or .\n",
"The largest recorded raindrop was 8.8 mm in diameter, located at the base of a cumulus congestus cloud in the vicinity of Kwajalein Atoll in July 1999. A raindrop of identical size was detected over northern Brazil in September 1995.\n",
"Total rain attenuation is also dependent upon the spatial structure of rain field. Horizontal, as well as vertical, extension of rain again varies for different rain type and location. Limit of the vertical rain region is usually assumed to coincide with 0˚ isotherm and called rain height. Melting layer height is also used as the limits of rain region and can be estimated from the bright band signature of radar reflectivity. The horizontal rain structure is assumed to have a cellular form, called rain cell. Rain cell sizes can vary from a few hundred meters to several kilometers and dependent upon the rain type and location. Existence of very small size rain cells are recently observed in tropical rain.\n",
"The Rain Vortex is tall. It spans the height of seven storeys. The roof of the waterfall pumps of rain water, which is the equivalent of 20% of the water inside an Olympic-size swimming pool. Just under the waterfall is a suspended railway track, through which a sky train transporting people through the park passes above ground. The entire waterfall falls free flow from the roof, But once it reaches the ground level, there is a glass cover to prevent it from splashing over in the basement level. \n"
] |
What would an observer in the farthest galaxy see?
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The universe is believed to be infinite and isotropic. Thus there is no "leading edge" of the big bang. The big bang occurred simultaneously at every point in the universe, and was an expansion *of* space, not an explosion *in* space.
Given all that, someone at the farthest galaxy that we can see would see the same type of things that we ourselves see, including our galaxy at it appeared billions of years ago, as well as galaxies that are too far away for their light to have reached us.
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[
"VISTA can also stare far beyond our galaxy. In the example on the left (below the image of the Orion Nebula) the telescope took a family photograph of a cluster of galaxies in the constellation of Fornax (the Chemical Furnace). The wide field allows many galaxies to be captured in a single image including the striking barred-spiral NGC 1365 and the big elliptical galaxy NGC 1399. The image was constructed from images taken through Z, J and Ks filters in the near-infrared part of the spectrum and has captured many of the cluster members in a single image. At the lower-right is the elegant barred-spiral galaxy NGC 1365 and to the left the big elliptical NGC 1399, surrounded by a swarm of faint globular clusters. The image is about 1 degree by 1.5 degrees in extent and the total exposure time was 25 minutes.\n",
"In the tenth century, the Persian astronomer Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi cast his eyes upwards to the awning of stars overhead and was the first to record a galaxy outside our own. Gazing at the Andromeda galaxy he called it a \"little cloud\" an apt description of the slightly wispy appearance of our galactic neighbour.\n",
"Chris Lintott commented that: \"One advantage is that you get to see parts of space that have never been seen before. These images were taken by a robotic telescope and processed automatically, so the odds are that when you log on, that first galaxy you see will be one that no human has seen before.\" This was confirmed by Kevin Schawinski: \"Most of these galaxies have been photographed by a robotic telescope, and then processed by computer. So this is the first time they will have been seen by human eyes.\".\n",
"Under exceptionally good viewing conditions with no light pollution, the Triangulum Galaxy can be seen with the naked eye. It is one of the most distant permanent objects that can be viewed without the aid of a telescope. Being a diffuse object, its visibility is strongly affected by just small amounts of light pollution. It ranges from easily visible by direct vision in dark skies to a difficult averted vision object in rural or suburban skies. For this reason, Triangulum is one of the critical sky marks of the Bortle Dark-Sky Scale.\n",
"The first person to use a telescope to observe the night sky and record his observations was the Italian scientist Galileo Galilei in 1609. When he turned the telescope toward some of the nebulous patches recorded by Ptolemy, he found they were not a single star, but groupings of many stars. For Praesepe, he found more than 40 stars. Where previously observers had noted only 6–7 stars in the Pleiades, he found almost 50. In his 1610 treatise \"Sidereus Nuncius\", Galileo Galilei wrote, \"the galaxy is nothing else but a mass of innumerable stars planted together in clusters.\" Influenced by Galileo's work, the Sicilian astronomer Giovanni Hodierna became possibly the first astronomer to use a telescope to find previously undiscovered open clusters. In 1654, he identified the objects now designated Messier 41, Messier 47, NGC 2362 and NGC 2451.\n",
"GLIMPSE, the \"Galactic Legacy Infrared Mid-Plane Survey Extraordinaire\", is a survey spanning 300° of the inner Milky Way galaxy. It consists of approximately 444,000 images taken at four separate wavelengths using the Infrared Array Camera.\n",
"Until this gamma-ray burst event, the Triangulum Galaxy, at a distance of about 2.9 million light years, was the most distant object visible to the naked eye. The galaxy remains the most distant permanent object viewable without aid.\n"
] |
Why is mercury-vapor used instead of non-harmful noble gases in lamps?
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**Short answer:** mercury just happens to have atomic characteristics that make it useful for producing visible light at high efficiency, and it is superior to other elements to the point that we use it despite the possible dangers.
**More details:** in a [gas discharge lamp](_URL_2_), you pass electrical current through an ionized gas (plasma). This excites electrons in the plasma atoms to a higher energy state, and when they fall back down to a lower energy state they give off photons of light.
Different atoms have different energy states for their electrons, and as such produce photons of various energies characteristic to the type of atom. Mercury happens to produce intense ultraviolet light (along with some visible light), and the UV light can be converted into other colors of light by applying a fluorescent coating. The combination produces visible light with good efficiency at reasonable power levels.
As an example of other technology, [xenon arc lamps](_URL_4_) are also used, and (at high power levels) can produce very bright light that is actually a closer approximation of natural sunlight than fluorescent lamps. However, they are less efficient. [Metal halide lamps](_URL_1_) use mercury vapor plus metal halide vapor to add in other spectral lines. They are effectively a combination mercury-vapor and sodium-vapor bulb, as the most common metal halide is sodium iodide. Note that these two are both "high-intensity discharge" lamps, with an electrical arc running between electrodes inside the lamp. They tend to operate at higher power levels, making them less useful for residential lighting. The metal halide lamps also have to (literally) warm up to their full light output, as the metal halide takes some time to heat up and vaporize - not good for residential lighting where they might be turned off and on regularly. Some of them actually cannot be re-lit after being turned off (intentionally or due to interruption of power) without being allowed to cool down for several minutes first. Metal halide lamps have similar efficiency to fluorescent lamps, and are growing more common in large-scale lighting applications where their drawbacks are less relevant and their high power, high [color rendering index](_URL_0_), and high efficiency are useful. [Low-pressure sodium vapor lamps](_URL_3_) are some of the most efficient light sources in existence and use no mercury, but the nearly monochromatic yellow light they produce almost completely destroys the ability to recognize colors, resulting in them being considered unacceptable for most indoor lighting applications.
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[
"In the EU the use of low efficiency mercury vapor lamps for lighting purposes was banned in 2015. It does not affect the use of mercury in compact fluorescent lamp, nor the use of mercury lamps for purposes other than lighting. \n",
"Mercury lamps are the most common source of UV radiation due to their high efficiency. However, the use of mercury in these lamps poses disposal and environmental problems. On the contrary, excimer lamps based on rare gases are absolutely non-hazardous and the excimer lamps containing halogen are more environmentally benign than mercury ones.\n",
"Mercury lamps (λ = 253.7 nm) are also used as UV sources, but their production, use and disposal of old lamps are harmful to personal and environment. Besides, compared with commonly used mercury lamps, excimer lamps have a number of advantages. A specific feature of the excimer molecules is their stability in the excited electronic state and the absence of a strong bond in the ground state. Thanks to the absence of an absorbing ground state of excimer molecule high intensity UV radiation can be extracted from the plasma without significant self-absorption. It makes available to the UV radiation efficiently convert energy deposited to the active medium.\n",
"Mercury is used primarily for the manufacture of industrial chemicals or for electrical and electronic applications. It is used in some thermometers, especially ones which are used to measure high temperatures. A still increasing amount is used as gaseous mercury in fluorescent lamps, while most of the other applications are slowly phased out due to health and safety regulations, and is in some applications replaced with less toxic but considerably more expensive Galinstan alloy. Mercury and its compounds have been used in medicine, although they are much less common today than they once were, now that the toxic effects of mercury and its compounds are more widely understood. It is still used as an ingredient in dental amalgams. In the late 20th century the largest use of mercury was in the mercury cell process (also called the Castner-Kellner process) in the production of chlorine and caustic soda.\n",
"Mercury-vapor lamps were the first commercially available HID lamps. Originally they produced a bluish-green light, but more recent versions can produce light with a less pronounced color tint. However, mercury-vapor lamps are falling out of favor and being replaced by sodium-vapor and metal-halide lamps.\n",
"Mercury is used primarily for the manufacture of industrial chemicals or for electrical and electronic applications. It is used in some thermometers, especially ones which are used to measure high temperatures. A still increasing amount is used as gaseous mercury in fluorescent lamps, while most of the other applications are slowly phased out due to health and safety regulations and is in some applications replaced with less toxic but considerably more expensive Galinstan alloy.\n",
"Noble gases are commonly used in lighting because of their lack of chemical reactivity. Argon, mixed with nitrogen, is used as a filler gas for incandescent light bulbs. Krypton is used in high-performance light bulbs, which have higher color temperatures and greater efficiency, because it reduces the rate of evaporation of the filament more than argon; halogen lamps, in particular, use krypton mixed with small amounts of compounds of iodine or bromine. The noble gases glow in distinctive colors when used inside gas-discharge lamps, such as \"neon lights\". These lights are called after neon but often contain other gases and phosphors, which add various hues to the orange-red color of neon. Xenon is commonly used in xenon arc lamps, which, due to their nearly continuous spectrum that resembles daylight, find application in film projectors and as automobile headlamps.\n"
] |
Exactly where was FDR when he found out about Pearl Harbor?
|
At about 2pm ET the President was in the Yellow Oval Room on the second floor of the White House with friend and aide Harry Hopkins when Secretary of the Navy Frank Knox called and first told him if the reports from Pearl. He was called again a few minutes later by Admiral Stark the Chief of Naval Operations to confirm and expand the reports. Final confirmation came then when Hawaii Governor John Poindexter was put through to the President and the second wave of the attack descended during the conversation.
FDR used the room as a personal study and private space mostly. He kept naval prints and model ships there along with his stamp collection, but would also work out of it. Earlier in the day he had sent regrets to Mrs Roosevelt that he could not attend a reception downstairs, though he would later try to use the attack as his reason for missing out vs just wanting some free time.
Through the rest of the day he would stay there while his senior military leader's assembled, then in the evening address leader's from Congress, and his full Cabinet. All the while his secretaries had set themselves up in the adjoining rooms with phones and typewriters to deliver copies of the latest news from the Pacific.
It was also here late in the evening that he would draft the speech he would give to Congress and also spoke to Prime Minister Churchill briefly to confirm that both nation's had been attacked by Japan and reaffirm their support for each other.
|
[
"In 1982 Stinnett read \"At Dawn We Slept, The Untold Story Of Pearl Harbor\" by World War II veteran and historian Professor Gordon Prange. Stinnett went to Pearl Harbor to investigate and write a news story. His research continued for 17 years and culminated in \"Day of Deceit\", which challenges the orthodox historiography on the attack on Pearl Harbor. Stinnett claimed to have found information showing that the attacking fleet was detected through radio and intelligence intercepts, but that the information was deliberately withheld from Admiral Kimmel, the commander of the base.\n",
"On September 22, Roosevelt, in replying to Republican charges about advance knowledge within the administration regarding the attack on Pearl Harbor, said anyone with such knowledge should notify the military boards who were conducting investigations.\n",
"President Roosevelt appointed the Roberts Commission, headed by U.S. Supreme Court Justice Owen Roberts, to investigate and report facts and findings with respect to the attack on Pearl Harbor. It was the first of many official investigations (nine in all). Both the Fleet commander, Rear Admiral Husband E. Kimmel, and the Army commander, Lieutenant General Walter Short (the Army had been responsible for air defense of Hawaii, including Pearl Harbor, and for general defense of the islands against hostile attack), were relieved of their commands shortly thereafter. They were accused of \"dereliction of duty\" by the Roberts Commission for not making reasonable defensive preparations. None of the investigations conducted during the War, nor the Congressional investigation afterward, provided enough reason to reverse those actions. The decisions of the Navy and War Departments to relieve both was controversial at the time and has remained so. However, neither was court-martialed as would normally have been the result of dereliction of duty. On May 25, 1999, the U.S. Senate voted to recommend both officers be exonerated on all charges, citing \"denial to Hawaii commanders of vital intelligence available in Washington\".\n",
"After World War II, Theobald gained considerable notoriety with his 1954 book \"The Final Secret of Pearl Harbor: The Washington Background of the Pearl Harbor Attack\", which accused the administration of President Franklin Delano Roosevelt of suppressing intelligence about the attack in order to bring the United States into the war.\n",
"BULLET::::- \"Pearl Harbor: Selected Testimonies, Fully Indexed, from the Congressional Hearings (1945-1946) and Prior Investigations of the Events Leading up to the Attack\" (McFarland & Co., 1993) 402 pages (Internet Archive)\n",
"Day of Deceit: The Truth About FDR and Pearl Harbor is a book by Robert Stinnett. It alleges that Franklin Roosevelt and his administration deliberately provoked and allowed the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor to bring the United States into World War II. Stinnett argues that the attacking fleet was detected by radio and intelligence intercepts, but the information was deliberately withheld from Admiral Husband E. Kimmel, the commander of the Pacific Fleet at that time.\n",
"BULLET::::- \"Betrayal at Pearl Harbor:\" Churchill concealed warnings about Pearl Harbor from Roosevelt in order to get America in the war. But In a 1991 interview on Japanese television his co-author Eric Nave \"repudiated a large slice of what Rusbridger had written, calling it speculation.\"\n"
] |
What happens if I get hit by a gamma ray?
|
You *are* getting hit by gamma rays all the time.
|
[
"A gamma-ray burst is an extremely luminous event flash of gamma rays that occurs as the result of an explosion, and is thought to be associated with the formation of a black hole. The burst itself typically only lasts for a few seconds, but gamma-ray bursts frequently produce an \"afterglow\" at longer wavelengths that can be observed for many hours or even days after the burst. Measurements at these wavelengths, which include X-ray, ultraviolet, optical, infrared, and radio, enable follow up study of the event.\n",
"A gamma-ray burst is a highly luminous flash associated with an explosion in a distant galaxy and producing gamma rays, the most energetic form of electromagnetic radiation, and often followed by a longer-lived \"afterglow\" emitted at longer wavelengths (X-ray, ultraviolet, optical, infrared, and radio).\n",
"The gamma ray may transfer its energy directly to one of the most tightly bound electrons, causing that electron to be ejected from the atom, a process termed the photoelectric effect. This should not be confused with the internal conversion process, in which no gamma-ray photon is produced as an intermediate particle.\n",
"According to Woosley's collapsar model, gamma-ray bursts arise from the collapse of stars that are too massive to successfully explode as supernovae. Instead, they result in a hypernova, which produce black holes.\n",
"Another cosmic threat is a gamma-ray burst, typically produced by a supernova when a star collapses inward on itself and then \"bounces\" outward in a massive explosion. Under certain circumstances, these events are thought to produce massive bursts of gamma radiation emanating outward from the axis of rotation of the star. If such an event were to occur oriented towards the Earth, the massive amounts of gamma radiation could significantly affect the Earth's atmosphere and pose an existential threat to all life. Such a gamma-ray burst may have been the cause of the Ordovician–Silurian extinction events. Neither this scenario nor the destabilization of Mercury's orbit are likely in the foreseeable future.\n",
"Gamma-ray burst emission is believed to be released in jets, not spherical shells. Initially the two scenarios are equivalent: the center of the jet is not \"aware\" of the jet edge, and due to relativistic beaming we only see a small fraction of the jet. However, as the jet slows down, two things eventually occur (each at about the same time): First, information from the edge of the jet that there is no pressure to the side propagates to its center, and the jet matter can spread laterally. Second, relativistic beaming effects subside, and once Earth observers see the entire jet the widening of the relativistic beam is no longer compensated by the fact that we see a larger emitting region. Once these effects appear the jet fades very rapidly, an effect that is visible as a power-law \"break\" in the afterglow light curve. This is the so-called \"jet break\" that has been seen in some events and is often cited as evidence for the consensus view of GRBs as jets. Many GRB afterglows do not display jet breaks, especially in the X-ray, but they are more common in the optical light curves. Though as jet breaks generally occur at very late times (~1 day or more) when the afterglow is quite faint, and often undetectable, this is not necessarily surprising.\n",
"Because their energy is strongly focused, the gamma rays emitted by most bursts are expected to miss the Earth and never be detected. When a gamma-ray burst is pointed towards Earth, the focusing of its energy along a relatively narrow beam causes the burst to appear much brighter than it would have been were its energy emitted spherically. When this effect is taken into account, typical gamma-ray bursts are observed to have a true energy release of about 10 J, or about 1/2000 of a Solar mass () energy equivalent—which is still many times the mass-energy equivalent of the Earth (about 5.5 × 10 J). This is comparable to the energy released in a bright type Ib/c supernova and within the range of theoretical models. Very bright supernovae have been observed to accompany several of the nearest GRBs. Additional support for focusing of the output of GRBs has come from observations of strong asymmetries in the spectra of nearby type Ic supernova and from radio observations taken long after bursts when their jets are no longer relativistic.\n"
] |
Say I am an author around the 1850's in the USA, and I just wrote a book, and I want it published. How would I go about that? Were there any distinguished publishing companies? Do I just make a lot of copies and distribute them in book stores?
|
There was a fairly flourishing US publishing industry by the 1850s. For example, Melville published with Harper and Brothers (which is is extant as HarperCollins), Poe with Putnam (also still extant as an imprint of Penguin), Hawthorne and Thoreau with Ticknor and Fields, Emerson with Philips, Samson.
Source: William Charvat, *Literary Publishing in America, 1790-1850*. U of Massachusetts, 1993
|
[
"The American Book Company (ABC) was an educational book publisher in the United States that specialized in elementary school, secondary school and collegiate-level textbooks. It is best known for publishing the McGuffey Readers, which sold 120 million copies between 1836 and 1960.\n",
"Door-to-door book peddlers of the 18th and 19th centuries, also known as \"book canvassers\", used to carry special \"sample books\", a kind of \"preview\", with a table of contents, sample illustrations and some text, designed to advertise the book in question. Canvassing subscription sales were the only way to deliver books to many rural areas of America.\n",
"\"American author of best-selling novels, such as 'Coniston', written between 1898-1941 and partly based upon actual experience in New Hampshire politics. His nearby residence, 'Harlakenden House', was built in 1898 and burned in 1923. It also served as a summer home for President Woodrow Wilson in 1913, 1914 and 1915.\"\n",
"Donnelley launched a \"Four American Books\" campaign in 1926 which culminated with their publication in 1930. The aim was to establish that the company's modern commercial machinery could produce illustrated books to rival high-quality presses in Europe and to establish a reputation as a printer of fine trade editions in order to enter the mass-market book industry. The choice of American authors reflected a growing pride in and market for American literature. C. G. Littell, vice president and treasurer, and William A. Kittredge, head of the department of design and typography, organized the campaign.\n",
"American Book Company was founded in 1996 by Dr. Frank Pintozzi, a professor of reading and English as a Second Language at Kennesaw State University, and Colleen Pintozzi, a math teacher and supervisor of General Educational Development programs.\n",
"As a publisher, he issued many books in fiction, drama and in general literature. Polock published new versions of \"Pike's Arithmetic\" and Oliver Goldsmith's \"A History of the Earth, and Animated Nature.\" In 1857, he published the first collected edition of the works of Charles Brockden Brown. The seven volumes were titled \"The first American Novelist.\" About this time Polock engaged in selling old and rare books and was the first dealer in the United States to exclusively deal in them, particularly in Americana. Polock was an authority on this subject and was a useful resource for both bibliographers and historians who sought his knowledge of early of Pennsylvania, in particular of Philadelphia. \n",
"The business was founded in Cincinnati, Ohio, in 1927 by Bertrand Smith. In 1934 Smith moved to California and established the store in Long Beach; he moved to the current address in 1960. Acres of Books was the largest and oldest family-owned second-hand bookstore in California, claiming to have in stock over one million books.\n"
] |
Do bacteria exhibit a noticeable daily cycle in how they act and react?
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Yes even bacteria can exhibit [circadian rhythms](_URL_0_)
[Here](_URL_1_) is an example that is especially intriguing. The Viking Mars lander of 1976 tested labeled elements on Mars soils samples. They found the soil "consumed" the elements and detection of exactly the same (labeled) elements in the exhaust gas was proof of some sort of consumption/exhalation like an organism. However, because organic compounds were not detected in the samples, it is assumed by most researchers that the reaction was purely chemical and not biological.
