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What type of weapons would have been available to medieval peasants?
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Many of them would have access to spears, which would probably constitute the bulk of their weaponry. Also, depending on the time and place, many would also be equipped as archers. Many small villages had competitions for archery on a regular basis, especially in England. The spears, in particular, are easy and super-cheap to make. Swords and specialized weaponry were very expensive to create.
But that being said, the idea of a "peasant levy" as a regular feature of armies is not really accurate. There are notable examples (Hussites, various town militias, etc.), but the bulk would be a kind-of "middle class" or mercenaries. Most feudal societies had requirements for providing arms, armor, equipment, and men based on wealth/land size. (The term "Knight's Fee" is a good example, as it represents the amount of land necessary to support a knight and his retinue.). You don't really want to plop the raw labor force for your agriculture (and source of your income) into a situation where they are likely to all die. The feudal system was definitely propped-up by the creation of a military "caste" that protected it.
This also varies widely based on where and when you're looking for. "Peasants" don't necessarily exist everywhere. To use a different region, the warriors of most Steppe-based armies would be equipped to use Bows, Spears, and/or Lassos, particularly bows. On the counter, many of the militias bordering the Steppes would be focused on utilizing light cavalry, hiring other contingents of Steppe tribes, or trained in ranged weapons.
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[
"As far back as medieval times, if not Biblical times, there was pressure from landowners to demand heaped bushels of commodities from their peasants, while at the same time peasants were obliged to purchase commodities from stricken containers. Rules outlawing this practice were circumvented through use of heavy round strickles, which would compress the contents of a bushel.\n",
"Medieval weapons were still in service during the Renaissance and Civil war. Some of the medieval weapons that were still in use included Guisarme, the Halberd, the Mace and the partisan. The Halberd was a traditional weapon used by the Swiss, consisting of an axe-blade topped with a spike, with a hook or pick on the back, on top of a long pole. This weapon was mostly used by the foot soldiers against cavalry, Halberds became obsolete when improvised pikes started to be produced in huge numbers. Meanwhile, the Partisan was introduced in England in the 14th century and was used excessively and extensively in Europe and especially in France. Originally the Partisan used to be a spear with small wings added below it. The sword still remained the most popular weapon during Renaissance.\n",
"The crossbow superseded hand bows in many European armies during the 12th century, except in England, where the longbow was more popular. Along with polearm weapons made from farming equipment, the crossbow was also a weapon of choice for insurgent peasants such as the Taborites. Genoese crossbowmen were famous mercenaries hired throughout medieval Europe, while the crossbow also played an important role in anti-personnel defense of ships. Some 4,000 crossbowmen joined the Fifth Crusade and 5,000 under Louis IX of France during the Seventh Crusade.\n",
"The scythe and pitchfork, farming tools, have frequently been used as a weapon by those who could not afford or did not have access to more expensive weapons such as pikes, swords, or later, guns. Scythes and pitchforks were stereotypically carried by angry mobs or gangs of enraged peasants. The process usually involved reforging the blade of a scythe at a 90 degree angle, strengthening the joint between the blade and the shaft with an additional metal pipe or bolts and reinforcing the shaft to better protect it against cuts from enemy blades. At times, instead of a scythe blade, a blade from a hand-operated chaff cutter was used.\n",
"The basket-hilted sword is a development of the 16th century, rising to popularity in the 17th century and remaining in widespread use throughout the 18th century, used especially by heavy cavalry up to the Napoleonic era.\n",
"Use of firearms as infantry weapons was pioneered in the Czech Crown lands in the early 15th century. In the 1420s and 1430s, the Czech Hussite army led by Žižka started using firearms and artillery effectively on the battlefield (it had previously been used only during sieges of towns and castles due to its heavy weight and cumbersome operation). Use of field artillery in the Battle of Kutná Hora was first such recorded utilization. Firearms, alongside wagon fort strategy, proved indispensable for the mostly peasant reformationist army in their war for religious freedom against professional well armed and trained Catholic Crusader invaders. The word used for one type of hand held firearm used by the Hussites, , later found its way through German and French into English as the term pistol. Name of a cannon used by the Hussites, the , gave rise to the English term, \"howitzer\".\n",
"Some crossbows were operated by teams of a shooter with an assistant to help reloading. The assistant could be armed with a spear and a very large shield known as a pavise to provide cover for them. This created one of the typical Medieval mixed structures of crossbowmen and spearmen that was used with great success in the Hussite Wars and by Bertrand du Guesclin in his petty warfare reconquest of France during the Hundred Years' War.\n"
] |
At what point did European settlers outnumber Native Americans in what would become the modern United States?
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This is a huge, and interesting, question. I'm afraid our current data can only go so far in providing an answer. What follows is an analysis of the data, and the pitfalls of trying to definitively answer this question due to everything from notions of identity, evolving racial categories, and lack of solid sources. I will first address the research surrounding Native North American population size at contact, then the issues with calculating the rate of decline until the numbers hit a nadir around 1900. I will then address historical census numbers for the European and African descent populations of the United States. Finally, I will emphasize how all of this is simply an educated guess, based on flawed sources, that reflects a dark history of our nation’s interaction with Native Americans.
First, gallons of ink have been spilled debating Native American population size at the time of contact. There are two main camps, “high counters” and “low counters”. In the early 1900s scholars like Kroeber and Mooney looked at the Native American population size during their time, and assumed little changed in Native American lifeways between contact and 1900. They didn’t factor in mortality from disease, warfare, and famine. Kroeber estimated 900,000 people lived in North America, and 8.4 million lived in the entire New World. That is a population density of less than 1 person for every six miles. Other scholars, like Dobyns, formed a group called “high counters”. The high counters held the New World was richly populated at contact, but catastrophic disease spread ahead of colonists, decimating the population, and rendering any colonial-period estimates of population size grossly inaccurate. Dobyns estimated over 112 million people lived in the New World at the time of contact. For reference, only 11 countries today boast a population larger than 112 million.
Today the popular perception has inherited the legacy of the high counters, and their catastrophic, apocalyptic population decline due to infectious disease after contact. In academic circles we are stepping back from the assumption of epidemic disease decimation without concrete evidence of that disease mortality. For example, ten to twenty years ago we might look at a Mississippian site abandoned around 1525 and assume disease carried off all, or at least most, of the inhabitants. However, we now know for many people in North America geographic mobility was a regular means of dealing with resource scarcity, or territorial encroachment, or changes in the political structure. The interpretations of the evidence have changed, and with that change we must modify how we reconstruct the past. All that said, current best evidence suggest the Native North American population size at contact was between 2 and 7 million people.
As you can see, there are a host of issues and assumptions that go into calculating the Native North American population in 1492, and those issues are only magnified in the years following contact. Native American population size, and subsequent decline or rebound, varied based on geographic location and time. Centuries of warfare, population displacement, epidemic disease mortality, famine, territory restriction, and identity erasure wreaked havoc on Native North Americas. Calculating raw numbers is next to impossible. Native Americans were not included in the U.S. Census until 1860. An attempt at a total count of Native Americans throughout the U.S. was not realized until 1890. Compiling first hand estimates given by those traveling into Native American lands can only tell us so much from their limited perspective. Scholars generally agree the Native American populations hit their nadir (lowest point) by 1900 when the U.S. Census total for American Indian, Eskimo and Aleut was 237,196 (roughly 0.3% of the U.S. population). Since the population decline debate is so contentious, I’m just going to focus on when the “White” population of the United States passed the upper bound of the best estimates of Native American population size at contact.
Continued below...
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[
"Henry F. Dobyns estimates that immediately before European colonization of the Americas there were between 90 and 112 million people in the Americas; a larger population than Europe at the same time. \n",
"With the advancement of European colonization in the territories of the contemporary United States, the Native Americans were often conquered and displaced. The first Europeans to arrive in the territory of the modern United States were Spanish conquistadors such as Juan Ponce de León, who made his first visit to Florida in 1513; however, if unincorporated territories are accounted for, then credit would go to Christopher Columbus who landed in Puerto Rico on his 1493 voyage. The Spanish set up the first settlements in Florida and New Mexico such as Saint Augustine and Santa Fe. The French established their own as well along the Mississippi River. Successful English settlement on the eastern coast of North America began with the Virginia Colony in 1607 at Jamestown and the Pilgrims' Plymouth Colony in 1620. Many settlers were dissenting Christian groups who came seeking religious freedom. The continent's first elected legislative assembly, Virginia's House of Burgesses created in 1619, the Mayflower Compact, signed by the Pilgrims before disembarking, and the Fundamental Orders of Connecticut, established precedents for the pattern of representative self-government and constitutionalism that would develop throughout the American colonies.\n",
"While estimating the original native population of North America at the time of European contact is difficult, an attempt was made in the early part of the twentieth century by James Mooney using historic records to estimate the indigenous population north of Mexico in 1600. In more recent years, Douglas H. Ubelaker of the Smithsonian Institution has updated these figures. While Ubelaker estimated that there was a population of 92,916 in the south Atlantic states and a population of 473,616 in the Gulf states, most academics regard the figure as too low. Anthropologist Henry F. Dobyns believed that the populations were much higher, suggesting 1,100,000 along the shores of the gulf of Mexico, 2,211,000 people living between Florida and Massachusetts, 5,250,000 in the Mississippi Valley and tributaries and 697,000 people in the Florida peninsula.\n",
"Estimating the number of Native Americans living in what is today the United States of America before the arrival of the European explorers and settlers has been the subject of much debate. While it is difficult to determine exactly how many Natives lived in North America before Columbus, estimates range from a low of 2.1 million (Ubelaker 1976) to 7 million people (Russell Thornton) to a high of 18 million (Dobyns 1983). A low estimate of around 1 million was first posited by the anthropologist James Mooney in the 1890s, by calculating population density of each culture area based on its carrying capacity.\n",
"Native Americans, whose ancestry is indigenous to the Americas, originally migrated to the two continents between 10,000-45,000 years ago. These Paleoamericans spread throughout the two continents and evolved into hundreds of distinct cultures during the pre-Columbian era. Following the first voyage of Christopher Columbus, the European colonization of the Americas began, with St. Augustine, Florida becoming the first permanent European settlement in the continental United States. From the 16th through the 19th centuries, the population of Native Americans declined in the following ways: epidemic diseases brought from Europe; genocide and warfare at the hands of European explorers and colonists, as well as between tribes; displacement from their lands; internal warfare, enslavement; and intermarriage.\n",
"Over the 1st century and a half after Columbus's voyages, the native population of the Americas plummeted by an estimated 80% (from around 50 million in 1492 to eight million in 1650), mostly by outbreaks of Old World diseases.\n",
"According to the demographer Russel Thornton, North America contained approximately seven million native inhabitants in 1500. The population plummeted from the 16th century onward, primarily because of the new infectious diseases carried by Europeans, to which the Native Americans had no acquired immunity. At the end of the 17th century, there were likely no more than 100,000 to 200,000 Native Americans in Lower Louisiana. French colonists forced a small number of Native Americans into slavery, in spite of official prohibition. These slaves were persons who had been captured by rival tribes during raids and in battle, and sold to French colonists. At the time, many were sent to Saint Domingue in the West Indies for sale as slaves, or to Canada. In Louisiana, planters generally preferred using African slaves, though some had Native American servants.\n"
] |
why does the body consume carbohydrates first and then fats when exercising?
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The actual answer is a bit more complicated than that. What cells actually use for fuel is ATP, which is an energetic protein that we make using carbohydrates, fats, and other things as a fuel source.
ATP is mostly produced by mitochondria, organelles inside cells, and muscle cells have a lot of mitochondria.
At any given time, we have a little bit of liberated sugar, glucose mostly, which is floating around in the blood, being taken up by cells that need to produce more ATP, and being used by them to make ATP. When we start to exercise or burn a lot of calories, the amount of free glucose we have in the blood goes down, so we start liberating it by making more out of molecules we have stored.
The big ways we store energy are as glycogen, a long-chain sugar in the liver, and fat. It is pretty easy to separate glucose from glycogen, so that is the first form of reserve energy we go to. It is a more time-consuming process to make glucose from fats, and there are more bad by products produced. So we don't start burning fats until our bodies know we are in it for the long haul.
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[
"Carbohydrates are the main source of energy in organisms for metabolism. They are an important source of fuel in exercise. A study conducted by the Institute of Food, Nutrition, and Human Health at Massey University investigated the effect of consuming a carbohydrate and electrolyte solution on muscle glycogen use and running capacity on subjects that were on a high carbohydrate diet. The group that consumed the carbohydrate and electrolyte solution before and during exercise experienced greater endurance capacity. This could not be explained by the varying levels of muscle glycogen; however, higher plasma glucose concentration may have led to this result. Dr. Stephen Bailey posits that the central nervous system can sense the influx of carbohydrates and reduces the perceived effort of the exercise, allowing for greater endurance capacity.\n",
"When the body is expending more energy than it is consuming (e.g. when exercising), the body's cells rely on internally stored energy sources, such as complex carbohydrates and fats, for energy. The first source to which the body turns is glycogen (by glycogenolysis). Glycogen is a complex carbohydrate, 65% of which is stored in skeletal muscles and the remainder in the liver (totaling about 2,000 kcal in the whole body). It is created from the excess of ingested macronutrients, mainly carbohydrates. When glycogen is nearly depleted, the body begins lipolysis, the mobilization and catabolism of fat stores for energy. In this process fats, obtained from adipose tissue, or fat cells, are broken down into glycerol and fatty acids, which can be used to generate energy. The primary by-products of metabolism are carbon dioxide and water; carbon dioxide is expelled through the respiratory system.\n",
"The main fuel used by the body during exercise is carbohydrates, which is stored in muscle as glycogen – a form of sugar. During exercise, muscle glycogen reserves can be used up, especially when activities last longer than 90 min. Because the amount of glycogen stored in the body is limited, it is important for athletes participating in endurance sports such as marathons to consume carbohydrates during their events.\n",
"On the ketogenic diet, carbohydrates are restricted and so cannot provide for all the metabolic needs of the body. Instead, fatty acids are used as the major source of fuel. These are used through fatty-acid oxidation in the cell's mitochondria (the energy-producing parts of the cell). Humans can convert some amino acids into glucose by a process called gluconeogenesis, but cannot do this by using fatty acids. Since amino acids are needed to make proteins, which are essential for growth and repair of body tissues, these cannot be used only to produce glucose. This could pose a problem for the brain, since it is normally fuelled solely by glucose, and most fatty acids do not cross the blood–brain barrier. However, the liver can use long-chain fatty acids to synthesise the three ketone bodies β-hydroxybutyrate, acetoacetate and acetone. These ketone bodies enter the brain and \"partially\" substitute for blood glucose as a source of energy.\n",
"The body's primary source of energy is glucose; however, when all the glucose in the body has been expended, a normal body digests fats. Individuals with a fatty-acid metabolism disorder are unable to metabolize this fat source for energy, halting bodily processes. Most individuals with a fatty-acid metabolism disorder are able to live a normal active life with simple adjustments to diet and medications.\n",
"Adipose tissue, commonly known as fat, is a depository for energy in order to conserve metabolic homeostasis. As the body takes in energy in the form of glucose, some is expended, and the rest is stored as glycogen primarily in the liver, muscle cells, or fat.\n",
"An increase in fat metabolism can be the result of starvation or malabsorption, the inability to metabolize carbohydrates (as occurs, for example, in diabetes) or due to losses from frequent vomiting.\n"
] |
What is actually happening when I hear my timber framed house 'crack'?
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It would be better described as creaking rather than cracking. When a door creaks, the hinges aren't cracking, there's just resistance that builds up until friction can no longer stop the hinge from moving. The same applies to the beams in your house as some parts of the wood heat & expand faster than others.
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[
"An investigation of the scene afterwards found that seventeen joints had given way causing a hole approximately long to open up in the stand. Several witnesses in the crowd reported hearing loud cracking noises prior to the collapse and one witness, who worked as a joiner, claimed to have seen the wooden boards split prior to the collapse.\n",
"BULLET::::- Significant cracking on the east end of the ground floor verandah on the northern wall of the house; other cracking near windows along wall; No cracks on the northern end of the west wall of the house; cracking near chimney and first and ground floor windows; top of northern chimney has been removed; minor cracking to kitchen wing;\n",
"Crack in the Wall is an EP by The Panics, released on April 5, 2004 by littleBIGMAN Records. The EP was recorded in the summer of 2003/2004 at Kingdom Studio (an old converted Masonic hall in Perth). The rear cover of the EP and inside photographs are of the band recording the EP, taken in the recording room of the studio, where the record was made.\n",
"By the mid-1980s the house had fallen into disrepair, as water runoff from higher on the mountainside damaged the foundation, causing the walls to crack. After failed attempts at sealing the cracks, it was extensively restored in 1987.\n",
"There are two main natural forces responsible for causing defects in timber: abnormal growth and rupture of tissues. Rupture of tissue includes cracks or splits in the wood called \"shakes\". \"Ring shake\", \"wind shake\", or \"ring failure\" is when the wood grain separates around the growth rings either while standing or during felling. Shakes may reduce the strength of a timber and the appearance thus reduce lumber grade and may capture moisture, promoting decay. Eastern hemlock is known for having ring shake. A \"check\" is a crack on the surface of the wood caused by the outside of a timber shrinking as it seasons. Checks may extend to the pith and follow the grain. Like shakes, checks can hold water promoting rot. A \"split\" goes all the way through a timber. Checks and splits occur more frequently at the ends of lumber because of the more rapid drying in these locations.\n",
"On April 17, 1996, the derelict wood building collapsed due to damage caused by wood rot, termites, and gravity. Before the collapse, Society Elders had planned to meet to discuss the fate of the building. Certain elements of the building were to have been recovered, and possibly reused in the reconstruction of the building.\n",
"Thunder shake is across the grain, and hard to detect until the boards are being planed. It is caused by shock to the wood, such as thunder, or concussion during felling. This fault seriously weakens the timber.\n"
] |
why can't a country in a trade surplus be sustained in that position indefinitely?
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It can.
Imagine you have a job at a convenience store where they give you a 50% discount on baseball cards. You don’t care for them much, but your friend does. He regularly buys them from you for 90% of list. You never buy anything from him.
Your friend has a trade deficit with you. The trade, though, is beneficial for both of you and you’ll keep doing it as long as it works out for both of you. And you’re not living outside your means to do it.
Your teacher may have been talking about a budget deficit, which is a whole different thing. That is living outside your means.
*edit: I had the trade deficit backwards. Macro at 7am never safe.
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[
"If a country's resources were not fully utilized, production and consumption could be increased at the national level without participating in international trade. The whole raison d'être of international trade would disappear, as would the possible gains. In this case, a State could even earn more by refraining from participating in international trade and stimulating domestic production, as this would allow it to employ more labour and capital and increase national income. Moreover, any adjustment mechanism underlying the theory no longer works if unemployment exists.\n",
"If a country's resources were not fully utilized, production and consumption could be increased at the national level without participating in international trade. The whole raison d'être of international trade would disappear, as would the possible gains. In this case, a State could even earn more by refraining from participating in international trade and stimulating domestic production, as this would allow it to employ more labour and capital and increase national income. Moreover, any adjustment mechanism underlying the theory no longer works if unemployment exists.\n",
"In a similar way, a nation may also have a surplus 'balance of trade' because it exports more than it imports but a negative (or deficit) 'balance of payments' because, it has a much greater shortfall in transfers of capital. And, just as easily, a deficit in the 'balance of trade' may be offset by a larger surplus in capital transfers from overseas to produce a balance of payments surplus overall.\n",
"A country with a large trade surplus would generally see the value of its currency appreciate relative to other currencies, which would reduce the imbalance as the relative price of its exports increases. This currency appreciation occurs as the importing country sells its currency to buy the exporting country's currency used to purchase the goods. Alternatively, trade imbalances can be reduced if a country encouraged domestic saving by restricting or penalising the flow of capital across borders, or by raising interest rates, although this benefit is likely offset by slowing down the economy and increasing government interest payments.\n",
"A country with a large trade surplus would generally see the value of its currency appreciate relative to other currencies, which would reduce the imbalance as the relative price of its exports increases. This currency appreciation occurs as the importing country sells its currency to buy the exporting country's currency used to purchase the goods. Alternatively, trade imbalances can be reduced if a country encouraged domestic saving by restricting or penalizing the flow of capital across borders, or by raising interest rates, although this benefit is likely offset by slowing down the economy and increasing government interest payments.\n",
"Over the long run, nations with trade surpluses tend also to have a savings surplus. The U.S. generally has developed lower savings rates than its trading partners, which have tended to have trade surpluses. Germany, France, Japan, and Canada have maintained higher savings rates than the U.S. over the long run.\n",
"Over the long run, nations with trade surpluses tend also to have a savings surplus. The U.S. generally has developed lower savings rates than its trading partners, which have tended to have trade surpluses. Germany, France, Japan, and Canada have maintained higher savings rates than the U.S. over the long run.\n"
] |
This Week's Theme: Immigrants and Emigrants
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**Current:** Immigrants and Emigrants
**On Deck:** Trauma
**In the Hole:** The Balkans
Remember to ask theme-related questions in [a new thread!](_URL_1_)! If your submission doesn't get automatically flaired, [send us a modmail](_URL_0_) with a link!
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[
"\"The Emigrants\", the works about the Swedish emigration to North America, written by Vilhelm Moberg that have spread around the world have put a focus on many places in the municipality mentioned in the novels. Moberg himself was born on a farm just north-west of the town Emmaboda in 1898, where a monument stone now stands since 1970. Nearby is also a small museum about the author. , the village where Karl Oskar and Kristina, the fictional main characters of the novels live, is also located in the municipality.\n",
"The Oberalben Emigrants’ Museum (\"Auswanderermuseum Oberalben\") at Hauptstraße 3b in the middle of the village shows visitors emigrants’ backgrounds, travels and settlement. For more than 300 years, many local people emigrated, particularly to North America, among them baseball legend Babe Ruth’s forebears. The museum’s whole concept is to use exhibits and display boards to track those who wanted to emigrate through the process of getting approval from the authorities, to the journey over to the chosen new land and finally to their arrival and settlement there. This process took most of the emigrants to North America. The museum is supposed to help the visitor understand the manifold issues, with a special focus on human beings’ fates. Technical advice is given the museum by the historians and museologists Dr. Ulrich Wagner and Stefan Knobloch, who work at the \"Historisches Museum Bremerhaven\", as well as Roland Paul from the \"Institut für Pfälzische Geschichte und Volkskunde\" (Institute for Palatine History and Folklore) in Kaiserslautern. Since the museum is tended by volunteer helpers, it is only ever open on the first and third Sunday in every month. By mutual agreement, though, visitors can make other arrangements to see the museum. Events of regional importance, particularly concerts, are staged sporadically in the museum’s rooms.\n",
"\"The Immigrant\" is a musical by Steven Alper, Sarah Knapp, and Mark Harelik. The show is based on the story of Harelik's grandparents, Matleh and Haskell Harelik, who traveled to Galveston, Texas in 1909.\n",
"The \"Feria del emigrantes,\" or \"Fair of Emigrants\" in English, is held in early or mid-August and has replaced the importance of the \"Feria de septiembre.\" It is celebrated as a reunion with those that left and never came back but return to the area for vacations.\n",
"This festival is held annually on Friday Saturday and Sunday in the first week of August. Its advent was in the early 1970s and was devoted primarily to those who have migrated out but are still devoted to Poggio Picenze, it is sometimes referred to as \"\"The Emigrant's Week\".\" It celebrates being connected to those who have migrated throughout the world and to welcome them back.\n",
"The museum's visitor centre houses a cafe and shop as well as the permanent exhibition \"Emigrants\" that introduces the story of emigration from Ireland to America, before visitors embark on their journey around the outdoor museum and along the emigrant trail. Free parking is available on site.\n",
"\"The Emigrants\" is largely concerned with memory, trauma, and feelings of foreignness. For example, Dr. Selwyn dwells on the story of a man he met in Switzerland in the time immediately prior to World War I, and explains how he felt a deeper companionship with this man than he ever did his wife. He also divulges how his family emigrated from Lithuania as a young boy, and tries to get the narrator to reveal how he feels being an emigrant from Germany living in England. In acknowledgement of this motif, Lisa Cohen of the Boston Review points out that \"The Emigrants\"' section-title characters \"suffer[ ] from memory and from the compulsion to obliterate it; from a mourning and melancholia so deep that it is almost unnamable; from the knowledge that he has survived while those he loved have not; from problems distinguishing dream and reality; from a profound sense of displacement.\"\n"
] |
- why is citizen kane considered to be the pinnacle of movie making?
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It's less about being the pinnacle of movie-making and more about being the _start_ of modern movie-making.
In _Citizen Kane_, director Orson Welles revolutionized how films were shot. There are a number of cinematic techniques that were introduced in _Citizen Kane_ including low angle shots, multiple dissolves, deep focus, non-linear storytelling (in particular supported by the film editing), people talking over one another (most films were shot then as back-and-forth dialogue), full sets with four walls and a ceiling (most films then were shot on sets like stage plays -- 3 walls, no ceiling), incorporation of fake documentary/news reels (which Welles had pioneered on radio with _War of the Worlds_), expressionistic lighting, and more.
All of these things are so commonplace today that you'll see them in many 30-second commercials, never mind feature films. But in 1941 they were all almost entirely new innovations that people had never seen until _Citizen Kane_.
Watching _Citizen Kane_ today, you'd think "What's the big deal?" But the *reason* you think "What's the big deal" is because of all the techniques that _Citizen Kane_ introduced to cinema.
Possible recent analogy: think about how the special effects of something like _Jurassic Park_ or _The Matrix_ in the 90's or maybe _Avatar_ in 2009 changed the way that people thought about how films could be made. _Citizen Kane_ had _ten times_ the impact that those films had in people's thinking about how films could be made.
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[
"In the decades since, its critical status as the greatest film ever made has grown, with numerous essays and books on it including Peter Cowie's \"The Cinema of Orson Welles\", Ronald Gottesman's \"Focus on Citizen Kane\", a collection of significant reviews and background pieces, and most notably Kael's essay, \"Raising Kane\", which promoted the value of the film to a much wider audience than it had reached before. Despite its criticism of Welles, it further popularized the notion of \"Citizen Kane\" as the great American film. The rise of art house and film society circuits also aided in the film's rediscovery. David Thomson said that the film 'grows with every year as America comes to resemble it.\"\n",
"Citizen Kane is a 1941 American mystery drama film by Orson Welles, its producer, co-screenwriter, director and star. The picture was Welles's first feature film. Nominated for Academy Awards in nine categories, it won an Academy Award for Best Writing (Original Screenplay) by Herman J. Mankiewicz and Welles. Considered by many critics, filmmakers, and fans to be the greatest film ever made, \"Citizen Kane\" was voted as such in five consecutive British Film Institute \"Sight & Sound\" polls of critics, and it topped the American Film Institute's 100 Years ... 100 Movies list in 1998, as well as its 2007 update. \"Citizen Kane\" is particularly praised for Gregg Toland's cinematography, Robert Wise's editing, Bernard Herrmann's music, and its narrative structure, all of which have been considered innovative and precedent-setting.\n",
"\"Citizen Kane\" received good reviews from several critics. \"New York Daily News\" critic Kate Cameron called it \"one of the most interesting and technically superior films that has ever come out of a Hollywood studio\". \"New York World-Telegram\" critic William Boehnel said that the film was \"staggering and belongs at once among the greatest screen achievements\". \"Time\" magazine wrote that \"it has found important new techniques in picture-making and story-telling.\" \"Life\" magazine's review said that \"few movies have ever come from Hollywood with such powerful narrative, such original technique, such exciting photography.\" John C. Mosher of \"The New Yorker\" called the film's style \"like fresh air\" and raved \"Something new has come to the movie world at last.\" Anthony Bower of \"The Nation\" called it \"brilliant\" and praised the cinematography and performances by Welles, Comingore and Cotten. John O'Hara's \"Newsweek\" review called it the best picture he'd ever seen and said Welles was \"the best actor in the history of acting.\" Welles called O'Hara's review \"the greatest review that anybody ever had.\"\n",
"When film critic Pauline Kael wrote \"Raising Kane\", her 1971 \"New Yorker\" article on the genesis of \"Citizen Kane\", \"The Power and the Glory\" was virtually a \"lost film\". After writing about how Hollywood had praised the movie back in 1933 by putting up a bronze plaque on the New York movie theater where it had its premiere, she chided the movie industry for failing to preserve it.\n",
"\"Citizen Kane\" has been called the most influential film of all time. Richard Corliss has asserted that Jules Dassin's 1941 film \"The Tell-Tale Heart\" was the first example of its influence and the first pop culture reference to the film occurred later in 1941 when the spoof comedy \"Hellzapoppin'\" featured a \"Rosebud\" sled. The film's cinematography was almost immediately influential and in 1942 \"American Cinematographer\" wrote \"without a doubt the most immediately noticeable trend in cinematography methods during the year was the trend toward crisper definition and increased depth of field.\"\n",
"BULLET::::- Born: Orson Welles, American actor and director, directed and produced \"Citizen Kane\", considered by most film critics as one of the all-time greatest films, as well as acclaimed films \"The Magnificent Ambersons\" and \"Touch of Evil\", and roles in \"The Third Man\" and \"Catch-22\", in Kenosha, Wisconsin (d. 1985)\n",
"That May, having granted twenty-five-year-old star and director Orson Welles virtually complete creative control over the film, RKO released \"Citizen Kane\". While it opened to strong reviews and would go on to be hailed as one of the greatest movies ever made, it lost money at the time and brought down the wrath of the Hearst newspaper chain on RKO. The next year saw the commercial failure of Welles's \"The Magnificent Ambersons\"—like \"Kane\", critically lauded and overbudget—and the expensive embarrassment of his aborted documentary \"It's All True\". The three Welles productions combined to drain $2 million from the RKO coffers, major money for a corporation that had reported an overall deficit of $1 million in 1940 and a nominal profit of a bit more than $500,000 in 1941. Many of RKO's other artistically ambitious pictures were also dying at the box office and it was losing its last exclusive deal with a major star as well. Rogers, after winning an Oscar in 1941 for her performance in the previous year's \"Kitty Foyle\", held out for a freelance contract like Grant's; after 1943, she would appear in just one more RKO production, thirteen years later. On June 17, 1942, Schaefer tendered his resignation. He departed a weakened and troubled studio, but RKO was about to turn the corner. Propelled by the box-office boom of World War II and guided by new management, RKO would make a strong comeback over the next half-decade.\n"
] |
what is the difference between federal debt and u.s. treasury securities?
|
The debt is issued through the use of US Treasury securities. The government sells a bond, and the money collected from the bond buyer increases the debt until the bond is paid back.
|
[
"Treasury securities are backed by the full faith and credit of the United States, meaning that the government has promised to raise money from any available source to repay them. Although the United States is a sovereign power and may default on its debt, its strong record of repayment has given Treasury securities a reputation as one of the world's lowest-risk investments.\n",
"Because a large variety of people own the notes, bills, and bonds in the \"public\" portion of the debt, Treasury also publishes information that groups the types of holders by general categories to portray who owns United States debt. In this data set, some of the public portion is moved and combined with the total government portion, because this amount is owned by the Federal Reserve as part of United States monetary policy. (See Federal Reserve System.)\n",
"In 2005, the Federal Reserve held approximately 9% of the national debt as assets against the liability of printed money. In previous periods, the Federal Reserve has used other debt instruments, such as debt securities issued by private corporations. During periods when the national debt of the United States has declined significantly (such as happened in fiscal years 1999 and 2000), monetary policy and financial markets experts have studied the practical implications of having \"too little\" government debt: both the Federal Reserve and financial markets use the price information, yield curve and the so-called risk free rate extensively.\n",
"The national debt can also be classified into marketable or non-marketable securities. Most of the marketable securities are Treasury notes, bills, and bonds held by investors and governments globally. The non-marketable securities are mainly the \"government account series\" owed to certain government trust funds such as the Social Security Trust Fund, which represented $2.82 trillion in 2017.\n",
"The total federal debt is divided into \"debt held by the public\" and \"intra-governmental debt.\" The debt held by the public refers to U.S. government securities or other obligations held by investors (e.g., bonds, bills and notes), while Social Security and other federal trust funds are part of the intra-governmental debt. As of September 30, 2012 the total debt was $16.1 trillion, with debt held by the public of $11.3 trillion and intragovernmental debt of $4.8 trillion. Debt held by the public as a percentage of GDP rose from 34.7% in 2000 to 40.3% in 2008 and 70.0% in 2012. U.S. GDP was approximately $15 trillion during 2011 and an estimated $15.6 trillion for 2012 based on activity during the first two quarters. This means the total debt is roughly the size of GDP. Economists debate the level of debt relative to GDP that signals a \"red line\" or dangerous level, or if any such level exists. By comparison, China's budget deficit was 1.6% of its $10 trillion GDP in 2010, with a debt to GDP ratio of 16%.\n",
"BULLET::::- According to the U.S. Department of Treasury Preliminary 2014 Annual Report on U.S. Holdings of Foreign Securities, the United States valued its foreign treasury securities portfolio at $2.7 trillion. The largest debtors are Canada, the United Kingdom, Cayman Islands, and Australia, whom account for $1.2 trillion of sovereign debt owed to residents of the U.S.\n",
"As is apparent from the chart, a little less than half of the total national debt is owed to the \"Federal Reserve and intragovernmental holdings\". The foreign and international holders of the debt are also put together from the notes, bills, and bonds sections. To the right is a chart for the data as of June 2008:\n"
] |
why does semen lose its white color after 5 min?
|
Ok, so: semen contains very little actual spermatozoa and a lot of other components, one of which are alkaloids produced by prostate to - basically - neutralize the acidity in a vagina, so that the spermatozoa survive long enough to reach the egg.
The alkaline stuff oxidises when it contacts the oxygen in air, which makes it change colour.
^(source: high school biology, I guess?)
|
[
"Semen that has a deep yellow color or is greenish in appearance may be due to medication. Brown semen is mainly a result of infection and inflammation of the prostate gland, urethra, epididymis and seminal vesicles. Other causes of unusual semen color include sexually transmitted infections such as gonorrhea and chlamydia, genital surgery and injury to the male sex organs.\n",
"Semen normally has a whitish-gray color. It tends to get a yellowish tint as a man ages. Semen color is also influenced by the food we eat: foods that are high in sulfur, such as garlic, may result in a man producing yellow semen. Presence of blood in semen (hematospermia) leads to a brownish or red colored ejaculate. Hematospermia is a rare condition.\n",
"In pregnancy the vulva and vagina take on a bluish colouring due to venous congestion. This appears between the eighth and twelfth week and continues to darken as the pregnancy continues. Estrogen is produced in large quantities during pregnancy and this causes the external genitals to become enlarged. The vaginal opening and the vagina are also enlarged. After childbirth a vaginal discharge known as lochia is produced and continues for about ten days.\n",
"Semen is typically translucent with white, grey or even yellowish tint. Blood in the semen can cause a pink or reddish colour, known as \"hematospermia\", and may indicate a medical problem which should be evaluated by a doctor if the symptom persists.\n",
"Although pus is normally of a whitish-yellow hue, changes in the color can be observed under certain circumstances. Pus is sometimes green because of the presence of myeloperoxidase, an intensely green antibacterial protein produced by some types of white blood cells. Green, foul-smelling pus is found in certain infections of \"Pseudomonas aeruginosa\". The greenish color is a result of the bacterial pigment pyocyanin that it produces. Amoebic abscesses of the liver produce brownish pus, which is described as looking like \"anchovy paste\". Pus from anaerobic infections can more often have a foul odor.\n",
"Pheomelanin is more bio-chemically stable than black eumelanin, but less bio-chemically stable than brown eumelanin, so it breaks down more slowly when oxidized. This is why bleach gives darker hair a reddish tinge during the artificial coloring process. As the pheomelanin continues to break down, the hair will gradually become red, then orange, then yellow, and finally white.\n",
"Leukorrhea or (leucorrhoea British English) is a thick, whitish or yellowish vaginal discharge. There are many causes of leukorrhea, the usual one being estrogen imbalance. The amount of discharge may increase due to vaginal infection, and it may disappear and reappear from time to time. This discharge can keep occurring for years, in which case it becomes more yellow and foul-smelling. It is usually a non-pathological symptom secondary to inflammatory conditions of vagina or cervix.\n"
] |
sinuses
|
Sinuses are hollow cavities in the skull to lighten the bone structure. They are lined with mucous tissue, and can be subjected to allergens, causing the mucous to swell and produce mucus. This can plug up the sinus cavities and cause pressure and pain. Why your throat swells up and goes numb really has nothing to do with your sinuses. It probably has more to do with histamine release that caused the sneeze in the first place. Here is a good pic of sinuses. _URL_0_
As far as not tasting, it's probably because her sense of smell is diminished from sinusitis.
She needs to see a doctor. I suffer from sinusitis, and it's horrible. There have been cases where the sinusitis has been caused by nasal polyps, which can be removed fairly easily if they are small. Most sinus problems are allergic or viral/bacterial.
|
[
"In human anatomy, the carotid sinus is a dilated area at the base of the internal carotid artery just superior to the bifurcation of the internal carotid and external carotid at the level of the superior border of thyroid cartilage. The carotid sinus extends from the bifurcation to the \"true\" internal carotid artery. The carotid sinus is sensitive to pressure changes in the arterial blood at this level. It is the major baroreception site in humans and most mammals.\n",
"A sinus is a sac or cavity in any organ or tissue, or an abnormal cavity or passage caused by the destruction of tissue. In common usage, \"sinus\" usually refers to the paranasal sinuses, which are air cavities in the cranial bones, especially those near the nose and connecting to it. Most individuals have four paired cavities located in the cranial bone or skull.\n",
"The sinus is lined with mucoperiosteum, with cilia that beat toward the ostia. This membrane is also referred to as the \"Schneiderian Membrane\", which is histologically a bilaminar membrane with pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelial cells on the internal (or cavernous) side and periosteum on the osseous side. The size of the sinuses varies in different skulls, and even on the two sides of the same skull.\n",
"The transverse sinuses are of large size and begin at the internal occipital protuberance; one, generally the right, being the direct continuation of the superior sagittal sinus, the other of the straight sinus.\n",
"The respiratory epithelium that lines the sinuses is closely adhered to the membrane of the underlying bone. A narrow opening called a sinus ostium from each of the paranasal sinuses allows drainage into the nasal cavity. The maxillary sinus is the largest of the sinuses and drains into the middle meatus. Adults have a high concentration of cilia in the ostia. The increased cilia and the narrowness of the sinus openings allow for an increased time for moisturising, and warming. The cilia in the sinuses beat towards the openings into the nasal cavity. Most of the ostia open into the middle meatus and the anterior ethmoid, that together are termed the ostiomeatal complex.\n",
"Different morphological types of occipital sinuses were described which formed the basis of a hypothesis proposed by D Falk and G C Conray, tracing the evolution of venous sinuses. Also, Gray's Anatomy has cited Hasan's description of the falx cerebelli.\n",
"In botany, a sinus is a space or indentation between two lobes or teeth, usually on a leaf. The term is also used in mycology. For example, one of the defining characteristics of North American species in the \"Morchella elata\" clade of morels is the presence of a sinus where the cap attaches to the stipe.\n"
] |
if you start off completely awake and energized but then start dozing off during a boring class or a study session, what exactly is happening physiologically to cause this ?
|
Your brain notices that there's nothing of interest going on at the moment, and tries to shut down to conserve energy. Your studying might be important to you in a higher-function way, but at a core animal level, it's not food, sex, stimulation, or entertainment, and so you're just wasting energy and calories (and therefore dangerously wandering towards starvation and death) by being alert and awake.
|
[
"Automatic behavior can also be exhibited whilst in the REM state—subjects can hold conversations, sit up and even open their eyes. Those acts are considered sub-conscious as most of the time the events cannot be recalled by the subject. It is most common when the subject has had under 10 hours sleep within a 36-hour period.\n",
"The first stage, seclusion-and-rest, lasts from four to seven days. It is a period of learning to separate oneself from the minute-by-minute barrage of the constant assault on one’s senses and thought processes by a loud and intrusive world. The patient learns to turn off the television, close the door temporarily to demanding work, well-meaning friends, and even family. The patient is ordered to stay on absolute bed rest, even to take meals, only rising to use the restroom. When the patient expresses boredom and wishes to rise and be productive, then they may move to the second stage.\n",
"Declarative learning is not solely affected by sleeping but can also be affected by levels of stress as well as hormones. In a study conducted by Espin et al. stress, hormones and menstrual cycle phases in women, were tested for their effect on declarative learning in young adults. Participants were asked to participate in a Trier Social Stress Test (TSST) where they were asked to give a speech to a simulated committee about why they deserved the position for their dream job. If the participant did not finish their speech in five minutes the committee would then ask standardized questions the researchers had provided. After the speech the participant was asked to complete a five-minute arithmetic task. The TSST was set up to induce stress in the participants before they proceeded to the declarative learning task. For the Declarative Learning task the participants were asked to complete a Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Task (RAVLT), which has the participants look over a set of words and then asks them to recall as many as they can. The study showed that if women were not exposed to the TSST task before the RAVLT there was an increase of declarative learning and recall when compared to the men. However, when the participants were exposed to the TSST task before the RAVLT then declarative learning and recall were equal for both men and women. Women during the study that were menstruating and exposed to the TSST task showed lower levels of stress than women not menstruating, they also had an increase of declarative learning and recall when compared to men and women not menstruating \n",
"In addition to time management and sleep, emotional state of mind can matter when a student is studying.If an individual is calm or nervous in class; replicating that emotion can assist in studying. With replicating the emotion an individual is more likely to recall more information if they are in the same state of mind when in class. This also goes the other direction; if one is upset but normally calm in class it’s much better to wait until they are feeling calmer to study. At the time of the test or class they will remember more. \n",
"When they initially developed the MSLT, Dement and others put subjects in a quiet, dark room with a bed and asked them to lie down, close their eyes and relax. They noted the number of minutes, ranging from 0 to 20, that it took a subject to fall asleep. If a volunteer was still awake after 20 minutes, the experiment was ended and the subject given a maximal alertness/minimal sleepiness rating. When scientists deprived subjects of sleep, they found sleep latency levels could drop below 1, i.e., subjects could fall asleep in less than a minute. The amount of sleep loss was directly linked to changes in sleep latency scores.\n",
"Sleep deprivation can result in low motivation, difficulty concentrating, restlessness, slowed reaction times, lack of energy, frequent errors, forgetfulness, and impaired decision-making skills. Studies, many spearheaded by Kyla Wahlstrom and her research team at University of Minnesota's Center for Applied Research and Educational Improvement (CAREI), have tied these effects to early school start times, which, in turn, have repeatedly been linked to increased rates of tardiness, truancy, absenteeism, and dropping out. In 2012 a study using data from Wake County, North Carolina, showed that delaying middle school start times by one hour, from roughly 7:30 to 8:30, increases standardized test scores by at least two percentile points in math and one percentile point in reading. The effect was largest for students with below-average test scores, suggesting that later start times would narrow gaps in student achievement.\n",
"The highest arousal thresholds (e.g. difficulty of awakening, such as by a sound of a particular volume) are observed in stage 3. A person will typically feel groggy when awakened from this stage, and indeed, cognitive tests administered after awakening from stage 3 indicate that mental performance is somewhat impaired for periods up to 30 minutes or so, relative to awakenings from other stages. This phenomenon has been called \"sleep inertia.\"\n"
] |
if supermarkets have a defined science/art as to where products are located, why are they all different?
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Numerous factors-
1 Store size. Different stores are different sizes, and shapes depending on the area they are situated and the availble space/ planned market.. What works for one floor plan doesn't neccesarily work for another.
2 customers. Customers in different areas like different things, so different branches carry different products, and or different stock levels. This means certain types of product need more space in some stores then others.
3 There's more then one possible arrangement that works well.
4 They do tend to have LOTS of things in common. Walk into any supermarket. Fresh Fruit and Veg is almost always the first thing you come to. Dairy products are always kept together. Dental and medical supplies are in the same isle, sweets biscuits and crisps are next to one another. And so on.
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[
"Supermarkets are designed to \"give each product section a sense of individual difference and this is evident in the design of what is called the anchor departments; fresh produce, dairy, delicatessen, meat and the bakery\". Each section has different floor coverings, style, lighting and sometimes even individual services counters to allow shoppers to feel as if there are a number of markets within this one supermarket.\n",
"Every aspect of the store is mapped out and attention is paid to color, wording and even surface texture. The overall layout of a supermarket is a visual merchandising project that plays a major role. Stores can creatively use a layout to alter customers’ perceptions of the atmosphere. Alternatively, they can enhance the store’s atmospherics through visual communications (signs and graphics), lighting, colors, and even scents. For example, to give a sense of the supermarket being healthy, fresh produce is deliberately located at the front of the store. In terms of bakery items, supermarkets usually dedicate 30 to 40 feet of store space to the bread aisle.\n",
"A speciality (AE: specialty) store has a narrow marketing focus – either specializing on specific merchandise, such as toys, footwear, or clothing, or on a target audience, such as children, tourists, or plus-size women. Size of store varies – some speciality stores might be retail giants such as Toys \"R\" Us, Foot Locker, and The Body Shop, while others might be small, individual shops such as Nutters of Savile Row. Such stores, regardless of size, tend to have a greater depth of the specialist stock than general stores, and generally offer specialist product knowledge valued by the consumer. Pricing is usually not the priority when consumers are deciding upon a speciality store; factors such as branding image, selection choice, and purchasing assistance are seen as important. They differ from department stores and supermarkets which carry a wide range of merchandise.\n",
"Inventory comes primarily from overstocks and closeouts of name brand groceries, as well as private label groceries. Grocery Outlets buy mostly closeout or seasonal merchandise, so particular brand names change often. The company’s stores also carry food staples such as fresh meat, dairy and bread. All products sold by Grocery Outlet are purchased directly from manufacturers, not other retail stores.\n",
"Concept stores are similar to speciality stores in that they are very small in size, and only stock a limited range of brands or a single brand. They are typically operated by the brand that controls them. Example: L'OCCITANE en Provence. The limited size and offering of L'OCCITANE's stores is too small to be considered a speciality store. However, a concept store goes beyond merely selling products, and instead offers an immersive customer experience built around the way that a brand fits with the customer's lifestyle. Examples include Apple's concept stores, Kit Kat's concept store in Japan.\n",
"Some groceries specialize in the foods of a certain nationality or culture, such as Chinese, Italian, Middle-Eastern, or Polish. These stores are known as ethnic markets and may also serve as gathering places for immigrants. In many cases, the wide range of products carried by larger supermarkets has reduced the need for such specialty stores. The variety and availability of food is no longer restricted by the diversity of locally grown food or the limitations of the local growing season.\n",
"A Food Marketing Institute study found that store brands account for an average of 14.5 percent of in store sales with some stores projecting they will soon reach as high as 20 percent of all sales. Store branding is a mature industry; consequently, some store brands have been able to position themselves as premium brands. Sometimes store-branded goods mimic the shape, packaging, and labeling of national brands, or get premium display treatment from retailers. (For example, \"Dr. Thunder\" and \"Mountain Lightning\" are the names of the Sam's Choice store brand equivalents of Dr Pepper and Mountain Dew, respectively.)\n"
] |
why do people with loads of money still attempt to earn more money? if you have millions in the bank isn't that more than enough?
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Generally I would say that people who are millionaires tend to have a high performance drive. They desire to always perform better. This is what made them wealthy in the first place, and this is what makes them desire ever more wealth. You can always do better.
Furthermore, once you reach the level of being a millionaire, you'll move to a new level of wealth. You'll have all these people around you who are wealthier than you are and can do and buy things you can't. So compared to them, what used to be enough all of a sudden isn't enough anymore.
That is my take on it anyway.
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[
"Author Ric Edelman writes: \"You don't make any money in bank accounts (in real economic terms), simply because you're not supposed to.\" On the other hand, he says, bank accounts and CDs are fine for holding cash for a short amount of time.\n",
"It is not uncommon to come across individuals from whose company and a small sum of money one simultaneously parts. This compulsion to borrow is not easy to explain in those who are neither on their beam ends nor aspire to high living.\"\n",
"A third is that there is a \"persistent and disturbing reluctance of businesses to invest and consumers to spend\", perhaps in part because so much of the recent gains have gone to the people at the top, and they tend to save more of their money than people—ordinary working people who can't afford to do that.\n",
"A third is that there is a \"persistent and disturbing reluctance of businesses to invest and consumers to spend\", perhaps in part because so much of the recent gains have gone to the people at the top, and they tend to save more of their money than people—ordinary working people who can't afford to do that.\n",
"Corresponding to financial resources, the wealthy strategically organize their money so that it will produce profit. Affluent people are more likely to allocate their money to financial assets such as stocks, bonds, and other investments which hold the possibility of capital appreciation. Those who are not wealthy are more likely to have their money in savings accounts and home ownership. This difference comprises the largest reason for the continuation of wealth inequality in America: the rich are accumulating more assets while the middle and working classes are just getting by. As of 2007, the richest 1% held about 38% of all privately held wealth in the United States. while the bottom 90% held 73.2% of all debt. According to \"The New York Times\", the richest 1 percent in the United States now own more wealth than the bottom 90 percent.\n",
"Personal wealth varies across adults for many reasons. Some individuals with little wealth may be at early stages in their careers, with little chance or motivation to accumulate assets. Others may have suffered business setbacks or personal misfortunes, or live in parts of the world where opportunities for wealth creation are severely limited. At the other end of the spectrum, there are individuals who have acquired a large wealth through different ways. In Western countries, the most typical way of becoming wealthy is entrepreneurship (estimated three quarters of new millionaires). Other typical way (covering most of the remaining quarter) is pursuing a career with the end goal of becoming a C-level executive, a leading professional in a specific field (such as a doctor, lawyer, engineer) or a top corporate sales person. Only around 1% of new millionaires acquire their wealth via other means such as professional sports, show business, art, inventions, investing, inheritance or lottery.\n",
"Essentially, the wealthy possess greater financial opportunities that allow their money to make more money. Earnings from the stock market or mutual funds are reinvested to produce a larger return. Over time, the sum that is invested becomes progressively more substantial. Those who are not wealthy, however, do not have the resources to enhance their opportunities and improve their economic position. Rather, \"after debt payments, poor families are constrained to spend the remaining income on items that will not produce wealth and will depreciate over time.\" Scholar David B. Grusky notes that \"62 percent of households headed by single parents are without savings or other financial assets.\" Net indebtedness generally prevents the poor from having any opportunity to accumulate wealth and thereby better their conditions.\n"
] |
What is the longest "unbroken" chain of royal or dynastic succession in known history?
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Japan has the oldest continuous, hereditary monarchy in the world -- and would, I believe, even qualify as oldest if we included non-hereditary or interrupted-hereditary successions. The Japanese royal family is still in the Yamato Dynasty, which took over the Japanese throne (according to legend) in about 660 BC under Emperor Jimmu. This means there has been a continuous line of descendants (traditionally, Japanese emperors must be male, but there have been several empresses in Japanese history -- though these generally succeeded in extraordinary circumstances) for nearly 2700 years.
However, evidence for the first two dozen or so emperors in the Yamato Dynasty is scanty by modern, empirical history standards, and the first emperors are semi-legendary in status. Therefore, the Japanese royal line is often dated back to the time when we have solid evidence in line with modern standards of historicity -- which takes us back to about 500 AD with the birth of [Emperor Kinmei](_URL_0_).
That said, even discounting that first 900+ years of semi-dubious imperial lineage, the Japanese monarchy would still be about 1500 years old, the longest continuous dynasty in the world by a significant margin. To give a historical context, the last emperor of the Western Roman Empire, Romulus Agustulus, was (probably) still alive about the time Emperor Kinmei was born, and Kinmei's dynasty is still on the throne today.
Sources:
* Packard, Jerrold: *Sons of Heaven: A Portrait of the Japanese Monarchy (1987)*
* Hoye, Timothy *Japanese Politics: Fixed and Floating Worlds* (1999)
|
[
"This list of current longest ruling non-royal national leaders is a list of the current living longest ruling heads of nation-states or national governments, who are not royalty, and have served ten years or longer, sorted by length of tenure.\n",
"Sobhuza's official incumbency of 82 years and 254 days is the longest precisely dated monarchical reign on record and the world's longest documented reign of any sovereign since antiquity. Only Pepi II Neferkare of Ancient Egypt and Taejo of the ancient Korean kingdom of Goguryeo are claimed to have reigned longer, though these claims are disputed.\n",
"In 987, Hugh Capet inaugurates the third race of the kings of France, the one which will reign longest. The first Capetians associated their heirs to the crown while they still lived; the dynasty established its legitimacy and the principle of election, through which its founder attained the throne, is substituted by the hereditary principle already present in earlier dynasties. The extraordinary father-to-son succession ended in 1316 with the death of the child-king John I. His uncle and regent Philip V took the throne for himself, then his younger brother succeeded him briefly. These last two reigns allowed time for the royal court to consolidate the principle of agnatic succession by giving the throne to the Count of Valois, the nearest male in the male line, against Edward III of England and Joan II of Navarre, heirs in the female line.\n",
"The last Rana and ruler of Jethwa dynasty of Porbandar, Shri Natwarsinhji died in 1979. Before him in 1977, the successor to his throne the crown-prince Udaybhansinhji Natwarsinhji Jethwa died, leaving the throne of more than 2000 year old dynasty vacant and uncertain, perhaps the longest continuous ruling dynasty of Indian Peninsula.\n",
"Immediately prior to his death, he was the fourth longest-reigning living monarch in the world after Kings Bhumibol Adulyadej of Thailand, Abdul Halim of Kedah of Malaysia and Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom. \n",
"The shortest serving monarch of all time is believed to be Louis XIX of France. After his father's abdication during the July Revolution on August 2, 1830, he ascended to the throne, but abdicated around 19 minutes later. This reign is disputed, as some historians believe this reign is too short to be valid. The next contender is the unnamed daughter of Emperor Xiaoming of Northern Wei who was appointed by her grandmother, Empress Dowager Hu. She reigned for a matter of hours until being replaced by Yuan Zhou.\n",
"The longest-lived queen consort and overall consort was Lady Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon, later known as the Queen Mother, consort to George VI, and mother of the current longest-lived British monarch, who was 101 years 238 days at the time of her death on 30 March 2002. Prince Philip would pass her as longest-lived overall consort in 4 February 2023.\n"
] |
Why is it that humans can be sustained on some leafy plants (spinach, lettuce, kale, etc) but not others (ferns, tree & and flower leaves, etc)?
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It depends on what that source has to offer. Most leafy plants commonly eaten are considered "greens" like Kale, Spinach, Arugula, etc., and are eaten for the vitamin and mineral content. "Greens" are an essentially non-caloric or low calorie, nutrient dense source of minerals that would be difficult to consume through another source. Minerals such as Magnesium, and Potassium are key to your health and leafy "greens" offer massive quantities of these nutrients.
*Note: Not all greens are actually green.*
That's not to say you couldn't sustain yourself on things like fern. There are numerous amounts of wild flowered plants you can boil and pop in your mouth as a snack, but it would require a larger amount to be consumed since they aren't necessarily packed with minerals and/or nutrients.
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[
"The plants are relatively easy to grow and care for, having few insects that feed on them. Mites, though, are known to feed on the plants. The plants are also susceptible to leaf spotting, root rot and root strangulation. However the former two can be prevented by avoiding a damp soil and the latter by frequent weeding. Also wetting the leaf and flowers should be avoided as they can lead to fungal diseases\n",
"The spontaneous revolving habit of stems and tips has evolved in many plant groups in order to obtain light and/or support. Darwin in his conclusion explores the reasons for why these adaptations might have taken place, in what ways they may have been advantageous. For instance, an increased ability to hold on to support (by twining) will be beneficial in windy environments. In tall and dense forests, twining plants would probably succeed better with minor expenditure of organic matter. All this evolved due to an inherent ability to respond to their ‘wants’ by moving. (p. 202). Darwin states: \"It has often been vaguely asserted that plants are distinguished from animals by not having the power of movement. It should rather be said that plants acquire and display this power only when it is of some advantage to them; this being of comparatively rare occurrence, as they are affixed to the ground, and food is brought to them by the air and rain.\" (p. 206).\n",
"Edible plant stems are one part of plants that are eaten by humans. Most plants are made up of stems, roots, leaves, flowers, and produce fruits containing seeds. Humans most commonly eat the seeds (e.g. maize, wheat), fruit (e.g. tomato, avocado, banana), flowers (e.g. broccoli), leaves (e.g. lettuce, spinach, and cabbage), roots (e.g. carrots, beets), and stems (e.g. asparagus, ginger) of many plants. There are also a few edible petioles (also known as leaf stems) such as celery or rhubarb.\n",
"Many species have long roots that may reach or more into the soil, which can aid slope stabilization, erosion control, and soil porosity for precipitation absorption. Also, their roots can reach moisture more deeply than other grasses and annual plants during seasonal or climatic droughts. The plants provide habitat and food for insects (including Lepidoptera), birds, small animals and larger herbivores, and support beneficial soil mycorrhiza. The leaves supply material, such as for basket weaving, for indigenous peoples and contemporary artists.\n",
"Plants, like other living creatures, possess the ability to grow in size and reproduce. However, they lack mental attributes and possess no sensory organs. Instead, their gifts include the ability to eat soil, air, and \"heat.\" Plants did have greater tolerances for heat and cold, and immunity to the pain that afflicts most animals. At the very bottom of the botanical hierarchy, fungi and mosses, lacking leaf and blossom, are so limited in form that Renaissance thinkers thought them scarcely above the level of minerals. However, each plant was also thought to be gifted with various edible or medicinal virtues unique to its own type.\n",
"Different plant canopies exhibit different LADs: For instance, grasses and willows have their leaves largely hanging vertically (such plants are said to have an erectophile LAD), while oaks tend to maintain their leaves more or less horizontally (these species are known as having a planophile LAD). In some tree species, leaves near the top of the canopy follow an erectophile LAD while those at the bottom of the canopy are more planophile. This may be interpreted as a strategy by that plant species to maximize exposure to light, an important constraint to growth and development. Yet other species (notably sunflower) are capable of reorienting their leaves throughout the day to optimize exposure to the Sun: this is known as heliotropism.\n",
"A vascular system is indispensable to rooted plants, as non-photosynthesising roots need a supply of sugars, and a vascular system is required to transport water and nutrients from the roots to the rest of the plant. Rooted plants are little more advanced than their Silurian forebears, without a dedicated root system; however, the flat-lying axes can be clearly seen to have growths similar to the rhizoids of bryophytes today.\n"
] |
how to barcode scanners instantly detect what an item is, despite the barcode being at any angle and often on a crinkled surface, completeley changing the look of the code from the scanner's perspective?
|
The lasers that read the barcode hit it from many angles and scan it very quickly. Also barcodes have something like a checksum, where it's easy to recognize if the data that was read is garbage and needs to be read again. That's why when using hand scanners, like at the grocery store, sometimes it scans a valid item very quickly, and somtimes it takes a while.