Miller and others have found evidence of circadian rhythms in the Viking data. If there is strong statistical support that the rhythm is temperature independent, then this is considered evidence toward some form of bacteria-like life.
|
[
"Most bacteria do not go through a well-defined cell cycle but instead continuously copy their DNA; during rapid growth, this can result in the concurrent occurrence of multiple rounds of replication. In \"E. coli\", the best-characterized bacteria, DNA replication is regulated through several mechanisms, including: the hemimethylation and sequestering of the origin sequence, the ratio of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) to adenosine diphosphate (ADP), and the levels of protein DnaA. All these control the binding of initiator proteins to the origin sequences.\n",
"The variations of the timing and duration of biological activity in living organisms occur for many essential biological processes. These occur (a) in animals (eating, sleeping, mating, hibernating, migration, cellular regeneration, etc.), (b) in plants (leaf movements, photosynthetic reactions, etc.), and in microbial organisms such as fungi and protozoa. They have even been found in bacteria, especially among the cyanobacteria (aka blue-green algae, see bacterial circadian rhythms). The best studied rhythm in chronobiology is the circadian rhythm, a roughly 24-hour cycle shown by physiological processes in all these organisms. The term \"circadian\" comes from the Latin \"circa\", meaning \"around\" and \"dies\", \"day\", meaning \"approximately a day.\" It is regulated by circadian clocks.\n",
"It was found that in the absence of other possible predictors, bacteria belonging to the genus \"Sulfurimonas\" grow in a unimodal relationship, suggesting they increase in bacterial diversity and productivity. This means that without predictors, these bacteria can differentiate and grow exponentially .\n",
"The bacterial cell cycle is divided into three stages. The B period occurs between the completion of cell division and the beginning of DNA replication. The C period encompasses the time it takes to replicate the chromosomal DNA. The D period refers to the stage between the conclusion of DNA replication and the end of cell division. The doubling rate of \"E. coli\" is higher when more nutrients are available. However, the length of the C and D periods do not change, even when the doubling time becomes less than the sum of the C and D periods. At the fastest growth rates, replication begins before the previous round of replication has completed, resulting in multiple replication forks along the DNA and overlapping cell cycles.\n",
"Bacteria can use flagella in different ways to generate different kinds of movement. Many bacteria (such as \"E. coli\") have two distinct modes of movement: forward movement (swimming) and tumbling. The tumbling allows them to reorient and makes their movement a three-dimensional random walk. Bacterial species differ in the number and arrangement of flagella on their surface; some have a single flagellum (\"monotrichous\"), a flagellum at each end (\"amphitrichous\"), clusters of flagella at the poles of the cell (\"lophotrichous\"), while others have flagella distributed over the entire surface of the cell (\"peritrichous\"). The flagella of a unique group of bacteria, the spirochaetes, are found between two membranes in the periplasmic space. They have a distinctive helical body that twists about as it moves.\n",
"The bacterial stress response enables bacteria to survive adverse and fluctuating conditions in their immediate surroundings. Various bacterial mechanisms recognize different environmental changes and mount an appropriate response. A bacterial cell can react simultaneously to a wide variety of stresses and the various stress response systems interact with each other by a complex of global regulatory networks.\n",
"Modeling these type of behaviors of even simple bacteria poses certain challenges. Given the diversity of biological systems, it would appear that the number of behavior responses to an environmental change would be nearly infinite. However, recent studies have shown that biological systems are optimized for a certain environment and will thus respond relatively specific ways to stimuli. This specificity simplifies the computations considerably.\n"
] |
how can dust damage electrical components?
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[dust corrosion](_URL_0_)
Dust contains all kinds of different elements, including some salts. The accumulation of these minerals over time paired with humidity, creates a salty solution, which then does what a salty solution does and eats into the material.
I knew about this immediately because I work with structural fasteners, the kind that hold bridges and ships and buildings together. In storage they’re required to be covered to protect them from dust for this very reason. The dust can diminish any plating on the fasteners through the same process.
Edit: added context
Edit 2: added a related story
|
[
"Dust emitted from processing equipment that may not contain typical soil components is also considered fugitive dust. In this context, fugitive dust is dust that has \"escaped\" during any mechanical process and entered the atmosphere. Fugitive dust emissions within a structure can not only cause respiratory problems but, when generated during the processing of combustible materials, can cause fire and blast damage if ignited.\n",
"Resistance affects electrical conditions in the dust layer by a potential electric field (voltage drop) being formed across the layer as negatively charged particles arrive at its surface and leak their electrical charges to the collection plate. At the metal surface of the electrically grounded collection plate, the voltage is zero, whereas at the outer surface of the dust layer, where new particles and ions are arriving, the electrostatic voltage caused by the gas ions can be quite high. The strength of this electric field depends on the resistance and thickness of the dust layer.\n",
"Particulate and gaseous pollutants, such as soot, ozone, sulfur dioxide, oxides of nitrogen, can cause dust, soiling, and irreversible molecular damage to materials. Pollutants are exceedingly small and not easily detectable or removable. A special filtration system in the building's HVAC is a helpful defense.\n",
"Means have to be provided to discharge static from carts which may carry volatile liquids, flammable gasses, or oxygen in hospitals. Even where only a small charge is produced, it can result in dust particles being attracted to the rubbed surface. In the case of textile manufacture this can lead to a permanent grimy mark where the cloth comes in contact with dust accumulations held by a static charge. Dust attraction may be reduced by treating insulating surfaces with an antistatic cleaning agent.\n",
"If the voltage drop across the dust layer becomes too high, several adverse effects can occur. First, the high voltage drop reduces the voltage difference between the discharge electrode and collection electrode, and thereby reduces the electrostatic field strength used to drive the gas ion-charged particles over to the collected dust layer. As the dust layer builds up, and the electrical charges accumulate on the surface of the dust layer, the voltage difference between the discharge and collection electrodes decreases. The migration velocities of small particles are especially affected by the reduced electric field strength.\n",
"Dust accumulation caused by static cling is a significant issue for computers and other electronic devices with heat generating components that need to be cooled by airflow. Dust is carried into the computer by the airflow created by case- and component fans. The accumulated dust covers metal surfaces and clogs the empty space between the fins of heatsinks, diminishing the dissipation of heat and interrupting the outward flow of warm air. Especially for critical components such as microprocessors and memory banks, this raises the risk of them overheating which can ultimately damage or destroy them. To compensate, automatically controlled fans will raise their speed, generating more noise and shortening their lifespan. An additional risk is the (small) electrical conductivity of dust which, given enough accumulation of dust, can cause critical damage to the device's internal components. Dust accumulation grows exponentially, since the accumulated dust creates new static surfaces and physical bloccades for new dust to cling to.\n",
"In addition, static electricity may become a problem in conditions of low humidity, destroying semiconductor devices, causing static cling of textiles, and causing dust and small particles to stick stubbornly to electrically charged surfaces.\n"
] |
At what point would an outside observer have begun to make a distinction between Judaism and Christianity?
|
Not to put off any further answers or follow-up questions, but [this healthy discussion](_URL_0_) may be of help to you.
|
[
"For centuries, the traditional understanding has been that Judaism came before Christianity and that Christianity separated from Judaism some time after the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE. Starting in the latter half of the 20th century, some scholars have begun to argue that the historical picture is quite a bit more complicated than that. In the 1st century, many Jewish sects existed in competition with each other, see Second Temple Judaism. The sects which eventually became Rabbinic Judaism and Early Christianity were but two of these. Some scholars have begun to propose a model which envisions a twin birth of Christianity and Judaism rather than a separation of the former from the latter. For example, Robert Goldenberg (2002) asserts that it is increasingly accepted among scholars that \"at the end of the 1st century CE there were not yet two separate religions called 'Judaism' and 'Christianity'\".\n",
"Two notable books addressed the relations between contemporary Judaism and Christianity. Abba Hillel Silver's \"Where Judaism Differs\" and Leo Baeck's \"Judaism and Christianity\" were both motivated by an impulse to clarify Judaism's distinctiveness \"in a world where the term Judeo-Christian had obscured critical differences between the two faiths.\"\n",
"There is considerable debate among historians as to when Christianity was differentiated from Judaism. Most scholars believe that Roman distinction between Jews and Christians took place around 70 AD. Tiberius most likely viewed Christians as a Jewish sect rather than a separate, distinct faith.\n",
"Two notable books addressed the relations between contemporary Judaism and Christianity, Abba Hillel Silver's \"Where Judaism Differs\" and Leo Baeck's \"Judaism and Christianity\", both motivated by an impulse to clarify Judaism's distinctiveness \"in a world where the term Judeo-Christian had obscured critical differences between the two faiths.\" Reacting against the blurring of theological distinctions, Rabbi Eliezer Berkovits wrote that \"Judaism is Judaism because it rejects Christianity, and Christianity is Christianity because it rejects Judaism.\" Theologian and author Arthur A. Cohen, in \"The Myth of the Judeo-Christian Tradition\", questioned the theological validity of the Judeo-Christian concept and suggested that it was essentially an invention of American politics, while Jacob Neusner, in \"Jews and Christians: The Myth of a Common Tradition\", writes, \"The two faiths stand for different people talking about different things to different people.\"\n",
"As Christianity grew throughout the gentile world, the developing Christian tradition diverged from its Jewish and Jerusalem roots. Historians continue to debate the precise moment when early Christianity established itself as a new religion, apart and distinct from Judaism. It is difficult to trace the process by which the two separated or to know exactly when this began. Jewish Christians continued to worship in synagogues together with contemporary Jews for centuries. Some scholars have found evidence of continuous interactions between Jewish-Christian and Rabbinic movements from the mid-to late second century CE to the fourth century CE. Philip S. Alexander characterizes the question of when Christianity and Judaism parted company and went their separate ways as \"one of those deceptively simple questions which should be approached with great care\".\n",
"Some theorize that the split of early Christianity and Judaism in the mid-2nd century eventually led to the determination of a Jewish canon by the emerging rabbinic movement, though, even as of today, there is no scholarly consensus as to when the Jewish canon was set. For example, some scholars argue that the Jewish canon was fixed earlier, by the Hasmonean dynasty (140–137 BC). There is a lack of direct evidence on when Christians began accepting their own scriptures alongside the Septuagint. Well into the 2nd century Christians held onto a strong preference for oral tradition as clearly demonstrated by writers of the time, such as Papias.\n",
"The Hebrew Bible, a religious interpretation of the traditions and early history of the Jews, established the first of the Abrahamic religions, which are now practiced by 54% of the world. Judaism guides its adherents in both practice and belief, and has been called not only a religion, but also a \"way of life,\" which has made drawing a clear distinction between Judaism, Jewish culture, and Jewish identity rather difficult. Throughout history, in eras and places as diverse as the ancient Hellenic world, in Europe before and after The Age of Enlightenment (see Haskalah), in Islamic Spain and Portugal, in North Africa and the Middle East, India, China, or the contemporary United States and Israel, cultural phenomena have developed that are in some sense characteristically Jewish without being at all specifically religious. Some factors in this come from within Judaism, others from the interaction of Jews or specific communities of Jews with their surroundings, and still others from the inner social and cultural dynamics of the community, as opposed to from the religion itself. This phenomenon has led to considerably different Jewish cultures unique to their own communities.\n"
] |
asian men wearing a western suit is acceptable, but why is it weird for a white guy to wear a kimono?
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Because you are more used to seeing an Asian guy wearing a suit then a white guy wearing a kimono.
|
[
"In the modern era, the principal distinctions between men's kimono are in the fabric. The typical men's kimono is a subdued, dark color; black, dark blues, greens, and browns are common. Fabrics are usually matte. Some have a subtle pattern, and textured fabrics are common in more casual kimono. More casual kimono may be made in slightly brighter colors, such as lighter purples, greens and blues. Sumo wrestlers have occasionally been known to wear quite bright colors such as fuchsia.\n",
"The Kimono (着物), labelled the \"national costume of Japan\", is the most formal and well-known form of traditional fashion. Japanese kimono are wrapped around the body, sometimes in several layers, and are secured in place by sashes with a wide obi to complete it. There are accessories and ties needed to wear the kimono correctly.\n",
"Han Chinese clothing has influenced many of its neighbouring cultural costumes, such as the Japanese kimono and yukata, Korean hanbok and the Vietnamese Áo giao lĩnh. Elements of Han Chinese clothing have also been influenced by neighbouring cultural costumes, especially by the nomadic peoples to the north, and Central Asian cultures to the west by way of the Silk Road.\n",
"Hui men wear a white prayer cap with traditional Chinese clothing including the Chinese suit and a robe called a changshan. (See Islam in China). Uyghur men wear a cap that can be of almost any color and graphic design, but formed into four corners at the top. In the United States, the Chinese robe is sold as a \"men's cheongsam\". For formal wear, the robe is made of silk, because silk is the traditional Chinese fabric. The rule of men not wearing silk for Muslims is ignored in China, because in China silk clothings are unisex while in the Arab world it is a feminine fabric. Cotton robes and kung fu suits are worn to jumu'ah. In China, the Hui people developed Muslim Chinese martial arts. Recently, the Chinese government has adopted the Tangzhuang as the national costume for men.\n",
"People may wear ethnic or national dress on special occasions or in certain roles or occupations. For example, most Korean men and women have adopted Western-style dress for daily wear, but still wear traditional hanboks on special occasions, like weddings and cultural holidays. Items of Western dress may also appear worn or accessorized in distinctive, non-Western ways. A Tongan man may combine a used T-shirt with a Tongan wrapped skirt, or tupenu.\n",
"\"Changshan\" was considered formal dress for Chinese men before Western-style suits were widely adopted in China. The male \"changshan\" could be worn under a western overcoat, and topped with a fedora and scarf. This combination expressed an East Asian modernity in the early 20th century.\n",
"Kimonos range from extremely formal to casual. The level of formality of women's kimono is determined mostly by the pattern of the fabric, and color. Young women's kimonos have longer sleeves, signifying that they are not married, and tend to be more elaborate than similarly formal older women's kimono. Men's kimonos are usually one basic shape and are mainly worn in subdued colors. Formality is also determined by the type and color of accessories, the fabric, and the number or absence of \"kamon\" (family crests), with five crests signifying extreme formality. Silk is the most desirable, and most formal, fabric. Kimonos made of fabrics such as cotton and polyester generally reflect a more casual style.\n"
] |
Why did the Dutch golden age end?
|
It's no really a case of decline but more a case of being surpassed in economic growth. This had a number of reasons:
- Mercantilism/Colbertisme (other country's protecting their own trade) Example: Act of Navigation (1651) Banned foreign ships from trading in English ports.
- high wages/ low productivity
- Costly wars and disastrous wars.
In 1672 an alliance of France, England, Sweden, Munster and Cologne Invaded the Netherlands and almost conquered it. This year is dubbed rampjaar ("disaster year") in Dutch.
- Political Corruptness/Laziness
the Netherlands where a republic and governed by a group of people called 'regenten' they where members of rich and influenced families, the most important regent was the *raadpensionaris van het gewest Holland* of *Landsadvocaat* the most important military role was *de Stadhouder* *de facto* was this a hereditary position hold by a member of the House of Orange.
There was always a power struggle between the *Staatsgezinden* ( people who supported the Landsadvocaat ) and the *Prinsgezinden* ( people who supported the Stadhouders ) in times of peace and prosperity the *landsadvocaat* held the most power, between 1650 and 1672 there was no *stadhouders*. when in 1672 the french invaded the people blamed the regents for the state of the army and demanded a *stadhouder*. William III was made *stadhouder* and defended the republic. William had ambitions to become king! and in 1689 he became king of England, this meant safety for the Nederlands but the Bill of Rights prevented that William revoked bills like The Acts of Navigation. But it also meant that The Netherlands needed support England in some large wars, with peace deals that clearly favored British interests. (I'am looking a you Peace of Utrecht (1713))
In the same period ( early to late 18th centenary) the ruling class became corrupted and lazy they where more busy protecting their interests than protection the Dutch interest, they where becoming also more of a aristocracy/Plutocracy. They where appointing important jobs to each other, it was increasingly harder to join their class.
- Political stability in the rest of Europe
One of the most important factors in the decline of the republic is the growth of other countries. The Netherlands is a small country ( DUH ) and can't produce the same amount of goods than the economic power house France, the same is with manpower and military strength. The Dutch Republic most successful years where in the period that England, France and The Holy Roman Empire where weak.
England had to deal with their civil wars (1639-1651) and the political aftermath. From 1688 there was a fast economic growth.
France became a powerhouse under the rule of Louis XIV (1643-1715) he gave France the largest army in the world, this forced the Dutch to invest in their army what raided the tax burden in the Netherlands.
between 1618-1648 their was the 30 year war in the HRE which devastated much of what is now Germany. The Netherlands where involved in this war, but the war didn't affect the Netherlands that much. After the war the HRE could rebuild them self.
**TL;DR: The rest of Europe gets their shit together and simply out growth the Dutch. While the Dutch lost their edge they didn't had an answer**
|
[
"The Dutch Golden Age ( ) was a period in the history of the Netherlands, roughly spanning the 17th century, in which Dutch trade, science, military, and art were among the most acclaimed in the world. The first section is characterized by the Eighty Years' War, which ended in 1648. The Golden Age continued in peacetime during the Dutch Republic until the end of the century.\n",
"The Dutch Republic ended the Nine Years' War with huge debts, forcing them to reduce expenditure on the navy and further weakening their economy. This and the huge additional investment required to win the 1701-1714 War of the Spanish Succession would bring the Dutch Golden Age to an end.\n",
"The main defensive response of the Dutch economy was in capital investment. The enormous capital stock amassed during the Golden Age was redirected away from investment in commerce, agricultural land (where rents went down appreciably in a short period of time), and real estate (house rents also sharply declined), and instead in the direction of other, rather high-risk investments. One of these was the whaling industry in which the \"Noordsche Compagnie\" had held a Dutch monopoly in the first half of the century. After its charter expired other companies entered this market, leading to an expansion of the Dutch whaling fleet from about 75 ships to 200 ships after 1660. The results were disappointing, however, due to overfishing, a high price elasticity of demand due to substitutability of vegetable oils for whale oil, and the competition of foreign whalers.\n",
"The Dutch Golden Age roughly spanned the 17th century. Due to the thriving economy, cities expanded greatly. New town halls and storehouses were built, and many new canals were dug out in and around various cities such as Delft, Leiden and Amsterdam for defence and transport purposes. Many wealthy merchants had a new house built along these canals. These houses were generally very narrow and had ornamented façades that befitted their new status. The reason they were narrow was because a house was taxed on the width of the façade. The architecture of the first republic in Northern Europe was marked by sobriety and restraint, and was meant to reflect democratic values by quoting extensively from classical antiquity. In general, architecture in the Low Countries, both in the Counter-Reformation-influenced south and Protestant-dominated north, remained strongly invested in northern Italian Renaissance and Mannerist forms that predated the Roman High Baroque style of Borromini and Bernini. Instead, the more austere form practiced in the Dutch Republic was well suited to major building patterns: palaces for the House of Orange and new civic buildings, uninfluenced by the Counter-Reformation style that made some headway in Antwerp. At the end of the 19th century there was a remarkable neo-gothic stream or Gothic Revival both in church and in public architecture, notably by the Roman Catholic Pierre Cuypers, who was inspired by the Frenchman Viollet le Duc. The Amsterdam Rijksmuseum (1876–1885) and Amsterdam Centraal Station (1881–1889) belong to his main buildings.\n",
"During the Eighty Years' War, the Dutch began a heavily invested worldwide trade - hunting whales around Svalbard, trading spices from India and Indonesia, founding colonies in Brazil, South Africa, North America (New Netherlands), and the Caribbean. The empire, which they accumulated through trade, led to the Dutch Golden Age in the 17th century. The Dutch fishing industry peaked in the early 17th century. The Herring Buss improved harvest of herring, and the Dutch also expanded to cod and whale fisheries.\n",
"The Dutch economy never fully recovered from the severe crisis, although the Dutch Golden Age is sometimes said to have continued until the end of the century. The art market was as severely affected as other trades. A famous comment by Jan Vermeer's widow described how he was unable to sell work thereafter. The leading maritime artists, Willem van de Velde the Elder and his son Willem II, both emigrated to London, never to return.\n",
"In the Dutch Golden Age, which had its zenith around 1667, there was a flowering of trade, industry, the arts and the sciences. A rich worldwide Dutch empire developed and the Dutch East India Company became one of the earliest and most important of national mercantile companies based on entrepreneurship and trade.\n"
] |
why do avoiding left hand turns save gas?