The built-in scanners in the checkout lanes have lasers that shot from the sides and from the bottom.
|
[
"This application supports many different types of barcodes, including those used to identify products in commerce. The Barcode Scanner can automatically search the Web to identify a product with a barcode and use, for example, price-comparison information between vendors.\n",
"By using the barcode center marker, it is possible for a barcode scanner to scan just one half of the barcode at a time. This allows reconstruction of the code by means of a helical scan of the barcode by an angle of approximately 45 degrees.\n",
"The shop-floor touch screen device is linked to barcode scanners deployed to scan the code on each piece of packaging, including promotional labels and sleeves. Originally the bar codes scanned were based on standard 1D codes but to avoid mistakes 2D bar codes were introduced in 2004 so that each packaging type could hold a unique identity. To checks that the scanners are operational Autocoding solutions include two way communications with all hardware devices, or prevent the lines starting if links are not available.\n",
"Barcode Recognition can read more than 20 industry 1D and 2D barcodes including Code39, CODABAR, Interleaved 2 of 5, Code93 and more. It automatically detects all barcodes in an image or specified area within the image.\n",
"Omnidirectional scanners are most familiar through the horizontal scanners in supermarkets, where packages are slid over a glass or sapphire window. There are a range of different omnidirectional units available which can be used for differing scanning applications, ranging from retail type applications with the barcodes read only a few centimetres away from the scanner to industrial conveyor scanning where the unit can be a couple of metres away or more from the code. Omnidirectional scanners are also better at reading poorly printed, wrinkled, or even torn barcodes.\n",
"A barcode reader (or barcode scanner) is an optical scanner that can read printed barcodes, decode the data contained in the barcode and send the data to a computer. Like a flatbed scanner, it consists of a light source, a lens and a light sensor translating for optical impulses into electrical signals. Additionally, nearly all barcode readers contain \"decoder\" circuitry that can analyze the barcode's image data provided by the sensor and sending the barcode's content to the scanner's output port.\n",
"Barcodes are often the means whereby data on products and orders are inputted into inventory management software. A barcode reader is used to read barcodes and look up information on the products they represent. Radio-frequency identification (RFID) tags and wireless methods of product identification are also growing in popularity. \n"
] |
Is there a historical reason why the US military says klick instead of kilometre?
|
It's not official, it is military slang, and is used purely because it is easier to say.
|
[
"BULLET::::- That when American servicemen heard the term during the Korean War, they heard the word as 'gook\" instead of k(g)uk which means \"national\" (maybe, thus, interpreted as nationalist) \"goo-goo\" (also \"gugu\"), a term used by the U.S. military to describe Filipinos.\n",
"The slang term \"SWAG\" is generally thought to have originated in the US military, either the Army or the Air Force. Journalist Melvin J. Lasky wrote that it was first used casually by US Army General William Westmoreland during the Vietnam War. Westmoreland would sometimes reply \"SWAG\" to reporters' questions about American failure to neutralize the enemy. Westmoreland's use of the term was affirmed in court by Colonel John Frank Stewart in November 1984 during witness testimony for the lawsuit initiated by Westmoreland against CBS for their TV documentary \"The Uncounted Enemy: A Vietnam Deception\". On the witness stand, Stewart explained that in Vietnam, the military intelligence branch that he commanded would deliver numbers of enemy strength to Westmoreland, the numbers derived from \"the SWAG principle\". There was laughter in the court when Stewart explained what was meant by the acronym \"SWAG\".\n",
"The military has developed its own slang, partly as means of self-identification. This slang is also used to reinforce the (usually friendly) interservice rivalries. Some terms are derogatory to varying degrees and many service personnel take some pleasure in the sense of shared hardships which they endure and which is reflected in the slang terms.\n",
"It is used as the quick march of the 1st Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment and as the official song of the US 1st Marine Division, commemorating the time the unit spent in Australia during the Second World War. Partly also used in the British Royal Tank Regiment's slow march of \"Royal Tank Regiment\", because an early British tank model was called \"Matilda\".\n",
"The documentary \"Anatomy of t.A.T.u.\" states that when the slogan was being created, Shapovalov said that it is a Russian slang way to say \"No to War\" (Нет войне!), however the slang translations may vary to \"Dick to War\" (word-by-word) or a creative way of saying \"Fuck War\".\n",
"Use of the term does not appear to have gained currency outside of the limited arena of justification of military action: for example, the U.S. Navy refers to the Korean conflict as the Korean War, and when they refer to police action, they surround the term in quotation marks.\n",
"A number of military slang terms are acronyms. Rick Atkinson ascribes the origin of SNAFU (Situation Normal, All Fucked Up), FUBAR (Fucked Up Beyond Any Repair or \"All Recognition\"), and a bevy of other terms to cynical GIs ridiculing the United States Army's penchant for acronyms.\n"
] |
why do most websites have character limits for passwords while at the same time they force you to have an upper/lowercase letter, and a number to make your password more secure. wouldn't removing the character limit and allowing much longer passwords make them more secure than 16 characters?
|
Convention.
There is no technical strength to doing so. Users who will use insecure passwords without the restrictions will use insecure passwords with the restrictions, and cracking these cases isn't all that much more demanding. Meanwhile, increasing password length does substantially increase security. It would be far better practice to have, say, 10 characters minimum and no maximum than is currently common.
|
[
"Many policies require a minimum password length. Eight characters is typical but may not be appropriate. Longer passwords are generally more secure, but some systems impose a maximum length for compatibility with legacy systems.\n",
"The full strength associated with using the entire ASCII character set (numerals, mixed case letters and special characters) is only achieved if each possible password is equally likely. This seems to suggest that all passwords must contain characters from each of several character classes, perhaps upper and lower case letters, numbers, and non-alphanumeric characters. In fact, such a requirement is a pattern in password choice and can be expected to reduce an attacker's \"work factor\" (in Claude Shannon's terms). This is a reduction in password \"strength\". A better requirement would be to require a password NOT to contain any word in an online dictionary, or list of names, or any license plate pattern from any state (in the US) or country (as in the EU). If patterned choices are required, humans are likely to use them in predictable ways, such a capitalizing a letter, adding one or two numbers, and a special character. This predictability means that the increase in password strength is minor when compared to random passwords.\n",
"BULLET::::- Some systems require characters from various character classes in a password—for example, \"must have at least one uppercase and at least one lowercase letter\". However, all-lowercase passwords are more secure per keystroke than mixed capitalization passwords.\n",
"But passwords are typically not safe to use as keys for standalone security systems (e.g., encryption systems) that expose data to enable offline password guessing by an attacker. Passphrases are theoretically stronger, and so should make a better choice in these cases. First, they usually are (and always should be) much longer—20 to 30 characters or more is typical—making some kinds of brute force attacks entirely impractical. Second, if well chosen, they will not be found in any phrase or quote dictionary, so such dictionary attacks will be almost impossible. Third, they can be structured to be more easily memorable than passwords without being written down, reducing the risk of hardcopy theft. However, if a passphrase is not protected appropriately by the authenticator and the clear-text passphrase is revealed its use is no better than other passwords. For this reason it is recommended that passphrases not be reused across different or unique sites and services.\n",
"BULLET::::3. A 14-character password is broken into 7+7 characters and the hash is calculated for the two halves separately. This way of calculating the hash makes it exponentially easier to crack, as the attacker needs to brute force 7 characters twice instead of 14 characters. This makes the effective strength of a 14-characters password equal to only formula_1, or twice that of a 7-character password, which is significantly less complex than the formula_2 theoretical strength of a 14-character password.\n",
"Whether or not the case variants are treated as equivalent to each other varies depending on the computer system and context. For example, user passwords are generally case sensitive in order to allow more diversity and make them more difficult to break. On the other hand, when performing a keyword search, differentiating between the upper and lower case might narrow down the search result too much.\n",
"Secondly, passwords longer than 7 characters are divided into two pieces and each piece is hashed separately; this weakness allows each half of the password to be attacked separately at exponentially lower cost than the whole, as only formula_4 different 7-character password pieces are possible with the same character set. By mounting a brute-force attack on each half separately, modern desktop machines can crack alphanumeric LM hashes in a few hours. In addition, all lower case letters in the password are changed to upper case before the password is hashed, which further reduces the key space for each half to formula_5.\n"
] |
Whats the difference between Centrifugal and Centripetal force?
|
Its often taught in PHY 101 courses that the centripetal force is "real" while the centrifugal force isn't. In a purely inertial sense, this is true, however it oversimplifies how we often times approach a lot of real problems in physics. A lot of the confusion comes from the fact that they both describe the same phenomenon in a rotating body.
The **centripetal force** is the force required to keep an object moving on a circular path while traveling at some tangential velocity. It points directly in towards the center of rotation.
The **centrifugal force** only exists in rotating reference frames, though it's important to recognize that this doesn't mean it's incorrect to talk about! It is mathematically valid, you just need to be careful about when discussing/using it. It is the experienced "reaction force" when an object is traveling in a circular path. It points "away" from the center of rotation.
So if you have a ball on a string and you start spinning it around in a circle faster and faster, eventually the string will break. From an inertial reference frame, this is because the string can only apply a limited amount of force before it breaks (this is its tensile strength). And when the ball is moving fast enough, in order to keep it moving in a circular path at its speed, requires a greater centripetal force than the string can supply.
From the strings perspective though, if you were rotating with it, you'd watch the string continue to be stretched more and more as if being pulled on by some outward pointing force. This is what we call the centrifugal force. While it isn't "real", it is useful when dealing with rotating reference frames.
Note:
**Inertial Reference Frame:** a non rotating and non-accelerating reference frame where Newton's laws hold. That is, objects at rest stay at rest and objects in motion stay in motion.
|
[
"In Newtonian mechanics, the centrifugal force is an inertial force (also called a \"fictitious\" or \"pseudo\" force) that appears to act on all objects when viewed in a rotating frame of reference. It is directed away from an axis passing through the coordinate system's origin and parallel to the axis of rotation. If the axis of rotation passes through the coordinate system's origin, the centrifugal force is directed radially outwards from that axis.\n",
"In classical mechanics, centrifugal force is an outward force associated with rotation. Centrifugal force is one of several so-called pseudo-forces (also known as inertial forces), so named because, unlike real forces, they do not originate in interactions with other bodies situated in the environment of the particle upon which they act. Instead, centrifugal force originates in the rotation of the frame of reference within which observations are made.\n",
"it is a natural extension of standard terminology (although there is no standard terminology for this case) to call this term the \"centrifugal force\". Applying this terminology to the example of a tube in a centrifuge, if the tube is far enough from the center of rotation, |X| = \"R\" ≫ |x|, all the matter in the test tube sees the same acceleration (the same centrifugal force). Thus, in this case, the fictitious force is primarily a uniform centrifugal force along the axis of the tube, away from the center of rotation, with a value |F| = ω \"R\", where \"R\" is the distance of the matter in the tube from the center of the centrifuge. It is standard specification of a centrifuge to use the \"effective\" radius of the centrifuge to estimate its ability to provide centrifugal force. Thus, a first estimate of centrifugal force in a centrifuge can be based upon the distance of the tubes from the center of rotation, and corrections applied if needed.\n",
"Notice that this \"centrifugal force\" has differences from the case of a rotating frame. In the rotating frame the centrifugal force is related to the distance of the object from the origin of frame \"B\", while in the case of an orbiting frame, the centrifugal force is independent of the distance of the object from the origin of frame \"B\", but instead depends upon the distance of the origin of frame \"B\" from \"its\" center of rotation, resulting in the \"same\" centrifugal fictitious force for \"all\" objects observed in frame \"B\".\n",
"Both the centripetal force and the centrifugal term in the equation of motion are proportional to \"r\". The angular velocity of the rotating coordinate system is adjusted to have the same period of revolution as the object following an ellipse-shaped trajectory. Hence the vector of the centripetal force and the vector of the centrifugal term are at every distance to the center equal to each other in magnitude and opposite in direction, so those two terms drop away against each other. \n",
"The centrifuge relies on the force resulting from centripetal acceleration to separate molecules according to their mass, and can be applied to most fluids. The dense (heavier) molecules move towards the wall and the lighter ones remain close to the center. The centrifuge consists of a rigid body rotor rotating at full period at high speed. Concentric gas tubes located on the axis of the rotor are used to introduce feed gas into the rotor and extract the heavier and lighter separated streams. For U production, the heavier stream is the waste stream and the lighter stream is the product stream. Modern Zippe-type centrifuges are tall cylinders spinning on a vertical axis, with a vertical temperature gradient applied to create a convective circulation rising in the center and descending at the periphery of the centrifuge. Diffusion between these opposing flows increases the separation by the principle of countercurrent multiplication.\n",
"A centrifuge is a piece of equipment that puts an object in rotation around a fixed axis (spins it in a circle), applying a force perpendicular to the axis of spin (outward) that can be very strong. The centrifuge works using the sedimentation principle, where the centrifugal acceleration causes denser substances and particles to move outward in the radial direction. At the same time, objects that are less dense are displaced and move to the center. In a laboratory centrifuge that uses sample tubes, the radial acceleration causes denser particles to settle to the bottom of the tube, while low-density substances rise to the top.\n"
] |
what's actually happening when someone overeats on a regular basis and their stomach "expands"? what about in reverse when their stomach gets "smaller"?
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It's not just a figure of speech. Your stomach can physically expand/stretch. [Competitive eaters expand their stomachs for competition using water](_URL_0_). It really is like a balloon in a way. The size of the actual organ doesn't change, but it's elasticity and response to food can.
The opposite is not true however. You cannot shrink you stomach. It is an organ and does not change size. What is happening when your stomach "shrinks" from not eating is you appetite resets. You stomach has nerves around the outside that indicate when your stomach is "full". Those may begin signaling earlier if you have not eaten in a while.
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[
"Gastroparesis (gastro- from Ancient Greek γαστήρ - gaster, \"stomach\"; and -paresis, πάρεσις - \"partial paralysis\"), also called delayed gastric emptying, is a medical disorder consisting of weak muscular contractions (peristalsis) of the stomach, resulting in food and liquid remaining in the stomach for a prolonged period of time. Stomach contents thus exit more slowly into the duodenum of the digestive tract.\n",
"Gastroparesis is a medical condition characterised by delayed emptying of the stomach when there is no mechanical gastric outlet obstruction. Its cause is most commonly idiopathic, a diabetic complication or a result of abdominal surgery. The condition causes nausea, vomiting, fullness after eating, early satiety (feeling full before the meal is finished), abdominal pain and bloating.\n",
"Abdominal distension occurs when substances, such as air (gas) or fluid, accumulate in the abdomen causing its expansion. It is typically a symptom of an underlying disease or dysfunction in the body, rather than an illness in its own right. People suffering from this condition often describe it as \"feeling bloated\". Sufferers often experience a sensation of fullness, abdominal pressure and possibly nausea, pain or cramping. In the most extreme cases, upward pressure on the diaphragm and lungs can also cause shortness of breath. Through a variety of causes (see below), bloating is most commonly due to buildup of gas in the stomach, small intestine or colon. The pressure sensation is often relieved, or at least lessened, by belching or flatulence. Medications that settle gas in the stomach and intestines are also commonly used to treat the discomfort and lessen the abdominal distension.\n",
"When people overeat, their bodies have the tendency to chemically change, including metabolic shifts. There are also electrolyte imbalances due to the process of digestion that occur once the massive amounts of food have been deposited into the body. This can also cause a feeling of depression, emotional attachment to food, fatigue, and also boredom. This is hypothesized to be partially due to dopamine and endorphin release after food consumption (especially spicy foods).\n",
"A common gastrointestinal problem is constipation—infrequent bowel movements, hard stools, or strain during the movements—which causes serious cases of bloating. Since most cases of constipation are temporary, simple lifestyle changes, such as getting more exercise and increasing one's intake of fiber, can go a long way toward alleviating constipation. Some cases of constipation will continue to worsen and require unconventional methods to release the feces and reduce the amount of stomach bloating. Blood in the stool, intense pain in the abdomen, rectal pain, and unexplained weight loss should be reported to a doctor. Bloating consistently accompanies constipation, and they will not develop without an underlying cause. \n",
"Abdominal bloating is a symptom that can appear at any age, generally associated with functional gastrointestinal disorders or organic diseases, but can also appear alone. The person feels a full and tight abdomen. Although this term is usually used interchangeably with abdominal distension, these symptoms probably have different pathophysiological processes, which are not fully understood.\n",
"Patients who complain of bloating frequently can be shown to have objective increases in abdominal girth, often increased throughout the day and then resolving during sleep. The increase in girth combined with the fact that the total volume of flatus is not increased led to studies aiming to image the distribution of intestinal gas in patients with bloating. They found that gas was not distributed normally in these patients: there was segmental gas pooling and focal distension. In conclusion, abdominal distension, pain and bloating symptoms are the result of abnormal intestinal gas dynamics rather than increased flatus production.\n"
] |
rental car insurance.
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I called my insurance company to make sure that my policy is the same whether I'm driving my car or a rental. It does except for what they call "loss of use." The way I understand it, if you crash the rental, insurance will cover damages to it, but the rental company can claim losses because it would have been making them money if it had not been crashed.
I didn't ask the rental company if loss of use was covered with their insurance, but I'm assuming it is.
So, for me, the answer is not really, unless you're planning to really fuck up the rental. YMMV.
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[
"Most rental car companies offer insurance to cover damage to the rental vehicle. These policies may be unnecessary for many customers as credit card companies, such as Visa and MasterCard, now provide supplemental collision damage coverage to rental cars if the rental transaction is processed using one of their cards. These benefits are restrictive in terms of the types of vehicles covered.\n",
"In many countries, it is a legal requirement to have CDW insurance included in the basic car rental rate. It covers the rented car. Some rental companies also offer liability insurance and coverage of towing charges. Terms and prices vary. Alternatives to the CDW include other car insurance policies, some coverage from credit card issuers (Visa, MasterCard, etc.) and some travel insurance.\n",
"CDW meets the basic definition of insurance, since it transfers some risk from the car renter to the rental company. However rental companies do not call it insurance, since it is a waiver between the renter and the company. Rental companies are not licensed or regulated as insurers. There are also no claims made. Rental companies treat CDW as a waiver of their right to make the renter pay for damage to the vehicle.\n",
"Agency Rent-a-Car was founded in Solon, Ohio (a suburb of Cleveland) as the nation's first \"Insurance Replacement\" car rental company by Sam J Frankino in 1969. Agency Rent-a-Car specialized in delivering cars to people whose personal vehicles had been in an accident and needed a temporary replacement, usually paid for by their insurance company. The company eventually grew to have offices nationwide and a fleet of 40,000 cars until being sold to Avis. The company also opened wholly owned subsidiaries known as Amerex Rent-a-Car and Altra Auto Rental.\n",
"Although frequently not explicitly stated, US car rental companies are required by respective state law to provide minimum liability coverage, except in California and Arizona, where the driver is solely responsible. This covers costs to a third party in the event of an accident. In most states, it is illegal to drive a car without liability coverage. The rental car companies maintain liability insurance on their vehicles; however, some companies will charge for this, should you not provide your own insurance. As an example, in Maryland, the minimal level of liability coverage is $20,000 for bodily injury and $15,000 for property damage.\n",
"Within Canada, all auto rentals are required by law to include a minimum of $200,000 in third-party liability insurance, regardless of whether the renter has their own auto insurance or not. Most rental agencies thus do not provide a third-party liability insurance option, and simply factor in the premium as part of fixed cost of rental.\n",
"Alongside the basic rental of a vehicle, car rental agencies typically also offer extra products such as insurance, global positioning system (GPS) navigation systems, entertainment systems, mobile phones, portable WiFi and child safety seats.\n"
] |
If Alpha Centauri had a solar system like ours, how big would the outer planet's orbit appear in the sky if visible with the naked eye?
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If the planetary system was completely face on and if we assume that it's an Earth like planet orbiting at 1 AU, then it would appear approximately 4x10^-4 degrees wide. That's about 0.012 arc minutes, and a quick wiki check says that the best a human eye could do is around 1 arc minute. So no way you'll see it.
Note that Alpha Cen is probably not a good target since it's a binary (well, technically a triple) star system.
|
[
"Viewed from near the Alpha Centauri system, the sky would appear much as it does for an observer on Earth, except that Centaurus would be missing its brightest star. The Sun would be a yellow star of an apparent magnitude of +0.5 in eastern Cassiopeia, at the antipodal point of Alpha Centauri's current right ascension and declination, at (2000). This place is close to the 3.4-magnitude star ε Cassiopeiae. Because of the placement of the Sun, an interstellar or alien observer would find the \\/\\/ of Cassiopeia had become a /\\/\\/ shape nearly in front of the Heart Nebula in Cassiopeia. Sirius lies less than a degree from Betelgeuse in the otherwise unmodified Orion and with a magnitude of −1.2 is a little fainter than from Earth but still the brightest star in the Alpha Centauri sky. Procyon is also displaced into the middle of Gemini, outshining Pollux, whereas both Vega and Altair are shifted northwestward relative to Deneb (which barely moves, due to its great distance), giving the Summer Triangle a more equilateral appearance.\n",
"It revolves around the host star in a somewhat elongated orbit. If it were located in the Solar System, this orbit would stretch from just outside the orbit of Venus (at 117 million km or 0.78 astronomical unit [AU] from the Sun) to just outside the orbit of the Earth (at 162 million km or 1.08 AU). Because the planet is at least 720 times more massive than the Earth, it is predicted that Iota Horologii b is more similar to planet Jupiter.\n",
"To the naked eye, Alpha Centauri AB appears to be a single star, the brightest in the southern constellation of Centaurus. Their apparent angular separation varies over about 80 years between 2 and 22 arcsec (the naked eye has a resolution of 60 arcsec), but through much of the orbit, both are easily resolved in binoculars or small telescopes. At −0.27 apparent magnitude (combined for A and B magnitudes), Alpha Centauri is fainter only than Sirius and Canopus. It forms the outer star of \"The Pointers\" or \"The Southern Pointers\", so called because the line through Beta Centauri (Hadar/Agena),\n",
"Alpha Centauri, a double star system with the binary designation Alpha Centauri AB, is the brightest visible object in the southern constellation Centaurus. Its component stars are Alpha Centauri A (the primary—somewhat larger and brighter than the Sun) and Alpha Centauri B (the secondary—slightly smaller and dimmer). These stars are of spectral classes G2V (as is the Sun) and K1V, respectively; in the former case there is an obvious model and potential for planets capable of supporting complex biospheres, and in the latter, as it turns out, an even stronger probability of a stable habitable zone that is well suited for life. (Proxima Centauri—a late-discovered red dwarf, and the closest known star to the Solar System) appears to be gravitationally bound to the AB system although at a considerable distance. The collection of three stars together is called Alpha Centauri AB-C.\n",
"HD 82943 (164 G. Hydrae) is a yellow dwarf star approximately 89 light-years away in the constellation of Hydra. Two extrasolar planets have been confirmed to be orbiting it, and it is thought that the system had more giant planets that were \"swallowed\" by the parent star. HD 82943 is estimated at roughly 1.15 times the mass of the Sun.\n",
"The planet orbits one of the four giant stars in the Hyades cluster that is 2.7 times the mass of our Sun, making it the most massive planet-harboring star. This provides evidence that it was an A-type star when it was on the main-sequence.\n",
"The star has a extrasolar planet that has a minimum mass greater than Jupiters orbiting it in 442 days. Claims were made in 1999 that a dust disk around the star HD 210277, similar to that produced by the Kuiper Belt had been imaged, lying between 30 and 62 AU from the star. However, observations with the Spitzer Space Telescope failed to detect any infrared excess at 70 micrometres or at 24 micrometres wavelengths.\n"
] |
Can you name some important historical travelogues?
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Forgive me, I am not certain what you mean by 'undercover regions'. Lady Mary Wortley Montagu's travel writings on Turkey and other countries are used as primary sources. Her relish in appealing to her audiences means her writing isn't always reliable as verbatim records of events, but is insightful for us for a range of reasons. Including for understanding then prevailing views of some English people of the Occident and Orient.
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[
"BULLET::::- Travel Writing: The text of most of the best known historical British travel writers, including James Boswell, William Camden, William Cobbett, Daniel Defoe, Celia Fiennes, Charles Wesley and Arthur Young. The earliest source included in the GB Historical GIS is a survey of Wales written by Giraldus Cambrensis in 1188. Place-names are identified within these texts using XML tags defined by the Text Encoding Initiative. This is believed to be the largest collection of British historical travel literature on the web, and is unique in that it is fully geo-referenced.\n",
"A British traveller, Mrs Alec Tweedie, published a number of travelogues, ranging from Denmark (1895) and Finland (1897), to the U.S. (1913), several on Mexico (1901, 1906, 1917), and one on Russia, Siberia, and China (1926). A more recent example is Che Guevara's \"The Motorcycle Diaries\". A travelogue is a film, book written up from a travel diary, or illustrated talk describing the experiences of and places visited by traveller. American writer Paul Theroux has published many works of travel literature, the first success being \"The Great Railway Bazaar\". \n",
"He published a French-language travelogue, enriched with firsthand accounts of India, Persia, Greece, the Middle East, Denmark, Germany, Netherlands, England, Ireland, and Italy. It is considered one of the very first true travel books, in that it contains useful information for actual travellers.\n",
"Travelogues stem from the work of American writer and lecturer, John Lawson Stoddard who began traveling around the world in 1874. He went on to publish books about his adventures and gave lectures across North America. The original lectures were accompanied by black and white lantern slides printed from his photographs. In 1892, John Lawson Stoddard recruited Burton Holmes as his junior associate. When Stoddard was ready to retire in 1897, he arranged for Holmes to take over the rest of his speaking arrangements. Holmes went on to become the premier travel lecturer of his day and coined the term, \"travelogues,\" in 1904 when he introduced film clips to lecture series making them wildly popular. After World War II, Lowell Thomas created popular Movietone News Reel travelogues shown in movie theaters across the U.S.\n",
"Charles Boileau Elliott (1803–1875) was an English travel writer. He published 3 travel diaries in his lifetime. His best known works are Letters from the North of Europe, Travels in the Three Great Empires, and Travels in the Archipelago. All 3 books provide a unique historical account of life in those areas during the mid 1800's just prior to the wars and industrial achievements that would be coming later in the 20th century.\n",
"Besides several travel diaries (Travels in Turkey, Egypt etc. in 1824–27, 1829, and others (1833)), his works include the historically significant book \"The United Irishmen, their lives and times\" (1842-1860, 11 Vols.),\n",
"Guide books and travel accounts with details of the country and people have had a long history – some books from the 19th century and early 20th century being classics with description of places that were perceived as \"things to see\". Both private authors and government publications (such as the 1920s \"Come to Java\" books produced in Batavia by the government tourist bureau of the time) have been made each decade through to the present. There were restrictions to tourism during World War II and the mid-to-late 1960s – other than those two periods – travel accounts and guide books have been produced regularly. James Rush's and Adrian Vickers' texts mentioned below are excellent introductions to the range of writing that has been created.\n"
] |
During WW2, were there any significant acts of sabotage executed by the Axis powers on U.S. soil?
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The case of Ex Parte Quirin is of note here, if only to show how inept German sabotage was for the time. A handful of covert German operatives deposited by submarine on the American eastern coast landed in uniform, to comply with the laws of war, buried their uniform, to get around the laws of war, and then started to get busy- only to all be captured within a month or so of their arrival. The issue of whether or not they should be afforded Geneva Conventions is the one the Court takes up in Quirin. Worth your time to read.
The Japanese also launched a series of incendiary hot-air balloons bound for America, but as far as I know, they caused no significant damage to property or persons in the continental United States.
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[
"During World War II PRR carried troops and matériel for the Allied war effort, and the Curve was under armed guard. The military intelligence arm of Nazi Germany, the \"Abwehr\", plotted to sabotage important industrial assets in the United States in a project code-named Operation Pastorius. In June 1942 four men were brought by submarine and landed on Long Island, planning to destroy such sites as the Curve, Hell Gate Bridge, Alcoa aluminum factories and locks on the Ohio River. The would-be saboteurs were quickly apprehended by the Federal Bureau of Investigation after one, George John Dasch, turned himself in.\n",
"During World War II, the Allies repeatedly bombarded Colleferro to destroy the explosives factory. During the attacks, citizens found shelter in a series of caves and tunnels built under the \"BPD Village\". \n",
"During World War II the German submarine U-584 debarked four saboteurs at Ponte Vedra as part of the failed Operation Pastorius. The four German spies, all of whom had previously lived in the United States, came ashore on the night of June 16, 1942 carrying explosives and American money. After landing they strolled up the beach to Jacksonville Beach, where they caught a city bus to Jacksonville and departed by train for Cincinnati and Chicago. The invaders were captured before they could do any damage. They were tried by a military tribunal and executed.\n",
"During World War II, the U.S. military interrogated high-level Nazis at a secret camp, \"P. O. Box 1142,\" outside Washington D.C. The interrogators did not use physical torture, but did use psychological tricks, like threatening to turn the prisoner over to the Soviets.\n",
"During World War II, dummy airfields and even towns were used in England to divert German bombers from the real targets. At the Battle of La Ciotat in 1944, American aircraft dropped hundreds of dummy paratroopers (Paradummies) just north of La Ciotat, France. The goal of this operation was to divert German troops away from the main landing zones of Operation Dragoon. Additionally, during World War II, Operation Quicksilver was an attempt to mislead the Germans as to the location of the D-Day invasion using dummy military equipment.\n",
"During Operation Pastorius, a failed Nazi attack on the United States staged in June 1942, during World War II, four German spies were dropped off from a submarine on Atlantic Avenue beach in Amagansett, where they made their way to the village's Long Island Rail Road station and boarded a train for New York. \n",
"During World War II, the first successful raid on Nazi-held territory, Operation Claymore, was conducted here. After a successful operation they returned with some 228 German prisoners, 314 loyal Norwegian volunteers, a number of Quisling regime collaborators, and code books and wheels for the Enigma machine. Also, a telegram was sent to Adolf Hitler describing how ineffective the German forces were. Hitler's response was to send an SS unit to conduct future operations. The mountain above Stamsund still has the bunker complex and viewing port overlooking the village and the ocean to the west.\n"
] |
[mod post] coming soon...on rules and mods.
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Can we make sure the rules do more to encourage searching for answers first? Especially around big news events, the old classics of '3d printing' and 'schrodingers cat' come up constantly too. A giant red bar that flashes up when you mouse over submit like on askscience or TIL might help.
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[
"The purpose of Mod DB is to list the mods, files, tutorials and information of any games that are capable of being modded with user-made content. Community involvement is strongly encouraged, and any game mod with a website is allowed to post a screenshot gallery, news, and requests for help. Scott's intentions, from the beginning, were to get the community heavily involved in the creation and development of the website. To this end, the most active members were chosen as moderators and administrators. The core staff generally remain the same, while lower positions are heavily rotated among trainee moderators, and administrator candidates. The site's staff mostly act as chaperones or librarians, keeping appropriate content available to the public and featuring the more exceptional content.\n",
"Mods (short for modifications) are an optional upgrade for characters within the game. Once the player's account reaches level 50, Mods become available to any of their characters that are level 50 or above. There are different categories of mods, each of which yields a different primary effect on the stats of the character that has equipped it. This effect allows players to increase statistical areas of their characters to yield better performance in battle.\n",
"A mod (short for \"modification\") is an alteration by players or fans of a video game that changes one or more aspects of a video game, such as how it looks or behaves. Mods may range from small changes and tweaks to complete overhauls, and can extend the replay value and interest of the game.\n",
"Aside from the official expansion packs, third-party mods are available on sites such as the Steam Workshop. The mods can change the game's setting, add or remove features and game mechanics, and make graphical improvements. Popular mods include \"Extended Timeline\", which expands the game's scope from 2 AD to the year 9999, the \"Game of Thrones\" adaptation \"A Song of Ice and Fire,\" and complete overhauls such as \"MEIOU & Taxes\".\n",
"Mod DB's Mod of the Year competition, the 'Golden Spanner' awards, aim to set the industry standard in awarding inventive and high-quality mods. Mods are chosen via a community vote and are then reviewed by staff to produce the final list of winners. The competition aims to encourage all fields of modding, with different categories such as graphics and gameplay, as well as a traditional 'best mod' winner.\n",
"Some mods mainly focus on technology, and add an assortment of machines that can help the player to automate the production of certain in-game materials. Examples of technology-oriented mods include \"Extra Utilities\", a mod that introduces various machines that can be used to generate power, and a random assortment of other blocks and items; \"BuildCraft\", a classic mod known for its many variants of machines, pumps, and pipes (also most likely named for the fact that, according to the developer, the mod's machines can build (and destroy) in the world); \"IndustrialCraft\", a mod which adds metals, electric tools, generators, including nuclear reactors., jetpacks, powered armor, and nuclear items.\n",
"The mod was originally developed as a toolkit. It includes models, sounds, , art, tools, and a specialised editor for users to create custom missions. The development of the mod started in 2004, and the first Beta was released in 2008, along with its first mission. In October 2009, v 1.0 was released. In October 2013 version 2.0 was released as a standalone game that included two missions created by the development team. The current version is v 2.07, with over 100 fan-made missions available, and a lengthy campaign titled \"Crucible of Omens\" in development.\n"
] |
When did Americans start using French words and phrases, and why are they so prevalent?
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Although English is a Germanic language, approximately 30% of English vocabulary comes from French in one form or another. This is largely caused by an event called the Norman Conquest, in which a group of people called Normans, who inhabited Northern France and had a degree of Scandinavian ancestry, invaded and conquered England. The Old English-speaking aristocracy was mostly replaced by Norman French-speaking aristocracy, and for at least a hundred years, the nobility of England were primarily Norman French speakers. As a result, many words in English, particularly ones related to politics, warfare, and social class come from French. Many of these Norman French words are different from their modern French words, such as the word castle, from Norman French castel, in comparison to Modern French Château (which had evolved from Chasteau as indicated by the circumflex accent). Eventually, likely around the early or mid 13th century, the Norman/Angevin aristocracy of England lost most of their titles within the Kingdom of France and began to transition to English, which by this point was now full of French words. The higher nobility and Kings of England continued to speak French as their first language until sometime in the 14th or 15th century.
French words continued to enter the English language after England and France became more distinctly separate entities, as France and England were still geographic neighbors (there are quite a few Dutch and German words of French origin as well), and because for a long time French was the dominant language of European courts and was therefore a prestige language that many nobles of various countries learned. Frederick the Great of Prussia, for example, spoke French natively and may have preferred it to German, and the multi-ethnic and multi-lingual Austrian army often used French as a common language. Most of the English words and expressions that remain distinctly and obviously "French" come from these more recent vocabulary exchanges.
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[
"As American soldiers and officials traveled through the area for the first time following the War of 1812, they initially used the French spelling. But when large numbers of lead miners streamed into the country south of the river in the 1820s, the U.S. government began to refer to it differently in debates and legislation. These legal documents created by the government in Washington sometimes used the French spelling, but they gradually introduced the uniquely American, \"Wisconsin.\" The U.S. House of Representatives Journal was the first to print it (in the entry for February 1, 1830), during discussion of \"laying out a town at Helena, on the Wisconsin river, in the Territory of Michigan …\" In the five years that followed, the modern spelling was used with increasing frequency in government publications as well as in commercially published books and maps. In 1836, when territorial status was authorized on July 4, the name became officially \"Wisconsin\" (though Canadian and French writers often used \"Ouisconsin\" until the end of the 19th century).\n",
"In the 19th century, British writers who considered this word either an imposition on the English language, or difficult for common soldiers and sailors, argued for it to be replaced by the calque \"steadholder\". However, their efforts failed, and the French word is still used, along with its many variations (e.g. lieutenant colonel, lieutenant general, lieutenant commander, flight lieutenant, second lieutenant and many non-English language examples), in both the Old and the New World.\n",
"BULLET::::- Some words borrowed in the 19th and 20th centuries (such as \"chic\") still considered foreign words, French words, are generally used by educated English people or by the press and other media and are seen as part of a distinguished language.\n",
"English speakers tried to adapt French names to English phonetics: ' (French for \"covered way or road\") was gradually converted to \"Smackover\" by Anglo-Americans. They used this name for a local creek. Founded by the French, ' was translated into English and renamed by Americans as Little Rock after the United States acquired the territory in the Purchase.\n",
"Many of the common words such as 'papoose,' 'squash' and 'moccasin' were popularized in 1643, even back in England, with the publication of Roger Williams' \"A Key into the Language of America\" and as a result, are often given a Narragansett etymology. Most words were likely borrowed independently until a common form won out, or re-enforced each other through similarity. For example, New Englanders used 'wauregan' to mean 'handsome' and 'showy' until the end of the nineteenth century from an SNEA R-dialect, most likely from Quiripi wauregan, but the first settlers in Massachusetts were already familiar with the older cognate form 'wunnegin' from Massachusett wunnégan (wuneekan) from N-dialect Massachusett. Furthermore, the English settlers of the failed Popham Colony, and later settlements in what is now Maine and New Hampshire encountered mos from Eastern Abenakian, whilst settlers in the rest of New England encountered mꝏs from the SNEA languages, ultimately coalescing into English, 'moose.' Other forms were shorted beyond recognition, with 'squash' a shortened slang form of original borrowings 'isquontersquash' or 'squantersquash' from Massachusett askꝏtasquash (ashk8tasqash) or Narragansett askútasquash. Many of these 'Narragansett' terms were already known to the English settlers of Massachusetts Bay and Plymouth, with William Wood recording pappousse and mawcus sinnus from Pawtucket speakers of Massachusett and published in his 1634 \"New Englands Prospect\" nine years before Williams' papoòs and mocússinass.\n",
"During the 19th century after the Louisiana Purchase by the United States, English gradually gained prominence for business and government due to the shift in population with settlement by numerous Americans who were English speakers. Many ethnic French families continued to use French in private. Slaves and some free people of color also spoke Louisiana Creole French. The State Constitution of 1812 gave English official status in legal proceedings, but use of French remained widespread. Subsequent state constitutions reflect the diminishing importance of French. The 1868 constitution, passed during the Reconstruction era before Louisiana was re-admitted to the Union, banned laws requiring the publication of legal proceedings in languages other than English. Subsequently, the legal status of French recovered somewhat, but it never regained its pre-Civil War prominence.\n",
"Like English, French sometimes uses (or historically used) a particle \"Ô\" to mark vocative phrases rather than by change to the form of the noun. A famous example is the title and first line of the Canadian national anthem, \"O Canada\" (French title: \"Ô Canada\"), a vocative phrase addressing Canada.\n"
] |
Could we use magnetism as opposed to rocketry to launch objects/people/spaceships into orbit?
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People talk about doing something like this:
The mass driver, which is similar to some designs for high-speed trains.
_URL_0_
In most cases it's not practical to launch from Earth's surface to orbit with one of these, since you have to launch at high speed through the atmosphere, and your capsule would be burning up when it left the launch track.
The exception is building the track so that your capsule launches at high altitudes - on high mountains or supported on some sort of very high artificial support.
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[
"The science of electromagnetic propulsion does not have origins with any one individual and has application in many different fields. The thought of using magnets for propulsion continues to this day and has been dreamed of since at least 1897 when John Munro published his fictional story \"A Trip to Venus\". Current applications can be seen in maglev trains and military railguns. Other applications that remain not widely used or still in development include ion thruster for low orbiting satellites and magnetohydrodynamic drive for ships and submarines.\n",
"A number of experimental methods of spacecraft propulsion are based on magnetohydrodynamics. As this kind of MHD propulsion involves compressible fluids in the form of plasmas (ionized gases) it is also referred to as magnetogasdynamics or magnetoplasmadynamics.\n",
"Project Magnet, led by senior radio engineer Wilbert B. Smith from the Department of Transport, had the goal of studying magnetic phenomena, specifically geomagnetism, as a potential propulsion method for vehicles. Smith believed UFOs were using this method to achieve flight. The final report of the project, however, contained no mention of geomagnetism. It discussed twenty-five UFO sightings reported during 1952, and concluded with the notion that \"extraterrestrial space vehicles\" are probable.\n",
"Essentially all types of magnets have been used to generate lift for magnetic levitation; permanent magnets, electromagnets, ferromagnetism, diamagnetism, superconducting magnets and magnetism due to induced currents in conductors.\n",
"Magnetorquers are lightweight, reliable, and energy-efficient. Unlike thrusters, they do not require expendable propellant either, so they could in theory work indefinitely as long as sufficient power is available to match the resistive load of the coils. In Earth orbit, sunlight is one such practically inexhaustible energy source, using solar panels.\n",
"The main disadvantage of magnetorquers is that very high magnetic flux densities are needed if large craft have to be turned very fast. This either necessitates a very high current in the coils, or much higher ambient flux densities than are available in Earth orbit. Consequently, the torques provided are very limited and only serve to accelerate or decelerate the change in a spacecraft's attitude by minute amounts. Over time active control can produce very fast spinning even here, but for accurate attitude control and stabilization the torques provided often aren't enough. To overcome this, magnetorquer are often combined with reaction wheels.\n",
"A magnetic sail or magsail is a proposed method of spacecraft propulsion which would use a static magnetic field to deflect charged particles radiated by the Sun as a plasma wind, and thus impart momentum to accelerate the spacecraft. A magnetic sail could also thrust directly against planetary and solar magnetospheres.\n"
] |
why are there so many contradictory ideas about what humans should be eating, but other animals are very straightforward in knowing what to eat?
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We have the technology to make whatever we want and the resources to get whatever we want. We have a lot more choices than an animal does. It also helps that we're omnivores and able to make any type of food digestible and tasty, while many other animals are stuck being unable to digest one thing or the other.
Animals don't have as many choices, so they stick with what they know and have access to. An animal won't be able to get its hands on much refined sugar or MSG, but if it did, it would eat it until sick.
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[
"Ultimately, \"Eating Animals\" discusses the ethics of food. It suggests that our food choices directly reflect the ethical values we stand for. When people eat meat, Foer claims, they are implying that satisfying their desire for meat is more important than letting animals live well, or even live at all. This can be a conscious or unconscious process, but its implications, for Foer, are always real. When one supports factory farming, one is relinquishing the importance of certain moral behavior to animals, and in turn, to humans as well. For example, if one denies the importance of the suffering of an animal, one denies the importance of the ability to suffer in and of itself, so it follows that one denies the importance of suffering for humans. In a similar chain of logic, Foer connects our treatment of animals to our treatment of humans―we dichotomize between those who matter and those who do not. Consequently, each food choice an individual makes is an ethical one that profoundly impacts both human and non-human animals.\n",
"Dietary indiscretion is the tendency of certain animal of eating unusual items. These are frequently relatively small items not encountered in a natural habitat and thus sampled because of mistaken identity, a familiar flavor, or simple curiosity. This includes modern manufactured items such as shiny metal foil or plastic objects, as well as foods harmful to health. Domesticated animals such as dogs and goats, and even circus animals like Ostriches are even more prone to the effect due to their contact with people. The dietary indiscretion of fish, especially Sharks, may occur when the mouth is the major organ of detection and processing.\n",
"Humans are omnivorous, capable of consuming a wide variety of plant and animal material. Varying with available food sources in regions of habitation, and also varying with cultural and religious norms, human groups have adopted a range of diets, from purely vegan to primarily carnivorous. In some cases, dietary restrictions in humans can lead to deficiency diseases; however, stable human groups have adapted to many dietary patterns through both genetic specialization and cultural conventions to use nutritionally balanced food sources. The human diet is prominently reflected in human culture, and has led to the development of food science.\n",
"The argument holds that people are conditioned to believe that humans evolved to eat meat, that it is expected of them, and that they need it to survive or be strong. These beliefs are said to be reinforced by various institutions, including religion, family and the media. Although scientists have shown that humans get more than enough protein in their diets without eating meat, the belief that meat is required persists.\n",
"Since the beginning of mankind, food was important simply for the purpose of nourishment. As primates walked the Earth, they solely consumed food for a source of energy as they had to hunt and forage because food was not easily on hand. By early humans fending for themselves, they had figured out that they needed a high energy diet to keep going on a daily basis to survive.\n",
"One question examined in the psychology of eating meat has been termed the meat paradox: how can individuals care about animals, but also eat them? Internal dissonance can be created if people's beliefs and emotions about animal treatment do not match their eating behavior, although it may not always be subjectively perceived as a conflict. This apparent conflict associated with a near-universal dietary practice provides a useful case study for investigating the ways people may change their moral thinking to minimize discomfort associated with ethical conflicts.\n",
"Man-eater is a colloquial term for an individual animal that preys on humans as a pattern of hunting behavior. This does not include the scavenging of corpses, a single attack born of opportunity or desperate hunger, or the incidental eating of a human that the animal has killed in self-defense. However, all three cases (especially the last two) may habituate an animal to eating human flesh or to attacking humans, and may foster the development of man-eating behavior.\n"
] |
In the 1920s, what did people feel nostalgia towards?
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This is not to prevent anyone from writing you a full, new answer, but you may be interested in these two answers of mine:
[Why are people today fascinated with the Victorian era?](_URL_0_)
[Dang kids! Or: Why does each generation have such an exaggerated view of fashion in previous ones?](_URL_1_)
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[
"In the eighteenth century, scientists were looking for a locus of nostalgia, a nostalgic bone. By the 1850s nostalgia was losing its status as a particular disease and coming to be seen rather as a symptom or stage of a pathological process. It was considered as a form of melancholia and a predisposing condition among suicides. Nostalgia was, however, still diagnosed among soldiers as late as the American Civil War. By the 1870s interest in nostalgia as a medical category had almost completely vanished. Nostalgia was still being recognized in both the First and Second World Wars, especially by the American armed forces. Great lengths were taken to study and understand the condition to stem the tide of troops leaving the front in droves (see the BBC documentary \"Century of the Self\").\n",
"The Great Depression at the end of the '20s and during the '30s disillusioned people about the economic stability of the country and eroded utopianist thinking. The outbreak and the terrors of World War II caused further changes in mentality. The Post-war period that followed was termed Late Modernism. The \"Postmodernist\" era was generally considered characteristic of the art of the late 20th century beginning in the 1980s.\n",
"Lord's invocation of an era of confidence and certainty was also a relevant theme at the height of the Cold War. The University of California sociologist Fred Davis comments that nostalgia \"thrives ... on the rude transitions wrought by such phenomena as war, depression, civil disturbance, and cataclysmic natural disasters – in short, those events that cause masses of people to feel uneasy and to wonder whether the world and their being are quite what they always took them to be.\" The turmoil and uncertainty of the early Atomic Age and the onset of profound social changes made the old concepts of the nuclear family and traditional gender roles, reflected in the behaviour of \"Titanic\"s passengers, resonate with a mid-1950s audience.\n",
"From 1919 to 1923, primarily North America and parts of Europe experienced the rise of the Roaring Twenties. Social and economic circumstances underwent dramatic changes. The economic power and high employment of the United States allowed Americans to spend more extravagantly on entertainment. War veterans returned home seeking relaxation and comfort, instead of returning to their factory or agricultural duties. Watching movies and listening to the newly invented radio became increasingly popular during this period, which further encouraged the desires of people for Hollywood style lives of indulgence and ease. This extravagance was ignited by the introduction of Henry Ford's Model T, a car affectionately known as the \"Tin Lizzie.\" Cars became a major source of freedom and adventure as well as travel, and greatly altered the standard of living and social patterns, urban planning and differentiated suburban and urban living purposes. In addition, the rise of cars led to the creation of new leisure activities and businesses. The car became the center of middle and working class life, until the start of World War II.\n",
"In the 1920s, the United States was happy and prosperous in various ways (leading to the nickname \"Roaring Twenties\"), but it also suffered from rapid change and social tensions. Some people were disenchanted by, and alienated from, the outside world. Many common people believed that World War I had resulted in extensive and largely senseless carnage, and they supported isolationism for the US. According to scholar Peter Rollins (1976), Rogers appeared to be an anchor of stability; his conventional home life and traditional moral code reminded people of a recent past. His newspaper column, which ran from 1922 to 1935, expressed his traditional morality and his belief that political problems were not as serious as they sounded. In his films, Rogers began by playing a simple cowboy; his characters evolved to explore the meaning of innocence in ordinary life. In his last movies, Rogers explores a society fracturing into competing classes from economic pressures. Throughout his career, Rogers was a link to a better, more comprehensible past.\n",
"In the late 1960s and early 1970s, many people in the US, especially hippies, believed that the world was on the verge of a new era, the Age of Aquarius. This new age was expected to be characterized by peace and love, harmony and understanding. By the late autumn of 1973 there was an \"apocalyptic chill in the air\", as headlines dealt with the Vietnam war, the Watergate scandal, the Agnew resignation, a war in the Middle East, an energy crisis, mass murders in Houston and California, and UFO sightings across the South.\n",
"From the mid to late 20th century, Americana was largely conceptualized as a nostalgia for an idealized life in small towns and cities in the United States around the turn of the century, roughly in the period between 1880 and the First World War, popularly considered \"The Good Old Days\". It was believed that much of the structure of 20th-century American life and culture had been cemented in that time and place. American author Henry Seidel Canby wrote:\n"
] |
The USA had a large percentage of German immigrants in the early 20th century. What was life like for them during WWI and WWII? Did many serve the Allies or did any go back to the “Fatherland”? Also why did the US sell to the British and not the Germans before they entered both wars?
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One of the first things you need to think about is why the Germans came over to the US. The vast majority of immigrants came after the failed Democratic revolutions in the 1890s, so they wanted to live in Republican state. That being said while these Germans hated the Kaiser they didn't want war between the US and Germany, simply due to connections back home. This produced huge strains which would impact how they were treated and how these Germans would act in WWII. Anti-German sentiment was so bad that 16 US states banned speaking German in public some states even required that people change their German names to American ones (Smicht to Smith), thousands of beer halls in the US were shutdown or even burned down, Germans were banned from having certain jobs (strategic/Gov't), internment camps were also set up, there were numerous cases of Germans being killed to seriously maimed due to 'Not being patriotic'. For example a man was tarred and feathered for not buying War Bonds, another man was lynched for 'not being American/Patriotic', and a pregnant woman was reportedly nearly beaten to death for speaking German with a local priest ( Although I have read this mentioned in numerous books I haven't hit any primary sources on it). President Woodrow Wilson even called German-Americans 'Alien citizens'. This caused two things 1) Need/Desire for German Americans to prove their loyalty, 2) complete erasure of German Culture. Point one can best be seen in the case of Henry Gunther a German-American who was killed 15 seconds before the Armistice charging a German machine gun, his death was so controversial that it caused a investigation as to why nobody stopped him and why he did it. As to point two close to fifth of the US population (60 Million people) have German ancestry but despite this less than 5 million have German names and less than two million can speak German. So by the time that WWII came along most German-Americans were so disenfranchised with their culture that they no longer saw them selves as Germans but where in stead were Americans.
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[
"Before 1900, the main factors in German-American relations were very large movements of immigrants from Germany to American states (especially Pennsylvania, the Midwestern United States, and central Texas) throughout the 18th and 19th centuries.\n",
"But immigrants from Germany, as well as German Americans from St. Louis, began arriving shortly before the war, with many more to come afterwards. Many of the Germans were sympathetic to the Union and opposed slavery. They eventually made up a large part of the populations of Concordia, Emma, Wellington, Napoleon, Higginsville, Mayview, and Lexington.\n",
"None of the German states had American colonies. In the 1670s, the first significant groups of German immigrants arrived in the British colonies, settling primarily in Pennsylvania, New York, and Virginia. Immigration continued in very large numbers during the 19th century, with eight million arrivals from Germany. Between 1820 and 1870 over seven and a half million German immigrants came to the United States. By 2010, their population grew to 49.8 million German Americans, reflecting a jump of 6 million people since 2000.\n",
"Between 1931 and 1940, 114,000 Germans moved to the United States, many of whom—including Nobel prize winner Albert Einstein and author Erich Maria Remarque—were Jewish Germans or anti-Nazis fleeing government oppression. About 25,000 people became paying members of the pro-Nazi German American Bund during the years before the war. German aliens were the subject of suspicion and discrimination during the war, although prejudice and sheer numbers meant they suffered as a group generally less than Japanese Americans. The Alien Registration Act of 1940 required 300,000 German-born resident aliens who had German citizenship to register with the Federal government and restricted their travel and property ownership rights. Under the still active Alien Enemy Act of 1798, the United States government interned nearly 11,000 German citizens between 1940 and 1948. Civil rights violations occurred. An unknown number of \"voluntary internees\" joined their spouses and parents in the camps and were not permitted to leave.\n",
"Between 1850 and 1930, about 5 million Germans migrated to the United States, peaking between 1881 and 1885 when a million Germans settled primarily in the Midwest. Between 1820 and 1930, 3.5 million British and 4.5 million Irish entered America. Before 1845 most Irish immigrants were Protestants. After 1845, Irish Catholics began arriving in large numbers, largely driven by the Great Famine.\n",
"The largest flow of German immigration to America occurred between 1820 and World War I, during which time nearly six million Germans immigrated to the United States. From 1840 to 1880, they were the largest group of immigrants. Following the Revolutions of 1848 in the German states, a wave of political refugees fled to America, who became known as Forty-Eighters. They included professionals, journalists, and politicians. Prominent Forty-Eighters included Carl Schurz and Henry Villard.\n",
"Germans starting immigrating to the United States in the 17th century, and until the late 19th century, when Germany was the country of origin for the largest number of immigrants to the United States. In fact, Over one million Germans entered the United States in the 1850s alone.\n"
] |
Does brushing your tongue harm your taste buds?
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Dentist here.
To answer your question about tongue brushing and potential damage to our taste receptors. Yes and No.
Let's start with how it would be a Yes, and work in to the final answer of No:
If you are using a hard bristled toothbrush, highly corrosive toothpaste (usually whitening toothpaste or something with a thick paste of baking powder mixture), then Yes, you can erode the taste buds on your tongue away.
But is this a permanent change to your tongue?
No. And to explain this, I'm going to explain the make-up of our tongue's dorsal surface (the part that contains our "taste buds").
Our tongue is a muscular instrument which is used to not only taste food, but also to recognize poisons/toxins (partially through taste), to determine the quality of food by texture, and to help you not only hold on to your food during mastication, but to also chew and swallow your food by acting as a muscular plunge.
It contains specialized structures called "papillae" which are outcroppings of the epithelium making up the tongue and are often confused with just "taste buds." There are several type of papillae, and each has their own function.
The most numerous type of papilla is the filiform papilla. It is shaped like a little finger that comes off the surface of your tongue and actually does not really involve itself with taste sensation. They are the the part of your tongue that allows you to hold on to food and determine texture. They are also what make your tongue feel rough when it is dry. If they grow too long or their growth is altered by certain anti-biotics, peroxide-based chemicals, or unusual chemical reactions, then they act negatively to hold on to bacteria or fungus to give you a minor case of something called "hairy tongue." I can explain that more if you like, but it's a bit outside the realm of your question. Overall, if you brush too hard, you're more likely to scrape some of these guys away, so your taste won't really be affected directly. What will be affected is how well your tongue can hold on to food and water (which is absolutely necessary to "taste") so your taste will be indirectly involved. As a neat experiment, try completely drying your tongue off with a dry towel and then put some sugar or salt on it. If you dried it off thoroughly, you won't be able to taste either!
The taste buds actually involved in taste are the fungiform papillae. They are little, mushroom-shaped bumps (as their name suggests) on your tongue interspersed throughout. Their histologic structure actually shows that they're like little caverns with centralized "bulbs" that are connected to the cranial nerves in charge of distributing taste reception. These are very tough to brush away or damage with toothpaste or a toothbrush because of how they are formed and shaped. So brushing them will not affect taste. (This is how we overall come to the answer of "No").
The other types of taste buds are a bit more boring and are located on the sides and back of the tongue. Brushing them would be very hard to do and even if you did, nothing would happen. If you're interested in learning about them further, feel free to read about the Circumvallate Papillae and the Foliate Papillae. They are also involved with taste, but act mostly as a defensive feature where something very bitter or toxic tasting will be ejected just prior to being swallowed. I'm simplifying a bit, but it's close enough to reality to get the point :)
Now, let's say that you did somehow manage to rub off the top layer of your tongue and damage the papillae somewhat. Well, in a little over a week, that'll clear right up as their average turnover is 10-14 days :)
So, now you can see how the answer is both a Yes and No, depending on how you want to perceive it.
But because I really doubt you're going to grind away the top layer of your tongue, rest easy, my friend, and continue to brush your tongue, your teeth, and even the roof of your mouth! Keep your mouth clean and take care of it, because we only get one!
Also, mandatory dentist reminder: Floss!
EDIT: Thanks for the Gold! That was unexpected! :D
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[
"Tongue cleaning can cause discomfort. Improper use of a tongue cleaner may induce the gag reflex and/or vomiting. Overuse of a tongue cleaner may also cause damage to the taste buds. Some people have inappropriately used the tongue cleaner to scrape or brush the lingual tonsils (tongue tonsils).\n",
"The tongue contains numerous bacteria which causes bad breath. Tongue cleaners are designed to remove the debris built up on the tongue. Using a toothbrush to clean the tongue is another possibility, however it might be hard to reach the back of the tongue and the bristles of the toothbrush may be too soft to remove the debris. Some may find it easier to use a tongue scraper instead because it does not tend to cause a gag reflex as readily as a toothbrush. Steps of using a tongue scraper:\n",
"The practice is associated with significant health risks, as tongues are coated with a film of microorganisms, which may cause infections in the eye, such as conjunctivitis, herpes and chlamydia. It also carries the risk of corneal abrasion and corneal ulcers. Oral bacteria on the tongue can potentially enter corneal scratches caused by licking the eye, which then lead to infection.\n",
"Brushing the teeth may help. While there is evidence of tentative benefit from tongue cleaning it is insufficient to draw clear conclusions. A 2006 Cochrane review found tentative evidence that it might decrease levels of odor molecules. Flossing may be useful.\n",
"BULLET::::- Tongue coating - food debris, desquamated epithelial cells and bacteria often form a visible tongue coating. This coating has been identified as a major contributing factor in bad breath (halitosis), which can be managed by brushing the tongue gently with a toothbrush or using special oral hygiene instruments such as tongue scrapers or mouth brushes.\n",
"The tongue is prone to several pathologies including glossitis and other inflammations such as geographic tongue, and median rhomboid glossitis; burning mouth syndrome, oral hairy leukoplakia, oral candidiasis (thrush), black hairy tongue and fissured tongue.\n",
"Transient surface discoloration of the tongue and other soft tissues in the mouth can occur in the absence of hairy tongue. Causes include smoking (or betel chewing), some foods and beverages (e.g., coffee, tea or liquorice), and certain medications (e.g., chlorhexidine, iron salts, or bismuth subsalicylate (Pepto-Bismol)).\n"
] |
if redbull lost a lawsuit over their "gives you wings" slogan, how do the current commercials still include the slogan without a small disclaimer included?
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Actually, that law suit (for $13.5 million) was not because of the tagline "give you wings" (which is clearly understood as humor).
The law suit was over the fact that Red Bull oversold the drink's ability to improve concentration and energy, specifically, it did not provide any scientific evidence to support their claim that the drink is "able to boost energy better than a cup of regular coffee"--considering that a 8 oz of Red Bull contains less caffeine than 8 oz of coffee, their claim is blatantly false.