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If you have thousands of trucks, avoiding the time spent waiting to make left turns across traffic can add up, especially if your planning routes with dozens of stupid. In your personal life, where you only have two or three destinations, your never notice the difference or even travel further.
|
[
"In Singapore, it is illegal to turn left (into the nearest lane, due to the left-hand driving) during a red light. This rule, however, does not apply if a \"Left Turn on Red\" sign is present at the junction, allowing left turning motorists to turn left, provided they stop before the stop line and give way to pedestrians and incoming traffic.\n",
"In baseball, the left right switch is a maneuver by which a player that struggles against left- or right-handed players is replaced by a player who excels in the situation, usually only for the duration of the situation in question. For instance, a right-handed pitcher who is weak against left-handed hitting and is facing a left-handed hitter would be replaced with a pitcher, usually left-handed, who does a superior job of getting a left-handed hitter out. Similarly, a batter who has difficulty hitting against a left-handed pitcher will sometimes be pinch hit for by a batter who does well, even if the original player is superior in other respects.\n",
"In Australia, where traffic drives on the left, the Victorian state government introduced the \"P-turn\", similar to the Michigan left, at one intersection in 2009. This requires right-turning vehicles to turn left then make a U-turn. As of May 2015, the intersection in the southeastern Melbourne suburb of Frankston remains the only one of its kind in the state, and local residents have called for its removal.\n",
"Part of the delay at a typical high-volume right-hand drive intersection is to accommodate left-turns; through-traffic must wait for the traffic turning left because it crosses the path of the through traffic. The continuous flow intersection moves the left-turn conflict out of the intersection and synchronizes it with the signal cycle of the intersecting road.\n",
"Most (except for Italian and French) designs use right-hand (normal) threading for the left side and left-hand (reverse) threading for the right (drive) side. This is opposite of most pedal threading and is done for the same reason: to keep the bottom bracket cup from backing out of the bottom bracket shell due to precession.\n",
"In right-hand traffic, the yellow trap is a potentially dangerous scenario in traffic flow through a traffic light relating to permissive left turns. It occurs when a circular yellow light is displayed to a movement with permissive left turns, while at the same time, opposing through traffic still has a circular green light. Some drivers facing the circular yellow (then red) lights will assume the opposite direction faces the same color display, and that oncoming traffic will stop. This leads to potential traffic conflict if drivers attempt to complete a left turn when it is not safe to do so. The left-turning driver may legally be at fault, for failure to yield, but made an understandable mistake.\n",
"There is no presumption of negligence which arises from the bare fact of a collision at an intersection, and circumstances may dictate that a left turn is safer than to turn right. The American Association of State Highway Transportation Officials (AASHTO) recommends in their publication Geometric Design of Highways and Streets that left or right turns are to be provided the \"same\" time gap. Some states have recognized this in statute, and a presumption of negligence is only raised \"because\" of the \"turn\" if and only if the turn was prohibited by an erected sign.\n"
] |
how likely is it to survive a headshot?
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There are notable cases of people surviving a bullet that actually enters the skull and penetrates the brain. Malala Yousafzai, Gabrielle Giffords, and although it's not a bullet, you have to remember Phineas Gage, who survive a steel bar through the head. So yes, it's survivable, although the degree of deficits you have is often a matter of where it penetrates, and how young you are.
More often though, a headshot is survivable because the bullet doesn't penetrate the skull and track through the brain. *Most* of the time that you get a bullet in your brain, you're not going to live, or live well. Most of the times that a bullet hits an unarmored head, it's going to kill you.
Variables to consider in all of this are: Caliber of the bullet, velocity of the bullet when it hits (was it a long rifle at a 100 yards, or a 9mm pistol at 100 yards?), and the angle of the impact. That last only really matters if the bullet is relatively light, slow, and/or in the terminal portion of its flight.
The thing is, the head is a small target, and it moves a lot relatively to the body; it's quite hard to hit on a human target without training, and a good rifle... or close range.
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[
"BULLET::::- Medic - Takes the damage from the other headcase heads onto itself until its reached near 0 hit points, this effect grows more efficient with later medic type heads(taking more damage quickly while sustaining slower damage to self)\n",
"BULLET::::- On June 7, 2012, 16-year-old Yasser Lopez made national news when he successfully underwent a delicate 3-hour neurosurgical operation to remove a spear that a speargun had fired into his skull when it was accidentally discharged during a fishing trip; 3 feet of the spear protruded from the wound above his eye socket, and that part had to be specially cut off so he could get a brain CT scan. Miraculously, no major blood vessels were harmed and the only impairments thus far are amnesia for the period during and around the event, which is somewhat normal, and some sluggishness in a hand.\n",
"\"Three days after his death, a military official told Ms. Chen and her husband, Yan Tao Chen, that investigators had not yet determined whether the shot to the head was self-inflicted or fired by someone else.\n",
"A person shot from about 1 meter with an 18x45T OSA pistol to the temporal region of the head suffered a penetrative injury, with the bullet traversing most of the brain, reducing the victim to a vegetative state.\n",
"BULLET::::- Fastest Water escape, from a trap in which his limbs were tied and he was suspended upside down with a water tank kept below his head. He successfully escaped without his head completely submerging, in 2.5 minutes.\n",
"The first story is one in which a man shoots himself in the head, but misses his brain completely, blowing part of his skull off and exposing his brain. He went to the doctor, who in turn pressed the man's brain with a spatula to get a reaction out of him, which he did.\n",
"On August 7, 2005, Cohn was shot in the head during an attempted carjacking in Denver, Colorado, while on a concert tour with Suzanne Vega. The bullet \"barely missed Cohn's eye and lodged near his skull\"; Cohn was hospitalized for observation but released after 8 hours, and is quoted as saying, \"doctors told me I was the luckiest unlucky guy they had met in a long, long time.\" A police spokesperson surmised that the car's windshield may have significantly impeded the bullet's force, and added: \"Frankly, I can't tell you how he survived\". The shooter was sentenced to 36 years in prison.\n"
] |
How dangerous was it for World Leaders to meet during WW1 & 2?
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So the most spectacular example of this going terribly comes in June of 1916.
Field Marshall the Lord Kitchener of Khartoum, who was serving as Secretary State for War was traveling to Russia in order to participate in negotiations and planning in person with the distressed Czar's government. He planned to take a RN cruiser up around Scandinavia to Arkhangelsk. He arrived in Scapa Flow in the Orkney's, which was the home base of the Grand Fleet.
After meeting with Admiral Jellicoe aboard the Iron Duke he transferred to the cruiser HMS Hampshire. Owing to a terrible gale her 2 escort destroyers were sent back, the idea being ti was unsafe for them and U-Boats were unlikely to be a threat.
Unfortunately about a week before, in the run up to Jutland, U-75 had put down a minefield and she struck one of these. Nearly all of her 700 passengers and crew were lost in the incident.
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[
"In 1914, a political assassination in Sarajevo set off a chain of events that led to the outbreak of World War I. As more and more young men were sent down into the trenches, influential voices in the United States and Britain began calling for the establishment of a permanent international body to maintain peace in the postwar world. President Woodrow Wilson became a vocal advocate of this concept, and in 1918 he included a sketch of the international body in his 14-point proposal to end the war. In November 1918, the Central Powers agreed to an armistice to halt the killing in World War I. Two months later, the Allies met with Germany and Austria-Hungary at Versailles to hammer out formal peace terms. President Wilson wanted peace, but the United Kingdom and France disagreed, forcing harsh war reparations on their former enemies. The League of Nations was approved, and in the summer of 1919 Wilson presented the Treaty of Versailles and the Covenant of the League of Nations to the US Senate for ratification. On January 10, 1920, the League of Nations formally comes into being when the Covenant of the League of Nations, ratified by 42 nations in 1919, takes effect. \n",
"World War I, in which the United States and its allies fought - among other Central Powers - the German Empire, raised concern about the German threat to the United States. The Espionage Act of 1917 and the Sedition Act of 1918 were passed in response.\n",
"World War I broke out in June 1914, pitting the Allied Powers (France, Russia, Britain, and other countries) against the Central Powers (Germany, Austria-Hungary, and other countries). Hoover and other London-based American businessmen established a committee to organize the return of the roughly 100,000 Americans stranded in Europe. Hoover was appointed as the committee's chair and, with the assent of Congress and the executive branch, took charge of the distribution of relief to Americans in Europe. Hoover later stated, \"I did not realize it at the moment, but on August 3, 1914, my career was over forever. I was on the slippery road of public life.\" By early October 1914, Hoover's organization had distributed relief to at least 40,000 Americans.\n",
"As World War I raged in Europe from 1914, President Woodrow Wilson took full control of foreign policy, declaring neutrality but warning Germany that resumption of unrestricted submarine warfare against American ships supplying goods to Allied nations would mean war. Germany decided to take the risk and try to win by cutting off supplies to Britain through the sinking of ships such as the RMS Lusitania; the U.S. declared war in April 1917 mainly from the threat of the Zimmermann telegram. American money, food, and munitions arrived quickly, but troops had to be drafted and trained; by summer 1918 American soldiers under General John J. Pershing's American Expeditionary Forces arrived at the rate of 10,000 a day, while Germany was unable to replace its losses. Dissent against the war was suppressed by the Sedition Act of 1918 & Espionage Act of 1917, German language, leftist & pacifist publications were suppressed, and over 2,000 were imprisoned for speaking out against the war, the political prisoners were later released by U.S President Warren G. Harding.\n",
"Held from July 7, 1915, The first inter-allied military conference of the First World War was convened at \"Grand Quartier Général\" (GQG) Chantilly, France shortly after Italy entered the war against the Central Powers. Attending were representatives from Britain (including the Commander-in-Chief Sir John French and the Chief of the Imperial General Staff William Robertson), France (Alexandre Millerand, the Minister of War and Joseph Joffre, the Commander-in-Chief), Belgium, Italy, Serbia and Russia. Joffre told the delegates that concerted, coordinated action would create the most favourable conditions for an Allied victory to present themselves. No specific undertakings were agreed upon as a consequence of the conference. A later conference at Chantilly about five months later, was more ambitious in its aims and led to a commitment by the Allies to begin an offensive should an Ally be endangered by the Central Powers.\n",
"The President of the United States Woodrow Wilson, after winning reelection with the slogan \"He kept us out of war,\" was able to navigate neutrality in World War I for about three years. Early on, their historic shunning of foreign entanglements, and the presence in the US of immigrants with divided loyalties in the conflict helped maintain neutrality. Various causes compelled American entry into World War I, and Congress would vote to declare war on Germany; this would involve the nation on the side of the Triple Entente, but only as an \"associated power\" fighting the same enemy, not one officially allied with them. A few months after the declaration of War, Wilson gave a speech to congress outlining his aims to end the conflict, labeled the Fourteen Points. While this American proclamation was less triumphalist than the aims of some of its allies, it did propose in the final point, that a \"general association of nations must be formed under specific covenants for the purpose of affording mutual guarantees of political independence and territorial integrity to great and small states alike.\" After the war, Wilson traveled to Europe and stayed for months to labor on the post-war treaty; no president had previously enjoined such sojourn outside of the country. In that Treaty of Versailles, Wilson's \"association\" was formulated as the League of Nations.\n",
"Therefore, the outbreak of World War I in 1914, and the collapse of the Socialist International, came as a shock to Ture Nerman. Almost all the leaders of the European Socialist Parties suddenly sided with their bourgeoisie governments in support of the war, and turned against their former Socialist allies. Workers were killing workers on the battlefields.\n"
] |
how many appliances can i plug into a single socket (using series of extension chords) without 'something going wrong'?
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> I have a single socket in my room, and I use a series of extension chords to run a few ~~high~~low-power appliances such as a laptop, monitor, PS3, lampshades, speakers, LEDs etc.
Fixed that for you
Everything you listed consumes 200W or less. The laptop is probably around 30W while the monitors may be closer to 50W
A standard US outlet/breaker can support up to 1800 W of power(15A). If you load it up to that level or beyond you run the risk of the breaker tripping and turning off all your connected devices. Based on your loads, you're probably drawing less than 500W on a regular basis(i doubt you have everything at max power at the same time)
Don't add a toaster or hairdryer to the mix and you'll be good
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[
"Plug adaptors permit two or more plugs to share one socket-outlet, or allow the use of a plug of different type. There are several common types, including double- and triple-socket blocks, shaver adaptors, and multi-socket strips. Adaptors which allow the use of non-BS 1363 plugs, or more than two BS 1363 plugs, must be fused. Appliances are designed not to draw more power than their plug is rated for; the use of such adaptors, and also multi-socketed extension leads, makes it possible for several appliances to be connected through a single outlet, with the potential to cause dangerous overloads.\n",
"Plug and socket connectors are usually made up of a male plug (typically pin contacts) and a female socket (typically receptacle contacts). Often, but not always, sockets are permanently fixed to a device as in a chassis connector , and plugs are attached to a cable. \n",
"There are several AS/NZS 3112 plug variants, including ones with larger or differently shaped pins used for devices drawing 15, 20, 25 and 32 A. These sockets accept plugs of equal or of a lower current capacity, but not of higher capacity. For example, a 10 A plug will fit all sockets but a 20 A plug will fit only 20, 25 and 32 A sockets. In New Zealand PDL 940 \"Tap-on\" or Piggy-back plugs are available which allow a second 10 A plug, or a charger, to be fitted to the rear of the plug.\n",
"In the case of non-permanently connected domestic equipment, a BS 1363-2 socket rated at 13 A is attached to the ring circuit, into which a fused plug may be inserted. (Note, it is not intended that the fuse should protect the appliance itself, for which it is still necessary for the appliance designer to take the necessary precautions.) Multiple socket accessories may be protected with a fuse within the socket assembly.\n",
"Where loads other than BS 1363 sockets are connected to a ring circuit or it is desired to place more than one socket for low power equipment on a spur, a BS 1363 fused connection unit (FCU) is used. In the case of fixed appliances this will be a switched fused connection unit (SFCU) to provide a point of isolation for the appliance, but in other cases such as feeding multiple lighting points (putting lighting on a ring though is generally considered bad practice in new installation but is often done when adding lights to an existing property) or multiple sockets, an unswitched one is often preferable.\n",
"Generally the plug is the movable connector attached to an electrically operated device's mains cable, and the socket is fixed on equipment or a building structure and connected to an energised electrical circuit. The plug has protruding pins or, in US terminology, blades (referred to as \"male\") that fit into matching slots or holes (called \"female\") in the sockets. A plug is defined in IEC 60050 as an \"accessory having pins designed to engage with the contacts of a socket-outlet, also incorporating means for the electrical connection and mechanical retention of flexible cables or cords\", a plug does not contain components which modify the electrical output from the electrical input (except where a switch or fuse is provided as a means of disconnecting the output from input). In this article, the term 'plug' is used in the sense defined by IEC 60050. Sockets are designed to prevent exposure of bare energised contacts.\n",
"Within each size group, the plugs and sockets are keyed with certain \"lugs\" protruding on the outside of the plugs. Higher current plugs have more lugs to prevent them from being inserted into a lower current socket outlet, while still allowing them to be inserted into a socket outlet of the same size group rated for a higher current. For example, a 32 A 4-pin plug without neutral can plug into a 50 A 5-pin socket with neutral available.\n"
] |
why is it that when driving in cruise control, going uphill feels like the car is going much faster when in reality it’s maintaining speed?
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When the car is in cruise control it is monitoring and attempting, as you said, to maintain the speed it was set to. When you go up hill the car faces more resistance as it has to work against gravity more, so when in cruise control this causes the car to slow down, the car notices this and then attempts to accelerate, like if you pushed down on the gas, to maintain the speed. You are likely hearing the engine rev up which we usually associate with 'going fast,' but the car is just maintaining.
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[
"A primitive way to implement cruise control is simply to lock the throttle position when the driver engages cruise control. However, if the cruise control is engaged on a stretch of flat road, then the car will travel slower going uphill and faster when going downhill. This type of controller is called an \"open-loop controller\" because there is no feedback; no measurement of the system output (the car's speed) is used to alter the control (the throttle position.) As a result, the controller cannot compensate for changes acting on the car, like a change in the slope of the road.\n",
"If the speed of the car starts to drop below the goal-speed, for example when climbing a hill, the small increase in the error signal, amplified, causes engine output to increase, which keeps the error very nearly at zero. If the speed begins to exceed the goal, e.g. when going down a hill, the engine is throttled back so as to act as a brake, so again the speed is kept from departing more than a barely detectable amount from the goal speed (brakes being needed only if the hill is too steep). The result is that the cruise control system maintains a speed close to the goal as the car goes up and down hills, and as other disturbances such as wind affect the car's speed. This is all done without any planning of specific actions, and without any blind reactions to stimuli. Indeed, the cruise control system does not sense disturbances such as wind pressure at all, it only senses the controlled variable, speed. Nor does it control the power generated by the engine, it uses the 'behavior' of engine power as its means to control the sensed speed.\n",
"During the duration of the ride, the ride changes speeds. When the ride is fluctuating in its wavelike manner, the person will feel like the ride is not going that fast. However, when the ride is almost over, the person will feel forces on their body, and get pushed toward the outside of the cars. This happens when the ride starts lowering to the ground in a non-wavelike manner. When the ride moves in this way, it acts like a Himalaya / Musik Express ride.\n",
"As with cars, wheel travel and spring rate affect the bumpiness of the ride and the speed at which rough terrain can be negotiated. It may be significant that a smooth ride, which is often associated with comfort, increases the accuracy when firing on the move (analogously to battle ships with reduced stability, due to reduced metacentric height). It also reduces shock on optics and other equipment. The unsprung weight and track link weight may limit speed on roads and affect the life of the track and other components.\n",
"When a vehicle and all its contents, including passengers and luggage are travelling at speed, they have inertia / momentum, which means that they will continue forward with that direction and speed (Newton's first law of motion). In the event of a sudden deceleration of a rigid framed vehicle due to impact, unrestrained vehicle contents will continue forwards at their previous speed due to inertia, and impact the vehicle interior, with a force equivalent to many times their normal weight due to gravity. The purpose of crumple zones is to slow down the collision and to absorb energy to reduce the difference in speeds between the vehicle and its occupants.\n",
"Cruise control (sometimes known as speed control or autocruise, or tempomat in some countries) is a system that automatically controls the speed of a motor vehicle. The system is a servomechanism that takes over the throttle of the car to maintain a steady speed as set by the driver.\n",
"Cruise control automatically controls the rate of motion of a motor vehicle. The driver sets the speed and the system will take over the throttle of the car to maintain the same speed. Cruise control was invented in 1945 by a blind inventor and mechanical engineer named Ralph Teetor. His idea was born out of the frustration of riding in a car driven by his lawyer, who kept speeding up and slowing down as he talked. The first car with Teetor's system was the Chrysler Imperial in 1958. This system calculated ground speed based on driveshaft rotations and used a solenoid to vary throttle position as needed.\n"
] |
Why is Carbon and Water so fundamentally necessary for life? Couldn't an extraterrestrial lifeform be based on, let's say, silicium?
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Water is important because it is a potent solvent and is liquid in a temperature range that is conducive to organic chemical reactions.
Carbon is important because it is fairly inert once in molecules so you can form many long complex molecules off the same more or less inert back bone. this has to do with the electron structure of carbon, so a chemist can expand on the specialness of carbon.
As for silicon based life, the short answer is no. the waste produce for most life is CO2 via cellular respiration this is a gas that can be easily dissolved into water. for silicon the waste product would be SO2 or sand/quartz and is very inert and highly stable. So the SO2 lockes down resources (like oxygene) much more than CO2 and as a solid is much more difficult to move around.
the long answer for silicon is maybe, but it would be at very high temperatures and be a bio chemistry very different, even on an mechanical basis (resembling more inorganic chemistry), than what we have on earth.
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[
"In addition to carbon compounds, all currently known terrestrial life also requires water as a solvent. This has led to discussions about whether water is the only liquid capable of filling that role. The idea that an extraterrestrial life-form might be based on a solvent other than water has been taken seriously in recent scientific literature by the biochemist Steven Benner, and by the astrobiological committee chaired by John A. Baross. Solvents discussed by the Baross committee include ammonia, sulfuric acid, formamide, hydrocarbons, and (at temperatures much lower than Earth's) liquid nitrogen, or hydrogen in the form of a supercritical fluid.\n",
"Extraterrestrial liquid water (from the Latin words: \"extra\" [\"outside of, beyond\"] and \"terrestris\" [\"of or belonging to Earth\"]) is water in its liquid state that naturally occurs outside Earth. It is a subject of wide interest because it is recognized as one of the key prerequisites for life as we know it and thus surmised as essential for extraterrestrial life.\n",
"It is generally assumed that any extraterrestrial life that might exist will be based on the same fundamental biochemistry as found on Earth, as the four elements most vital for life, carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen, are also the most common chemically reactive elements in the universe. Indeed, simple biogenic compounds, such as very simple amino acids such as glycine, have been found in meteorites and in the interstellar medium. These four elements together comprise over 96% of Earth's collective biomass. Carbon has an unparalleled ability to bond with itself and to form a massive array of intricate and varied structures, making it an ideal material for the complex mechanisms that form living cells. Hydrogen and oxygen, in the form of water, compose the solvent in which biological processes take place and in which the first reactions occurred that led to life's emergence. The energy released in the formation of powerful covalent bonds between carbon and oxygen, available by oxidizing organic compounds, is the fuel of all complex life-forms. These four elements together make up amino acids, which in turn are the building blocks of proteins, the substance of living tissue. In addition, neither sulfur, required for the building of proteins, nor phosphorus, needed for the formation of DNA, RNA, and the adenosine phosphates essential to metabolism, is rare.\n",
"Liquid water is thought by most astrobiologists to be an essential prerequisite for extraterrestrial life. There is growing evidence of subsurface liquid water on several moons in the Solar System orbiting the gas giants Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. However, none of these subsurface bodies of water has been confirmed to date.\n",
"The existence of liquid water, and to a lesser extent its gaseous and solid forms, on Earth are vital to the existence of life on Earth as we know it. The Earth is located in the habitable zone of the solar system; if it were slightly closer to or farther from the Sun (about 5%, or about 8 million kilometers), the conditions which allow the three forms to be present simultaneously would be far less likely to exist.\n",
"The basic ingredients for life—what we call 'pre-biotic chemistry'—are abundant in many solar system objects, such as comets, asteroids and icy moons. Biologists believe liquid water and energy are then needed to actually support life, so it's exciting to find another place where we might have liquid water. But, energy is another matter, and currently, Callisto's ocean is only being heated by radioactive elements, whereas Europa has tidal energy as well, from its greater proximity to Jupiter.\n",
"Biologists have found extremophiles that thrive in ice, boiling water, acid, alkali, the water core of nuclear reactors, salt crystals, toxic waste and in a range of other extreme habitats that were previously thought to be inhospitable for life. This opened up a new avenue in astrobiology by massively expanding the number of possible extraterrestrial habitats. Characterization of these organisms, their environments and their evolutionary pathways, is considered a crucial component to understanding how life might evolve elsewhere in the universe. For example, some organisms able to withstand exposure to the vacuum and radiation of outer space include the lichen fungi \"Rhizocarpon geographicum\" and \"Xanthoria elegans\", the bacterium \"Bacillus safensis\", \"Deinococcus radiodurans\", \"Bacillus subtilis\", yeast \"Saccharomyces cerevisiae\", seeds from \"Arabidopsis thaliana\" ('mouse-ear cress'), as well as the invertebrate animal Tardigrade. While tardigrades are not considered true extremophiles, they are considered extremotolerant microorganisms that have contributed to the field of astrobiology. Their extreme radiation tolerance and presence of DNA protection proteins may provide answers as to whether life can survive away from the protection of the Earth's atmosphere.\n"
] |
When the slaves (in America) were set free, did they take the name of their master?
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According to Eric Arnesen in *The Black Worker: Race, Labor, and Civil Rights since Emancipation* and Richard Valelly in *The Two Reconstructions: the Struggle for Black Enfranchisement*, slaves so despised their masters that one of the first things they did as freemen was change given names. Instead, they adopted names taken from places, trades, and even African relatives. Keeping the master's name was considered a last resort as a means to escape the rampant violence visited on newly freed blacks.
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[
"Freeing a slave was called \"manumissio\", which literally means \"sending out from the hand\". The freeing of the slave was a public ceremony, performed before some sort of public official, usually a judge. The owner touched the slave on the head with a staff and he was free to go. Simpler methods were sometimes used, usually with the owner proclaiming a slave's freedom in front of friends and family, or just a simple invitation to recline with the family at dinner.\n",
"One of the most important markers of the freedom of a slave was the adoption of a last name upon being freed. These names would often be the family names of their ex-owners, either in part or in full. Since many slaves had the same or similar Christian name assigned from their baptism, it was common for a slave to be called both their Portuguese or Christian name as well as the name of their master. \"Maria, for example, became known as Sr. Santana's Maria\". Thus, it was mostly a matter of convenience when a slave was freed for him or her to adopt the surname of their ex-owner for assimilation into the community as a free person.\n",
"These first 11 slaves in New Netherland, owned by the Dutch East Indies Company ( called the VOC ), had a life different from that of other slaves in other colonies. By definition, they were owned by a master, could not leave their master, and could be bought and sold. This is different than an indentured servant who may have chosen to \"indenture\" themselves. This is usually when the indentured servant contracts themselves to a master for a specific length of time, after which they would be free to lead their own lives. Slaves do not have contracts, only their master determines when they will be freed. These first 11 slaves were \"originally captured by the Portuguese along the West African coast and on the islands in the Gulf of Guinea...\" They were on a Spanish slave ship which would transport them to the West Indies when the VOC's navy had taken them as prizes. Many of the original New Netherland slaves have Iberian (Portuguese) names. They were given living quarters 5 miles north of the town of New Amsterdam, after which they were moved to a large building at the southern end of William Street next to the fort. \"The men were employed as field hands by the Company, as well as in building and road construction and other public works projects.\" Women were placed as domestic servants in homes of company officials. \"Their servitude was involuntary and unremunerated...\" \n",
"The freed slaves (as was common at the time) took the surname of their last owners, and went by the family name of Nottingham. Although many other former slave owners' descendants are still well represented within the Territory, by the twenty-first century no Nottinghams appeared on the voter's roll or the telephone directory.\n",
"The master of a slave was allowed to free the person when he wanted to, which, no matter what faith the slave believed in, was considered a good deed. A slave could also be freed if his/her master died.\n",
"Emancipation was a relatively commonplace practice, probably depending on human relationships. The emancipated slave would usually take the name of their former master, adding a mark of provenance to avoid any ambiguity: for example, it would be understood that Franciscus de Vaccaro had been emancipated by the Vaccaro family, or Giorgius de Mazarra by the Mazarra family.\n",
"A freed slave customarily took the former owner's family name, which was the \"nomen\" (see Roman naming conventions) of the master's \"gens\". The former owner became the patron \"(patronus)\" and the freed slave became a client (\"cliens\") and retained certain obligations to the former master, who owed certain obligations in return. A freed slave could also acquire multiple patrons.\n"
] |
why do car batteries only need to be charged when fully dead?
|
They are actually charged every time you drive. This happens with a machine called an alternator.
When your car engine is running, it also turns a little electrical generator that helps keep the car battery charged.
|
[
"Motor vehicles, such as boats, RVs, ATVs, motorcycles, cars, trucks, etc have used lead–acid batteries. These batteries employ a sulfuric acid electrolyte and can generally be charged and discharged without exhibiting memory effect, though sulfation (a chemical reaction in the battery which deposits a layer of sulfates on the lead) will occur over time. Typically sulfated batteries are simply replaced with new batteries, and the old ones recycled. Lead–acid batteries will experience substantially longer life when a maintenance charger is used to \"float charge\" the battery. This prevents the battery from ever being below 100% charge, preventing sulfate from forming. Proper temperature compensated float voltage should be used to achieve the best results.\n",
"All batteries gradually self-discharge (whether installed in a device or not) and dead batteries will eventually leak. Extremely high temperatures can also cause batteries to rupture and leak (such as in a car during summer) as well as decrease the shelf life of the battery.\n",
"A fully depleted battery will not draw more power if the cables are reversed, but reverse-charging a dead battery can damage its chemistry so that it loses charge capacity, and reverse voltage applied to the vehicle electronics may also damage them, resulting in expensive repairs.\n",
"Battery recycling of automotive batteries reduces the need for resources required for the manufacture of new batteries, diverts toxic lead from landfills, and prevents the risk of improper disposal. Once a lead acid battery ceases to hold a charge, it is deemed a used lead-acid battery (ULAB), which is classified as hazardous waste under the Basel Convention. The 12-volt car battery is the most recycled product in the world, according to the United States Environmental Protection Agency. In the U.S. alone, about 100 million auto batteries a year are replaced, and 99 percent of them are turned in for recycling. However the recycling may be done incorrectly in unregulated environments. As part of global waste trade ULABs are shipped from industrialized countries to developing countries for disassembly and recuperation of the contents. About 97 percent of the lead can be recovered. Pure Earth estimates that over 12 million third world people are affected by lead contamination from ULAB processing.\n",
"Some rechargeable batteries can be damaged by repeated deep discharge. Batteries are composed of multiple similar, but not identical, cells. Each cell has its own charge capacity. As the battery as a whole is being deeply discharged, the cell with the smallest capacity may reach zero charge and will \"reverse charge\" as the other cells continue to force current through it. The resulting loss of capacity is often ascribed to the memory effect.\n",
"If a battery is connected to a significant load during charging, the end of the Uo-phase may never be reached and the battery will gas and be damaged, depending on the charge current relative to the battery capacity.\n",
"When batteries are stored in an uncharged state for an extended period, lead-sulfur deposits form and harden on the lead plates inside the battery. This causes what is known as a \"sulfated battery\", which will no longer charge to its original capacity. Regenerators send pulses of electric current through the battery, which in some cases may cause the sulfate to flake off the plates and eventually dissolve.\n"
] |
is there truly any way to get over non-seasonal allergies?
|
Immunotherapy is the process of getting micro doses of what causes allergies in the form of shots. Slowly over time your body builds up antibodies and you no longer have reactions to the allergens. At the clinic near me the process takes about 3 years.
|
[
"Recent research has suggested that humans might develop allergies as a defense to fight off parasites. According to Yale University Immunologist Dr Ruslan Medzhitov, protease allergens cleave the same sensor proteins that evolved to detect proteases produced by the parasitic worms. Additionally, a new report on seasonal allergies called “Extreme allergies and Global Warming”, have found that many allergy triggers are worsening due to climate change. 16 states in the United States were named as “Allergen Hotspots” for large increases in allergenic tree pollen if global warming pollution keeps increasing. Therefore, researchers on this report claimed that global warming is bad news for millions of asthmatics in the United States whose asthma attacks are triggered by seasonal allergies. Indeed, seasonal allergies are one of the main triggers for asthma, along with colds or flu, cigarette smoke and exercise. In Canada, for example, up to 75% of asthmatics also have seasonal allergies.\n",
"If both parents suffered from allergies in the past, there is a 66% chance for the individual to suffer from seasonal allergies, and the risk lowers to 60% if just one parent had suffered from allergies. The immune system also has strong influence on seasonal allergies, since it reacts differently to diverse allergens like pollen. When an allergen enters the body of an individual that is predisposed to allergies, it triggers an immune reaction and the production of antibodies. These allergen antibodies migrate to mast cells lining the nose, eyes and lungs. When an allergen drifts into the nose more than once, mast cells release a slew of chemicals or histamines that irritate and inflame the moist membranes lining the nose and produce the symptoms of an allergic reaction: scratchy throat, itching, sneezing and watery eyes. Some symptoms that differentiate allergies from a cold include:\n",
"Among seasonal allergies, there are some allergens that fuse together and produce a new type of allergy. For instance, grass pollen allergens cross-react with food allergy proteins in vegetables such as onion, lettuce, carrots, celery and corn. Besides, the cousins of birch pollen allergens, like apples, grapes, peaches, celery and apricots, produce severe itching in the ears and throat. The cypress pollen allergy brings a cross reactivity between diverse species like olive, privet, ash and Russian olive tree pollen allergens. In some rural areas there is another form of seasonal grass allergy, combining airborne particles of pollen mixed with mold. \n",
"With the passage of mandatory labeling laws, food allergy awareness has definitely increased, with impacts on the quality of life for children, their parents and their immediate caregivers. In the U.S., the Food Allergen Labeling and Consumer Protection Act of 2004 (FALPA) causes people to be reminded of allergy problems every time they handle a food package, and restaurants have added allergen warnings to menus. School systems have protocols about what foods can be brought into the school. Despite all these precautions, people with serious allergies are aware that accidental exposure can easily occur at other peoples' houses, at school or in restaurants. Food fear has a significant impact on quality of life. Finally, for children with allergies, their quality of life is also affected by actions of their peers. There is an increased occurrence of bullying, which can include threats or acts of deliberately being touched with foods they need to avoid, also having their allergen-free food deliberately contaminated.\n",
"People who have latex allergy also may have or develop an allergic response to some plants and/or products of these plants such as fruits. This is known as the \"latex-fruit syndrome\". Fruits (and seeds) involved in this syndrome include banana, pineapple, avocado, chestnut, kiwi fruit, mango, passionfruit, fig, strawberry, papaya, apple, melon, celery, potato, tomato, carrot, and soy. Some, but not all of these fruits contain a form of latex.\n",
"The American Academy of Allergy, Asthma, and Immunology warns that natural lotion containing ingredients commonly found in food (such as goats milk, cow's milk, coconut milk, or oil) may introduce new allergies, and an allergic reaction when those foods are later consumed.\n",
"Whether food allergy prevalence is increasing or not, food allergy awareness has increased, with impacts on the quality of life for children, their parents and their immediate caregivers. In the United States, the Food Allergen Labeling and Consumer Protection Act of 2004 causes people to be reminded of allergy problems every time they handle a food package, and restaurants have added allergen warnings to menus. The Culinary Institute of America, a premier school for chef training, has courses in allergen-free cooking and a separate teaching kitchen. School systems have protocols about what foods can be brought into the school. Despite all these precautions, people with serious allergies are aware that accidental exposure can easily occur at other peoples' houses, at school or in restaurants. Food fear has a significant impact on quality of life. Finally, for children with allergies, their quality of life is also affected by actions of their peers. There is an increased occurrence of bullying, which can include threats or acts of deliberately being touched with foods they need to avoid, also having their allergen-free food deliberately contaminated.\n"
] |
Is it possible for a planet to consist solely of liquid as opposed to a solid or a gas? If no, why not?
|
Yes, Jupiter might even be one. Even if it is not then other gas giants could be formed by gravitational instability in which there is no solid core (at least at the early stages but there are processes which may form one later).
|
[
"The density of a liquid is usually close to that of a solid, and much higher than in a gas. Therefore, liquid and solid are both termed condensed matter. On the other hand, as liquids and gases share the ability to flow, they are both called fluids. Although liquid water is abundant on Earth, this state of matter is actually the least common in the known universe, because liquids require a relatively narrow temperature/pressure range to exist. Most known matter in the universe is in gaseous form (with traces of detectable solid matter) as interstellar clouds or in plasma from within stars.\n",
"There is, of course, no guarantee that the other conditions will be found that allow liquid water to be present on a planetary surface. Should planetary mass objects be present, a single, gas giant planet, with or without planetary mass moons, orbiting close to the circumstellar habitable zone, could prevent the necessary conditions from occurring in the system. However, it would mean that planetary mass objects, such as the icy bodies of the solar system, could have abundant quantities of liquid within them.\n",
"Oceans, seas, lakes and other bodies of liquids can be composed of liquids other than water, for example the hydrocarbon lakes on Titan. The possibility of seas of nitrogen on Triton was also considered but ruled out. There is evidence that the icy surfaces of the moons Ganymede, Callisto, Europa, Titan and Enceladus are shells floating on oceans of very dense liquid water or water–ammonia. Earth is often called \"the\" ocean planet because it is 70% covered in water. Extrasolar terrestrial planets that are extremely close to their parent star will be tidally locked and so one half of the planet will be a magma ocean. It is also possible that terrestrial planets had magma oceans at some point during their formation as a result of giant impacts. Hot Neptunes close to their star could lose their atmospheres via hydrodynamic escape, leaving behind their cores with various liquids on the surface. Where there are suitable temperatures and pressures, volatile chemicals that might exist as liquids in abundant quantities on planets include ammonia, argon, carbon disulfide, ethane, hydrazine, hydrogen, hydrogen cyanide, hydrogen sulfide, methane, neon, nitrogen, nitric oxide, phosphine, silane, sulfuric acid, and water.\n",
"Beyond this, most substances have three ordinarily recognized states of matter, solid, liquid, and gas. Some can also exist in a plasma. Many have further, more finely differentiated, states of matter, such as for example, glass, and liquid crystal. In many cases, at fixed temperature and pressure, a substance can exist in several distinct states of matter in what might be viewed as the same 'body'. For example, ice may float in a glass of water. Then the ice and the water are said to constitute two phases within the 'body'. Definite rules are known, telling how distinct phases may coexist in a 'body'. Mostly, at a fixed pressure, there is a definite temperature at which heating causes a solid to melt or evaporate, and a definite temperature at which heating causes a liquid to evaporate. In such cases, cooling has the reverse effects.\n",
"Both solids and liquids have free surfaces, which cost some amount of free energy to form. In the case of solids, the amount of free energy to form a given unit of surface area is called surface energy, whereas for liquids the same quantity is called surface tension. The ability of liquids to flow results in different behaviour in response to surface tension than in solids, although in equilibrium both will try to minimise their surface energy: liquids tend to form rounded droplets, whereas pure solids tend to form crystals. Gases do not have free surfaces, and freely diffuse.\n",
"Supercritical fluids, although not liquids, do share various properties with liquids. Underneath the thick atmospheres of the planets Uranus and Neptune, it is expected that these planets are composed of oceans of hot high-density fluid mixtures of water, ammonia and other volatiles. The gaseous outer layers of Jupiter and Saturn transition smoothly into oceans of supercritical hydrogen. The atmosphere of Venus is 96.5% carbon dioxide, which is a supercritical fluid at its surface.\n",
"Surface liquid, while abundant on Earth (the largest body of surface liquid being the World Ocean) is rare elsewhere, a notable exception being Titan which has the largest known hydrocarbon lake system while surface water, abundant on Earth and essential to all known forms of life is thought only to exist as Seasonal flows on warm Martian slopes and in the habitable zones of other planetary systems.\n"
] |
what’s the difference between forging and casting metals?
|
Forging involved hammering soft heated metal into the shape you want. Casting is pouring liquid metal into a mould and letting it cool.
|
[
"Casting is a group of manufacturing processes by which a liquid material (bronze, copper, glass, aluminum, iron) is (usually) poured into a mold, which contains a hollow cavity of the desired shape, and then allowed to solidify. The solid casting is then ejected or broken out to complete the process, although a final stage of \"cold work\" may follow on the finished cast. Casting may be used to form hot liquid metals or various materials that \"cold set\" after mixing of components (such as epoxies, concrete, plaster and clay). Casting is most often used for making complex shapes that would be otherwise difficult or uneconomical to make by other methods. The oldest surviving casting is a copper Mesopotamian frog from 3200 BCE. Specific techniques include lost-wax casting, plaster mold casting and sand casting.\n",
"In metalworking, casting involves pouring liquid metal into a mold, which contains a hollow cavity of the desired shape, and then allowing it to cool and solidify. The solidified part is also known as a casting, which is ejected or broken out of the mold to complete the process. Casting is most often used for making complex shapes that would be difficult or uneconomical to make by other methods.\n",
"Casting is a manufacturing process in which a liquid material is usually poured into a mold, which contains a hollow cavity of the desired shape, and then allowed to solidify. The solidified part is also known as a \"casting\", which is ejected or broken out of the mold to complete the process. Casting materials are usually metals or various \"time setting\" materials that cure after mixing two or more components together; examples are epoxy, concrete, plaster and clay. Casting is most often used for making complex shapes that would be otherwise difficult or uneconomical to make by other methods.Heavy equipment like machine tool beds,ship's propeller etc. can be cast easily in the required size rather than fabricating them by joining several small pieces.\n",
"In metalworking and jewellery making, casting is a process in which a liquid metal is somehow delivered into a mold (it is usually delivered by a crucible) that contains a hollow shape (i.e., a 3-dimensional negative image) of the intended shape. The metal is poured into the mold through a hollow channel called a sprue. The metal and mold are then cooled, and the metal part (the \"casting\") is extracted. Casting is most often used for making complex shapes that would be difficult or uneconomical to make by other methods.\n",
"After casting, the cores are broken up by rods or shot and removed from the casting. The metal from the sprue and risers is cut from the rough casting. Various heat treatments may be applied to relieve stresses from the initial cooling and to add hardness—in the case of steel or iron, by quenching in water or oil. The casting may be further strengthened by surface compression treatment—like shot peening—that adds resistance to tensile cracking and smooths the rough surface. And when high precision is required, various machining operations (such as milling or boring) are made to finish critical areas of the casting. Examples of this would include the boring of cylinders and milling of the deck on a cast engine block.\n",
"While the large amount of automation helps produce castings with no shrinkage and little segregation, continuous casting is of no use if the metal is not clean beforehand, or becomes 'dirty' during the casting process. One of the main methods through which hot metal may become dirty is by oxidation, which occurs rapidly at molten metal temperatures (up to 1700 °C for steel); inclusions of gas, slag or undissolved alloys may also be present. To prevent oxidation, the metal is isolated from the atmosphere as much as possible. To achieve this, exposed liquid metal surfaces are covered – by the shrouds, or in the case of the ladle, tundish and mould, by synthetic slag. In the tundish, any inclusions that are less dense than the liquid metal – gas bubbles, other slag or oxides, or undissolved alloys – may also float to the surface and be trapped in the slag layer. While the tundish and mold fill for the first time at the start of a casting run, the liquid is badly contaminated with oxygen and the first items produced are typically quarantined or diverted to customers who do not require top-quality material.\n",
"Casting is the process where the glass begins to melt and behave as a liquid. Its shape is now constrained entirely by the mould and the previous shape is lost. Glass is viscous though and unlike metal casting, the soft glass does not flow through the mould. Variations in the glass are thus preserved in the final piece, so colours and inclusions present beforehand may still remain in the cast item.\n"
] |
How did the role of the artist differ before the Renaissance and during the Renaissance?
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I wouldn't say that, even by the High Renaissance, artists had that much freedom over their subject matter. It was still very much a matter of the patron's (whether it be royalty, church, or private) will. The more well-known artists had a bit more input (I'm thinking, for example, of Titian and his portraits for the Spanish kings), and certainly more freedom to choose and be exposed to a wider range of possible patrons, but they weren't truly able to just paint for the sake of it - that shift was still another couple of hundred years away. Everything had to be created for a purpose.
In terms of patronage, the addition of private citizens (usually middle and upper class) as patrons to the standard patronage of church and royalty coincided with the rise and growing wealth of those classes. You have to remember that at this point, art museums - and publicly accessible art in general - weren't concepts. Art, for a private citizen, was a status symbol: something that the church and royals had had for centuries, that now they could too. The growth of private collecting & commissions also benefitted the artist because citizens tended to have more wide-ranging tastes than the royals or especially the church, based both on personal taste and current fashion, thus giving the artist a bigger scope in which to work, as well as another means of making money.
The financial aspect of private patronage is one reason that it really flourished in Italy and the North - in a country like Spain, for instance, the financial gap between the royals and their subjects was so wide that there was barely a middle class, let alone one with the disposable income to spend on art.