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[
"In 1999, animated advertisements were part of the early GEICO Direct ads as well as the \"Dumb Things\" campaign. The 15-second long commercials, animated by Bill Plympton, featured a curious little man walking up to an object and eventually getting hurt due to his curiosity about the object. One of the commercials, for example, involved him finding a cannon and pressing a button, causing a resulting cannonball to fire out and stick to his face. The original saying in the commercial was \"You could still save money on car insurance. Even if you made a few mistakes.\"; later modified to \"We all do dumb things. Paying too much for car insurance doesn't have to be one of them.\"\n",
"In 2006, the LVCVA attempted to sell the rights to the \"What Happens Here, Stays Here\" slogan to R&R for only one dollar. This was done as a measure to allow R&R to seek lawsuits against any entity that unlawfully used or profited off of the slogan. A federal judge nullified the trademark sale in 2006. A lawsuit against a California businesswoman who had used a variation of the slogan was successful for the LVCVA and R&R. Also in 2006, R&R began creating LGBT-inclusive ads for Paris Las Vegas and the LVCVA.\n",
"The scene was inspired by real-life Super Bowl commercials in which, according to Scully, \"you don't know what the product is\" because there is \"so much going on\" in Super Bowl commercials. It was also based on the music video for the American rock band ZZ Top's 1983 song \"Legs\". Although they had come up with the commercial's premise, they were not sure of what its tagline would be. Eventually, Martin, one of the episode writers, suggested \"The Catholic Church... we've made a few changes.\" It got the biggest laugh from the other writers and was subsequently included in the episode.\n",
"In February, 2003, Reebok released a commercial featuring Tate that parodies a Nike, Inc. commercial; in the original a streaker disrupts a British football match; in the Reebok ad, Tate tackles the streaker then proclaims, \"You just did it, so I had to hit it\". The advertisement was one of several competitive and deliberate spoofs between the rival companies.\n",
"The song was featured in an Applebee's commercial in 2018, to promote their Big Bolder Combos. It was also used for an Applebee's commercial in 2005, with lyrics changed to \"Don't know how they do it down at Applebee's\".\n",
"A 2012 commercial for Capital One credit cards, for which Baldwin was a spokesperson, made a humorous reference to the event: a Viking character from the ad series asks about the phone Baldwin is using, to which Baldwin facetiously replies that it is not to be used on the runway, ending with a chiding \"No!\" A 2012 Super Bowl commercial for Best Buy also humorously referenced the event. In the commercial, \"Words With Friends\" co-creators Paul Bettner and David Bettner are on a plane, and are interrupted by a flight attendant who loudly clears her throat to indicate to them to put their phones away.\n",
"The former members of Timbuk 3 have refused to license the song for commercials, including a $900,000 offer from AT&T and offers from Ford, the U.S. Army, and Bausch & Lomb for their Ray-Ban sunglasses.\n"
] |
What gods were foreign and then adopted by the Greeks and Romans through trade/war/etc?
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A few of the most famous examples of Roman religious syncretism are the cults of Isis, Mithras, and Sulis.
Isis was an Egyptian goddess of magic and mother of Horus, God of the Pharaoh. She was an incredibly important figure in the Egyptian pantheon so it's no small wonder that her cult thrived under the rule of the Ptolemies after Egypt was conquered by Alexander of Macedon in the 4th century BCE. When Cleopatra died and Octavian claimed Roman conquest over Egypt, slowly the cult of Isis began to take hold. Her cult would later become wildly popular amongst the Romans in Egypt, who would spread it far and wide. A large temple to Isis was even found as far north as Londinium, thousands of miles from her original home on the banks of the Nile.
Speaking of Roman Britain, one of the Romans most effective methods of conquest was extremely passive, that is to say they imposed no religious doctrine on their recently conquered peoples. Rather, they attempted to find common grounds between the native deities and their own. A god called Sulis had a large following within the north of Roman Britain, near what is currently the city of Bath. Sulis shared many properties with the Roman goddess of war and wisdom Minerva, so the Romans stuck them together and called the deity Sulis Minerva. In this way not only did the Romans assuage any fears of Roman imposition of religious practice, but they also helped introduce those practices passively. Scholars have argued this was almost a more effective tactic than military might for ensuring conquered peoples stayed Roman (although the issue is far more complicated than that).
Speaking of the military, the cult of Mithras was hugely popular with them, and with the military being found in all corners of the Empire, it's no surprise that cults to Mithras are also found everywhere in the Empire. Mithras was originally a Zoroastrian deity from the near East who was implanted throughout the empire by those same soldiers, and the cult spread from there. Mithraism is a highly structured religion, with seven levels of religious initiation. This highly rigid rank structure mirrored the rank structure the soldiers were already familiar with in the Army and provided yet more incentive for promotion (one has to wonder if an experienced Mithraic infantryman had the potential to exercise power over his newly initiated commanding officer). Mithras was also a warrior and sun deity, the symbolism and significance of which also mirrored the desires and lifestyles of the Roman military.
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[
"In the subsequent Greco-Roman period, there is evidence that the worship of non-indigenous deities was brought to the region by merchants and visitors. These included Bel, a god popular in the Syrian city of Palmyra, the Mesopotamian deities Nabu and Shamash, the Greek deities Poseidon and Artemis and the west Arabian deities Kahl and Manat.\n",
"According to Herodotus the Caunians, a Greek people who claimed to have originated in Crete and settled in Asia Minor, worshiped the Olympian Gods exclusively. \"They determined that they would no longer make use of the foreign temples which had been established among them, but would worship their own old ancestral Gods alone. Then their whole youth took arms, and striking the air with their spears, marched to the Calyndic frontier, declaring that they were driving out the foreign Gods.\"\n",
"Rome absorbed many more foreign deities via the Aventine: \"No other location approaches [its] concentration of foreign cults\". In 392 BC, Camillus established a temple there to Juno Regina. Later introductions include Summanus, c. 278, Vortumnus c. 264, and at some time before the end of the 3rd century, Minerva. The Aventine was also the site of the Baths of Decius, built in 252.\n",
"The absorption of neighboring local gods took place as the Roman state conquered neighboring territories. The Romans commonly granted the local gods of a conquered territory the same honors as the earlier gods of the Roman state religion. In addition to Castor and Pollux, the conquered settlements in Italy seem to have contributed to the Roman pantheon Diana, Minerva, Hercules, Venus, and deities of lesser rank, some of whom were Italic divinities, others originally derived from the Greek culture of Magna Graecia. In 203 BC, Rome imported the cult object embodying Cybele from Pessinus in Phrygia and welcomed its arrival with due ceremony. Both Lucretius and Catullus, poets contemporary in the mid-1st century BC, offer disapproving glimpses of Cybele's wildly ecstatic cult.\n",
"Some gods were specifically associated with a certain city. Athena was associated with the city of Athens, Apollo with Delphi and Delos, Zeus with Olympia and Aphrodite with Corinth. But other gods were also worshipped in these cities. Other deities were associated with nations outside of Greece; Poseidon was associated with Ethiopia and Troy, and Ares with Thrace.\n",
"The presence of Greeks on the Italian peninsula from the beginning of the historical period influenced Roman culture, introducing some religious practices that became as fundamental as the cult of Apollo. The Romans looked for common ground between their major gods and those of the Greeks (\"interpretatio graeca\"), adapting Greek myths and iconography for Latin literature and Roman art, as the Etruscans had. Etruscan religion was also a major influence, particularly on the practice of augury. According to legends, most of Rome's religious institutions could be traced to its founders, particularly Numa Pompilius, the Sabine second king of Rome, who negotiated directly with the gods. This archaic religion was the foundation of the \"mos maiorum\", \"the way of the ancestors\" or simply \"tradition\", viewed as central to Roman identity. \n",
"Through contact with neighboring civilizations, the Egyptians also adopted foreign deities. Dedun, who is first mentioned in the Old Kingdom, may have come from Nubia, and Baal, Anat, and Astarte, among others, were adopted from Canaanite religion during the New Kingdom (c. 1550–1070 BC). In Greek and Roman times, from 332 BC to the early centuries AD, deities from across the Mediterranean world were revered in Egypt, but the native gods remained, and they often absorbed the cults of these newcomers into their own worship.\n"
] |
If the salt water in the ocean accumulated over time was there ever a point where it was all freshwater?
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Perhaps briefly (on a geological timescale), when the atmosphere cooled enough for the first rains to fall, the resultant bodies of water may have been pure enough to be considered freshwater with less than 500ppm of dissolved salts. There were almost surely multiple phases of the early Earth's surface water inventory condensing and then being boiled into the atmosphere again by the next major impactor, which would have left salt-flats behind that could be buried by lava and debris before the water recondensed, so that the salt left behind would have been cut off from the surface and wouldn't have quickly redissolved into the recondensing oceans.
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[
"Scientific theories behind the origins of sea salt started with Sir Edmond Halley in 1715, who proposed that salt and other minerals were carried into the sea by rivers after rainfall washed it out of the ground. Upon reaching the ocean, these salts concentrated as more salt arrived over time (see Hydrologic cycle). Halley noted that most lakes that don't have ocean outlets (such as the Dead Sea and the Caspian Sea, see endorheic basin), have high salt content. Halley termed this process \"continental weathering\".\n",
"Though connected to the ocean historically the fresh and salt water flows mixed very little, with the lake area remaining fresh over 95% of the time with normal river inflow. Salt water inflows from the ocean would result in relatively little mixing of fresh and salt water, either vertically in the water column or laterally across the flow stream. Hindmarsh Island is reputed to be the largest island in the world with salt water on one side and fresh water on the other. Lake Alexandrina is connected by a narrow channel to the smaller Lake Albert to the south-east.\n",
"Two interpretations have been considered for the evolution of the present highly saline lake over the rock salt layers. One view, by Degoutin, is that the lake was flooded by the sea from the Ghoubbet el Kharâb and the second view is by Dreyfuss who attributes it to the rise in sea level resulting in subterranean flows that got established to the lake from the sea.\n",
"Terrigenous sediments are responsible for a significant amount of the salt in today's oceans. Over time rivers continue to carry minerals to the ocean but when water evaporates, it leaves the minerals behind. Since chlorine and sodium are not consumed by biological processes, these two elements constitute the greatest portion of dissolved minerals.\n",
"The lack of an outflow means the Salton Sea does not have a natural stabilization system; it is very dynamic. Fluctuations in the water level caused by variations in agricultural runoff, the ancient salt deposits in the lake bed, and the relatively high salinity of the inflow feeding the sea are all causing increasing salinity. The body was initially a freshwater lake, but by the 1960s, its rising salinity had begun to jeopardize some of its species. With a salinity now exceeding 5.0% w/v (saltier than seawater), most species of fish can no longer survive. A freshwater fish notable for its ability to withstand the rising salinity of the Salton Sea, the desert pupfish, can survive salinities ranging from 0.0% to 7.0%. Fertilizer runoffs have resulted in eutrophication, with large algal blooms and elevated bacterial levels. Both the hypersalinity and presence of contaminants in the Salton Sea triggered massive die-offs in the fish and avian populations; Salt water carries less oxygen than fresh water, which was further depleted by algal blooms and by extreme temperatures during the summer period, and the contamination promoted the outbreak and spread of diseases such as avian cholera. In turn, the loss of several species of fish that the avian population depended on for food increased their risk of starvation, exacerbating their decline.\n",
"Strong evidence for a one time ancient ocean was found from data gathered from the north and south poles. In March 2015, a team of scientists published results showing that this region was highly enriched with deuterium, heavy hydrogen, by seven times as much as the Earth. This means that Mars has lost a volume of water 6.5 times what is stored in today's polar caps. The water for a time would have formed an ocean in the low-lying Mare Boreum. The amount of water could have covered the planet about 140 meters, but was probably in an ocean that in places would be almost 1 mile deep.\n",
"Strong evidence for a one time ancient ocean was found in Mare Boreum near the north pole (as well as the south pole). In March 2015, a team of scientists published results showing that this region was highly enriched with deuterium, heavy hydrogen, by seven times as much as the Earth. This means that Mars has lost a volume of water 6.5 times what is stored in today's polar caps. The water for a time would have formed an ocean in the low-lying Mare Boreum. The amount of water could have covered the planet about 140 meters, but was probably in an ocean that in places would be almost 1 mile deep.\n"
] |
why does adding salt to desserts make them seemingly sweeter?
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Salt changes the electrochemical reactions that happen in the chemoreceptors on your tongue (taste buds). The effect is different for different types of receptors; bitter receptors are inhibited, while sweet receptors have their sensitivity enhanced. Sweet becomes sweeter and bitter becomes less bitter (but only up to a point; too much salt and you'll taste brine).
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[
"Desserts can contain many spices and extracts to add a variety of flavors. Salt and acids are added to desserts to balance sweet flavors and create a contrast in flavors. Some desserts are coffee-flavored, for example an iced coffee soufflé or coffee biscuits. Alcohol can also be used as an ingredient, to make alcoholic desserts.\n",
"While salt and sugar can technically be considered flavorants that enhance salty and sweet tastes, usually only compounds that enhance umami, as well as other secondary flavors, are considered and referred to as taste flavorants. Artificial sweeteners are also technically flavorants.\n",
"Desserts with high sugar are commonly consumed for hedonistic rewards, especially among women. However, high sugar intake tends to increase risk of obesity, type 2 diabetes, hypertension, cardio-metabolic diseases and compromised oral health. Instead, research showed that honey is beneficial to health with its \"gastroprotective, hepatoprotective, reproductive, hypoglycemic, antioxidant, antihypertensive, antibacterial, anti-fungal and anti-inflammatory. Under that circumstance, honey can be replaced to add sweet flavor, such as dressing on smoothies, spreading on bread, etc. \n",
"Sweetness is a basic taste most commonly perceived when eating foods rich in sugars. Sweet tastes are generally regarded as pleasurable, except when in excess. In addition to sugars like sucrose, many other chemical compounds are sweet, including aldehydes, ketones, and sugar alcohols. Some are sweet at very low concentrations, allowing their use as non-caloric sugar substitutes. Such non-sugar sweeteners include saccharin and aspartame. Other compounds, such as miraculin, may alter perception of sweetness itself.\n",
"Sweet desserts usually contain cane sugar, palm sugar, honey or some types of syrup such as molasses, maple syrup, treacle, or corn syrup. Other common ingredients in Western-style desserts are flour or other starches, Cooking fats such as butter or lard, dairy, eggs, salt, acidic ingredients such as lemon juice, and spices and other flavoring agents such as chocolate, peanut butter, fruits, and nuts. The proportions of these ingredients, along with the preparation methods, play a major part in the consistency, texture, and flavor of the end product.\n",
"As a group, sugar alcohols are not as sweet as sucrose, and they have slightly less food energy than sucrose. Their flavor is like sucrose, and they can be used to mask the unpleasant aftertastes of some high intensity sweeteners. Sugar alcohols are not metabolized by oral bacteria, and so they do not contribute to tooth decay. They do not brown or caramelize when heated.\n",
"Fructose has higher water solubility than other sugars, as well as other sugar alcohols. Fructose is, therefore, difficult to crystallize from an aqueous solution. Sugar mixes containing fructose, such as candies, are softer than those containing other sugars because of the greater solubility of fructose.\n"
] |
why did a law need to be passed telling federal employees that they couldn't participate in insider trading?
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This is how I understand it. Can someone please fill in the details or correct me on this?
Part of the reason is because, technically, a lot of what they were doing wasn't "insider" trading. Typically, insider trading happens (e.g.) when you work for a company or are someway involved in a company and you happen to know that your company did something good, so you and your buddies buy up a bunch of stock in advance of that public knowledge. There are other ways, but basically it's when you or someone you know has knowledge "inside" of a company.
There's plenty of that that went on in Congress as well, and still will. But what was happening was that Congress itself was the "insider". It knew it was about to pass a law that, say, hurt companies X, Y, and Z. So they took that knowledge and sold their shares or "shorted" them to make a profit off this knowledge.
Technically, this didn't have anything to do with having "inside knowledge" of a company's performance, financials, etc, so it was legal. It's still wrong, though, because it gives lawmakers a financial incentive to make laws one way or another that benefit them financially.
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[
"U.S. insider trading prohibitions are based on English and American common law prohibitions against fraud. In 1909, well before the Securities Exchange Act was passed, the United States Supreme Court ruled that a corporate director who bought that company's stock when he knew the stock's price was about to increase committed fraud by buying but not disclosing his inside information.\n",
"Jackson commissioned a panel to reform insider trading laws with former US Attorney Preet Bharara, arguing that the US lacks a law that expressly bans insider trading, and instead, “the government brings insider-trading cases under a Depression-era law that generally prohibits ‘fraud’ in the securities markets. As a result, what we now understand as the laws against insider trading have been written by federal judges…the result is a legal haziness…”\n",
"During the 112th Congress, the Stop Trading on Congressional Knowledge Act, or STOCK Act, which Slaughter first authored and introduced into Congress in 2006 – was passed into law. The law prohibits the use of non-public information for private profit, including insider trading by members of Congress and other government employees, and requires many financial transactions by members of Congress to be reported within 45 days.\n",
"Members of the US Congress are exempt from the laws that ban insider trading. Because they generally do not have a confidential relationship with the source of the information they receive, however, they do not meet the usual definition of an \"insider.\" House of Representatives rules may however consider congressional insider trading unethical. A 2004 study found that stock sales and purchases by Senators outperformed the market by 12.3% per year. Peter Schweizer points out several examples of insider trading by members of Congress, including action taken by Spencer Bachus following a private, behind-the-doors meeting on the evening of September 18, 2008 when Hank Paulson and Ben Bernanke informed members of Congress about the imminent financial crisis, Bachus then shorted stocks the next morning and cashed in his profits within a week. Also attending the same meeting were Senator Dick Durbin and John Boehner; the same day (trade effective the next day), Durbin sold mutual-fund shares worth $42,696, and reinvested it all with Warren Buffett. Also the same day (trade effective the next day), Congressman Boehner cashed out of an equity mutual fund.\n",
"The Stop Trading on Congressional Knowledge (STOCK) Act () is an Act of Congress designed to combat insider trading. It was signed into law by President Barack Obama on April 4, 2012. The bill prohibits the use of non-public information for private profit, including insider trading by members of Congress and other government employees. It confirms changes to the Commodity Exchange Act, specifies reporting intervals for financial transactions.\n",
"In May 2007, a bill entitled the \"Stop Trading on Congressional Knowledge Act, or STOCK Act\" was introduced that would hold congressional and federal employees liable for stock trades they made using information they gained through their jobs and also regulate analysts or \"Political Intelligence\" firms that research government activities. The 2012 STOCK Act was passed on April 4, 2012.\n",
"Rules prohibiting or criminalizing insider trading on material non-public information exist in most jurisdictions around the world (Bhattacharya and Daouk, 2002), but the details and the efforts to enforce them vary considerably. In the United States, Sections 16(b) and 10(b) of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934 directly and indirectly address insider trading. The U.S. Congress enacted this law after the stock market crash of 1929. While the United States is generally viewed as making the most serious efforts to enforce its insider trading laws, the broader scope of the European model legislation provides a stricter framework against illegal insider trading. In the European Union and the United Kingdom all trading on non-public information is, under the rubric of market abuse, subject at a minimum to civil penalties and to possible criminal penalties as well. UK's Financial Conduct Authority has the responsibility to investigate and prosecute insider dealing, defined by the Criminal Justice Act 1993.\n"
] |
the future of computer storage: storage capacity vs compression abilities
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So far, capacity has kept increasing rapidly. You used to buy the biggest drive you could afford, knowing that it was going to be filled up all too soon anyway, but that you'd be able to get a bigger one in a few years.
These days, the capacity of a hard drive tends to be much larger than anyone needs, especially with the offloading of capacity to the Internet. You can get your movies and songs online, so they're not eating your disk space.
Files are more typically compressed to reduce bandwidth, now, so they don't eat too much of your data line, although it's also still handy to reduce storage space. There's always this trade-off with compression, is the problem. It takes time to compress and decompress data.
I'd bet on drives getting larger and cheaper for the next decade or so. Barring a massive improvement in computer speed (unlikely) or cool new developments in compression algorithms (also unlikely), "more space" is still relatively easy at the moment.
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[
"It is estimated that the total amount of data that is stored on the world's storage devices could be further compressed with existing compression algorithms by a remaining average factor of 4.5:1. It is estimated that the combined technological capacity of the world to store information provides 1,300 exabytes of hardware digits in 2007, but when the corresponding content is optimally compressed, this only represents 295 exabytes of Shannon information.\n",
"For example, it is estimated that the combined technological capacity of the world to store information provides 1,300 exabytes of hardware digits in 2007. However, when this storage space is filled and the corresponding content is optimally compressed, this only represents 295 exabytes of information. When optimally compressed, the resulting carrying capacity approaches Shannon information or information entropy.\n",
"BULLET::::- \"Additional core storage provides two methods of using main storage: (1) The 65K mode—the computer program is enabled to address both of the main storage units, and (2) the 32K mode—the computer program is able to address only one storage unit, so that main storage capacity available to that program is effectively 32,768 words.\"\n",
"BULLET::::- Size of primary storage has increased by multiple orders of magnitude. With several gigabytes of primary memory, algorithms that require a periodic check of each and every memory frame are becoming less and less practical.\n",
"BULLET::::- Scientists at IBM Research announce a storage memory breakthrough by reliably storing three bits of data per cell using a new memory technology known as phase-change memory (PCM). The results could provide fast and easy storage to capture the exponential growth of data in the future.\n",
"According to Case, this expansion of the capacity of short-term storage space is caused by increasing operational efficiency. That is, the command of the operations that define each kind of executive control structures improves, thereby freeing space for the representation of goals and objectives. For example, counting becomes faster with age enabling children to keep more numbers in mind.\n",
"Generally, the lower a storage is in the hierarchy, the lesser its bandwidth and the greater its access latency is from the CPU. This traditional division of storage to primary, secondary, tertiary and off-line storage is also guided by cost per bit.\n"
] |
Can a satellite maintain an orbit forever under ideal conditions?
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Purely from Newtonian gravity - i.e., the gravity you learn about in high school - there's no decay under ideal conditions. But we've known that picture of gravity is wrong for nearly a century. The more modern theory, Einstein's theory of general relativity, allows for gravitational radiation, and any orbit will radiate away energy in the form of gravitational waves, slowly decaying over time. This resulted in one of the most impressive tests of general relativity, a [binary pulsar](_URL_0_) whose orbital decay was timed very accurately and found to be in precise agreement with the predictions for energy loss to gravitational radiation, winning its discoverers a very well deserved Nobel Prize.
|
[
"Each satellite has a design life of twelve years, with an orbital maneuver life of 15 years, which means that each satellite has been designed and fueled to maintain its assigned orbital position (within 0.1 degrees) for 15 years. After that point, the satellite must be decommissioned. The AfriStar satellite has developed a defect in its solar panels. As a result of this defect, the energy collected by those panels is less than intended.\n",
"Computer models by astrophysicists Mikael Granvik, Jeremie Vaubaillon, and Robert Jedicke suggest that these \"temporary satellites\" should be quite common; and that \"At any given time, there should be at least one natural Earth satellite of 1 meter diameter orbiting the Earth.\" Such objects would remain in orbit for ten months on average, before returning to solar orbit once more, and so would make relatively easy targets for manned space exploration. \"Mini-moons\" were further examined in a study published in the journal \"Icarus\".\n",
"Artificial satellites are first launched into the desired altitude by conventional liquid/solid propelled rockets after which the satellite may use onboard propulsion systems for orbital stationkeeping. Once in the desired orbit, they often need some form of attitude control so that they are correctly pointed with respect to the Earth, the Sun, and possibly some astronomical object of interest. They are also subject to drag from the thin atmosphere, so that to stay in orbit for a long period of time some form of propulsion is occasionally necessary to make small corrections (orbital station-keeping). Many satellites need to be moved from one orbit to another from time to time, and this also requires propulsion. A satellite's useful life is usually over once it has exhausted its ability to adjust its orbit.\n",
"A perfectly stable geostationary orbit is an ideal that can only be approximated. In practice the satellite drifts out of this orbit because of perturbations such as the solar wind, radiation pressure, variations in the Earth's gravitational field, and the gravitational effect of the Moon and Sun, and thrusters are used to maintain the orbit in a process known as station-keeping.\n",
"Satellites placed into orbit around the earth must include massive active redundancy to ensure operation will continue for a decade or longer despite failures induced by normal failure, radiation-induced failure, and thermal shock.\n",
"Orbits with an altitude below 120 km generally have such high drag that the orbits decay too rapidly to give a satellite a sufficient lifetime to accomplish any practical mission. On the other hand, orbits with an altitude above 600 km have relatively small drag so that the orbit decays slow enough that it has no real impact on the satellite over its useful life. Density of air can vary significantly in the thermosphere where most low Earth orbiting satellites reside. The variation is primarily due to solar activity, and thus solar activity can greatly influence the force of drag on a spacecraft and complicate long-term orbit simulation.\n",
"When satellites reach the end of their mission (this normally occurs within 3 or 4 years after launch), satellite operators have the option of de-orbiting the satellite, leaving the satellite in its current orbit or moving the satellite to a graveyard orbit. Historically, due to budgetary constraints at the beginning of satellite missions, satellites were rarely designed to be de-orbited. One example of this practice is the satellite Vanguard 1. Launched in 1958, Vanguard 1, the 4th artificial satellite put in Geocentric orbit, was still in orbit , as well as the upper stage of its launch rocket.\n"
] |
Do satellites travel with the rotation of the earth or against and if they go both ways would two identical satellites going opposite directions at the same altitude have to travel at different speeds to maintain orbit?
|
Most satellites are in prograde orbits, meaning that they orbit in the same direction that the earth rotates. This is because retrograde orbits, which orbit opposite the direction of the earth's rotation, require more fuel to launch.
Think of it like this. If you're in a car going 5 mph and you want to get a projectile going 100 mph you can either throw it forward at 95 mph, or backwards at 105 mph. Obviously forward it easier. That 5 mph car is like the earth's rotation, and the 100 mph projectile (forward or backward, doesn't matter), is like orbital speed.
So unless you have specific launch requirements or orbits in mind, it's simply cheaper and more efficient to launch satellites into prograde orbits.
There are a handful of satellites on [retrograde orbits.](_URL_0_) Israeli satellites, for example, are launched westward so that launch debris would land in the Mediterranean rather than neighboring countries. This comes at the expense of a maximum payload that's [30% less](_URL_1_) than it would if it launched eastward- that weight is needed for fuel. Additionally, earth-observing satellites may be launched to be slightly retrograde so that they are on a sun-synchronous orbit. This enables them to have constant illumination from the sun when observing the earth.
|
[
"Because a satellite in an eccentric orbit moves faster near perigee and slower near apogee, it is possible for a satellite to track eastward during part of its orbit and westward during another part. This phenomenon allows for ground tracks which cross over themselves, as in the geosynchronous and Molniya orbits discussed below.\n",
"In his \"Wireless World\" article Clarke suggested that three satellites placed in the equatorial plane orbit at an altitude of 36,000 km, spaced 120 degrees apart, could provide global communications. The altitude is specifically important as here satellites rotate at the same angular velocity as the surface of the Earth, relative to the centre of the Earth, appearing to be fixed at the same point above its surface, hence geostationary.\n",
"Rockets can most easily reach satellite orbits if launched near the equator in an easterly direction, as this maximizes use of the Earth's rotational speed (465 m/s at the equator). Such launches also provide a desirable orientation for arriving at a geostationary orbit. For polar orbits and Molniya orbits this does not apply.\n",
"Note that for satellites, orbits are decoupled from the rotation of the Earth so the orbital period is not necessarily one day, but also that errors can accumulate over multiple orbits so that accuracy is important. For such problems, the rotation of the Earth would be immaterial unless variations with longitude are modeled. Also, the variation in gravity with altitude becomes important, especially for highly elliptical orbits.\n",
"The path of a satellite closely orbiting the Earth can be accurately modeled starting from the 2-body elliptical orbit around the center of the Earth, and adding small corrections due to the oblateness of the Earth, gravitational attraction of the Sun and Moon, atmospheric drag, etc.\n",
"Satellites orbit around the center of the Earth, not the surface. If a spacecraft were launched due East from the equator into a 90-minute low-Earth orbit, it will circle the Earth and return to the spot where it was launched 90 minutes later. However, the launch site will have moved due to the Earth's rotation. Over the 90 minute period, the Earth would rotate to the east, escaping from the spacecraft it as it returns. Given the orbital speed about , simply starting the re-entry some five minutes later than the complete 90 minute orbit would make up this difference.\n",
"Although to the observer low Earth orbit satellites move at about the same apparent speed as aircraft, individual satellites can be faster or slower; they do not all move at the same speed. Individual satellites never deviate in their velocity (speed and direction). They can be distinguished from aircraft because satellites do not leave contrails. They are lit solely by the reflection of sunlight from solar panels or other surfaces. A satellite's brightness sometimes changes as it moves across the sky. Occasionally a satellite will 'flare' as its orientation changes relative to the viewer, suddenly increasing in reflectivity. Satellites often grow dimmer and are more difficult to see toward the horizons. Because reflected sunlight is necessary to see satellites, the best viewing times are for a few hours immediately after nightfall and a few hours before dawn. \n"
] |
Scientists: What is the coolest thing you've learned in your field?
|
I can make a big list actually, of moments I just had to stop and take a moment to digest that. Some of them:
1. The first time I saw the first division of a C. elegans embryo under a microscope. Its quite big so you can see all the aspects of cell division happening with your own eyes and its the most magical thing I've ever seen with mine.
2. The mechanisms with which chromosomes segregate, during mitosis. Especially once all the chromosomes are aligned up at the center of the cell, what the cell does is release a signal that will say, "all microtubules, DISSOLVE!". But the problem: the microtubules are what thats holding up the chromosomes there in the center and they can dissolve only in one direction. And the chromosomes need to keep attached to their ends. So as their ends dissolve, the chromosomes will follow them to seperate sides and the new cells form.
3. This [video](_URL_0_). I know I posted it elsewhere just today, but you can spend an entire degree just learning all the phenomena that are portrayed in every single frame of this video.