So I'd argue that it wasn't really that the role of the artist changed all that much; rather, the *perception* of the artist in society, and the function and purpose of art itself, that benefited most from Renaissance ideals during the period - he was gradually elevated from a craftsman to a serious and in-demand professional, who had access to an ever-growing pool of patrons and ideas than his predecessors.
I really recommend Jay Levenson's *Circa 1492: Art in the Age of Exploration* as a starting point if you're interested in this subject / period. Ann Harris also has a really interesting text on the same topic, but it deals with the period just after the Renaissance.
|
[
"The nature of the Renaissance also changed in the late 15th century. The Renaissance ideal was fully adopted by the ruling classes and the aristocracy. In the early Renaissance artists were seen as craftsmen with little prestige or recognition. By the later Renaissance the top figures wielded great influence and could charge great fees. A flourishing trade in Renaissance art developed. While in the early Renaissance many of the leading artists were of lower- or middle-class origins, increasingly they became aristocrats.\n",
"The Renaissance is characterized by a focus on the arts of Ancient Greece and Rome, which led to many changes in both the technical aspects of painting and sculpture, as well as to their subject matter. It began in Italy, a country rich in Roman heritage as well as material prosperity to fund artists. During the Renaissance, painters began to enhance the realism of their work by using new techniques in perspective, thus representing three dimensions more authentically. Artists also began to use new techniques in the manipulation of light and darkness, such as the tone contrast evident in many of Titian's portraits and the development of sfumato and chiaroscuro by Leonardo da Vinci. Sculptors, too, began to rediscover many ancient techniques such as contrapposto. Following with the humanist spirit of the age, art became more secular in subject matter, depicting ancient mythology in addition to Christian themes. This genre of art is often referred to as Renaissance Classicism. In the North, the most important Renaissance innovation was the widespread use of oil paints, which allowed for greater colour and intensity.\n",
"The later Renaissance was dominated by Raphael and Michelangelo. Raphael painted balanced, harmonious pictures that expressed a calm, noble way of life. Michelangelo achieved greatness both as a painter and sculptor. In Venice, a number of artists were painting richly colored works during the 16th century. The most famous Venetian masters included Giorgione, Titian, and Tintoretto.\n",
"In painting, the Late Medieval painter Giotto di Bondone, or Giotto, helped shape the artistic concepts that later defined much of the Renaissance era. The key ideas that he explored – classicism, the illusion of three-dimensional space and a realistic emotional context – inspired other artists such as Masaccio, Michelangelo and Leonardo da Vinci. He was not the only Medieval artist to develop these ideas, however; the artists Pietro Cavallini and Cimabue both influenced Giotto’s use of statuesque figures and expressive storylines.\n",
"A precursor to Renaissance art can be seen already in the early 14th-century works of Giotto. Giotto was the first painter since antiquity to attempt the representation of a three-dimensional reality, and to endow his characters with true human emotions. The most important developments, however, came in 15th-century Florence. The affluence of the merchant class allowed extensive patronage of the arts, and foremost among the patrons were the Medici.\n",
"The themes that preoccupied painters of the Italian Renaissance were those of both subject matter and execution- what was painted and the style in which it was painted. The artist had far more freedom of both subject and style than did a Medieval painter. Certain characteristic elements of Renaissance painting evolved a great deal during the period. These include perspective, both in terms of how it was achieved and the effect to which it was applied, and realism, particularly in the depiction of humanity, either as symbolic, portrait or narrative element.\n",
"Renaissance period saw a rebirth of many interests, particularly in the arts. By the early 15th century, in Florence, a circle of architects, painters, and sculptors have sought to revive classical art. The leader of this group was an architect, Filippo Brunelleschi. He designed churches reflecting classical models. To him we also owe a scientific discovery of the first importance in the history of art: the rules of perspective. In painting, Leonardo da Vinci and other Italian painters used a technique called \"sfumato\" that created softness in their portraits. At the same time, Italy witnessed the revival of the fresco. In music, both the small-scale madrigal and the large-scale opera were inventions of the period with a long future. Italian cities invented the modern conservatory to train professional musicians, as they invented the art academy as a place to master the techniques and the theory of painting, sculpture, and architecture. Rome and Venice witnessed the emergence of the first art \"market\" where buyers and sellers exchanged artworks as commodities.\n"
] |
what are the horizontal part (sleepers?) of a railway track for? and why can some sections of track not have them
|
They hold the rails at a fixed distance - without them, the trains would push them apart. If the railroad is built on concrete or other solid material (e.g. a railway crossing, or railroads in cities) then they're not needed because the ground provides enough stability.
If the ground is soft, they also keep the rails from sinking in because they have more surface than the rails.
|
[
"On most lines, trains are formed from a pairing or triplet of units. Units are 'single-ended', where there is a driving cab at one end only, or 'double-ended', where there is a driving cab at both ends. In addition, some units have no driving cabs, and thus must always be included in the middle of a formation of units.\n",
"A sleeper (tie) is a rectangular object on which the rails are supported and fixed. The sleeper has two main roles: to transfer the loads from the rails to the track ballast and the ground underneath, and to hold the rails to the correct width apart (to maintain the rail gauge). They are generally laid transversely to the rails.\n",
"Many multiple unit trains consist of cars which are semi-permanently coupled into sets: these sets may be joined together to form larger trains, but generally passengers can only move around between cars within a set. This \"closed\" arrangement keeps parties of travellers and their luggage together, and hence allows the separate sets to be easily split to go separate ways. Some multiple-unit trainsets are designed so that corridor connections can be easily opened between coupled sets; this generally requires driving cabs either set to the side or (as in the Dutch \"Koploper\" or the Japanese 285 series) above the passenger compartment. These cabs or driving trailers are also useful for quickly reversing the train.\n",
"A single-track railway is a railway where trains traveling in both directions share the same track. Single track is usually found on lesser-used rail lines, often branch lines, where the level of traffic is not high enough to justify the cost of constructing a second track.\n",
"Generally, the sleepers were laid straight onto the existing ground of London clay, far from ideal for supporting a railway. The passage of trains has, and still does cause the track to very gradually sink due to the clay. The problem sections have been gradually removed & improved. The double track section between the loops at either end of the line was also slewed during this period to allow for multiple train operation in the future, although this was not a possibility until February 1986 with the arrival of a second locomotive in the form of ‘Lady of the Lakes’.\n",
"Trains are pushed/pulled by one or more locomotive units. Two or more locomotives coupled in multiple traction are frequently used in freight trains. Railroad cars or rolling stock consist of passenger cars, freight cars, maintenance cars and in America cabooses. Modern passenger trains sometimes are pushed/pulled by a tail and head unit (see top and tail), of which not both need to be motorised or running. Many passenger trains consist of multiple units with motors mounted beneath the passenger cars.\n",
"Gauntlet track or interlaced track (also gantlet track) is an arrangement in which railway tracks run parallel on a single track bed and are interlaced (i.e., overlapped) such that only one pair of rails may be used at a time. Since this requires only slightly more width than a single track, all rails can be carried on the same crossties/sleepers. Trains run on the discrete pair of rails appropriate to their direction, track gauge or loading gauge.\n"
] |
why do android phones get slower over time even after a factory reset?
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This is just speculation tbh.
Over time, the same applications on your phone consume more resources. This is because the rate technology improves is swift, and application devs are constantly keeping up. So say an app is currently built to run well on a phone with 1GB RAM. When phones with 2GB RAM become the norm, app devs feel comfortable giving their app a larger footprint on available resources.
But your phone still has 1GB. And the app and the OS both have progressed to being comfortable using more resources than before. Hence the difference in performance.
Edit: Apparently this has been asked before and the answer is flash memory degradation
|
[
"Apple said in December 2017 that the reason their older phones run slower (one of the criticised changes) is because the battery in their phones wear out over time and that their older phones may shut down unexpectedly.\n",
"Commentators noted Loop's 15-minute delay for updates, which CNET's Ina Fried described as \"odd\". \"PC World\" argued this delay was at odds with Microsoft's claim that the phone is \"always-connected\". Users could not adjust this interval, although updates could be manually triggered with an on-screen refresh button, or locking then unlocking the phone. Microsoft cited battery life and immature social networking APIs as reasons for the delay; \"Engadget\" speculated that Microsoft may have been using the delayed messaging to encourage Verizon to offer lower-priced data plans, which would be attractive to the platform's teenage target audience.\n",
"In October 2009, several news sites reported that many first generation Time Capsules were failing after 18 months, with some users alleging that this was due to a design failure in the power supplies. Apple confirmed that certain Time Capsules sold between February 2008 and June 2008 do not power on, or may unexpectedly turn off. Apple offered free repair or replacement to affected units.\n",
"In February 2016, a bug was discovered that could permanently disable 64-bit devices. The bug, setting the time to 1 January 1970, would cause the device to get stuck in a reboot process. iOS 9.3, released on March 21, 2016, fixed the issue.\n",
"Compared to its primary rival mobile operating system, Apple's iOS, Android updates typically reach various devices with significant delays. Except for devices within the Google Nexus and Pixel brands, updates often arrive months after the release of the new version, or not at all. This was partly due to the extensive variation in hardware in Android devices, to which each upgrade must be specifically tailored, a time- and resource-consuming process. Manufacturers often prioritize their newest devices and leave old ones behind. Additional delays can be introduced by wireless carriers that, after receiving updates from manufacturers, further customize and brand Android to their needs and conduct extensive testing on their networks before sending the upgrade out to users. There are also situations in which upgrades are not possible due to one manufacturing partner not providing necessary updates to drivers.\n",
"A hardware design flaw or defective eMMC chip in some devices can render the phone unusable (bricked) and require SAT if the battery is removed if the device is on. Updating several applications from market at once can cause the device to not respond, forcing the user to remove the battery to reboot; this is the most usual cause of this problem to appear.\n",
"The phones are known to randomly reboot. Google promised a fix in the coming weeks. The random reboots are believed to be caused by the LTE modem. The Android 8.1 release in 2017 did not fix the problem.\n"
] |
when a computer says "scan and repair"; how does it repair?
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One other thing is repair tools are designed to implement a set of fixed “scripts/instructions” known to solve common problems. You can consider the scan and repair program to be a collection of known fixes that attempt to run and repair your system. Sometimes these tools can be helpful, sometimes they are not able to resolve the issue as it is dependent on the people writing the program to include the necessary bug fixes or configuration fixes.
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[
"When possible, repair technicians protect the computer user's data and settings. After a software repair, the goal is that the user will not have lost any data and that they can fully use the device. To address a software problem, the technician could take action as minor as adjusting a single setting or they may implore more involved techniques like installing, uninstalling, or reinstalling various software packages. Advanced software repairs often involve directly editing keys and values in the Windows Registry or running commands directly from the command prompt.\n",
"The branding strategy may look legitimate to computer users as the names are usually a combination of technical words such as \"HDD\", \"Disk\", \"Memory\" and action words such as \"Scanner\", \"Defragmenter\", \"Diagnostics\", \"Repair\", and \"Fix\".\n",
"A computer repair technician is a person who repairs and maintains computers and servers. The technician's responsibilities may extend to include building or configuring new hardware, installing and updating software packages, and creating and maintaining computer networks.\n",
"BULLET::::- Reboot and restore – a technique in which the disk of a computer is automatically wiped and restored from a \"clean\", master image, which should be in full working order and should have been swept for viruses. This is used by some cybercafes and some training and educational institutes, and helps ensure that even if a user does misconfigure something, downloads inappropriate content or programs, or infects a computer with a virus, the computer will be restored to a clean, working state. The reboot and restore process can either take place irregularly when a computer shows signs of malfunctioning, on a regular basis (e.g., nightly) or even, in some cases, every time a user logs off, which is the safest approach (although that does involve some downtime).\n",
"Memory diagnostic software programs (e.g., Memtest86) are low-cost or free tools used to check for memory failures on a PC. They are usually in the form of a bootable software distribution on a floppy disk or CD-ROM. The diagnostic tools provide memory test patterns which are able to test all system memory in a computer. Diagnostic software cannot be used when a PC is unable to start due to memory or motherboard. While in principle a test program could report its results by sending them to a storage device (e.g., floppy disc) or printer if working, or by sound signals, in practice a working display is required.\n",
"A reliable, but somewhat more complicated procedure for addressing software issues is known as a system restore (also referred to as imaging, and/or reimaging), in which the computer's original installation image (including operating system and original applications) is reapplied to a formatted hard drive. Anything unique such as settings or personal files will be destroyed if not backed up on external media, as this reverts everything back to its original unused state. The computer technician can only reimage if there is an image of the hard drive for that computer either in a separate partition or stored elsewhere.\n",
"Recovering data from physically damaged hardware can involve multiple techniques. Some damage can be repaired by replacing parts in the hard disk. This alone may make the disk usable, but there may still be logical damage. A specialized disk-imaging procedure is used to recover every readable bit from the surface. Once this image is acquired and saved on a reliable medium, the image can be safely analyzed for logical damage and will possibly allow much of the original file system to be reconstructed.\n"
] |
judges and what happens to them after their rulings are repeatedly overturned.
|
Alright, I'll try my best to explain it.
First of all, law is a murky subject. There are many ways the same piece of law could be read by different people. Often the judge who has his opinion overturned read the law different than an appellate judge, but once the appellate court rules on it, the trial judge now has a framework for how to handle similar cases.
Cases are not overturned that often. The vast majority are not, because most topics in our legal system have been ruled on by appellate courts or set forth in clear terms by legislatures.
There are review boards in most states, but they only step in when Judges do off the wall things, that have ZERO basis in law. Most of the "bad" rulings you describe actually have some merit in the law as written, but lay people don't know the law like people trained to do so.
Judges who make "wacky" rulings can be impeached. I recall a case of one judge in Georgia with no prior legal training who made rulings based on his judgment instead of the law. He was impeached, and I believe sent to jail for a few days. EDIT: I looked it back up. He did have prior legal training, but apparently had forgotten all of it when he became judge. He had no handle on basic legal concepts. For instance, he offered in Court to let a woman off a parking ticket if she paid him.
The thing to remember is this: Judges in appointed positions are trained legal professionals with years of experience (in most cases) and their judgments are based on law, whether you like them or not. Most "bad" rulings come from areas with elected judges, because anyone can register for the ballot without any training(varies by locale). This usually happens in uneducated, conservative areas, where people vote a party ticket.
|
[
"There have been occasions in which judges have been removed by the abolition of their court. In 1878 the Governor of Victoria dismissed all judges of County Courts, Mines and Insolvency and all Chairman of General Sessions, as well as a large number of public servants. and only some, not all were subsequently reappointed. The Supreme Court held that County Court judges held office at pleasure and the Governor in council could remove them without cause. More recent examples of courts being abolished without protecting the tenure of the judges are the abolition of the Court of Petty Sessions (NSW) and its replacement by the Local Court in which all but 6 magistrates were appointed to the new court, and the abolition of the Victorian Accident Compensation Tribunal in 1992 by the Victorian government which by-passed the legislative removal mechanism and removed all judges.\n",
"Judges of the Supreme Court shall hold office during good behaviour. Removal of a judge shall only proceed with an address of the Parliament supported by a majority of the total number of Members of Parliament, (including those who are not present), and then by an order of the President. Reasons for such removal should be on the grounds of proved misbehaviour or incapacity.\n",
"The Court of the Judiciary is the court responsible for removing judges from their position if they have committed illegal acts, including gross neglect of duty, corruption in office, habitual drunkenness, commission while in office of any offense involving moral turpitude, gross partiality in office, oppression in office, or other grounds as specified by the state legislature to be removed from office. Also, the Court on the Judiciary may imposed forced retirement if the court finds the judge in question to be mentally or physically unable to perform their job.\n",
"\"Article III federal judges\" (as opposed to judges of some courts with special jurisdictions) serve \"during good behavior\" (often paraphrased as appointed \"for life\"). Judges hold their seats until they resign, die, or are removed from office. Although the legal orthodoxy is that judges cannot be removed from office except by impeachment by the House of Representatives followed by conviction by the Senate, several legal scholars, including William Rehnquist, Saikrishna Prakash, and Steven D. Smith, have argued that the Good Behavior Clause may, in theory, permit removal by way of a writ of \"scire facias\" filed before a federal court, without resort to impeachment.\n",
"The revised Constitution of 1987 guaranteed that judges would not be removed from office for any reason other than impeachment, criminal acts, or incapacity. Additionally, the 1987 Constitution officially codified judicial independence in Article 103, which states that, \"Judges rule independently according to their conscience and in conformity with the Constitution and the law.\" \n",
"The Act also introduced the concept of judicial independence by establishing that judges can keep their position as long as they maintain \"good behaviour\". Before 1701 a judge's position was held at the disrection of the monarch and there were instances of judges being removed from their position after making judgements that the monarch did not like. After the Act of Settlement, a judge could only be removed from office by the agreement of both the House of Commons and the House of Lords with the subsequent approval of the monarch.\n",
"Chapter III judges cannot be removed except upon an address from both houses of the Parliament of Australia in the same session, \"praying for such removal on the ground of proved misbehaviour or incapacity\". Thus, a judge cannot be removed except in the most extraordinary of circumstances. The only instance where the situation has even been close to arising was during the tenure of Justice Murphy of the High Court. However, he died in 1986 before procedures to remove him could begin.\n"
] |
- does gritting the road harm the environment? surely a massive increase in salt would alter the natural soil composition and harm the surrounding area/ecosystem?
|
It does, yes, and for the exact reasons you mentioned too. The problem is, that the best alternative to salt is to use sand instead, but that doesn't get rid of the ice and also has to swept away again once the weather got warmer, which in turn makes it more expensive.
|
[
"High soil salt levels have dramatic impact on plant root zones, in both native vegetation as well as agricultural and pasture crops, natural wetlands and surrounding water ways. An increase in salt can decrease the ability of plants to absorb water through their roots via osmosis, cause leaf burn and necrosis through increased levels of sodium and chloride, and create nutrient and ionic imbalances, resulting in poor growth, and death. Salinity can also adversely affect infrastructure such as roads and buildings, and underground pipes and cables through oxidation.\n",
"BULLET::::- Each year, arable land is lost due to desertification and human-induced erosion. Improper irrigation of farm land can wick the sodium, calcium, and magnesium from the soil and water to the surface. This process steadily concentrates salt in the root zone, decreasing productivity for crops that are not salt-tolerant.\n",
"Problems with soil degradation have been aggravated by the cultivation of drug crops, leading to deforestation of many areas. Other problems include overgrazing, which has led to terracing from cattle paths and the formation of a soil crust, and soil acidification, which poses a risk to some grasslands as of 2002.\n",
"Dust storms can many issues for agricultural industries as well. Soil erosion is one of the most common hazards and decreases arable lands. Dust and sand particles can cause severe weathering of buildings and rock formations. Nearby bodies of water may be polluted by settling dust and sand, killing aquatic organisms. Decrease in exposure to sunlight can affect plant growth, as well as decrease in infrared radiation may cause decreased temperatures.\n",
"Eroding soils or poorly maintained construction sites can often lead to increased sedimentation in runoff. Sedimentation often settles to the bottom of water bodies and can directly affect water quality. Excessive levels of sediment in water bodies can increase the risk of infection and disease through high levels of nutrients present in the soil. These high levels of nutrients can reduce oxygen and boost algae growth while limiting native vegetation growth. Limited native vegetation and excessive algae has the potential to disrupt the entire aquatic ecosystem due to limited light penetration, lower oxygen levels, and reduced food reserves. Excessive levels of sediment and suspended solids have the potential to damage existing infrastructure as well. Sedimentation can increase runoff by plugging underground injection systems, thereby increasing the amount of runoff on the surface. Increased sedimentation levels can also reduce storage behind reservoirs. This reduction of reservoir capacities can lead to increased expenses for public land agencies while also impacting the quality of water recreational areas.\n",
"Soil degradation is mainly caused by unsustainable agricultural practices, high intensity rainfall and indirectly caused by population growth which results in increased consumption. Tree plantation such as tea and rubber plantation cause low rates of soil erosion. Higher rates of soil erosion are caused by crops which are harvested annually like potatoes, most vegetables and tobacco. Soil degradation in the dry zone leads to desertification. The loss of soil also is a big problem near watersheds, because a lot of hydro power plants are built in those watersheds.\n",
"The chemicals applied to roads along with grit for de-icing are primarily Salt and calcium chloride. Other chemicals such as urea are also used. These chemicals leave the road surface either in water runoff or in water spray. Apart from heavy metal bioaccumulation in adjacent plants, vegetation can be damaged by salt as far as from the road. Studies have found negative effects on wood frog population dynamics when tadpoles were raised in presence of most de-icing chemicals, such as decreased tadpole survival rates and modified sex ratios at maturity.\n"
] |
Why don't animals like dogs and cats recognize and understand what music is?
|
i used to play guitar when i was younger, and my dog would sit in front of me like she was listening.
not sure why though...
|
[
"Although it was long generally thought that cats were unresponsive to music, recent studies have shown that they do in fact respond to music which has been created with species-specific frequencies. Results suggested that cats do benefit from music therapy when the sounds have been composed to target their auditory senses. Other findings include age-related sensitivity (older and younger cats were more responsive than middle aged cats).\n",
"The latest study using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) comparing humans and dogs showed that dogs have the same response to voices and use the same parts of the brain as humans do. This gives dogs the ability to recognize emotional human sounds, making them friendly social pets to humans.\n",
"Listening to music and general audio is commonly not a task directed activity. People enjoy music for various poorly understood reasons, which are commonly referred to the emotional effect of music due to creation of expectations and their realization or violation. Animals attend to signs of danger in sounds, which could be either specific or general notions of surprising and unexpected change. Generally, this creates a situation where computer audition can not rely solely on detection of specific features or sound properties and has to come up with general methods of adapting to changing auditory environment and monitoring its structure. This consists of analysis of larger repetition and self-similarity structures in audio to detect innovation, as well as ability to predict local feature dynamics.\n",
"This natural history of music begins with Attenborough playing the piano. Searching for the origins of human music, he traces its connections to the musical sounds that other animals make: the beauty of the wolf's howl, the complexity of the bat's cry, the deep rumble of the elephant's signals, the acoustically sophisticated sounds the dolphin produces and the songs of whales and birds. Why do these animals produce this amazing variety of sounds? It's all tied up with sex and territory.\n",
"Cats have excellent hearing and can detect an extremely broad range of frequencies. They can hear higher-pitched sounds than either dogs or humans, detecting frequencies from 55 Hz to 79,000 Hz, a range of 10.5 octaves, while humans and dogs both have ranges of about 9 octaves. Cats can hear ultrasound, which is important in hunting because many species of rodents make ultrasonic calls. However, they do not communicate using ultrasound like rodents do. Cats' hearing is also sensitive and among the best of any mammal, being most acute in the range of 500 Hz to 32 kHz. This sensitivity is further enhanced by the cat's large movable outer ears (their pinnae), which both amplify sounds and help detect the direction of a noise.\n",
"Humans and cats have a similar range of hearing on the low end of the scale, but cats can hear much higher-pitched sounds, up to 64 kHz, which is 1.6 octaves above the range of a human, and even 1 octave above the range of a dog. When listening for something, a cat's ears will swivel in that direction; a cat's ear flaps (pinnae) can independently point backwards as well as forwards and sideways to pinpoint the source of the sound. Cats can judge within the location of a sound being made away—this can be useful for locating their prey.\n",
"While the vibration theory has some experimental proof of concept, there have been multiple controversial results in experiments. In some experiments, animals are able to distinguish smells between molecules of different frequencies and same structure other experiments show that people are unaware distinguishing smells due to distinct molecular frequencies. However, it has not been disproven, and has even been shown to be an effect in olfaction of animals other than humans such as flies, bees, and fish.\n"
] |
If gravity is the effect of space-time being stretched, wouldn't an object's angular momentum generate gravitational effects?
|
Yes. This is mainly a thing for spinning black holes, although the gravitational effects of the Earth's rotation has been measured by a very precise satellite experiment called [Gravity Probe B](_URL_0_). However, this isn't the reason for prograde orbits, that more has to do with angular momentum conservation and the initial conditions of planetary systems.
|
[
"The above classical (Newtonian) analysis of orbital mechanics assumes that the more subtle effects of general relativity, such as frame dragging and gravitational time dilation are negligible. Relativistic effects cease to be negligible when near very massive bodies (as with the precession of Mercury's orbit about the Sun), or when extreme precision is needed (as with calculations of the orbital elements and time signal references for GPS satellites.)\n",
"To a modern physicist working with Einstein's general theory of relativity, the situation is even more complicated than is suggested above. Einstein's theory suggests that it actually is valid to consider that objects in inertial motion (such as falling in an elevator, or in a parabola in an airplane, or orbiting a planet) can indeed be considered to experience a local loss of the gravitational field in their rest frame. Thus, in the point of view (or frame) of the astronaut or orbiting ship, there actually is nearly-zero proper acceleration (the acceleration felt locally), just as would be the case far out in space, away from any mass. It is thus valid to consider that most of the gravitational field in such situations is actually absent from the point of view of the falling observer, just as the colloquial view suggests (see equivalence principle for a fuller explanation of this point). However, this loss of gravity for the falling or orbiting observer, in Einstein's theory, is due to the falling motion itself, and (again as in Newton's theory) not due to increased distance from the Earth. However, the gravity nevertheless is considered to be absent. In fact, Einstein's realization that a pure gravitational interaction cannot be felt, if all other forces are removed, was the key insight to leading him to the view that the gravitational \"force\" can in some ways be viewed as non-existent. Rather, objects tend to follow geodesic paths in curved space-time, and this is \"explained\" as a force, by \"Newtonian\" observers who assume that space-time is \"flat,\" and thus do not have a reason for curved paths (i.e., the \"falling motion\" of an object near a gravitational source).\n",
"Linear acceleration, even at a low level, can provide sufficient g-force to provide useful benefits. A spacecraft under constant acceleration in a straight line would give the appearance of a gravitational pull in the direction opposite of the acceleration. This \"pull\" that would cause a loose object to \"fall\" towards the hull of the spacecraft is actually a manifestation of the inertia of the objects inside the spacecraft, in accordance with Newton's first law. \n",
"The reason for the appearance of a gravitational offset is Einstein's equivalence principle, which states that the effects of gravity on an object are indistinguishable from acceleration. When held fixed in a gravitational field by, for example, applying a ground reaction force or an equivalent upward thrust, the reference frame for an accelerometer (its own casing) accelerates upwards with respect to a free-falling reference frame. The effects of this acceleration are indistinguishable from any other acceleration experienced by the instrument, so that an accelerometer cannot detect the difference between sitting in a rocket on the launch pad, and being in the same rocket in deep space while it uses its engines to accelerate at 1 g. For similar reasons, an accelerometer will read \"zero\" during any type of free fall. This includes use in a coasting spaceship in deep space far from any mass, a spaceship orbiting the Earth, an airplane in a parabolic \"zero-g\" arc, or any free-fall in vacuum. Another example is free-fall at a sufficiently high altitude that atmospheric effects can be neglected.\n",
"The Modified Newtonian dynamics or MOND hypothesis proposed that the force of gravity deviates from the traditional Newtonian value to a very different force law at very low accelerations on the order of 10 m/s. Given the low accelerations placed on the spacecraft while in the outer Solar System, MOND may be in effect, modifying the normal gravitational equations. The Lunar Laser Ranging experiment combined with data of LAGEOS satellites refutes that simple gravity modification is the cause of the Pioneer anomaly. The precession of the longitudes of perihelia of the solar planets or the trajectories of long-period comets have not been reported to experience an anomalous gravitational field toward the Sun of the magnitude capable of describing the Pioneer anomaly.\n",
"BULLET::::- Newton's theory of gravitation requires that the gravitational force be transmitted instantaneously. Given the classical assumptions of the nature of space and time before the development of General Relativity, a significant propagation delay in gravity leads to unstable planetary and stellar orbits.\n",
"Angular momentum is also lost in the gravitational radiation. This is primarily in the z axis of the initial orbit. It is calculated by integrating the product of the multipolar metric waveform with the news function complement over retarded time.\n"
] |
Why was the Qin more effective than the other Chinese states during the Warring States Period?
|
Qin was more effective from the middle Warring States onwards. They weren't always more effective.
That being said I would say the reasons are:
1) Qin's land was fertile. It wasn't (originally) as populous, but Qin took over the heartland of the Zhou when the Zhou moved east (the event that ushered in the Spring and Autumn period). The Wei river valley was fertile and not hemmed in all sides by hostile states but had places they could expand into. When they go campaigning on their Eastern borders, they don't have to worry about another state taking advantage and attacking from their west (something other states had to put up with all the time) because there was no state on their west. I also read (but for the life of me can't remember where I read it from, might have been Cambridge's History of China) that they also embarked on huge irrigation projects of dikes and canals to make their lands even better and efficiently transfer goods.
2) Legalist reforms. Throughout the Warring States period, all the major players tried to concentrate power in the hand of the state/ruler and take it away from the aristocrats that made up the charioteers of the Spring and Autumn period. The Qin, on advice of Shang Yang, did this most completely. They adapted a very regimented society of five/ten mutually-responsible households (if one commits a crime, all are punished). All middle-men and aristocratic standings were (in theory) abolished. There was (in theory) no hereditary titles except that of the King, and everything was to be done by officers on the state's payroll. Society was to be structured around nuclear families of farmer-soldiers. There was to be no large family groups, and the entire population was to be available for military service. This allowed the Qin to mobilize its resources for war more efficiently than any other state.
Fun fact. If you go read legalist writings by Lord Shang and especially Hanfeizi, it reads like a checklist of what Big Brother is like from Orwell's 1984. The difference is Orwell says this is bad for the people, while Hanfeizi says it's good for the state/ruler.
3) Qin's successful conquest/colonization of the Sichuan basin really tipped the scale towards their favour with the addition of the vast and incredibly fertile Sichuan basin into their realm for the state to exploit, population to expand into, and to farm.
|
[
"Towards the end of the Warring States period, the Qin state became disproportionately powerful compared with the other six states. As a result, the policies of the six states became overwhelmingly oriented towards dealing with the Qin threat, with two opposing schools of thought. One school advocated a 'vertical' or north-south alliance called \"hezong\" (合縱/合纵) in which the states would ally with each other to repel Qin. The other advocated a 'horizontal' or east-west alliance called \"lianheng\" (連橫/连横) in which a state would ally with Qin to participate in its ascendancy.\n",
"Another advantage of the Qin was that they had a large, efficient army and capable generals. They utilised the newest developments in weaponry and transportation as well, which many of their enemies lacked. These latter developments allowed greater mobility over several different terrain types which were most common in many regions of China. Thus, in both ideology and practice, the Qin were militarily superior.\n",
"During the early Warring States period, as its neighbours in east and central China began rapidly developing, Qin was still in a state of underdevelopment and decline. The Wei state, formed from the Partition of Jin, became the most powerful state on Qin's eastern border. Qin was equipped with natural defenses, with Hangu Pass (函谷關; northeast of present-day Lingbao, Henan province) in the east and Tong Pass (潼關; present-day Tongguan County, Shaanxi province) in the west. Between 413 and 409 during the reign of Duke Jian of Qin, the Wei army led by Wu Qi, with support from Zhao and Han, attacked Qin and conquered Qin territories west of the Yellow River.\n",
"During the early Warring States period Qin generally avoided conflicts with the other states. This changed during the reign of Duke Xiao, when prime minister Shang Yang made centralizing and authoritarian reforms in accordance with his Legalist philosophy between the years 356 and 338 BC.\n",
"Qin's wars of unification were a series of military campaigns launched in the late 3rd century BC by the Qin state against the other six major Chinese states — Han, Zhao, Yan, Wei, Chu and Qi. During 247–221 BC, Qin emerged as one of the dominant powers of the Seven Warring States. \n",
"The Warring States period in China drew to a close, with Qin Shi Huang conquering the six other nation-states and establishing the short-lived Qin dynasty, the first empire of China, which was followed in the same century by the long-lasting Han dynasty. However, a brief interregnum and civil war existed between the Qin and Han periods known as the Chu-Han contention, lasting until 202 BC with the ultimate victory of Liu Bang over Xiang Yu. \n",
"Major contributions of the Qin include the concept of a centralized government, and the unification and development of the legal code, the written language, measurement, and currency of China after the tribulations of the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods. Even something as basic as the length of axles for carts—which need to match ruts in the roads—had to be made uniform to ensure a viable trading system throughout the empire. Also as part of its centralization, the Qin connected the northern border walls of the states it defeated, making the first Great Wall of China.\n"
] |
how to win radio station call-in contests?
|
If its a small station call just before the end of the announcement, if its a large station call as soon as possible.
At a small station the announcer answers their own calls, at a large station a producer or panelist will answer the phone.
Source I work in Radio.
|
[
"Contesting (also known as \"radiosport\") is a competitive activity pursued by amateur radio operators. In a contest, an amateur radio station, which may be operated by an individual or a team, seeks to contact as many other amateur radio stations as possible in a given period of time and exchange information. Rules for each competition define the amateur radio bands, the mode of communication that may be used, and the kind of information that must be exchanged. The contacts made during the contest contribute to a score by which stations are ranked. Contest sponsors publish the results in magazines and on web sites.\n",
"During a radio contest, each station attempts to establish two-way contact with other licensed amateur radio stations and exchange information specific to that contest. The information exchanged could include an R-S-T system signal report, a name, the national region, i.e. a province or US state, in which the station is located, the geographic zone in which the station is located, the Maidenhead grid locator in which the station is located, the age of the operator, or an incrementing serial number. For each contact, the radio operator must correctly receive the call sign of the other station, as well as the information in the \"exchange\", and record this data, along with the time of the contact and the band or frequency that was used to make the contact, in a log.\n",
"Radio contests are principally sponsored by amateur radio societies, radio clubs, or radio enthusiast magazines. These organizations publish the rules for the event, collect the operational logs from all stations that operate in the event, cross-check the logs to generate a score for each station, and then publish the results in a magazine, in a society journal, or on a web site. Because the competitions are between stations licensed in the Amateur Radio Service (with the exception of certain contests which sponsor awards for shortwave listeners), which prohibits the use of radio frequencies for pecuniary interests, there are no professional radio contests or professional contesters, and any awards granted by the contest sponsors are typically limited to paper certificates, plaques, or trophies.\n",
"Many radio amateurs are happy to contest from home, often with relatively low output power and simple antennas. Some of these operators at modest home stations operate competitively and others are simply on the air to give away some points to serious stations or to chase some unusual propagation. More serious radio contesters will spend significant sums of money and invest a lot of time building a potentially winning station, whether at home, a local mountain top, or in a distant country. Operators without the financial resources to build their own station establish relationships with those that do and \"guest operate\" at other stations during contests. Contesting is often combined with a DX-pedition, where amateur radio operators travel to a location where amateur radio activity is infrequent or uncommon.\n",
"Many amateur radio operators participate in radio contests, during which an individual or team of operators typically seek to contact and exchange information with as many other amateur radio stations as possible in a given period of time. In addition to contests, a number of Amateur radio operating award schemes exist, sometimes suffixed with \"on the Air\", such as Summits on the Air, Islands on the Air, Worked All States and Jamboree on the Air.\n",
"Contesting grew out of other amateur radio activities in the 1920s and 1930s. As intercontinental communications with amateur radio became more common, competitions were formed to challenge stations to make as many contacts as possible with amateur radio stations in other countries. Contests were also formed to provide opportunities for amateur radio operators to practice their message handling skills, used for routine or emergency communications across long distances. Over time, the number and variety of radio contests has increased, and many amateur radio operators today pursue the sport as their primary amateur radio activity.\n",
"A wide variety of amateur radio contests are sponsored every year. Contest sponsors have crafted competitive events that serve to promote a variety of interests and appeal to diverse audiences. Radio contests typically take place on weekends or local weeknight evenings, and can last from a few hours to forty-eight hours in duration. The rules of each contest will specify which stations are eligible for participation, the radio frequency bands on which they may operate, the communications modes they may employ, which other amateur radio stations they may contact, and the specific time period during which they may make contacts for the contest.\n"
] |
why certain fruits and veggies taste crunchier after they're chilled
|
the fibrous cell structures within the plants become more rigid when they are cold. that rigidity gives them additional "crispyness."
it is similar to if you were to take a foam bed and turn the heat off in the room. the bed becomes much firmer.
|
[
"Due to the low processing temperatures and the minimization of deterioration reactions, nutrients are retained and color is maintained. Freeze-dried fruit maintains its original shape and has a characteristic soft crispy texture.\n",
"Astringency, the dry, puckering mouthfeel caused by the tannins in unripe fruits, lets the fruit mature by deterring eating. Ripe fruits and fruit parts including blackthorn (sloe berries), \"Aronia\" chokeberry, chokecherry, bird cherry, rhubarb, quince and persimmon fruits, and banana skins are very astringent; citrus fruits, like lemons, are somewhat astringent. Tannins, being a kind of polyphenol, bind salivary proteins and make them precipitate and aggregate, producing a rough, \"sandpapery\", or dry sensation in the mouth. The tannins in some teas and red grape wines like Cabernet Sauvignon and Merlot produce mild astringency.\n",
"In the case of fresh fruit, particularly soft fruit such as strawberries and raspberries, they are often just sprinkled with sugar (and sometimes a small amount of salt) and then left to sit and release their own juices. This process makes the food more flavorful and easier to chew and digest.\n",
"It is a common misconception persimmon fruit needs frost to ripen and soften, called bletting. Some, such as the early-ripening varieties \"pieper\" and \"NC21\"(also known as \"supersweet\"), easily lose astringency and become completely free of it when slightly soft at the touch—these are then very sweet, even in the British climate. On the other hand, some varieties (like the very large fruited \"yates\", which is a late ripening variety) remain astringent even when the fruit has become completely soft (at least in the British climate). Frost, however, destroys the cells within the fruit, causing it to rot instead of ripen. Only completely ripe and soft fruit can stand some frost; it will then dry and become even sweeter (hence the misconception). The same goes for the Oriental persimmon (\"Diospyros kaki\"), where early frost can severely damage a fruit crop.\n",
"The fruit grows best in cool areas where nights are cold and autumn days are clear; otherwise, it suffers from poor colour and soft flesh, and tends to fall from the tree before harvest. It stores for two to three months in air, but is prone to scald, flesh softening, chilling sensitivity, and coprinus rot. It can become mealy when stored at temperatures below . The fruit is optimally stored in a controlled atmosphere in which temperatures are between , and air content is 1.5–4.5% oxygen and 1–5% carbon dioxide; under such conditions, the McIntosh will keep for five to eight months.\n",
"Fruits in this category are not hardy to extreme cold, as the preceding temperate fruits are, yet tolerate some frost and may have a modest chilling requirement. Notable among these are natives of the Mediterranean:\n",
"Some substances activate cold trigeminal receptors even when not at low temperatures. This \"fresh\" or \"minty\" sensation can be tasted in peppermint, spearmint, menthol, ethanol, and camphor. Caused by activation of the same mechanism that signals cold, TRPM8 ion channels on nerve cells, unlike the actual change in temperature described for sugar substitutes, this coolness is only a perceived phenomenon.\n"
] |
Does the shape of a lightning bolt have an effect on the sound of the thunder?
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The jagged and irregular shape of a lightning bolt is one thing that causes thunder to rumble. Different points all along the lightning bolt are different distances from your ears and thus the sounds arrives at slightly different times. If a lightning bolt were perfectly straight, for example, you'd hear a big boom but it would be uniform in intensity for its duration (discounting effects of distance on sound intensity).
A forked bolt would make a sort of ka-boom sound as the two separate forks of the bolt create sound waves that arrive close to each other but not at the exact same time (at least in most cases, you could prove mathematically that at a point equally spaced from each fork, the sounds would constructively interfere to create a louder boom, however it's pretty unlikely that you'd happen to be in the exact spot where this happens).
|
[
"Because the electrostatic discharge of terrestrial lightning superheats the air to plasma temperatures along the length of the discharge channel in a short duration, kinetic theory dictates gaseous molecules undergo a rapid increase in pressure and thus expand outward from the lightning creating a shock wave audible as thunder. Since the sound waves propagate not from a single point source but along the length of the lightning's path, the sound origin's varying distances from the observer can generate a rolling or rumbling effect. Perception of the sonic characteristics is further complicated by factors such as the irregular and possibly branching geometry of the lightning channel, by acoustic echoing from terrain, and by the usually multiple-stroke characteristic of the lightning strike.\n",
"Thunder is the sound caused by lightning. Depending on the distance from and nature of the lightning, it can range from a sharp, loud crack to a long, low rumble (brontide). The sudden increase in pressure and temperature from lightning produces rapid expansion of the air within and surrounding the path of a lightning strike. In turn, this expansion of air creates a sonic shock wave, sonic boom, often referred to as a \"thunderclap\" or \"peal of thunder\".\n",
"Close-in lightning has been described first as a clicking or cloth-tearing sound, then a cannon shot sound or loud crack/snap, followed by continuous rumbling. The early sounds are from the leader parts of lightning, then the near parts of the return stroke, then the distant parts of the return stroke.\n",
"Their sound has been described as being like distant but inordinately loud thunder while no clouds are in the sky large enough to generate lightning. Those familiar with the sound of cannon fire say the sound is nearly identical. The booms occasionally cause shock waves that rattle plates. Early white settlers in North America were told by the native Haudenosaunee Iroquois that the booms were the sound of the Great Spirit continuing his work of shaping the earth.\n",
"The sum of all these lightning flashes results in atmospheric noise. It can be observed, with a radio receiver, in the form of a combination of white noise (coming from distant thunderstorms) and impulse noise (coming from a near thunderstorm). The power-sum varies with seasons and nearness of thunderstorm centers.\n",
"BULLET::::- Example 3: An occurrence of thunder is a sufficient condition for the occurrence of lightning in the sense that hearing thunder, and unambiguously recognizing it as such, justifies concluding that there has been a lightning bolt.\n",
"Anaximander attributed some phenomena, such as thunder and lightning, to the intervention of elements, rather than to divine causes. In his system, thunder results from the shock of clouds hitting each other; the loudness of the sound is proportionate with that of the shock. Thunder without lightning is the result of the wind being too weak to emit any flame, but strong enough to produce a sound. A flash of lightning without thunder is a jolt of the air that disperses and falls, allowing a less active fire to break free. Thunderbolts are the result of a thicker and more violent air flow.\n"
] |
it's said that a single strand of dna contains roughly 4 megabytes of information. how exactly do they know this and how are bytes convertible to something physical like base pairs?