Could go on, actually.
|
[
"Described by Discovery as a \"commercial free hour of \"MythBusters\" mashups, hosted by Kari Byron\", the show features about ten minutes of new material—experiments and quizzes presented by Kari, as well as TV celebrity and scientist appearances, pitching the idea that \"science is cool\"—interwoven in fifty minutes of material from \"MythBusters\" episodes.\n",
"His greatest scientific achievement is the invention of Temperature Gradient Method for quenching intensity measuring, recording and evaluation. Soon afterwards, an appropriate software package was developed with the aim of recording the quenching intensity for different quenchants and working conditions. This is enabled by measuring the heat flux density from a surface of a special probe developed earlier in a cooperation with the American company NANMAC, known as Liscic/NANMAC probe. The relevant computer program enables also to calculate the cooling curves at every arbitrary point of the round bar cross-section, as well as to predict the resulting microstructure and hardness after quenching.\n",
"Notable faculty in science and engineering include David Evans and Ivan Sutherland, founders of Evans and Sutherland; Bui Tuong Phong, pioneer of computer graphics; Henry Eyring, known for studying chemical reaction rates; Stephen Jacobsen, founder of Sarcos; Jindřich Kopeček and Sung Wan Kim, pioneers of polymeric drug delivery and gene delivery; Suhas Patil, founder of Cirrus Logic; Stanley Pons, who claimed to have discovered \"cold fusion\" in 1989; Venkatraman Ramakrishnan, later co-winner of the 2009 Nobel Prize in Chemistry; and Thomas Stockham, founder of Soundstream. In medicine, notable faculty include Mario Capecchi, the co-winner of the 2007 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine; Willem Johan Kolff; and Russell M. Nelson. Biologist Ralph Vary Chamberlin, founding dean of the Medical School, professor, and later historian of the University, was also an alumnus.\n",
"42. Raag Mali Gaura (ਮਾਲੀ ਗਉੜਾ) – Mali Gaura conveys the confidence of an expert, whose knowledge is self-evident in both their outlook and actions. This knowledge is learned through experience and therefore creates an air of ‘coolness’. However, this sense of ‘coolness’ is an aspect of true happiness because you have learned how to manage things with expertise and skill.\n",
"42. Raag Mali Gaura (ਮਾਲੀ ਗਉੜਾ) – Mali Gaura conveys the confidence of an expert, whose knowledge is self-evident in both their outlook and actions. This knowledge is learned through experience and therefore creates an air of ‘coolness’. However, this sense of ‘coolness’ is an aspect of true happiness because you have learned how to manage things with expertise and skill.\n",
"NerdzRUs - students interested in Dungeons & Dragons, World of Warcraft, and the arcana of English Literature meet twice weekly for socializing, heated arguments, and helpful hints on how to be \"cool.\"\n",
"BULLET::::- 2014 included in a list of the most highly cited researchers. He was also named among the 17 hottest researchers worldwide – \"individuals who have published the greatest number of hot papers during 2012–2013\".\n"
] |
why is vibrato singing considered good?
|
Long notes can sound boring. Vibrato is intended to add some colour and variety during the course of the note.
Vibrato is a skill... but an equally important skill is knowing when and how to use it. It probably shouldn't be used in every note, or for the whole length of the note. The speed and the intensity of the vibrato can and should be varied, between as well as during notes. Basically, it shouldn't be predictable or boring, or else it defeats the point of using it in the first place.
Everything I've said here applies to pretty much all instruments on which vibrato is possible, by the way, not just voice.
|
[
"Vibrato is often perceived to create a more emotional sound, and it is employed heavily in music of the Romantic era. The acoustic effect of vibrato has largely to do with adding interest and warmth to the sound, in the form of a shimmer created by the variations in projection of strongest sound. A well-made violin virtually points its sound pattern in different directions depending on slight variations in pitch.\n",
"Vibrato is a technique in which a sustained note wavers very quickly and consistently between a higher and a lower pitch, giving the note a slight quaver. Vibrato is the pulse or wave in a sustained tone. Vibrato occurs naturally and is the result of proper breath support and a relaxed vocal apparatus. Some studies have shown that vibrato is the result of a neuromuscular tremor in the vocal folds. In 1922 Max Schoen was the first to make the comparison of vibrato to a tremor due to change in amplitude, lack of automatic control and it being half the rate of normal muscular discharge. Some singers use vibrato as a means of expression. Many successful artists can sing a deep, rich vibrato.\n",
"Vibrato (Italian, from past participle of \"vibrare\", to vibrate) is a musical effect consisting of a regular, pulsating change of pitch. It is used to add expression to vocal and instrumental music. Vibrato is typically characterised in terms of two factors: the amount of pitch variation (\"extent of vibrato\") and the speed with which the pitch is varied (\"rate of vibrato\").\n",
"The use of vibrato is intended to add warmth to a note. In the case of many string instruments the sound emitted is strongly directional, particularly at high frequencies, and the slight variations in pitch typical of vibrato playing can cause large changes in the directional patterns of the radiated sound. This can add a shimmer to the sound; with a well-made instrument it may also help a solo player to be heard more clearly when playing with a large orchestra.\n",
"As with instrumental technique, the approach to historically informed performance practice for singers has been shaped by musicological research and academic debate. In particular, there was debate around the use of the technique of vibrato at the height of the Early music revival, and many advocates of HIP aimed to eliminate vibrato in favour of the \"pure\" sound of straight-tone singing. The difference in style may be demonstrated by the sound of a boy treble in contrast to the sound of a Grand opera singer such as Maria Callas.\n",
"Vibrato is a technique of the left hand and arm in which the pitch of a note varies subtly in a pulsating rhythm. While various parts of the hand or arm may be involved in the motion, the end result is a movement of the fingertip bringing about a slight change in vibrating string length, which causes an undulation in pitch. Some violinists oscillate backwards, or lower in pitch from the actual note when using vibrato, since it is believed that perception favors the highest pitch in a varying sound. Vibrato does little, if anything, to disguise an out-of-tune note; in other words, misapplied vibrato is a poor substitute for good intonation. Scales and other exercises meant to work on intonation are typically played without vibrato to make the work easier and more effective. Music students are often taught that unless otherwise marked in music, vibrato is assumed. However, it has to be noted that this is only a trend; there is nothing on the sheet music that compels violinists to add vibrato. This can be an obstacle to a classically trained violinist wishing to play in a style that uses little or no vibrato at all, such as baroque music played in period style and many traditional fiddling styles.\n",
"Folk music singers and instrumentalists in the North American and Western European traditions rarely or never use vibrato. It tends to be used only by performers of transcriptions or reworkings of folk music that have been made by composers from a classical, music-school background such as Benjamin Britten or Percy Grainger. Vibrato of varying widths and speeds may be used in folk music traditions from other regions, such as Eastern Europe, the Balkans, the Middle East, East Asia, or India. \n"
] |
Was every desert once a body of water?
|
It's hard to say definitively whether or not every desert was once under a body of water, but desertification of once arable land is possible with poor land management, such as what happened with Africa after the Romans cut down all the trees. Sand is kind of always there, it's the vegetation and bio-mass that gets carried off by the wind due to the lack of moisture/life which makes the sand visible. It is therefore reasonable to assume that not all sand/deserts are made up of microscopic shell fragments such as those which could be found on beaches. One would assume it's mostly granulated rock, but it's also possible that the land was once underwater and the currents deposited a sediment bed before the land rose above the sea floor.
|
[
"Scientists agree that the existence of a desert in the place where the Sahara desert is now located is due to a natural climate cycle; this cycle often causes a lack of water in the area from time to time. There is a suggestion that the last time that the Sahara was converted from savanna to desert it was partially due to overgrazing by the cattle of the local population.\n",
"The desert is underlain by the Great Artesian Basin, one of the largest inland drainage areas in the world. Water from the basin rises to the surface at numerous natural springs, including Dalhousie Springs, and at bores drilled along stock routes, or during petroleum exploration. As a result of exploitation by such bores, the flow of water to springs has been steadily decreasing in recent years. It is also part of the Lake Eyre basin.\n",
"Most of the world's deserts expanded. Exceptions were in what is now the western United States, where changes in the jet stream brought heavy rain to areas that are now desert and large pluvial lakes formed, the best known being Lake Bonneville in Utah. This also occurred in Afghanistan and Iran, where a major lake formed in the Dasht-e Kavir.\n",
"As the area turned to desert, the water evaporated, leaving the abundance of evaporitic salts such as common sodium salts and borax, which were later exploited during the modern history of the region, primarily 1883 to 1907.\n",
"In fact, the drier climate didn't mean that there was more water than today in what is now known as the Western Desert. The south of the Libyan Desert has the most important supply of subterranean water in the world through the Nubian Aquifer, and the first inhabitants of the Dakhla Oasis had access to surface water sources. In the third millennium BC the probably nomadic people of the Sheikh Muftah culture lived here.\n",
"The Great Basin Desert is the only Cold desert, bordered by the Rocky Mountain range to the east, and the Sierra Nevada – Cascade to the west. The northernmost part of the desert lies above sea level, and due to high summer temperatures, not all of the fallen precipitation is fully absorbed into the soil, resulting in a high sodium concentration. In other areas, mountain erosion has caused deep soils of fine particles, which allows for standing lakes.\n",
"Drainage of the desert is by dry valleys, seasonally inundated pans and the large salt pans of the Makgadikgadi Pan in Botswana and Etosha Pan in Namibia. The only permanent river, the Okavango, flows into a delta in the northwest, forming marshes that are rich in wildlife. Ancient dry riverbeds—called omuramba—traverse the central northern reaches of the Kalahari and provide standing pools of water during the rainy season.\n"
] |
What happens to gut flora if a person is dying of starvation or dehydration?
|
Depending on where in the gut you're looking at, it may change. During starvation, your stomach acid may become more concentrated, and stronger - thus a small amount of bacteria in the proximal duodenum (small bowel coming right off the stomach) may be killed. This would be very minimal, since there are glands in the proximal duodenum that release bicarbonate and neutralize the strong stomach acid.
Further along, in the distal jejunum and ileum, and the colon let's say, I can imagine the flora there start to die off, since the job of this flora is to help break down various macronutrients (which for them is food), and during starvation, there is no more food reaching that far. Hope that answers your question
|
[
"The underlying starvation, malnourishment, and usually dehydration, associated with emaciation, affect and are harmful to organ systems throughout the body. The emaciated individual experiences disturbances of the blood, circulatory, and urinary systems; these include hyponatremia and/or hypokalemia (low sodium and/or potassium in the blood, respectively), anemia (low hemoglobin), improper function of lymph (immune system-related white blood matter) and the lymphatic system, and pleurisy (fluid in the pleural cavity surrounding the lungs) and edema (swelling in general) caused by poor or improper function of the kidneys to eliminate wastes from the blood.\n",
"Without gut flora, the human body would be unable to utilize some of the undigested carbohydrates it consumes, because some types of gut flora have enzymes that human cells lack for breaking down certain polysaccharides. Rodents raised in a sterile environment and lacking in gut flora need to eat 30% more calories just to remain the same weight as their normal counterparts. Carbohydrates that humans cannot digest without bacterial help include certain starches, fiber, oligosaccharides, and sugars that the body failed to digest and absorb like lactose in the case of lactose intolerance and sugar alcohols, mucus produced by the gut, and proteins.\n",
"People may become malnourished due to abnormal nutrient loss (due to diarrhea or chronic illness affecting the small bowel). This conditions may include Crohn's disease or untreated coeliac disease. Malnutrition may also occur due to increased energy expenditure (secondary malnutrition).\n",
"Many stomach diseases are associated with infection. Historically, it was widely believed that the highly acidic environment of the stomach would keep the stomach immune from infection. However, a large number of studies have indicated that most cases of stomach ulcers, gastritis, and stomach cancer are caused by \"Helicobacter pylori\" infection. One of the ways it is able to survive in the stomach involves its urease enzymes which metabolize urea (which is normally secreted into the stomach) to ammonia and carbon dioxide which neutralises gastric acid and thus prevents its digestion. In recent years, it has been discovered that other \"Helicobacter\" bacteria are also capable of colonising the stomach and have been associated with gastritis.\n",
"Due to the normal metabolic rate of humans catabolysis becomes life-threatening only after 1–2 months from the cessation of nutrition going into the body. After this time, the damage to muscles and organs can be permanent and can also eventually cause death, if left untreated. Catabolysis is the last metabolic resort for the body to keep itself — particularly the nervous system—functional.\n",
"Saprobiontic organisms feed off dead and or decaying matter, to digest this they excrete digestive enzymes which breaks down the cell tissues allowing the organism to extract the nutrients it needs to survive while leaving the indigestible waste. This is called extracellular digestion. This is very important in ecosystems, for the nutrient cycle.\n",
"Research suggests that the relationship between gut flora and humans is not merely commensal (a non-harmful coexistence), but rather is a mutualistic, symbiotic relationship. Though people can survive with no gut flora, the microorganisms perform a host of useful functions, such as fermenting unused energy substrates, training the immune system via end products of metabolism like propionate and acetate, preventing growth of harmful species, regulating the development of the gut, producing vitamins for the host (such as biotin and vitamin K), and producing hormones to direct the host to store fats. Extensive modification and imbalances of the gut microbiota and its microbiome or gene collection are associated with obesity. However, in certain conditions, some species are thought to be capable of causing disease by causing infection or increasing cancer risk for the host.\n"
] |
how were length/liquid measurements kept the same everywhere?
|
The short answer was, they didn't. Standards varied heavily from region to region. Keep in mind, back then, travel/trade was *a lot* harder, so the effects were much less noticeable.
In some cases, once things were more developed, they would have a standard- then they'd copy that standard and ship them around the world. But usually they were just really inaccurate.
If things were really really off, someone might call you on it, but slight variations, how would they know?It wasn't really until the industrial revolution and standards started being really important did things really start to kick in- largely driven because that's when it mattered
|
[
"Before the 1843 changeover, different units were used to measure length. One pic (dzera à torky) was equal either to 0.64 m or 0.623 m), while a different pic (dzera à rabry) was equal to 0.48 m or 0.467 m). Some other units are given below:\n",
"The history of the measurement of length dates back to the early civilisations of the Middle East (10000 BC – 8000 BC). Archeologists have been able to reconstruct the units of measure in use in Mesopotamia, India, the Jewish culture and many others. Archeological and other evidence shows that in many civilisations, the ratios between different units for the same quantity of measure were adjusted so that they were integer numbers. In many early cultures such as Ancient Egypt, multiples of 2, 3 and 5 were not always used—the Egyptian royal cubit being 28 fingers of 7 hands. In 2150 BC, the Akkadian emperor Naram-Sin rationalised the Babylonian system of measure, adjusting the ratios of many units of measure to multiples of 2, 3 or 5, for example there were 6 \"she\" (barleycorns) in a \"shu-si\" (finger) and 30 shu-si in a \"kush\" (cubit).\n",
"Until the 19th century, countries based their systems of length measurement on prototypes, metal bar primary standards, such as the standard yard in Britain kept at the Houses of Parliament, and the standard \"toise\" in France, kept at Paris. These were vulnerable to damage or destruction over the years, and because of the difficulty of comparing prototypes, the same unit often had different lengths in distant towns, creating opportunities for fraud. During the Enlightenment scientists argued for a length standard that was based on some property of nature that could be determined by measurement, creating an indestructible, universal standard. The period of pendulums could be measured very precisely by timing them with clocks that were set by the stars. A pendulum standard amounted to defining the unit of length by the gravitational force of the Earth, for all intents constant, and the second, which was defined by the rotation rate of the Earth, also constant. The idea was that anyone, anywhere on Earth, could recreate the standard by constructing a pendulum that swung with the defined period and measuring its length.\n",
"In physics, length scale is a particular length or distance determined with the precision of one order of magnitude. The concept of length scale is particularly important because physical phenomena of different length scales cannot affect each other and are said to decouple. The decoupling of different length scales makes it possible to have a self-consistent theory that only describes the relevant length scales for a given problem. Scientific reductionism says that the physical laws on the shortest length scales can be used to derive the effective description at larger length scales. \n",
"Many units of length have been used throughout history and in different civilisations and cultures: until quite recently it was common for length units to be differently defined even between neighbouring towns and cities. \n",
"The length scale is most convenient if the lengths are measured in terms of the absolute length (a special unit of length analogous to a relations between distances in spherical geometry). This choice for this length scale makes formulas simpler.\n",
"A number of units were used to measure length. According to legal equivalents, one vara (old) was 0.838 56 m. One cuerda or One cordel was 83 1/3 vara or 69.88 m, according to legal equivalents. One vara was 0.866 m, according to legal equivalents. Some other units and their legal equivalents are given below:\n"
] |
Why can't you tame a Zebra?
|
"Taming" isn't all-or-nothing. There's a range of behaviors that includes whether the animal attacks humans, runs away from humans, tolerates being touched, tolerates various medical examinations and procedures, responds to commands, actively seeks human company, and so on.
The zebras at the San Francisco Zoo will do all of the things I just listed (with the possible exception of the last one) because of diligent training and regular reinforcement by their keepers.
But for safety's sake responsible zoos never describe their zebras as "tame". That would give a false sense of safety to the public. They may still attack an unfamiliar human. And this is true of horses as well. When working with even the tamest horse you never run up behind it and startle it because there's a good chance you'll take a hoof to the knee, or worse.
Source: I'm a long-time horse owner and friend of San Francisco Zoo keepers.
|
[
"Zebras have four gaits: walk, trot, canter and gallop. They are generally slower than horses, but their great stamina helps them outrun predators. When chased, a zebra will zig-zag from side to side, making it more difficult for the predator to attack. When cornered, the zebra will rear up and kick or bite its attacker.\n",
"Zebroids are preferred over zebras for practical uses, such as riding, because the zebra has a different body shape from a horse or donkey, and consequently it is difficult to find tack to fit a zebra. However, a zebroid is usually more inclined to be temperamental than a purebred horse and can be difficult to handle. Zebras, being wild animals, and not domesticated like horses and donkeys, pass on their wild animal traits to their offspring. Zebras, while not usually very large, are extremely strong and aggressive. Similarly, zorses have a strong temperament and can be aggressive.\n",
"Attempts have been made to train zebras for riding, since they have better resistance than horses to African diseases. While occasionally successful, most of these attempts failed due to the zebra's more unpredictable nature and tendency to panic under stress. For this reason, zebra-mules or zebroids (crosses between any species of zebra and a horse, pony, donkey or ass) are preferred over purebred zebras. \n",
"The zebra by itself is worth just below two pawns (appreciably less than a knight), due to its restricted freedom of movement on an 8×8 board. Its larger move is the main reason why it is weaker than a camel on an 8×8 board, even though the camel is colorbound and the zebra is not. A zebra and a bishop and a king can force checkmate on a bare king; while a zebra, a knight and a king cannot; and a zebra, a camel, and a king cannot. The rook versus zebra endgame is a win for the rook. (All endgame statistics mentioned are for the 8×8 board.)\n",
"Zebra (debut: February 4, 2002), also known as \"zeeba neighba\" (zebra neighbor) by the crocodiles, is a zebra who is often seen trying to patch up relations between his herd back home and its predators. Pastis has stated that the Zebra's only goal is to avoid being eaten by his inarticulate next-door neighbors, the crocodiles. Jokes involving Zebra usually involve his interactions with predators.\n",
"Zebras are usually wild animals, but when they are raised with other domestic horses, they are tame enough to be ridden draught. Mules are smaller, more resistant to heat and exhaustion and much stronger. Horses are much larger, but likely to suffer from exhaustion and heat.\n",
"Individuals living in large groups may be safer from attack because the predator may be confused by the large group size. As the group moves, the predator has greater difficulty targeting an individual prey animal. The zebra has been suggested by the zoologist Martin Stevens and his colleagues as an example of this. When stationary, a single zebra stands out because of its large size. To reduce the risk of attack, zebras often travel in herds. The striped patterns of all the zebras in the herd may confuse the predator, making it harder for the predator to focus in on an individual zebra. Furthermore, when moving rapidly, the zebra stripes create a confusing, flickering motion dazzle effect in the eye of the predator.\n"
] |
Is the earths ozone layer capable of changing position?
|
Well, the ozone layer is ubiquitous through the stratosphere. In fact, the predominant sources of ozone are in the tropics, and it's overturning circulations like the Brewer-Dobson that transport ozone to the poles through the year - at least until the polar vortex develops, which cuts off that transport.
You don't really get "ozone holes" over cities in the same sense as the famous ozone hole at the South Pole. That's because the primary mechanism for thorough ozone depletion - polar stratospheric clouds - do not occur anywhere except for in the Antarctic during their winter, and *occasionally* in the Arctic in its respective winter.
So no - it's not possible for a polluter to "create an ozone hole" in a local sense and have it move around to impact a non-polluter. Ironically, a bigger air-quality issue is the generation of ozone or ozone-precursors itself! For instance, polluters that emit PAN (peroxyacetyl nitrate) create non-local ozone pollution. PAN is relatively stable, and can be transported long distances before it breaks down to release NOx; that NOx can react in chemical families with volatile organic compounds to produce ozone as a byproduct of oxidation of the organic species.
|
[
"The ozone hole is usually measured by reduction in the total \"column ozone\" above a point on the Earth's surface. This is normally expressed in Dobson units; abbreviated as \"DU\". The most prominent decrease in ozone has been in the lower stratosphere. Marked decreases in column ozone in the Antarctic spring and early summer compared to the early 1970s and before have been observed using instruments such as the Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer (TOMS).\n",
"Ozone in the atmosphere can be measured by remote sensing technology, or by \"in-situ\" monitoring technology. Because ozone absorbs light in the UV spectrum, the most common way to measure ozone is to measure how much of this light spectrum is absorbed in the atmosphere. Because the stratosphere has higher ozone concentration than the troposphere, it is important for remote sensing instruments to be able to determine altitude along with the concentration measurements. The TOMS-EP instrument aboard a satellite from NASA is an example of an ozone layer measuring satellite, and TES is an example of an ozone measuring satellite that is specifically for the troposphere. Lidar is a common ground based remote sensing technique to measure ozone. TOLnet is the network of ozone observing lidars across the United States.\n",
"The breakdown of ozone in the stratosphere results in reduced absorption of ultraviolet radiation. Consequently, unabsorbed and dangerous ultraviolet radiation is able to reach the Earth's surface at a higher intensity. Ozone levels have dropped by a worldwide average of about 4 percent since the late 1970s. For approximately 5 percent of the Earth's surface, around the north and south poles, much larger seasonal declines have been seen, and are described as \"ozone holes\". The discovery of the annual depletion of ozone above the Antarctic was first announced by Joe Farman, Brian Gardiner and Jonathan Shanklin, in a paper which appeared in \"Nature\" on May 16, 1985.\n",
"Ozone research has remained at the forefront of atmospheric science for many years because stratospheric ozone shields the Earth's surface (and its inhabitants) from harmful ultraviolet radiation. Since recent declines in stratospheric ozone have been linked to human activity, accurate long-term measurements of ozone remain crucial.\n",
"Meanwhile, analysis of ozone measurements from the worldwide network of ground-based Dobson spectrophotometers led an international panel to conclude that the ozone layer was in fact being depleted, at all latitudes outside of the tropics. These trends were confirmed by satellite measurements. As a consequence, the major halocarbon-producing nations agreed to phase out production of CFCs, halons, and related compounds, a process that was completed in 1996.\n",
"Even before the Nimbus satellites began collecting their observations of Earth's ozone layer, scientists had some understanding of the processes that maintained or destroyed it. They were pretty sure they understood how the layer formed, and they knew from laboratory experiments that halogens could destroy ozone. Finally, weather balloons had revealed that the concentration of ozone in the atmosphere changed over time, and scientists suspected weather phenomena or seasonal change were responsible. But how all of these pieces of information worked together on a global scale was still unclear.\n",
"Ozone Mapping and Profiler Suite (OMPS), is an suite of instruments built by Ball Aerospace that measure the global distribution of ozone and, less frequently, how it is distributed vertically within the stratosphere. The suite flies on the Suomi NPP and NOAA-20 (formerly JPSS-1) satellites along with several other instruments. It had been intended to also fly on the NPOESS, for which the NPP was a preparatory project, but the dissolution of that project was announced in 2010. OMPS launched on October 28, 2011.\n"
] |
how does paypal make money/stay in business?
|
If you are a merchant selling something through them they take a 2.9% + $0.30 cut of your profit.
|
[
"PayPal's services allow people to make financial transactions online by granting the ability to transfer funds electronically between individuals and businesses. Through PayPal, users can send or receive payments for online auctions on websites like eBay, purchase or sell goods and services, or donate money or receive donations. It is not necessary to have a PayPal account to use the company's services. PayPal account users can set currency conversion option in account settings.\n",
"PayPal Holdings, Inc. is an American company operating a worldwide online payments system that supports online money transfers and serves as an electronic alternative to traditional paper methods like checks and money orders. The company operates as a payment processor for online vendors, auction sites, and many other commercial users, for which it charges a fee in exchange for benefits such as one-click transactions and password memory. PayPal's payment system, also called PayPal, is considered a type of payment rail.\n",
"PayPal is an acquirer, a performing payment processing for online vendors, auction sites, and other commercial users, for which it charges a fee. It may also charge a fee for receiving money, proportional to the amount received. The fees depend on the currency used, the payment option used, the country of the sender, the country of the recipient, the amount sent and the recipient's account type. In addition, eBay purchases made by credit card through PayPal may incur extra fees if the buyer and seller use different currencies.\n",
"PayPal is a global e-commerce business allowing payments and money transfers to be made through the Internet. Online money transfers serve as electronic alternatives to paying with traditional paper methods, such as cheques and money orders. It is subject to the US economic sanction list and other rules and interventions required by US laws or government.\n",
"PayPal cooperates with \"Synchrony Financial\" and provides a financial service to PayPal Cashback Mastercard, which offers 2% return cash to customers who are shopping online or on the physical stores by using PayPal. PayPal’s cash back financial service promotes the number of potential customers.\n",
"Apple allows PayPal as a mode of payment for App Store, Apple Music, iTunes, and iBooks. PayPal can increase usage by the platform of Apple. In addition, PayPal gets revenue from Apple services especially from App Store. Customers can use PayPal to purchase by connecting their PayPal payment system to Apple ID accounts.\n",
"In the United States, PayPal is licensed as a money transmitter, on a state-by-state basis. But state laws vary, as do their definitions of banks, narrow banks, money services businesses, and money transmitters. Although PayPal is not classified as a bank, the company is subject to some of the rules and regulations governing the financial industry including Regulation E consumer protections and the USA PATRIOT Act. The most analogous regulatory source of law for PayPal transactions comes from peer-to-peer (P2P) payments using credit and debit cards. Ordinarily, a credit card transaction, specifically the relationship between the issuing bank and the cardholder, is governed by the Truth in Lending Act (TILA) 15 U.S.C. §§ 1601-1667f as implemented by Regulation Z, 12 C.F.R. 226, (TILA/Z). TILA/Z requires specific procedures for billing errors, dispute resolution, and limits cardholder liability for unauthorized charges. Similarly, the legal relationship between a debit cardholder and the issuing bank is regulated by the Electronic Funds Transfer Act (EFTA) 15 U.S.C. §§ 1693-1693r, as implemented by Regulation E, 12 C.F.R. 205, (EFTA/E). EFTA/E is directed at consumer protection and provides strict error resolution procedures. However, because PayPal is a \"payment intermediary\" and not otherwise regulated directly, TILA/Z and EFTA/E do not operate exactly as written once the credit/debit card transaction occurs via PayPal. Basically, unless a PayPal transaction is funded with a credit card, the consumer has no recourse in the event of fraud by the seller.\n"
] |
Three questions about the Napoleonic army.
|
During a campaign, an officer was generally allowed a small Wagon to carry personal effects and anything necessary for his work in the field. This would range from a tent and necessary notes to liquor and personal reading. Naturally the higher the rank the more you'd be able to have bit the more you'll also need for your own command (maps, rosters, etc).
The main people to have a Wagon would be *chief De batalion* whom commanded a battalion (the smallest unit of independent command) on up. High ranking commanders would get a larger baggage train as they'd be allowed more personal effects and need more things relevant to their command.
However one thjng that officers were not allowed to have was wives. While this wasn't allowed, this didn't mean that it did not happen. Generally wives never accompanied commanders, commanders would take mistresses (such as Marshals Soult and Massena during their command of the Pininsular campaign).
As for horses, generally officers would be on horseback while moving but leading from the front (if that was their choice as not all commanders were the ideal leaders like Lannes or Oudinot) on foot. The reason of not being on horse has more to do with being a larger target for sharpshooters and the chance of having a horse (expensive for a lower ranking officer) dying and even falling on you if you're on it when it dies.