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A bit is a binary digit. A byte is an 8 digit number, in binary.
In decimal, a ten digit number could represent a high count of something, or each digit could have it's own significance. For example, in a telephone number, where it really just represents what button to press. It's conceivable that every two digits could combine to represent something. Kind of like the first three in an American phone number represent a region.
DNA is made up a discreet number of pairs of bases, no? The are four bases that bind in two different pairs. Even if it matters which is left and which is right, relative to something arbitrary (for instance the pairs of the entire preliminary length of the strand), it's all powers of two.
So in the case of DNA it would be pretty simple to convert to bits and bytes. Without even knowing specifically how many kinds of bases there are, or whether the chirality matters, as long as everything must pair up, each pair is represented by a strict number of bits, with no waste.
I.e., if there are 4 bases I'll call a b c and d, but the pairs only form like ab and cd, then that's either 0 or 1 in binary. One digit covers all those possibilities. If chirality confess into play, so that relative to the first ab or cd, you can have ab ba cd or dc, then there are 4 possibilities, which are entirely grasped by two digits with no wasted digit.
By waste I mean, imagine if you had 5 possibilities. That would require 3 digits, but wouldn't use all the combinations of those 3.
Although, even if the third digit is used, and a little bit a waste, it would still factor correctly into an amount of dat a, so that's somewhat moot.
|
[
"DNA double helix; the vertical bar represents the number of nucleotides. The value depicted is around 4.3 billion, which was believed to be the case in 1974 when the message was transmitted. It is currently thought that there are about 3.2 billion base pairs in the human genome.\n",
"Scientists can encode digital information onto a single strand of synthetic DNA. In 2012, George M. Church encoded one of his books about synthetic biology in DNA. The 5.3 Mb of data was more than 1000 times greater than the previous largest amount of information to be stored in synthesized DNA. A similar project encoded the complete sonnets of William Shakespeare in DNA.\n",
"Once a single-stranded circular DNA template is created, containing sample DNA that is ligated to two unique adapter sequences has been generated, the full sequence is amplified into a long string of DNA. This is accomplished by rolling circle replication with the Phi 29 DNA polymerase which binds and replicates the DNA template. The newly synthesized strand is released from the circular template, resulting in a long single-stranded DNA comprising several head-to-tail copies of the circular template. The resulting nanoparticle self-assembles into a tight ball of DNA approximately 300 nanometers (nm) across. Nanoballs remain separated from each other because they are negatively charged naturally repel each other, reducing any tangling between different single stranded DNA lengths.\n",
"Astbury and Bell reported that DNA's structure repeated every 2.7 nanometres and that the bases lay flat, stacked, 0.34 nanometres apart. At a symposium in 1938 at Cold Spring Harbor, Astbury pointed out that the 0.34 nanometre spacing was the same as amino acids in polypeptide chains. (The currently accepted value for the spacing of the bases in B-form of DNA is 0.332 nm.)\n",
"In \"B. subtilis\" the length of the transferred DNA is greater than 1271 kb (more than 1 million bases). The length transferred is likely double stranded DNA and is often more than a third of the total chromosome length of 4215 kb. It appears that about 7-9% of the recipient cells take up an entire chromosome.\n",
"BULLET::::- Researchers at Harvard's Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering successfully store 5.5 petabits of data – around 700 terabytes – in a single gram of DNA, breaking the previous DNA data density record by a thousand times. (ExtremeTech)\n",
"BULLET::::- DNA: stores information in DNA nucleotides. It was first done in 2012 when researchers achieved a rate of 1.28 petabytes per gram of DNA. In March 2017 scientists reported that a new algorithm called a DNA fountain achieved 85% of the theoretical limit, at 215 petabytes per gram of DNA.\n"
] |
why if the distance between two objects can always be halved, do they ever touch other?
|
In theory if you keep cutting the distance between two objects in half, they will not meet. I'm not sure what you are asking about though.
Here's a little joke that is very relevant:
A mathematician and an engineer are both told they can half the distance between themselves and a beautiful woman as many times as they want. The mathematician responds: "I'll never get to her." The engineer says: "I'll get close enough..."
|
[
"The distance of closest approach of two objects is the distance between their centers when they are externally tangent. The objects may be geometric shapes or physical particles with well defined boundaries. The distance of closest approach is sometimes referred to as the contact distance.\n",
"When two objects touch, only a certain portion of their surface areas will be in contact with each other. This area of true contact, most often constitutes only a very small fraction of the apparent or \"nominal\" contact area. In relation to two contacting objects, the term Contact area refers to the fraction of the nominal area that consists of atoms of one object in true contact with the atoms of the other object. Because objects are never perfectly flat due to asperities, the actual contact area (on a microscopic scale) is usually much less than the contact area apparent on a macroscopic scale. Contact area may depend on the normal force between the two objects due to deformation. \n",
"The two-body problem is interesting in astronomy because pairs of astronomical objects are often moving rapidly in arbitrary directions (so their motions become interesting), widely separated from one another (so they won't collide) and even more widely separated from other objects (so outside influences will be small enough to be ignored safely).\n",
"The grouping property of \"proximity (Gestalt)\" is the spatial distance between two objects. The closer two objects are, the more likely they belong to the same group. This perception can be ambiguous without the person perceiving it as ambiguous. For example, two objects with varying distances and orientations from the viewer may appear to be proximal to each other, while a third object may be closer to one of the other objects but appear farther.\n",
"In the same meaning the line will be more or less pressed on depending on whether you want to connect or to separate, \"find\" or \"lose\" the boundary according to the tonal value of the contiguous zones that you want to melt in the other or separate.\n",
"In special relativity, however, the distance between two points is no longer the same if measured by two different observers when one of the observers is moving, because of Lorentz contraction. The situation is even more complicated if the two points are separated in time as well as in space. For example, if one observer sees two events occur at the same place, but at different times, a person moving with respect to the first observer will see the two events occurring at different places, because (from their point of view) they are stationary, and the position of the event is receding or approaching. Thus, a different measure must be used to measure the effective \"distance\" between two events.\n",
"When there is an intersection between two or more objects, people tend to perceive each object as a single uninterrupted object. This allows differentiation of stimuli even when they come in visual overlap. We have a tendency to group and organize lines or curves that follow an established direction over those defined by sharp and abrupt changes in direction.\n"
] |
why do the facebook accounts of dead people or people who have not logged on in years all of a sudden start spamming sales for sunglasses?
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My guess is since the password never changes anymore some bot brute forces the password and takes over the account.
|
[
"Naomi Lachance stated in a web blog for NPR, \"All Tech Considered\", that Facebook's facial recognition is right 98% of the time compared to the FBI's 85% out of 50 people. It's also noted, however, that the accuracies of Facebook searches are due to its larger, more diverse photo selection compared to the FBI's closed database.\n",
"In 2018, Chinese law enforcement officials have been equipped with facial recognition glasses in order to apprehend criminals, especially drug smugglers. This technology was adopted at the 2017 Qingdao International Beer Festival. With the assistance of it, policemen captured many criminals, including 25 fugitives, 19 drug smugglers, and 37 plagiarists.\n",
"The \"Bangkok Post\" reported that this was thought to be the first lèse majesté charge against a Thai Facebook user. A media reform activist described the case as escalating \"the climate of fear among [Thai] internet users\" and stated that \"now many people refrain from revealing their real identities on Facebook.\"\n",
"On October 5, 2013, David Segal, a reporter at the \"New York Times\", published an article critical of the mugshot publishing industry. Prior to publication and seemingly in response to this criticism, Google took steps to lower mugshot sites rankings in their search algorithms so that such pictures no longer appear in the first page of search results when a person is searched by name. According to the New York Times article, payment processors such as Visa, MasterCard, Discover, American Express, and PayPal were in process of terminating processing payments to mugshot websites and related removal sites. Ten days later CNN Money reported, that according to American Express, it had severed all ties; and that other companies were still in the process of cutting ties with the mugshot industry.\n",
"Privacy advocates are concerned that people wearing such eyewear may be able to identify strangers in public using facial recognition, or surreptitiously record and broadcast private conversations. Some companies in the U.S. have posted anti-Google Glass signs in their establishments. In July 2013, prior to the official release of the product, Stephen Balaban, co-founder of software company Lambda Labs, circumvented Google’s facial recognition app block by building his own, non-Google-approved operating system. Balaban then installed face-scanning Glassware that creates a summary of commonalities shared by the scanned person and the Glass wearer, such as mutual friends and interests. Additionally, Michael DiGiovanni created Winky, a program that allows a Google Glass user to take a photo with a wink of an eye, while Marc Rogers, a principal security researcher at Lookout, discovered that Glass can be hijacked if a user could be tricked into taking a picture of a malicious QR code.\n",
"This practice has been criticized by those who believe people should be able to opt-out of involuntary data collection. Additionally, while Facebook users have the ability to download and inspect the data they provide to the site, data from the user's \"shadow profile\" is not included, and non-users of Facebook do not have access to this tool regardless. The company has also been unclear whether or not it is possible for a person to revoke Facebook's access to their \"shadow profile.\"\n",
"In December 2013, Facebook removed another photo of Minsky from Stokes' page, saying it violated their Community Standards, and banned the photographer's page for 30 days. Stokes told \"The Advocate\" he suspected this action was personal. \"I believe I know who reported the photo. It was most likely a gay graphics designer who stole one of my photos and used it for a bar ad. He and I were going back and forth on what he had done, and his employer made him pay a license fee for image usage. So, Facebook's reporting system is an effective revenge tool.\"\n"
] |
why are some fairly modern commercial aircraft built with propeller engines instead of jets?
|
Propeller aircraft are usually less expensive for the same size and slightly more fuel efficient, although slower. Makes for a compelling argument for shorter routes without high demand, and some airlines such as Silver run almost exclusively propeller aircraft.
|
[
"Aircraft that use propellers as their prime propulsion device constitute a historically important subset of aircraft, despite inherent limitations to their speed. Aircraft powered by piston engines get virtually all of their thrust from the propeller driven by the engine. A few piston engined aircraft derive some thrust from the engine's exhaust gases, and there are certain hybrid types like the Motorjet that use a piston engine to drive the compressor of a jet engine, which supplies the primary thrust (although some types also have a propeller powered by the piston engine for low speed efficiency). All aircraft prior to World War II (except for a tiny number of early jet aircraft and rocket aircraft) used piston engines to drive propellers, so all Flight airspeed records prior to 1944 were necessarily set by propeller-driven aircraft. Rapid advances in first liquid-fueled rocket engine-powered aircraft – with a 1004 km/h record set in October 1941 by a German example — and axial-flow jet engine technology during World War II meant that no propeller-driven aircraft would ever again hold an absolute air speed record. Shock wave formation in propeller-driven aircraft at speeds near sonic conditions, impose limits not encountered in jet aircraft.\n",
"Turbine engines need not be used as jets (see below), but may be geared to drive a propeller in the form of a turboprop. Modern helicopters also typically use turbine engines to power the rotor. Turbines provide more power for less weight than piston engines, and are better suited to small-to-medium size aircraft or larger, slow-flying types. Some turboprop designs mount the propeller directly on an engine turbine shaft, and are called propfans.\n",
"Gas turbines- Aerospace gas turbines, more commonly known as jet engines, are the most common gas turbines. They are the most like power generation turbines because the electricity used on the airplane is from the turbines, while also providing the propulsion. These turbines are the smallest out of the industrial turbines, and are most often the most advanced.\n",
"The propeller powered by a piston engine, in radial or inline form, still dominated aviation at the close of World War Two, and its simplicity and low cost mean it is still in use today for less demanding applications.\n",
"Motorjet engines provide greater thrust than a propeller alone mounted on a piston engine; this has been successfully demonstrated in a number of different aircraft. A jet engine also can provide thrust at higher speeds where a propeller becomes less efficient or even ineffective; in fact, a jet engine gains efficiency as speed rises, while a propeller loses it (outside of a certain design range). This gives better efficiency in either operating range than an aircraft powered by just a propeller or a jet. The same is true of the dual-powerplant aircraft experimented with after the turbojet became practicable, which were equipped with both a piston-driven propeller and a turbojet engine.\n",
"From the first controlled powered fixed-wing aircraft flight by the Wright brothers until World War II, propellers turned by the internal combustion piston engine were virtually the only type of propulsion system in use. The piston engine is still used in the majority of smaller aircraft produced, since it is efficient at the lower altitudes and slower speeds suited to propellers.\n",
"Jet engines are also sometimes developed into, or share certain components such as engine cores, with turboshaft and turboprop engines, which are forms of gas turbine engines that are typically used to power helicopters and some propeller-driven aircraft.\n"
] |
how were languages created? did we just get better at grunting?
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Yes, we got better at grunting.
But to say "developed independently all over the world" is a bit misleading.
A group of people that speak A all lived together, but then some moved away and over time the languages changed, and now you have two different languages, A and B because they were so far apart geographically they couldn't keep eachother up to date.
French, english, spanish, german, all have similar origins, so they were not independent in the beginning. It is not like different languages spontaneously happened.
The language's change is very much like evolution of the species, and in essence there was no "creation" for languages either. Radical changes take a LOT of time.
|
[
"Language provides continuous opportunity for creativity, evident in the generation of novel sentences, phrasings, puns, neologisms, rhymes, allusions, sarcasm, irony, similes, metaphors, analogies, witticisms, and jokes. Native speakers of morphologically rich languages frequently create new word-forms that are easily understood, and some have found their way to the dictionary. The area of natural language generation has been well studied, but these creative aspects of everyday language have yet to be incorporated with any robustness or scale.\n",
"Niche construction is also now central to several accounts of how language evolved. For instance, Derek Bickerton describes how our ancestors constructed scavenging niches that required them to communicate in order to recruit sufficient individuals to drive off predators away from megafauna corpses. He maintains that our use of language, in turn, created a new niche in which sophisticated cognition was beneficial.\n",
"While some languages are created purely from the desire of the creator, language creation can be a profession. In 1974, Victoria Fromkin was the first person hired to create a language (Land of the Lost's Paku). Since then, notable professional language creators have included Marc Okrand (Klingon), David Peterson (Game of Thrones languages), and Paul Frommer (Na'vi).\n",
"Some people prefer however to take pleasure in constructing, crafting a language by a conscious decision for reasons of literary enjoyment or aesthetic reasons without any claim of usefulness. Such artistic languages begin to appear in Early Modern literature (in Pantagruel, and in Utopian contexts), but they only seem to gain notability as serious projects beginning in the 20th century. \"A Princess of Mars\" (1912) by Edgar Rice Burroughs was possibly the first fiction of that century to feature a constructed language. J. R. R. Tolkien developed families of related fictional languages and discussed artistic languages publicly, giving a lecture entitled \"\"A Secret Vice\"\" in 1931 at a congress. (Orwell's Newspeak is considered a satire of an IAL rather than an artistic language proper.)\n",
"The pursuit of a satisfying theory that addresses the origin of language in humans has led to the consideration of a number of evolutionary \"models\". These models attempt to show how modern language might have evolved, and a common feature of many of these theories is the idea that vocal communication was initially used to complement a far more dominant mode of communication through gesture. Human language might have evolved as the \"evolutionary refinement of an implicit communication system already present in lower primates, based on a set of hand/mouth goal-directed action representations.\"\n",
"Language makes possible new forms of social organization radically different from animal \"pecking order\" hierarchies dominated by an alpha male. Thus, the development of language allowed for a new stage in human evolution – the beginning of culture, including religion, art, desire, and the sacred. As language provides memory and history via a record of its own history, language itself can be defined via a hypothesis of its origin based on our knowledge of human culture. As with any scientific hypothesis, its value is in its ability to account for the known facts of human history and culture.\n",
"It is more difficult to establish the origin of language; it is unclear whether \"Homo erectus\" could speak or if that capability had not begun until \"Homo sapiens\". As brain size increased, babies were born earlier, before their heads grew too large to pass through the pelvis. As a result, they exhibited more plasticity, and thus possessed an increased capacity to learn and required a longer period of dependence. Social skills became more complex, language became more sophisticated, and tools became more elaborate. This contributed to further cooperation and intellectual development. Modern humans (\"Homo sapiens\") are believed to have originated around 200,000 years ago or earlier in Africa; the oldest fossils date back to around 160,000 years ago.\n"
] |
why does your average sport player not get the serious injuries commonly suffered by professionals?
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Probably just because professionals do it way more often and probably way more intensely than you. Lots of high school sports players get injured frequently.
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[
"The high levels of injuries that take place during games of football are so much that not only during a players' career are they susceptible to injuries, but the effects afterwards are detrimental to their health. One example of a current player (as of 2005) that has suffered a large share of injuries is Essendon champion James Hird, who has suffered virtually every injury imaginable.\n",
"Nearly two million people every year suffer sports-related injuries and receive treatment in emergency departments. Fatigue is a large contributing factor that results in many sport injuries. There are times where an athlete may participate on low energy leading to the deterioration in technique or form, resulting in a slower reaction time, loss in stability of muscle joints, and allowing an injury to occur. For both sexes the most common areas injured are the knee and ankle, with sprains/strains being the most common areas for injury. Injuries involving the patellofemoral articulation are significantly more frequent among females. The sport with the highest injury rate is football, with greater than 12 times the number of injuries seen in the next most common sport.\n",
"Injuries due to the sport are seen as unfortunate, but inevitable, and one reviewer of the site and product said it would be more likely to lead to a trip to the hospital than a thrill, for people who aren't trained professionals.\n",
"The occurrence of concussions in amateur leagues are less common because of the lower impact intensity. However, concussions suffered at amateur levels can at times be more dangerous then those suffered in the AFL because of the inferior resources possessed and in some cases the coaches are not willing to pull a player out of the game, or rest them if they are suffering from a concussion. A study conducted by the Australian Football Injury Prevention Project (AFIPP) in 2002 showed that out of 301 players (who play for amateur clubs in the Melbourne metropolitan area), 14 suffered from a form of head knock, 7 of which resulted in concussion. 18.9% of players participating in the test suffered from concussion, bearing in mind that the sample size is also small.\n",
"BULLET::::- In sports where there is a high rate of injury, the risk of going onto the field for a meaningless game, and subsequently suffering a serious injury, outweighs the mostly nonexistent benefits. \"(See also: resting the starters)\"\n",
"Injury and the risk of injury also contributes to this lack of mental health because if a player does become injured they will have a lower or no income and their position in next season is on the rocks so knowing this makes them stress. Being injured also means they cannot exercise as much and this sudden drop in physical activity levels makes the player more likely to become anxious or depressed as physical activity is a mood enhancer. On average a total of 40 players miss a total of 142 games a season. This is a huge number and a constant lingering concern for players. The whole process of finding out about their injury to rehabilitation and returning to the sport is an emotional roller-coaster for players as they have strong negative feelings when they find out about their diagnosis, to struggling through rehab then having the pressure to perform.\n",
"Players must handle their own treatments and carry their own medical insurance, which is opposite of the norm with professional sports teams. Since most esports play requires many actions per minute, some players may get repetitive strain injuries, causing hand or wrist pain.\n"
] |
Does the amount or heaviness of the falling rain affect the sound of thunder?
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heavy rain (heavy water) adsorbs sound energy a at a rate √3 x F greater than light water (deuterium). thunder is mostly in the 20-50hz range, so at 100% relative humidity
, we might expect thunder to be heard at about twice the range in light rain
|
[
"The cause of thunder has been the subject of centuries of speculation and scientific inquiry. Early thinking was that it was made by deities but the ancient Greek philosophers attributed it to natural causes, such as wind striking clouds (Anaximander, Aristotle) and movement of air within clouds (Democritus).. The Roman philosopher, Lucretius held it was from the sound of hail colliding within clouds.\n",
"The movement of sound in the atmosphere depends on the properties of the air, such as temperature and density. Because temperature and density change with height, the sound of thunder is refracted through the troposphere. This refraction results in spaces through which the thunder does not propagate. The sound of thunder often reflects off the Earth's surface. The rumbling sound is partly due to these reflections. This reflection and refraction can leave zones bypassed by the sound that constitutes thunder.\n",
"Thunderstorms result from the rapid upward movement of warm, moist air, sometimes along a front. As the warm, moist air moves upward, it cools, condenses, and forms a cumulonimbus cloud that can reach heights of over . As the rising air reaches its dew point temperature, water vapor condenses into water droplets or ice, reducing pressure locally within the thunderstorm cell. Any precipitation falls the long distance through the clouds towards the Earth's surface. As the droplets fall, they collide with other droplets and become larger. The falling droplets create a downdraft as it pulls cold air with it, and this cold air spreads out at the Earth's surface, occasionally causing strong winds that are commonly associated with thunderstorms.\n",
"The Earth's curvature also contributes to distant observers not hearing the thunderclap. Thunder is more likely to reflect off the Earth's surface before it reaches an observer far from the strike, and only the right refraction and reflection of the sound off of the atmosphere will give it the range it needs to be heard far away. The reflection and refraction in the troposphere determines who hears the strike and who doesn't. Usually, the troposphere will reflect the light, and leave out the sound - in these cases some fraction of the light emanating from distant thunderstorms (whose distant clouds may be so low to the horizon as to be essentially invisible) is scattered by the upper atmosphere and thus visible to remote observers.\n",
"Rain can produce high levels of ambient noise. However the numerical relationship between rain rate and ambient noise level is difficult to determine because measurement of rain rate is problematic at sea.\n",
"William Henry Pickering noted that at eight stations in Canada a trembling of the house or ground was felt. In many other places loud, thunder-like sounds were heard, occasionally by people who had not seen the meteors themselves. Pickering used the sound reports to perform a check on the height of the meteors, which he calculated at 35 miles (56 km).\n",
"Inversion thunder results when lightning strikes between cloud and ground occur during a temperature inversion; the resulting thunder sound have significantly greater acoustic energy than from the same distance in a non-inversion condition. In an inversion, the air near the ground is cooler than the higher air; inversions often occur when warm moist air passes above a cold front. Within a temperature inversion, the sound energy is prevented from dispersing vertically as it would in a non-inversion and is thus concentrated in the near-ground layer.\n"
] |
When we talk about previous ice ages, how widespread was the cold? Did it cover the whole planet?