I hoped this helped, for more information on the organization of the French Army I'd recommend looking at Swords Around A Throne by John Elting, a very accessable and cheap book.
|
[
"Napoleon led a new army to the Battle of the Nations at Leipzig in 1813, in the defence of France in 1814 and in the Waterloo Campaign in 1815, but the Napoleonic French army would never regain the heights of the Grande Armée of June 1812.\n",
"Under Napoleon I, the French Army conquered most of Europe during the Napoleonic Wars. Professionalising again from the Revolutionary forces and using columns of attack with heavy artillery support and swarms of pursuit cavalry the French army under Napoleon and his marshals was able to outmanoeuvre and destroy the allied armies repeatedly until 1812. Napoleon introduced the concept of all arms Corps, each one a traditional army 'in miniature', permitting the field force to be split across several lines of march and rejoin or to operate independently. The \"Grande Armée\" operated by seeking a decisive battle with each enemy army and then destroying them in detail before rapidly occupying territory and forcing a peace.\n",
"Napoleon placed some corps of his armed forces at various strategic locations as armies of observations. Napoleon split his forces into three main armies; First, he placed an army in the south near the alps. This army was to stop Austrian advances in Italy. Second, there was an army on the French/Prussian border where he hoped to defeat any Prussians attacks. Last, the L'Armee du Nord was placed on the border with the United Netherlands to defeat the British, Dutch and Prussian forces if they dared to attack. (see Military mobilisation during the Hundred Days)Lamarque led the small Army of the West into La Vendée to quell a Royalist insurrection in that region.\n",
"The British Army during the Napoleonic Wars experienced a time of rapid change. At the beginning of the French Revolutionary Wars in 1793, the army was a small, awkwardly administered force of barely 40,000 men. By the end of the period, the army had been through a series of structural, recruitment, tactical and training reforms and its manpower had vastly increased. At its peak, in 1813, the regular army contained over 250,000 men. The British infantry was \"the only military force not to suffer a major reverse at the hands of Napoleonic France.\"\n",
"The Napoleonic Wars were a series of major conflicts from 1803 to 1815 pitting the French Empire and its allies, led by Napoleon I, against a fluctuating array of European powers formed into various coalitions, financed and usually led by the United Kingdom. The wars stemmed from the unresolved disputes associated with the French Revolution and its resultant conflict.\n",
"The British Army during the Napoleonic Wars experienced a time of rapid change. At the beginning of the French Revolutionary Wars in 1793, the army was a small, awkwardly administered force of barely 40,000 men. By the end of the period, the numbers had vastly increased. At its peak, in 1813, the regular army contained over 250,000 men. The British infantry was \"the only military force not to suffer a major reverse at the hands of Napoleonic France.\"\n",
"The Napoleonic Wars (1803–1815) were a series of major conflicts pitting the French Empire and its allies, led by Napoleon I, against a fluctuating array of European powers formed into various coalitions, financed and usually led by the United Kingdom. The wars stemmed from the unresolved disputes associated with the French Revolution and its resultant conflict. The wars are often categorised into five conflicts, each termed after the coalition that fought Napoleon: the Third Coalition (1805), the Fourth (1806–07), the Fifth (1809), the Sixth (1813), and the Seventh (1815).\n"
] |
What people does the Assyrians descend from?
|
This is a somewhat controversial topic within the Syriac christian community. Basically there are two main schools of thought: those who identify as Assyrians and descendants from the ancient Assyrians and those who identify as Arameans and their descendants. I will let someone with the 'Assyrian' origin point of view post that since I'm not as well versed in their various arguments but I will provide you with the basic 'Aramean' origin arguments, however first I'm going to go on a slight tangent that is necessary for this topic. Up till the 20th century, the Syriac Christians called themselves in Arabic 'Suryani' which originally meant 'Syrian'. Suryani was not only a term exclusive to Christians but also exclusive to those Christians not of Arab ancestry (the arabs christians were usually Greek Orthodox, Greek Catholic, or Maronite). During the 20th century however, nationalist ideals started among the Arab Christians of 'Al-Sham'(the Arab term for the Levant meaning "land of the North"), and at the helm of this nationalist movement was Antun Saddeh, a Greek Orthodox arab christian. In his movement, the arab christians who identified as 'al-shami' (meaning arab of al-sham), started to adopt the name 'suri' an invented term that was equated with Syrian in English therefore causing great confusion. The 'Suryani' response was to change the translation from Syrian to Syriac. So for the purposes of this post I will be using Syriac, and take in mind that it means 'Suryani', unless I specify that I mean the Syriac language.
The main idea of the Aramean origin argument goes as this: The Syriac christians, are descendants of the people called Arameans, a group of northwestern semites closely related to the Hebrew and Phoenicians, who during the bronze age collapse settled the land they called Aram. Later on, due to outside influences, namely Greek confusion on the matters of the people they saw as barbarians as they saw all non-Greeks, the name 'Syria' was invented either from a)the Coptic word for Hurrians translated to Greek or b)the Luwian-Hittite word for Assyrians translated to Greek (note that despite there being a greek word for Syrian, the Greeks also had a word for Assyrian, therefore complicating the matter even further). During this confusion the Greeks and later on the Romans would use the name 'Syria' without any solid meaning to refer to people of the near east/fertile crescent region who spoke aramaic. However, during that time, the Arameans continued to identify as Arameans until a gradual process started that was most likely in tandem with the rise of Christianity(which was after all spread by Hellenized Jews who spoke Greek), where they started to called themselves 'Syriac' in their native Aramaic. Eventually, the term 'Syriac' would be used to apply exclusively to the people of Aramean ancestry. So the name Syria would be applied to the former lands of Aram, which makes sense since the Syriac Church was based in Antioch, a city nowhere near ancient Assyria. So due to the fact that Arameans adopted the name 'Syriac', anyone who identified as such was an Aramean whether or not they came from areas like Mosul or Nineveh which thousands of years earlier were considered the Assyrian heartland. They back this up with evidence that during the Iron Age, Arameans settled in large numbers in the Levant and a region of Mesopotamia called Aram-Nahrain (Nahrain meaning "of the rivers", possibly a callback to the bronze age kingdom of Mitanni which was from the same area of Mesopotamia, that was called Nahrain by some peoples), which was just north of the Assyrians. The Assyrians on several occasions held massive deportations of Arameans (as well as other peoples such as Jews), not out of the empire, but into its capital. It is claimed that Aramean numbers grew so large that Aramaic replaced Akkadian, and Arameans grew to outnumber the native Assyrians. The origin of the modern Assyrian identity would be in the works of 17th/18th(not sure which one) century western missionaries who upon finding the Syriac christian communities of Iraq, claimed based on archeological grounds that they must be the descendants of the ancient Assyrian, confusing the meaning of 'Suryani'.
Let me know if anything needs clarification, however, I will restate that I expect someone else to post the Assyrian side of this, as I do not want to misrepresent my post as one sided.
|
[
"In Church tradition, the Assyrians are descended from Abraham's grandson (Dedan son of Jokshan), progenitor of the ancient Assyrians. Along with the Arameans, Phoenicians, Armenians, Greeks and Nabateans, they were among the first people to convert to Christianity and spread Eastern Christianity to the Far East.\n",
"The Assyrian people are a distinct ethnic group, descendant largely from the population of ancient Assyria, indigenous to Mesopotamia with roots in the Middle East, mainly present-day Iraq, northwest Iran, northeast Syria and southeast Turkey.\n",
"In the 1995 book \"The History and Geography of Human Genes\" the authors wrote that: \"The Assyrians are a fairly homogeneous group of people, believed to originate from the land of old Assyria in northern Iraq [..] they are Christians and are bona fide descendants of their ancient namesakes.\"\n",
"The Assyrians are culturally, linguistically, genetically and ethnically distinct from their neighbours in the Middle East – the Arabs, Syrians, Persians/Iranians, Kurds, Jews, Turks, Israelis, Azeris, Greeks, Shabaks, Yezidis, Kawliya, Mandeans and Armenians. \n",
"The Assyrians are typically Syriac-speaking Christians who claim descent from Assyria, one of the oldest civilizations in the world, dating back to 2500 BC in ancient Mesopotamia. Assyria itself existed as an independent state (and often imperial power) in what is today northern Iraq, north eastern Syria, south eastern Turkey and the north western fringe of Iran from the 25th century BC to the beginning of the sixth century BC, and remained a geopolitical entity until the mid seventh century AD.\n",
"The Assyrians are an indigenous ethnic group native to the historical region of Assyria that spans northern Iraq, southeastern Turkey, northwest Iran, and northeastern Syria), ethnically, historically and linguistically distinct from neighboring Arab, Turkish, Iranian and Kurdish populations and whose native tongue is various dialects of Eastern Aramaic that is referred to commonly as Syriac. \n",
"The Assyrians are indigenous to modern northern Iraq, southeast Turkey, northwest Iran and northeast Syria. These modern areas encompassed ancient Assyria between the 21st century BC and 7th century AD. Much of this land is now also inhabited by much later arriving Kurds, Arabs, Turks, Yezidis, Armenians, Shabakis, Turcomans and others. \n"
] |
you know how you can tense up certain muscles in your foot or leg and pretty immediately give yourself a cramp? why do your muscles have those 'pressure points' or non-random cramp areas, and why is it so easy to bring about a cramp in them?
|
I tried to read up on this, and also asked my doctor about it, and it seems to not be totally known, in part because there can be a lot of different reasons depending on the person and circumstances.
I think these are usually technically muscle spasms rather than cramps, although they're similar.
Some possible causes:
- Dehydration
- Electrolyte depletion (usually salt, sometimes potassium and maybe magnesium)
- Muscle overload
That last one is probably what's going on -- it seems like it is most likely to happen with highly underused muscles (or overused muscles in people who work out a lot)
Of course there are also (a zillion) medical conditions that can cause cramps or spasms.
Googling found this page that looks ok at first glance:
_URL_0_
|
[
"A cramp is a sudden, involuntary muscle contraction or over-shortening; while generally temporary and non-damaging, they can cause significant pain, and a paralysis-like immobility of the affected muscle. Onset is usually sudden, and it resolves on its own over a period of several seconds, minutes or hours. Cramps may occur in a skeletal muscle or smooth muscle. Skeletal muscle cramps may be caused by muscle fatigue or a lack of electrolytes such as sodium (a condition called hyponatremia), potassium (called hypokalemia), or magnesium (called magnesium deficiency). Cramps of smooth muscle may be due to menstruation or gastroenteritis.\n",
"Cramps can occur when muscles are unable to relax properly due to myosin proteins not fully detaching from actin filaments. In skeletal muscle, ATP levels must be large enough to bind to the myosin heads for them to attach or detach from the actin and allow contraction or relaxation; the absence of enough levels of ATP means that the myosin heads remains attached to actin. The muscle must be allowed to recover (resynthesize ATP), before the myosin proteins can detach and allow the muscle to relax. Skeletal muscles work as antagonistic pairs. Contracting one skeletal muscle requires the relaxation of the opposing muscle in the pair.\n",
"A lactic acid buildup around muscles can trigger cramps; however, these happen during anaerobic respiration when a person is exercising or engaging in an activity where the heartbeat speeds up. Medical conditions associated with leg cramps are cardiovascular disease, hemodialysis, cirrhosis, pregnancy, and lumbar canal stenosis. Differential diagnoses include restless legs syndrome, claudication, myositis, peripheral neuropathy. All of these can be differentiated through careful history and physical examination.\n",
"Medication has not been found to help reduce or prevent muscle cramping. To prevent or treat, athletes are recommended to stretch, stop movement and rest, massaging the area that is cramping, or drink fluids. Stretching helps to calm down spindles by lengthening the muscle fibers and increase firing duration to slow down the firing rate of the muscle. Recommended fluids during cramping are water or fluids that are high in electrolytes to replenish the system with sodium.\n",
"BULLET::::- The cause of cramping is unknown, but may be related to elevated lactate, increased calcium signaling across the sarcoplasmic reticulum caused by membrane instability from reduced levels of ATP, or increased levels of free adenosine.\n",
"Under normal circumstances, skeletal muscles can be voluntarily controlled. Skeletal muscles that cramp the most often are the calves, thighs, and arches of the foot, and are sometimes called a \"Charley horse\" or a \"corky\". Such cramping is associated with strenuous physical activity and can be intensely painful; however, they can even occur while inactive and relaxed. Around 40% of people who experience skeletal cramps are likely to endure extreme muscle pain, and may be unable to use the entire limb that contains the \"locked-up\" muscle group. It may take up to a week for the muscle to return to a pain-free state, depending on the person's fitness level, age, and several other factors.\n",
"If a sudden pull or stretch occurs, the body responds by automatically increasing the muscle's tension, a reflex which helps guard against danger as well as helping maintain balance. Such near-continuous innervation can be thought of as a \"default\" or \"steady state\" condition for muscles. Both the extensor and flexor muscles are involved in the maintenance of a constant tone while at rest. In skeletal muscles, this helps maintain a normal posture.\n"
] |
how can the hubble space telescope keep its lens pointed in the same spot to take long exposure shots when it's orbiting the earth every 97 minutes?
|
Hubble uses six gyroscopes to know exactly where it's pointing. These are devices that act a bit like a compass, and always point in the same direction even when the telescope is orbiting.
Next it has four reaction wheels which actually move the telescope. These just use Newton's 3rd law of motion; if the wheel spins one way then the telescope spins the other.
Finally when it's observing, an instrument called the Fine Guidance Sensor will lock on to nearby stars, and make sure the telescope stays precisely pointed in the same direction/orientation.
|
[
"The Hubble Space Telescope has three fine guidance sensors (FGSs). Two are used to point and lock the telescope onto the target, and the third can be used for position measurements - also known as astrometry. Because the FGSs are so accurate, they can be used to measure stellar distances and also to investigate binary star systems.\n",
"Fine Guidance Sensor (FGS) for the Hubble Space Telescope is a system of three instruments used for pointing the telescope in space, and also for astrometry and its related sciences. Each FGS uses a combination of optics and electronics to provide for pointing the telescope at a certain location in the sky. There are three Hubble FGS, and they have been upgraded over the lifetime of the telescope by manned Space Shuttle missions. The instruments can support pointing of 2 milli-arc seconds (units of degree). The three FGS are part of the Hubble Space Telescope's \"Pointing Control System\", aka PCS. The FGS function in combination with the Hubble main computer and gyroscopes, with the FGS providing data to the computer as sensors which enables the HST to track astronomical targets.\n",
"On 17 July 2017, the Hubble Space Telescope was used to check for debris around , setting constraints on rings and debris within the Hill sphere of at distances of up to from the main body. For the third and final occultation, team members set up another ground-based \"fence line\" of 24 mobile telescopes along the predicted ground track of the occultation shadow in southern Argentina (Chubut and Santa Cruz provinces) to better constrain the size of . The average spacing between these telescopes was around . Using the latest observations from Hubble, the position of was known with much better precision than for the June 3 occultation, and this time the shadow of was successfully observed by at least five of the mobile telescopes. Combined with the SOFIA observations, this will put constraints on possible debris near .\n",
"At the time of the observation, the Big Ear radio telescope was only adjustable for altitude (or height above the horizon), and relied instead on the rotation of the Earth to scan across the sky. Given the speed of Earth's rotation and the spatial width of the telescope's observation window, the Big Ear could observe any given point for just 72 seconds. A continuous extraterrestrial signal, therefore, would be expected to register for exactly 72 seconds, and the recorded intensity of such signal would display a gradual increase for the first 36 seconds—peaking at the center of the observation window—and then a gradual decrease as the telescope moved away from it. All these characteristics are present in the Wow! signal.\n",
"In a simple, two lens system such as a refractor telescope, the object at infinity forms an image at the focal point of the objective lens, which is subsequently magnified by the eyepiece. The magnification is equal to the focal length of the objective lens divided by the focal length of the eyepiece.\n",
"For telescopes combined with an imaging camera connected to a computer it is possible to achieve very accurate polar alignment (within 0.1 minute of arc) by approximately aligning it, then identifying the exact field of view when aimed at stars near the pole - 'plate solving'. The telescope is then rotated ninety degrees around its right ascension axis and a new 'plate solve' carried out. The error in the point around which the images rotate compared to the true pole is calculated automatically and the operator can be given simple instructions to adjust the mount for close polar alignment.\n",
"The telescope was next brought up to the approximate declination of the target star by watching the finder circle. The instrument was provided with a clamping apparatus, by which the observer, after having set the approximate declination, could clamp the axis so the telescope could not be moved in declination, except very slowly by a fine screw. By this slow motion, the telescope was adjusted until the star moved along the horizontal wire (or if there were two, in the middle between them), from the east side of the field of view to the west. Following this, the circles were read by the microscopes for a measurement of the apparent altitude of the star. The difference between this measurement and the nadir point was the \"nadir distance\" of the star. A movable horizontal wire or declination-micrometer was also used.\n"
] |
what do fireworks event companies do the rest of the year? how do they stay profitable?
|
Sporting events mostly. A lot of minor league baseball teams have displays at the end of weekend games. Same with other sports as well.
|
[
"Fireworks Entertainment was an independent studio founded by Jay Firestone in 1996 to produce, distribute and finance television shows and feature films. Fireworks was acquired by Canwest Global in May 1998, and was later sold to ContentFilm (production company of The Cooler), a British company, in April 2005. Over the years Fireworks has amassed a significant catalogue of television shows and movies (Under the Fireworks Pictures label)\n",
"Star Fireworks is a British company that stages professional fireworks displays and special effects for events. It specializes in providing choreographed firework sequences for film and television use. It was formed in 1971. It was known as Bracknell Fireworks until the name of the company was changed in 2005. Its main offices are in Bracknell, Berkshire.\n",
"July 4 fireworks - Sponsored by the Ala Moana Shopping Center, fireworks are launched from three locations on Magic Island to create a great show. It starts at 8:30 p.m. Approximately 50,000 people attend, so walking, biking, or using public transportation is highly encouraged. There is a big traffic jam after the event.\n",
"Amateur and professional members can come to the convention to purchase fireworks, paper goods, novelty items, non-explosive chemical components and much more at the PGI trade show. Before the nightly fireworks displays and competitions, club members have a chance to enjoy open shooting of any and all legal consumer or professional grade fireworks, as well as testing and display of hand-built fireworks. The week ends with the Grand Public Display on Friday night, which gives the chosen display company a chance to strut their stuff in front of some of the world's biggest fireworks aficionados. The stakes are high and much planning is put into the show. In 1994 a shell of in diameter was fired during the convention, more\n",
"In addition to large public displays, people often buy small amounts of fireworks for their own celebrations. Fireworks on general sale are usually less powerful than professional fireworks. Types include firecrackers, rockets, cakes (multishot aerial fireworks) and smoke balls.\n",
"Fireworks by Grucci is a fireworks company headquartered in Bellport on New York's Long Island. It has been a family run business since 1850. The company's main fireworks office and operations are in Bellport, NY with a manufacturing and government work factory in Radford, Virginia.\n",
"A year later, Fireworks neared $100 million in production through television series \"La Femme Nikita\", \"\" and \"Pacific Blue\". In Fall 1997, he took Fireworks public, then sold to CanWest Global Communications for over $60 million, making CanWest the sole shareholder and Firestone the chairman and CEO of Canwest Entertainment. He was a finalist for the 1998 Ontario Entrepreneur of the Year.\n"
] |
Why didn't land animals evolve to dinosaur size again after their extinction?
|
From our [FAQ](_URL_5_) (which I wrote, hence the copypasta):
There have been much larger terrestrial mammals in the past. [*Paraceratherium*](_URL_6_) is an example. There are also mammals alive today that are as large or larger than the largest dinosaurs (blue whales!). However, the fact remains that some dinosaurs - particularly sauropods - were absolutely monstrous. They may not have been blue whale-sized, but they were surprisingly close, and they were terrestrial. It's hard to know exactly what allowed some dinosaurs to grow so big. Sauropods, the largest dinosaurs. had a few adaptations that seemed to [give them a a size advantage](_URL_2_):
- Their long necks were effective for eating lots of plant material with minimal energy expenditure.
- They almost certainly had a [unidirectional airflow system](_URL_10_) in their lungs because both birds (theropod dinosaurs) and crocodylians (the only other living archosaurs) both have that. This uses countercurrent flow to bring oxygen into the circulatory system. It's part of why birds are so successful as well.
- They had heavily pneumatized skeletons that made them relatively lightweight for their massive size (something mammals don't have).
In contrast, terrestrial mammals seem to have both a [limit to how quickly they can increase their body size](_URL_8_) and a [maximum body size](_URL_7_). What causes these constraints is hard to say. The study on maximum body size found that the largest mammals evolved when during periods of global cooling and when there was more terrestrial land area. There seems to be physiological and ecological constraints on their maximum size, because several herbivore groups independently evolved to similar maximum sizes, as did several carnivore groups.
As for why terrestrial animals are generally smaller today, there was an extinction event at the end of the [Pleistocene](_URL_3_) that [disproportionally affected the terrestrial megafauna](_URL_4_). Nearly 2/3 of animals larger that 44 kilograms that were present 50,000 years ago were extinct by 10,000 years ago.
It took millions of years for terrestrial animals to have that huge increase in size after the Cretaceous-Paleogene extinction, but terrestrial mammals largely filled that role. Given how geologically recent these extinctions are, it's extremely unlikely that anything would have been able to fill the gaps left by the loss of megafaunal mammals. In that sense it's completely expected that a recent extinction event would leave a gap in body size.
One thing that does *not* explain maximum body size is atmospheric oxygen levels. There were already large sauropods by around 190 million years ago, around where [this graph](_URL_9_) bottoms out. One example is [*Barapasaurus*](_URL_0_), a 14-meter-long early sauropod from the Early Jurassic. So [whatever led to their gigantism](_URL_1_) was present when oxygen levels were lower than today, not higher. The study looking at body size in mammals also found no relationship to atmospheric oxygen levels.
|
[
"BULLET::::- Archibald argued that the withdrawal of shallow seas from Earth's continents during the Late Cretaceous reduced the size of and fragmented the coastal plain habitats preferred by large dinosaur species and that this fragmentation may have driven some taxa extinct.\n",
"After the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event wiped out all of the non-avian dinosaurs (birds are generally regarded as the surviving dinosaurs) and several mammalian groups, placental and marsupial mammals diversified into many new forms and ecological niches throughout the Paleogene and Neogene eras. Some reached enormous sizes and almost as wide a variation as the dinosaurs once did. Nevertheless, mammalian megafauna never quite reached the skyscraper heights of some sauropods.\n",
"Recent theories propose that theropod body size shrank continuously over the past 50 million years, from an average of down to , as they eventually evolved into modern birds. This is based on evidence that theropods were the only dinosaurs to get continuously smaller, and that their skeletons changed four times faster than those of other dinosaur species.\n",
"For example, mammaliformes (\"almost mammals\") and then mammals existed throughout the reign of the dinosaurs, but could not compete for the large terrestrial vertebrate niches which dinosaurs monopolized. The end-Cretaceous mass extinction removed the non-avian dinosaurs and made it possible for mammals to expand into the large terrestrial vertebrate niches. Ironically, the dinosaurs themselves had been beneficiaries of a previous mass extinction, the end-Triassic, which eliminated most of their chief rivals, the crurotarsans.\n",
"Recent theories propose that theropod body size shrank continuously over a period of 50 million years, from an average of down to , eventually evolving into modern birds. This was based on evidence that theropods were the only dinosaurs to get continuously smaller, and that their skeletons changed four times as fast as those of other dinosaur species.\n",
"Land vertebrates took an unusually long time to recover from the P–Tr extinction; Palaeontologist Michael Benton estimated the recovery was not complete until after the extinction, i.e. not until the Late Triassic, in which dinosaurs, pterosaurs, crocodiles, archosaurs, amphibians, and mammaliforms were abundant and diverse.\n",
"After yet another, the most severe extinction of the period (251~250 Ma), around 230 Ma, dinosaurs split off from their reptilian ancestors. The Triassic–Jurassic extinction event at 200 Ma spared many of the dinosaurs, and they soon became dominant among the vertebrates. Though some mammalian lines began to separate during this period, existing mammals were probably small animals resembling shrews.\n"
] |
what is computer science?
|
So, this rundown is my own, and the idea here is to have a pseudo-historical list running in descending order of abstraction. Basically, I'll start with the most abstract and general ideas of the field, and work down towards nitty gritty practical bits that emerged.
But anyway, the main idea of computer science is to deal with processes, and specifically, unlike mathematics, processes that have extra limitation that you need to be able to perform them in a finite amount of time and space. Because, you know, humans have only limited amount of time to wait for computation to finish, and there's only finite amount of the universe we have access to.
So, in computer science specifically, what was a rather important point was that sometimes you have these processes be in the form of step-by-step lists of instructions(hereby called "algorithms") that even the stupidest could follow. So we built the stupidest thing, and we called it artifical computer(as opposed to computer of the old, who were humans, mostly women, performing calculations as required for some fields of science and engineering and such), and tried seeing what we can do with this concept. So now the question of study became, what can these artifical computers actually do. Some major results were achieved in 1940's, specifically Alan Turing was helpful, where he managed to prove some key things about things that can be computed, and perhaps more importantly, that there were some things that couldn't.
And as computer technology advanced, computers itself started to become more complex, and the programs running on them started to require more and more sophisticated thinking, and computer science basically absorbed things like software engineering to itself, taking it further away from pure math world. Things like, what sort of tradeoffs you'd have when designing operating system fit neatly in this world of questions that more or less deal with what can and cannot be done with computers.
But much of the discussion is still well within confines of pure math as well. Say, computational complexity is a measure of algorithms ability to use fewer steps to arrive at the right answer. You don't need to ever even have seen a computer to be able to answer questions about those kinds of things, and it's ultimately about processes and algorithms rather than this physical device, although limitations of this physical device did end up sparking interest in these types of questions. Likewise, "formal language theory" is basically mathematics, but that theory is the main way to understand programming languages, and the theoretical foundation for their existence. So the line gets blurred. I'm unsure but I believe linguistics also makes an appearance here in this multi-dispiclinary mess. Another field that I want to highlight for math'iness is artifical intelligence. Also, worth noting that encryption basically is just taking mathematical problems we can prove are hard in one way but easy in another.
And then you also have fields that are more specifically about using computers, like user interface design, or user experience design, which start invoking psychology and such things.
And obviously, physical design of computing devices with its electrical engineering, physics and chemistry connections has to be mentioned.
Basically, it started out with a rather simple premise of "what this box do?" and then when the box turned out to be very powerful, the field just exploded to cover everything the box touched.
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[
"Computer science is known by its near synonyms, like Information Technology (IT) and Computing. At the beginning, only a few students can get computer science education, but as time passes, it’s popular in ordinary people. In UK, in 1981, only A level students can get it, but in 2014, even common pupils can study it.\n",
"Computer science (also called computing science) is the study of the theoretical foundations of information and computation and their implementation and application in computer systems. One well known subject classification system for computer science is the ACM Computing Classification System devised by the Association for Computing Machinery.\n",
"Computer science (sometimes called computation science or computing science, but not to be confused with computational science or software engineering) is the study of processes that interact with data and that can be represented as data in the form of programs. It enables the use of algorithms to manipulate, store, and communicate digital information. A computer scientist studies the theory of computation and the practice of designing software systems.\n",
"BULLET::::- Computer science – is the theory, experimentation, and engineering that form the basis for the design and use of computers. It involves the study of algorithms that process, store, and communicate digital information. A computer scientist specializes in the theory of computation and the design of computational systems.\n",
"BULLET::::- Computer science – is the theory, experimentation, and engineering that form the basis for the design and use of computers. It involves the study of algorithms that process, store, and communicate digital information. A computer scientist specializes in the theory of computation and the design of computational systems.\n",
"Computer science focuses on the high-level aspects of computing and computer systems, such as the study of algorithms that process, store, and communicate digital information. Its fields can be divided into a variety of theoretical and practical disciplines, which include the study of fundamental properties of computational and intractable problems, and the application of software development techniques to real-world situations.\n",
"As a discipline, computer science spans a range of topics from theoretical studies of algorithms and the limits of computation to the practical issues of implementing computing systems in hardware and software.\n"
] |
What defines the maximum and minimum wavelength of electromagnetic radiation?
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There is no maximum or minimum wavelength, any wavelength can be transformed into another one with the right choice of reference frame. A possible exception to this is if quantum gravity breaks Lorentz symmetry, and then there will be some minimum Planck-scale wavelength.
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[
"The electromagnetic spectrum extends from below frequencies used for modern radio to gamma radiation at the short-wavelength end, covering wavelengths from thousands of kilometers down to a fraction of the size of an atom. That would be wavelengths from 10 to 10 kilometers. The long wavelength limit is the size of the universe itself, while it is thought that the short wavelength limit is in the vicinity of the Planck length, although in principle the spectrum is infinite and continuous.\n",
"An absolute minimum continuous wavelength range is 0.4 to 1 μm, with possible short wavelength extensions down below 0.3 μm and near infrared extensions to 1.7 μm or even 2.5 μm, depending on the cost and complexity.\n",
"where formula_2 is the central wavelength of the emitted radiation. As an example, an SLED operating around 1300 nm and with an optical bandwidth of 100 nm is expected to have a coherence length of about 17 µm.\n",
"The wavelength is the distance from one peak of the wave's electric field (wave's peak/crest) to the next, and is inversely proportional to the frequency of the wave. The distance a radio wave travels in one second, in a vacuum, is which is the wavelength of a 1 hertz radio signal. A 1 megahertz radio signal has a wavelength of .\n",
"That is, 0.01% of the radiation is at a wavelength below µm, 20% below µm, etc. The wavelength and frequency peaks are in bold and occur at 25.0% and 64.6% respectively. The 41.8% point is the wavelength-frequency-neutral peak. These are the points at which the respective Planck-law functions , and divided by attain their maxima. The much smaller gap in ratio of wavelengths between 0.1% and 0.01% (1110 is 22% more than 910) than between 99.9% and 99.99% (113374 is 120% more than 51613) reflects the exponential decay of energy at short wavelengths (left end) and polynomial decay at long.\n",
"Ultraviolet radiation (UVR) is part of the electromagnetic spectrum, just beyond visible light. Ultraviolet wavelengths are 100 to 400 nanometres (nm, billionths of a metre) and are divided into three bands: A, B and C. UVA wavelengths are the longest, 315 to 400 nm; UVB are 280 to 315 nm, and UVC wavelengths are the shortest, 100 to 280 nm.\n",
"In electricity and magnetism, the long wavelength limit is the limiting case when the wavelength is much larger than the system size. This corresponds to the quasi-static case, and reduces to electrostatics and magnetostatics.\n"
] |
when i wake up at 3 am to pee, why does keeping my eyes closed for my trip to the bathroom seem to help me get back to sleep faster?
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Your brain has this thing called a circadian rhythm. What it's designed to do is make you sleepy at night time and wakeful during the day. Unfortunately, your body doesn't have a clock inside of it so it has to rely on cues outside of you to know when it's night and when it's day. One of the cues your body uses is light. When you see a bright light at night (awesome sentence) it confuses your brain and makes you more awake.
Note: This is a big simplification but you get the idea.