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Aren't we still technically on an ice age by some definitions?
|
[
"The Earth was generally cold during the early Cambrian, probably due to the ancient continent of Gondwana covering the South Pole and cutting off polar ocean currents. However, average temperatures were 7 degrees Celsius higher than today. There were likely polar ice caps and a series of glaciations, as the planet was still recovering from an earlier Snowball Earth. It became warmer towards the end of the period; the glaciers receded and eventually disappeared, and sea levels rose dramatically. This trend would continue into the Ordovician period.\n",
"From the beginning of the 14th century, a gradual cooling occurred throughout the Canadian Archipelago and the Arctic Ocean coast of the mainland. The period between 1550 and 1880, the so-called \"Little Ice Age\", caused temperatures significantly lower than today's in North America and Europe (with a brief period of higher heat around 1800). The effect of the drop in temperature upon the hunting-dependent lifestyle of the Thule was significant. Entire regions of the high Arctic were depopulated, partly by mass migrations but also by the starvation of entire communities. The traditional way of life was maintained only by communities in the relatively hospitable regions of the Arctic: the southern end of Baffin Island, Labrador, and the southernmost tip of Greenland. In Greenland, the Thule developed a different social structure and new dwelling types, and became what is known as the Inugsuk culture.\n",
"During the late Pliocene and early Pleistocene Series of the Cenozoic Era, 3.6 to 2.2 Ma (million years ago), the Arctic was much warmer than it is at the present day (with summer temperatures from 3.6-3.4 Ma some 8 °C warmer than today). That is a key finding of research into a lake-sediment core obtained in Eastern Siberia, which is of exceptional importance because it has provided the longest continuous late Cenozoic land-based sedimentary record thus far.\n",
"A 2001 study found that \"there is no apparent trend toward fewer extreme cold events in Europe or North America over the 1948–99 period, although a long station history suggests that such events may have been more frequent in the United States during the late 1800s and early 1900s.\" A 2009 MIT study found that such events are increasing and may be caused by the rapid loss of the Arctic ice pack.\n",
"The eruption of the Toba supervolcano, 70,000 to 75,000 years ago reduced the average global temperature by 5 degrees Celsius for several years and may have triggered an ice age. It has been postulated that this created a bottleneck in human evolution. A much smaller but similar effect occurred after the eruption of Krakatoa in 1883, when global temperatures fell for about 5 years in a row.\n",
"The Earth had already been in a centuries-long period of global cooling that started in the 14th century. Known today as the Little Ice Age, it had already caused considerable agricultural distress in Europe. The Little Ice Age's existing cooling was exacerbated by the eruption of Tambora, which occurred near the end of the Little Ice Age.\n",
"Six million years ago, towards the close of the Miocene era, the earth's climate gradually cooled. This would lead to the glaciations of the Pliocene and the Pleistocene, which are commonly referred to as the Ice Age. In many areas, forests and savannahs were replaced with steppes or grasslands, and only those species of creature that adapted to these changes would survive.\n"
] |
how do usb/hdmi/displayport keep getting faster?
|
Improvements in various things. For example in HDMI the speed increase is associated with a higher clock rate. Much like faster processors increased in Mhz, and into Ghz.
HDMI Max Clock frequency to Data throughput
- HDMI 1.0 - 1.2: 165mhz = 4.95Gbps
- HDMI 1.3 - 1.4: 300mhz = 10.2Gbps
- HDMI 2.0: 600mhz = 18Gbps
- HDMI 2.1: ?? Spec not out to public or vendors yet, [here is some speculation though](_URL_0_).
This increase in clock speed is kind of like increasing the speed limit on the road. If the speed limit goes up from 25mph to 50mph, twice as many cars can go down that road.
There are various reasons that increasing the frequency of the signal is difficult, and just gets harder the higher the frequency gets.
Sometimes bandwidth increases come from adding pins/wires. This is like adding another set of lanes to that 25mph road. More lanes, more cars.
|
[
"A factor affecting the speed of USB storage devices (more evident with USB 3.0 devices, but also noticeable with USB 2.0 ones) is that the USB Mass Storage Bulk-Only Transfer (BOT) protocol drivers are generally slower than the USB Attached SCSI protocol (UAS[P]) drivers.\n",
"BULLET::::- The absence of moving parts in USB flash devices allows true random access avoiding the rotational latency and seek time, meaning small programs will start faster from a USB flash drive than from a local hard disk or live CD. However, as USB devices typically achieve lower data transfer rates than internal hard drives, booting from older computers that lack USB 2.0 or newer can be very slow.\n",
"BULLET::::- relatively high transfer speed; typically faster than other common portable media such as CDs, DVDs and USB flash drives, slower than drives connected using solely ATA, SCSI and SATA connectors\n",
"USB flash drives usually specify their read and write speeds in megabytes per second (MB/s); read speed is usually faster. These speeds are for optimal conditions; real-world speeds are usually slower. In particular, circumstances that often lead to speeds much lower than advertised are transfer (particularly writing) of many small files rather than a few very large ones, and mixed reading and writing to the same device.\n",
"In theory, the Centronics port could transfer data as rapidly as 75,000 characters per second. This was far faster than the printer, which averaged about 160 characters per second, meaning the port spent much of its time idle. The performance was defined by how rapidly the host could respond to the printer's BUSY signal asking for more data. To improve performance, printers began incorporating buffers so the host could send them data more rapidly, in bursts. This not only reduced (or eliminated) delays due to latency waiting for the next character to arrive from the host, but also freed the host to perform other operations without causing a loss of performance. Performance was further improved by using the buffer to store several lines and then printing in both directions, eliminating the delay while the print head returned to the left side of the page. Such changes more than doubled the performance of an otherwise unchanged printer, as was the case on Centronics models like the 102 and 308.\n",
"BULLET::::- The absence of moving parts in USB flash devices allows true random access avoiding the rotational latency and seek time (see mechanical latency) of hard drives or optical media, meaning small programs will start faster from a USB flash drive than from a local hard disk or live CD. However, as USB devices typically achieve lower data transfer rates than internal hard drives, booting from older computers that lack USB 2.0 or newer can be very slow.\n",
"BULLET::::- Universal Serial Bus (USB) scanners can transfer data quickly. The early USB 1.1 standard could transfer data at 1.5 megabytes per second (slower than SCSI), but the later USB 2.0/3.0 standards can transfer at more than 20/60 megabytes per second in practice.\n"
] |
how is work outsourced to other countries without massive outrage from the outsourcing country?
|
I grew up in northern Indiana. Many people were upset when the steel industry started moving jobs over seas. The thing is it was a slow process. They did not do it all at once so it was not as noticeable. Also a lot of people did receive compensation for losing there job. An example would be being able to retire earlier with full benefits.
|
[
"Outsourcing is among some of the many reasons for increased competition within developing countries. Aside from being a reason for competition, many First World countries see outsourcing, in particular offshore outsourcing, as an opportunity for increased income. As a consequence, the skill level of production in foreign countries handling the outsourced services increases within the economy; and the skill level within the domestic developing countries can decrease. It is because of competition (including outsourcing) that Robert Feenstra and Gordon Hanson predict that there will be a rise of 15–33 percent in inequality amongst these countries.\n",
"Given the low costs of labour in developing countries such as China, India and the Philippines, American and European companies are now outsourcing or offshoring an ever-increasing proportion of their production, manufacturing or service tasks to foreign countries. As a result, job opportunities in the West are slowly moving away from routine tasks such as accounting, telephone support services, computer programming and electronic component manufacturing. The efficiency of outsourcing has also been improving as the internet continues to provide increasingly reliable and ever faster global communications links.\n",
"Outsourcing is a new name for a long-standing phenomenon: the movement of jobs from the USA to countries where wages, benefits and the cost of living are much lower. In the 1970s and 1980s, heavy manufacturing jobs went to other countries by the tens of thousands. The result was cheaper goods for U.S. consumers and less pollution in many of the nation's industrial cities. Economists who backed the trend envisioned a new \"knowledge economy\" in which well-trained Americans would become the world's designers, innovators and administrators. The dirty work would be sent overseas.\n",
"According to Christopher B. Doob, outsourcing is companies' subcontracting of services to other companies instead of continuing to provide those services themselves. This takes away from jobs offered in the United States and makes it more difficult to maintain and get jobs. Outsourcing raises the unemployment rate, and while outsourcing has been steadily increasing since the 1990s, data on the subject is limited by the power elite. Companies like Apple and Nike outsource jobs overseas so they can have cheaper labor to make their products and keep from raising prices in the States.\n",
"One of the features of development encouraged in neoliberal approaches is outsourcing. Outsourcing is when companies from the western world moves some of their business to another country. The reasons these companies make the decision to move is often because of cheap labor costs. Although outsourcing is about businesses it is directly related to gender because it has greatly affected women. The reason it is related to gender is that women are mainly the people that are being hired for these cheap labor jobs and why they are being hired. One example of a popular place for factories to relocate is to China. In China the main people who work in these factories are women, these women move from their home towns to cities far away for the factory jobs. The reasons these women move is to be able to make a wage to take care of not only themselves but their families as well. Often times these women are expected to get these jobs.\n",
"Overseas outsourcing (sometimes called offshoring) may decrease job security for people in certain occupations such as telemarketers, computer programmers, medical transcriptionists, and bookkeeping clerks. Generally, to outsource work to a different country the job must be quick to learn and the completed work must be transferrable with minimal loss of quality.\n",
"Indirect economic oppression is exemplified when individuals work abroad to support their families. Outsourced employees, working abroad generally little to no bargaining power not only with their employers, but with immigration authorities as well. They could be forced to accept low wages and work in poor living conditions. And by working abroad, an outsourced employee contributes to the economy of a foreign country instead of their own. Veltman and Piper describe the effects of outsourcing on female laborers abroad:\n"
] |
Is there chemisrty in degenerate matter?
|
I'm not sure if I understood correctly. But you can find [degenerated matter](_URL_0_) - or fermion gas - in white dwarfs for example. And of course there are processes happening inside these stars that may create/change/destroy this fermion gas.
|
[
"White matter degeneration is associated with and makes differential diagnoses out of other adult onset leukodystrophies such as metachromatic leukodystrophy (MLD), Krabbe disease (globoid cell leukodystrophy), and X-linked adrenoleukodystrophy (X-ADL).\n",
"In amorphous materials, the discussion of \"dislocations\" is inapplicable, since the entire material lacks long range order. These materials can still undergo plastic deformation. Since amorphous materials, like polymers, are not well-ordered, they contain a large amount of free volume, or wasted space. Pulling these materials in tension opens up these regions and can give materials a hazy appearance. This haziness is the result of \"crazing\", where fibrils are formed within the material in regions of high hydrostatic stress. The material may go from an ordered appearance to a \"crazy\" pattern of strain and stretch marks.\n",
"Degenerate matter is a highly dense state of fermionic matter in which particles must occupy high states of kinetic energy to satisfy the Pauli exclusion principle. The description applies to matter composed of electrons, protons, neutrons or other fermions. The term is mainly used in astrophysics to refer to dense stellar objects where gravitational pressure is so extreme that quantum mechanical effects are significant. This type of matter is naturally found in stars in their final evolutionary states, like white dwarfs and neutron stars, where thermal pressure alone is not enough to avoid gravitational collapse.\n",
"Exotic examples of degenerate matter include neutron degenerate matter, strange matter, metallic hydrogen and white dwarf matter. Degeneracy pressure contributes to the pressure of conventional solids, but these are not usually considered to be degenerate matter because a significant contribution to their pressure is provided by electrical repulsion of atomic nuclei and the screening of nuclei from each other by electrons. In metals it is useful to treat the conduction electrons alone as a degenerate free electron gas, while the majority of the electrons are regarded as occupying bound quantum states. This solid state contrasts with degenerate matter that forms the body of a white dwarf, where most of the electrons would be treated as occupying free particle momentum states.\n",
"Dimethylol ethyleneurea is an organic compound derived from formaldehyde and urea. It is a colourless solid that is used for treating cellulose-based heavy fabrics to inhibit wrinkle formation. Dimethylol ethylene urea (DMEU) bonds with the hydroxyl groups present in long cellulose chains and prevents the formation hydrogen bonding between the chains, the primary cause of wrinkling. This treatment produces permanently wrinkle-resistant fabrics and is different from the effects achieved from using fabric softeners.\n",
"Metaplasia occurs when a differentiated cell of a certain type is replaced by another cell type, which may be less differentiated. It is a reversible process thought to be caused by stem cell reprogramming. Stem cells are found in epithelia and embryonic mesenchyme of connective tissue. A prominent example of metaplasia involves the changes associated with the respiratory tract in response to inhalation of irritants, such as smog or smoke. The bronchial cells convert from mucus-secreting, ciliated, columnar epithelium to non-ciliated, squamous epithelium incapable of secreting mucus. These transformed cells may become dysplasic or cancerous if the stimulus (e.g., cigarette smoking) is not removed. The most common example of metaplasia is Barrett's esophagus, when the non-keratinizing squamous epithelium of the esophagus undergoes metaplasia to become mucinous columnar cells, ultimately protecting the esophagus from acid reflux originating in the stomach. If stress persists, metaplasia can progress to dysplasia and eventually carcinoma; Barrett's esophagus, for example, can eventually progress to adenocarcinoma of the esophagus if not treated.\n",
"A similar removal of degeneracy will occur when a paramagnetic molecule is placed in a magnetic field, an instance of the Zeeman effect. Most species which can be observed in the gaseous state are diamagnetic . Exceptions are odd-electron molecules such as nitric oxide, NO, nitrogen dioxide, , some chlorine oxides and the hydroxyl radical. The Zeeman effect has been observed with dioxygen, \n"
] |
gene mapping, and the human genome project.
|
**TL;DR - I freaking love biochemistry and explaining things**
********
**Explained Simply**
You have DNA, which is a mixture of 4 chemical "bases", known as Cytosine (C), Guanine (G), Thymine (T) and Adenine (A). DNA itself is made of two long strands (*double stranded*) with Cytosine binding to Guanine, and Thymine binding to Adenine. Thus DNA is a long length of C-G and T-A links. Because of this, we only need to look at one strand of DNA to know what the other strand looks like.
When we map a gene, we break down the gene into the DNA strands and try to determine the "sequence" of one of them - that is, which bases are present, and in what order? Each base can bind a specific chemical, which usually fluoresces when a specific light is shone on it. In the end, we have a large length of DNA to which we can work out it's complimentary second strand.
When you have a lot of genes together, they can form a chromsome. They need some help from other chemicals, such as histones, but basically a chromosome is a large number of genes together. Most people have 23 copies - or 46 chromosomes. The reason you have copies, is that you have one set from your mum, and the other from dad. As well as this, one set of them are your sex chromosomes - which are known as either X or Y. If you get two X - you're a girl. If you get an X and Y - you're a guy! You can't get two Y's - but you're clever for thinking that.
The Human Genome Project was an idea set forth in the 1990's which had the aim of characterising and sequencing every gene in the human body. That meant taking all the DNA from a person, and using the process described above to work out the sequences. In the end, about 20,000 to 25,000 genes were discovered, but we don't know what half of them do! It's like knowing that one gene can contribute to the colour of your hair, but if you have that gene and it's identical to your friend's gene, it doesn't mean you'll have the same hair colour.
Other methods of gene mapping depend upon your knowledge of biochemistry. Essentially you can do what's called a "shotgun" sequence approach, where you take a gene, isolate the DNA within it and then copy it a lot. It has recently gotten a LOT easier to copy DNA (look up a process called Polymerase Chain Reaction). Then you break all those DNA copies up in different places, and then see where each bit of the DNA matches up with other parts - kinda like break 3 or 4 rulers into pieces and then matching up based on the number of centimetres they have. Once you've determined the overlapping, you can "walk" your way from one end to the other, working out the bases as you go, using chemicals.
********
**ELI5**
What colour hair do you have? Is it the same as your mothers? Does your dad have the same colour eyes as you? What about your best friend? All of these are because of your "genes". Genes are the little things inside of you that make you different from everyone else. Genes themselves are made up of DNA.
A while ago, a couple of clever fellows made a model of DNA. Their model used four letters: C, G, T and A. DNA is a whole bunch of those letters mixed up in a long, long row - and if you have enough of them, you can make a gene!
When we want to "map" a gene, we have to work out the long sequence of letters (What were they again? C, G, T and A!), which is very specific! First, we have to take out the DNA from you. Don't worry - you have a lot of it! Then we cut it up and add some colours. Each colour will find a letter (C, G, T and A) and stick to it! Then we work out which letters are next to each other, until we reach the end of the gene.
In the 1990's, long before you were born, some people decided to work out the DNA sequence of every gene in everyone's body! They took some DNA from a lot of people, and did exactly what you just learned. Guess how many genes there were? OVER 20,000! Some of these genes will decide what colour hair you have, or your eye colour. Some may actually help you be tall, or short, or big, or small.
|
[
"As a collaborator on the international Human Genome Project, his team posted the first publicly available computational assembly of the human genome sequence on the Internet on July 7, 2000. Following this, his team developed the UCSC Genome Browser, a web-based tool that is used extensively in biomedical research and serves as the platform for several large-scale genomics projects. These include NHGRI’s ENCODE project to use omics methods to explore the function of every base in the human genome (for which UCSC serves as the Data Coordination Center), NIH’s Mammalian Gene Collection, NHGRI’s 1000 genomes project to explore human genetic variation, and NCI’s Cancer Genome Atlas project to explore the genomic changes in cancer.\n",
"The Human Genome Project (HGP) was an international scientific research project with the goal of determining the sequence of nucleotide base pairs that make up human DNA, and of identifying and mapping all of the genes of the human genome from both a physical and a functional standpoint. It remains the world's largest collaborative biological project. After the idea was picked up in 1984 by the US government when the planning started, the project formally launched in 1990 and was declared complete on April 14, 2003. Funding came from the US government through the National Institutes of Health (NIH) as well as numerous other groups from around the world. A parallel project was conducted outside government by the Celera Corporation, or Celera Genomics, which was formally launched in 1998. Most of the government-sponsored sequencing was performed in twenty universities and research centers in the United States, the United Kingdom, Japan, France, Germany and China.\n",
"Genome projects are scientific endeavours that ultimately aim to determine the complete genome sequence of an organism (be it an animal, a plant, a fungus, a bacterium, an archaean, a protist or a virus) and to annotate protein-coding genes and other important genome-encoded features. The genome sequence of an organism includes the collective DNA sequences of each chromosome in the organism. For a bacterium containing a single chromosome, a genome project will aim to map the sequence of that chromosome. For the human species, whose genome includes 22 pairs of autosomes and 2 sex chromosomes, a complete genome sequence will involve 46 separate chromosome sequences.\n",
"The human genome contains an estimated 20,000–25,000 protein-coding genes. The goal of the Gene Wiki project is to create seed articles for every human gene, that is, every gene whose function has been assigned in the peer-reviewed scientific literature. Approximately half of human genes have assigned function, therefore the total number of articles seeded by the Gene Wiki project would be expected to be in the range of 10,000–15,000. To date, approximately 11,000 articles have been created or augmented to include Gene Wiki project content.\n",
"BULLET::::- The human genome is the genome of Homo sapiens, which is stored on 23 chromosome pairs. Whereas a genome sequence lists the order of every DNA base in a genome, a genome map identifies the landmarks. A genome map is less detailed than a genome sequence and aids in navigating around the genome. While working at the National Institute of Health, Craig Venter discovered a technique for rapidly identifying all of the mRNAs present in a cell, and began to use it to identify human brain genes. The short cDNA sequence fragments discovered by this method are called expressed sequence tags. Through his scientific research of bringing the world one step closer to personalized medicine, Craig Venter was listed on Time Magazine's 2007 and 2008 Time 100 list of the most influential people in the world.\n",
"The Human Genome Project was an international research effort to determine the sequence of the human genome and identify the genes that it contains. The Project was coordinated by the National Institutes of Health and the U.S. Department of Energy. Additional contributors included universities across the United States and international partners in the United Kingdom, France, Germany, Japan, and China. The Human Genome Project formally began in 1990 and was completed in 2003, 2 years ahead of its original schedule.\n",
"Cox and Myers in their work at the Stanford Human Genome Center collaborated with the Joint Genome Institute (JGI) in Walnut Creek to sequence the first human genome. That collaboration led to maps of the entire genome, which played a key role in piecing the entire sequence together for the Human Genome Project (HGP). The Stanford group generated genome-wide maps as well as finishing of sequences of three human chromosomes, and their collaboration with JGI contributed 11% of the finished human genome.\n"
] |
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