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[
"\"Urinating in bed is frequently predisposed by deep sleep: when urine begins to flow, its inner nature and hidden will (resembling the will to breathe) drives urine out before the child awakes. When children become stronger and more robust, their sleep is lighter and they stop urinating.\"\n",
"Mowrer detailed the use of a bedwetting alarm that sounds when children urinate while asleep. This simple biofeedback device can quickly teach children to wake up when their bladders are full and to contract the urinary sphincter and relax the detrusor muscle, preventing further urine release. Through classical conditioning, sensory feedback from a full bladder replaces the alarm and allows children to continue sleeping without urinating.\n",
"The enuresis alarm utilizes both classical and operant conditioning to provide a means of causing the sleeping individual to be regularly awakened immediately after the onset of urination so they can void in the toilet and prevent bed wetting.\n",
"Most children continue to wear diapers at night for a period of time following daytime continence. Older children may have problems with bladder control (primarily at night) and may wear diapers while sleeping to control bedwetting. Approximately 16% of children in the U.S. over the age of 5 wet the bed. If bedwetting becomes a concern, the current recommendation is to consider forgoing the use of a diaper at night as they may prevent the child from wanting to get out of bed, although this is not a primary cause of bedwetting. This is particularly the case for children over the age 8.\n",
"Generally, patients who are able to are encouraged to walk to the toilet or use a bedside commode as opposed to a urinal. The prolonged use of a urinal has been shown to lead to constipation or trouble urinating.\n",
"Daytime incontinence that is not associated with urinary infection or anatomic abnormalities is less common than nighttime incontinence and tends to disappear much earlier than the nighttime versions. One possible cause of daytime incontinence is an overactive bladder. Many children with daytime incontinence have abnormal voiding habits, the most common being infrequent voiding. This form of incontinence occurs more often in girls than in boys.\n",
"The individual places the sensor (usually located in briefs or underwear) and turns the alarm device on (there are various types of alarms) before going to sleep. The enuresis alarm is triggered when a sensor in the sheets or night clothes becomes wet with urine, setting off an auditory signal with the intention of causing the individual to wake, cease voiding, and arise to void. Parents are advised to wake their child when the alarm is activated—otherwise, children are prone to turn it off and go back to sleep.\n"
] |
When a hot surface (a grill) is radiating hot air, why is there distortion in the air above it?
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The angle at which air refracts light changes based on density. There is a temperature and density gradient between the hot grill and relatively cool surrounding air.
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[
"Convection causes the temperature of the air to vary, and the variation between the hot air at the surface of the road and the denser cool air above it creates a gradient in the refractive index of the air. This produces a blurred shimmering effect, which affects the ability to resolve objects, the effect being increased when the image is magnified through a telescope or telephoto lens.\n",
"A bright, reflective roof could reflect light and heat into the higher windows of taller neighboring buildings. In sunny conditions, this could cause uncomfortable glare and unwanted heat for you or your neighbors. Excess heat caused by reflections increases air conditioning energy use, negating some of the energy saving benefits of the cool roof.”\n",
"Material goes in from one side of the rotary dryer, and goes out from the other side. And the hot air (heat) generated by burner passes through the dryer to raise the inner temperature. The inner cylinder has many shoveling plates, which scoop up the materials for a sufficient contact with the hot air. Meanwhile the plates push the material to move forward.\n",
"The gable end roof is a poor design for hurricane or tornado-prone regions, as it easily peels off in strong winds. The part of the roof that overhangs the triangular wall very often creates a trap that can catch wind like an umbrella. Winds blowing against the gable end can exert tremendous pressure, both on the triangular wall and on the roof edges where they overhang the triangular wall, causing the roof to peel off and the triangular wall to cave in.\n",
"BULLET::::- The heat index and humidex measure the effect of humidity on the perception of temperatures above . In humid conditions, the air feels much hotter because less perspiration evaporates from the skin.\n",
"Temperature variations in the air can also cause refraction of light. This can be seen as a heat haze when hot and cold air is mixed e.g. over a fire, in engine exhaust, or when opening a window on a cold day. This makes objects viewed through the mixed air appear to shimmer or move around randomly as the hot and cold air moves. This effect is also visible from normal variations in air temperature during a sunny day when using high magnification telephoto lenses and is often limiting the image quality in these cases.\n",
"In all quartz lamps which have a gas fill, there is a small area that looks like a nipple. It is in fact the location of the exhaust tube where the lamp was filled with its gas mixture. The position of the nipple is very important and if it’s facing the wrong way, it may show up as a shadow in the optical path. Whenever possible, the exhaust tip should be orientated straight up, or up to 45 degrees from vertical. This will keep the tip in the hottest location, and prevent the iodides and rare earth metals from collecting in it as the lamp cools. If the tip is orientated down, the rare earth metals will collect in it over time and the color of the lamp will shift as they are no longer included in the plasma arc. \n"
] |
Is there any evidence that essential oils actually do anything other than smell good?
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Essential oil simple means that is possess a smell similar to the plant it is derived from. It isn't based on anything medical related. Now that doesn't mean that they arn't good for you, it just means that it is a large category that isn't related to anything medical. Its sort of like asking if the category food is good for you. The quality that makes something food doesn't entail it being healthy, but some food can be healthy. You would have to research each individual product to say if it is good for you or not. If someone has a study like that on a broad level they may be able to dismiss them all together.
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[
"Essential oils are volatile and liquid aroma compounds from natural sources, usually plants. They are not oils in a strict sense, but often share with oils a poor solubility in water. Essential oils often have an odor and are therefore used in food flavoring and perfumery. They are usually prepared by fragrance extraction techniques (such as distillation, cold pressing, or Solvent extraction). Essential oils are distinguished from aroma oils (essential oils and aroma compounds in an oily solvent), infusions in a vegetable oil, absolutes, and concretes. Typically, essential oils are highly complex mixtures of often hundreds of individual aroma compounds.\n",
"The essential oil is used in the manufacture of flavorings and perfume. There appear to be differences in people's perceptions of the smell, possibly determined genetically, rather than by familiarity or nurture. Some people find the smell to be repulsive, while most find it pleasantly herbal. This is not particularly unusual in reaction to the smells of many aromatic Karoo shrubs.\n",
"Some essential oils, such as those of juniper and agathosma, are valued for their diuretic effects. With relatively recent concerns about the overuse of antibacterial agents, many essential oils have seen a resurgence in off-label use for such properties and are being examined for this use clinically.\n",
"An essential oil is a concentrated hydrophobic liquid containing volatile (easily evaporated at normal temperatures) chemical compounds from plants. Essential oils are also known as volatile oils, ethereal oils, aetherolea, or simply as the oil of the plant from which they were extracted, such as oil of clove. An essential oil is \"essential\" in the sense that it contains the \"essence of\" the plant's fragrance—the characteristic fragrance of the plant from which it is derived. The term \"essential\" used here does not mean indispensable, as with the terms essential amino acid or essential fatty acid, which are so called because they are nutritionally required by a given living organism. In contrast to fatty oils, essential oils typically evaporate completely without leaving a stain or residue.\n",
"Oils were used for aesthetic pleasure and in the beauty industry. It was a luxury item and a means of payment. It was believed the essential oils increased the shelf life of wine and improved the taste of food.\n",
"BULLET::::- Some of the essential oils are valued as fragrances, such as in the traditional laurel wreath of classical antiquity, or in cabinet making, where the fragrant woods are prized for making insect-repellant furniture chests.\n",
"The essential oils of several species are used as flavorings and carminatives; however, the oils of \"I. anisatum\" and \"I. floridanum\" are toxic. \"I. verum\", the common star anise, is used to flavor food and wine. Its fruit is a traditional Chinese medicine called \"pa-chio-hui-hsiang\", which is used to treat abdominal pain and vomiting.\n"
] |
how do they move sculptures that are to big for trucks?
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> Edit: ah dicks, forgot ELI5
Ha. It's ok. It's still evident this is a legit ELI5 question.
I really wish there were a better answer, but they pretty much just [close down all the roads](_URL_0_). It's super inconvenient (which is why they try to do it late at night).
LA has something of a habit of frequently inconveniencing its citizens by bringing in massive boulders, sculptures, and even space shuttles.
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[
"The articulated haulers relatively small size also make them able to drive on public roads between different worksites at a large construction project—something that is impossible for the largest haul trucks, which might even have to be disassembled to be moved between different locations. For transportation between different construction projects, articulated haulers usually have to be hauled on flatbed trailers as oversize cargo due to their width and weight, as well as their limited speed. However, in reality, it is normal for most articulated trucks to be trailered between worksites, as there are few construction sites giving an opportunity to drive on public roads between work zones, depending on the size of the machine and the local laws this could also be illegal. For any distance greater than a few miles, it would also be considered uneconomical wear-and-tear on the hauler trucks, to be putting hours on them that aren't contributing towards the paying job. It is far more efficient and quicker to use trucks and trailers and let them do what they specialize in, over-road hauling.\n",
"A truck frame consists of two parallel boxed (tubular) or C‑shaped rails, or beams, held together by crossmembers. These frames are referred to as ladder frames due to their resemblance to a ladder if tipped on end. The rails consist of a tall vertical section (two if boxed) and two shorter horizontal flanges. The height of the vertical section provides opposition to vertical flex when weight is applied to the top of the frame (beam resistance). Though typically flat the whole length on heavy duty trucks, the rails may sometimes be tapered or arched for clearance around the engine or over the axles. The holes in rails are used either for mounting vehicle components and running wires and hoses, or measuring and adjusting the orientation of the rails at the factory or repair shop.\n",
"Special concrete transport trucks (in-transit mixers) are made to mix concrete and transport it to the construction site. They can be charged with dry materials and water, with the mixing occurring during transport. They can also be loaded from a \"central mix\" plant; with this process the material has already been mixed prior to loading. The concrete mixing transport truck maintains the material's liquid state through agitation, or turning of the drum, until delivery. The interior of the drum on a concrete mixing truck is fitted with a spiral blade. In one rotational direction, the concrete is pushed deeper into the drum. This is the direction the drum is rotated while the concrete is being transported to the building site. This is known as \"charging\" the mixer. When the drum rotates in the other direction, the Archimedes' screw-type arrangement \"discharges\", or forces the concrete out of the drum. From there it may go onto chutes to guide the viscous concrete directly to the job site. If the truck cannot get close enough to the site to use the chutes, the concrete may be discharged into a concrete pump, connected to a flexible hose, or onto a conveyor belt which can be extended some distance (typically ten or more metres). A pump provides the means to move the material to precise locations, multi-floor buildings, and other distance-prohibitive locations. Buckets suspended from cranes are also used to place the concrete.\n",
"Truck scales can be surface mounted with a ramp leading up a short distance and the weighing equipment underneath or they can be pit mounted with the weighing equipment and platform in a pit so that the weighing surface is level with the road. They are typically built from steel or concrete and by nature are extremely robust.\n",
"While appearing at first glance as a simple form made of metal, frames encounter great amounts of stress and are built accordingly. The first issue addressed is beam height, or the height of the vertical side of a frame. The taller the frame, the better it is able to resist vertical flex when force is applied to the top of the frame. This is the reason semi-trucks have taller frame rails than other vehicles instead of just being thicker.\n",
"Trucks are the metal turning mechanism that attach the longboard wheels to the deck. They come in a wide range of styles, with wider trucks meaning a wider turning circle. They use the motion of the rider's feet and body to turn the board by pivoting a joint in the middle of the truck. There are generally two types of trucks used on longboards: reverse kingpin trucks and conventional skateboard trucks (vertical kingpin). Conventional skateboard trucks have the kingpin on the inner side (towards the center of the board) of the axle, whereas reverse kingpin trucks have the kingpin on the outer side (towards the nose and tail) of the axle.\n",
"A span bolster, in rail terminology, is a beam or frame used to link two trucks (US) or bogies (UK) so that they can be articulated together and be joined to the locomotive or railroad car at one rotating mounting point. In effect, they make one \"super-truck\" out of the two, while permitting each truck to move relative to the other.\n"
] |
Does "alcoholism" or "alcoholic" have a scientific definition, or is it a more subjective term?
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The DSM-IV-TR has definitions for alcohol abuse and alcohol dependence - [link](_URL_0_).
It's important to note that (a) The DSM V is due very shortly and (b) There are many researchers who feel that the DSM does not use the best model.
In regards to your question, it's worth noting that the criteria are a combination of subjective and objective symptoms. This is common for mental health conditions and one of the more common criticisms. If you lined up 100 therapists and asked them all to tell you whether 100 regular drinkers had a disorder, there would be *some* level of agreement but not total agreement. In nature, all mental health diagnoses are somewhat subjective and therefore open to interpretation by sufferers and diagnosticians.
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[
"The term \"alcoholism\" is commonly used amongst laypeople, but the word is poorly defined. The WHO calls \"alcoholism\" \"a term of long-standing use and variable meaning\", and use of the term was disfavored by a 1979 WHO expert committee. \"The Big Book\" (from Alcoholics Anonymous) states that once a person is an alcoholic, they are always an alcoholic, but does not define what is meant by the term \"alcoholic\" in this context. In 1960, Bill W., co-founder of Alcoholics Anonymous (AA), said:\n",
"In professional and research contexts, the term \"alcoholism\" sometimes encompasses both alcohol abuse and alcohol dependence, and sometimes is considered equivalent to alcohol dependence. Talbot (1989) observes that alcoholism in the classical disease model follows a progressive course: if a person continues to drink, their condition will worsen. This will lead to harmful consequences in their life, physically, mentally, emotionally and socially. Johnson (1980) explores the emotional progression of the addict's response to alcohol. He looks at this in four phases. The first two are considered \"normal\" drinking and the last two are viewed as \"typical\" alcoholic drinking. Johnson's four phases consist of:\n",
"Alcoholism is a broad term for any drinking of alcohol that results in problems. It was previously divided into two types: alcohol abuse and alcohol dependence. In a medical context, alcoholism is said to exist when two or more of the following conditions is present: a person drinks large amounts over a long time period, has difficulty cutting down, acquiring and drinking alcohol takes up a great deal of time, alcohol is strongly desired, usage results in not fulfilling responsibilities, usage results in social problems, usage results in health problems, usage results in risky situations, withdrawal occurs when stopping, and alcohol tolerance has occurred with use. Alcoholism reduces a person's life expectancy by around ten years and alcohol use is the third leading cause of early death in the United States. No professional medical association recommends that people who are nondrinkers should start drinking wine.\n",
"The American Society of Addiction Medicine and the American Medical Association both maintain extensive policy regarding alcoholism. The American Psychiatric Association recognizes the existence of \"alcoholism\" as the equivalent of alcohol dependence. The American Hospital Association, the American Public Health Association, the National Association of Social Workers, and the American College of Physicians classify \"alcoholism\" as a disease.\n",
"Since then medical and scientific communities have generally concluded that alcoholism is an \"addictive disease\" (aka Alcohol Use Disorder, Severe, Moderate, or Mild). The ten criteria are: alcoholism is a Primary Illness not caused by other illnesses nor by personality or character defects; second, an addiction gene is part of its etiology; third, alcoholism has predictable symptoms; fourth, it is progressive, becoming more severe even after long periods of abstinence; fifth, it is chronic and incurable; sixth, alcoholic drinking or other drug use persists in spite of negative consequences and efforts to quit; seventh, brain chemistry and neural functions change so alcohol as perceived as necessary for survival; eighth, it produces physical dependence and life-threatening withdrawal; ninth, it is a terminal illness; tenth, alcoholism can be treated and can be kept in remission.\n",
"AA describes alcoholism as an illness that involves a physical allergy (where \"allergy\" has a different meaning than that used in modern medicine.) and a mental obsession. The doctor and addiction specialist Dr. William D. Silkworth M.D. writes on behalf of AA that \"Alcoholics suffer from a \"(physical) craving beyond mental control\". A 1960 study by E. Morton Jellinek is considered the foundation of the modern disease theory of alcoholism. Jellinek's definition restricted the use of the word \"alcoholism\" to those showing a particular natural history. The modern medical definition of \"alcoholism\" has been revised numerous times since then. The American Medical Association uses the word alcoholism to refer to a particular chronic primary disease.\n",
"Alcoholism, also known as \"alcohol use disorder\", is a broad term for any drinking of alcohol that results in problems. It was previously divided into two types: alcohol abuse and alcohol dependence. In a medical context, alcoholism is said to exist when two or more of the following conditions is present: a person drinks large amounts over a long time period, has difficulty cutting down, acquiring and drinking alcohol takes up a great deal of time, alcohol is strongly desired, usage results in not fulfilling responsibilities, usage results in social problems, usage results in health problems, usage results in risky situations, withdrawal occurs when stopping, and alcohol tolerance has occurred with use. Alcoholism reduces a person's life expectancy by around ten years and alcohol use is the third-leading cause of early death in the United States. No professional medical association recommends that people who are nondrinkers should start drinking wine.\n"
] |
how can an aircrafts engine work at such high altitudes where humans struggle to breathe due to lack of oxygen?
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The aircraft require less power at high altitude because of less air resistance but very few aircraft can operate at very high levels due to the lack of air.
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[
"The human body can adapt to high altitude through both immediate and long-term acclimatization. At high altitude, in the short term, the lack of oxygen is sensed by the carotid bodies, which causes an increase in the breathing depth and rate (hyperpnea). However, hyperpnea also causes the adverse effect of respiratory alkalosis, inhibiting the respiratory center from enhancing the respiratory rate as much as would be required. Inability to increase the breathing rate can be caused by inadequate carotid body response or pulmonary or renal disease.\n",
"The newest models of aircraft were capable of exceeding altitudes at which humans can breathe, even with 100% oxygen supplementation, introducing the risk of hypoxia. Bird discovered that an oxygen regulator in a crashed German bomber he was ferrying back to the U.S. for study seemed to contain a pressure breathing circuit. He took the oxygen regulator home, studied it, and made it more functional. It became the standard design for high-altitude oxygen regulators for most military aircraft until recent time. Bird studied medicine \" ... to understand the human body and its stress in flight\". This led to him developing efficient respirators and ventilators.\n",
"One of the most significant breakthroughs in the prevention of altitude DCS is oxygen pre-breathing. Breathing pure oxygen significantly reduces the nitrogen loads in body tissues by reducing the partial pressure of nitrogen in the lungs, which induces diffusion of nitrogen from the blood into the breathing gas, and this effect eventually lowers the concentration of nitrogen in the other tissues of the body. If continued for long enough, and without interruption, this provides effective protection upon exposure to low-barometric pressure environments. However, breathing pure oxygen during flight alone (ascent, en route, descent) does not decrease the risk of altitude DCS as the time required for ascent is generally not sufficient to significantly desaturate the slower tissues.\n",
"Breathing gases for use at reduced ambient pressure are used for high altitude flight in unpressurised aircraft, in space flight, particularly in space suits, and for high altitude mountaineering. In all these cases, the primary consideration is providing an adequate partial pressure of oxygen. In some cases the breathing gas has oxygen added to make up a sufficient concentration, and in other cases the breathing gas may be pure or nearly pure oxygen. Closed circuit systems may be used to conserve the breathing gas, which may be in limited supply - in the case of mountaineering the user must carry the supplemental oxygen, and in space flight the cost of lifting mass into orbit is very high.\n",
"Although the shortage of air contributes to the effects on the human body, research has found that most altitude sicknesses can be linked to the lack of atmospheric pressure. At low elevation, the pressure is higher because the molecules of air are compressed from the weight of the air above them. However, at higher elevations, the pressure is lower and the molecules are more dispersed. The percentage of oxygen in the air at sea level is the same at high altitudes. But because the air molecules are more spread out at higher altitudes, each breath takes in less oxygen to the body. With this in mind, the lungs take in as much air as possible, but because the atmospheric pressure is lower the molecules are more dispersed, resulting in a lower amount of oxygen per breath.\n",
"Installation of a large number of engines was due to the requirements of maximum efficiency in various modes. Most of the aircraft's volume was occupied by fuel tanks with liquid hydrogen. The crew of two people was located in the nose of the fuselage. Automatic crew rescue system provided rescue at altitudes from zero to maximum. The bow section, including the cabin, was detachable. Two options were considered: rescued on parachute e cockpit and ejected seat.\n",
"\"Air-breathing combustion engines\" are combustion engines that use the oxygen in atmospheric air to oxidise ('burn') the fuel, rather than carrying an oxidiser, as in a rocket. Theoretically, this should result in a better specific impulse than for rocket engines.\n"
] |
What are the heat related consequences of urination?
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When urine leaves your body it is body temperature. Your body either heats, or is heated, by the cold or hot food and liquids you eat. Urinating itself does not change your body temperature as you are evacuating this temperature stabilized liquid.
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[
"The temperature at which the urine is examined is a very important factor to consider in the process of uroscopy. When a patient urinates, the urine will be warm, so it is necessary for it to stay warm for proper evaluation. The external temperature should be the same as the internal temperature. When the temperature of urine goes down the bubbles in it will change. Some of them will disappear, but some will remain. With the temperature decrease particles and impurities will be more difficult to evaluate. They will move toward the middle of the flask, then sink to the bottom. They will all mix, making it more difficult to see the impurities.\n",
"Urinary incontinence (UI) is defined as involuntary urination, and most often occurs in Greater Swiss Mountain Dogs as leaking of urine while sleeping; it is a non-life-threatening condition. It seems that more than 20% of the females are affected, usually after being spayed. Incontinence is occasionally found in males as well. Incontinence can occur for many reasons, such as a weak bladder sphincter – generally the most common cause in Greater Swiss Mountain Dogs – urinary tract infection, excessive water consumption, congenital structural defects and spinal cord disease.\n",
"Urinary incontinence (UI), also known as involuntary urination, is any uncontrolled leakage of urine. It is a common and distressing problem, which may have a large impact on quality of life. It has been identified as an important issue in geriatric health care. The term enuresis is often used to refer to urinary incontinence primarily in children, such as nocturnal enuresis (bed wetting).\n",
"Heat urticaria presents within five minutes after the skin has been exposed to heat above 43 degrees Celsius (109.4 degrees Fahrenheit), with the exposed area becoming burned, stinging, and turning red, swollen, and indurated.\n",
"Physiologically, urination involves coordination between the central, autonomic, and somatic nervous systems. In infants, some elderly individuals, and those with neurological injury, urination may occur as an involuntary reflex. Brain centers that regulate urination include the pontine micturition center, periaqueductal gray, and the cerebral cortex. During erection, these centers block the relaxation of the sphincter muscles, so as to act as a physiological separation of the excretory and reproductive function of the penis, and preventing urine from entering the upper portion of the urethra during ejaculation.\n",
"Accidents, periodic episodes of urinary or fecal incontinence, are generally a normal part of toilet training and are usually not a sign of serious medical issues. Accidents that occur with additional problems, such as pain when urinating or defecating, chronic constipation, or blood in urine or feces, should be evaluated by a pediatrician. The prevalence of nocturnal enuresis, also known as bed wetting, may be as high as 9.7% of seven-year-olds, and 5.5% of ten-year-olds, eventually decreasing to a rate of about 0.5% in adults.\n",
"Perspiration is a sign of autonomic responses trying to cool the body. Users are advised to leave the sauna if the heat becomes unbearable, or if they feel faint or ill. Some saunas have a thermostat to adjust temperature, but management and other users expect to be consulted before changes are made. The sauna heater and rocks are very hot—one must stay well clear to avoid injury, particularly when water is poured on the sauna rocks, which creates an immediate blast of steam. Combustibles on or near the heater have been known to result in fire. Contact lenses dry out in the heat. Jewellery or anything metallic, including glasses, will get hot in the sauna and can cause discomfort or burning.\n"
] |
why does the western world (say usa and western europe) get involved in armed local conflicts all over the world even if it doesn't have to?
|
Several reasons.
1) We have interconnected economies. So having trade access to resources means that some conflict that you would not think would affect a country really do affect them.
2) We now have invented weapons that are capable of destroying civilization as we know it with a push of a button. Limiting who gets the knowledge to make these weapons, and watching those countries that do have the knowledge is important and it often means going into war or smaller conflicts to prevent the spread of that knowledge.
3) Much of the world powers attempted to practice the philosophical stance of letting countries do whatever they want in their borders and to their neighbors and only getting involved when there was direct threat to them. What happened was the build up of Germany and start of WWII.
|
[
"There is significant debate over whether the lack of any major European general wars since 1945, is due to cooperation and integration of liberal-democratic European states themselves (as in the European Union or Franco-German cooperation), an enforced peace due to intervention of the Soviet Union and the United States until 1989 and the United States alone thereafter , or a combination of both .\n",
"Wars have often been provoked by international incidents, and diplomatic efforts to prevent international incidents from growing into full-scale armed conflicts often have been unsuccessful. In the aftermath of the First World War, the League of Nations was established to help nations who were parties to an international incident achieve a solution to the incident through diplomatic means. Initially, the League of Nations had some success in working to find diplomatic solutions, however the failure of the League of Nations to prevent World War II resulted in the disbandment of the League of Nations in favor of the United Nations. As with its predecessor, the United Nations provides a means by which nations involved in an international incident can work to resolve the matter diplomatically rather than through the use of force.\n",
"With similar roots in the realist tradition of international relations, selective engagement advocates that the United States should intervene in regions of the world only if they directly affect its security and prosperity. The focus, therefore, lies on those powers with significant industrial and military potential and the prevention of war amongst those states. Most proponents of this strategy believe Europe, Asia and the Middle East matter most to the United States. Europe and Asia contain the great powers, which have the greatest military and economic impact on international politics, and the Middle East is a primary source of oil for much of the developed world. In addition to these more particular concerns, selective engagement also focuses on preventing nuclear proliferation and any conflict that could lead to a great power war, but provides no clear guidelines for humanitarian interventions.\n",
"Another important factor is the apparent consensus among Western great powers that military force is no longer an effective tool of resolving disputes among their peers. This \"subset\" of great powers – France, Germany, Japan, the United Kingdom and the United States – consider maintaining a \"state of peace\" as desirable. As evidence, Baron outlines that since the Cuban missile crisis (1962) during the Cold War, these influential Western nations have resolved all disputes among the great powers peacefully at the United Nations and other forums of international discussion.\n",
"Following World War I, as after the Thirty Years' War, there was an outcry for rules of warfare to protect civilian populations, as well as a desire to curb invasions. The League of Nations, established after the war, attempted to curb invasions by enacting a treaty agreement providing for economic and military sanctions against member states that used \"external aggression\" to invade or conquer other member states. An international court was established, the Permanent Court of International Justice, to arbitrate disputes between nations without resorting to war. Meanwhile, many nations signed treaties agreeing to use international arbitration rather than warfare to settle differences. International crises, however, demonstrated that nations were not yet committed to the idea of giving external authorities a say in how nations conducted their affairs. Aggression on the part of Germany, Italy and Japan went unchecked by international law, and it took a Second World War to end it.\n",
"After the Second World War, no armed conflict emerged among major Western nations themselves, and no nuclear weapons were used in open conflict. The United Nations was also soon developed after World War II to help keep peaceful relations between nations and establishing the veto power for the permanent members of the UN Security Council, which included the United States.\n",
"Various religious and secular organisations have the stated aim of achieving world peace through addressing human rights, technology, education, engineering, medicine or diplomacy used as an end to all forms of fighting. Since 1945, the United Nations and the 5 permanent members of its Security Council (the US, Russia, China, France and the UK) have operated under the aim to resolve conflicts without war or declarations of war. Nonetheless, nations have entered numerous military conflicts since then.\n"
] |
What portion of the world's current gold supply was part of Atahualpa's ransom?
|
Let's assume that Hernando Pizarro was telling the truth about the size of the ransom and that all the promised ransom was received. Here is the description from Hernando Pizarro
> for that he could give them ten thousand plates, and that he could fill the room in which he was up to a white line, which was the height of a man and a half from the floor. The room was seventeen or eighteen feet wide and thirty-five feet long.
We'll start with the room. Assuming that the average height of a man was 5 feet, that would make the volume of the room to the line 17ftx35ftx7.5ft. 4462.5 cubic feet. One cubic foot of gold weights 1206 lbs so the total amount in the room would have been, accounting for open space, less than 5,381,775 lbs of gold. There is approximately 280,000,000 lbs of gold above ground in the world. So that would make it about 1.9%.
[Here](_URL_1_) is a picture of silver Incan plates, let's assume the gold ones Pizarro describes are the same size. They are not very big, so let's put their weight at 2 pounds. That would add 20,000 lbs of gold to the ransom which even at 10 lbs a plate is a negligible amount compared to the world's gold supply.
* Sources:
* _URL_2_
* _URL_0_
* _URL_3_
|
[
"In 1532, Francisco Pizarro was paid a ransom amounting to a roomful of gold by the Inca Empire before having their leader Atahualpa, his victim, executed in a ridiculous trial. The ransom payment received by Pizarro is recognized as the largest ever paid to a single individual, probably over $2 billion in today's economic markets.\n",
"The cargo of \"Cinco Chagas\" (along with the salvaged cargo from the two other ships) was worth well in excess of 2,000,000 ducats, and in addition there were twenty-two treasure chests of diamonds, rubies and pearls estimated to be worth US$15–20 billion by 2017 values. The prisoners that were saved told their captors that yielding had been impossible as the riches were for the king of Spain and Portugal and that the captain, being highly in the king's favor, would upon his return have been made viceroy in the Indies.\n",
"Meanwhile, Dobermaxx delivers 64,000 pieces of 900-troy ounce gold bullion as full payment for the Philippines foreign debt of USD 29.189 billion (in 1992 figures) to Mother Teresa, who acts as his go-between, since he did not wish for his identity to be known. The gold haul was implied to be the Dobermaxx found in Fort Santiago. He also does the payment anonymously to effectively bypass government law of giving 10% of the find to the National Treasury and keep the treasure off the hands of corrupt officials (such as Senator Cabalfin, who unwittingly said that the bullion should go to his pocket before correcting himself). Shortly after, Mother Teresa arrives in the Philippines to start a fund for calamity victims using the staggering but still enormous amount from the gold. While Dagul and Polgas watch the news reports of these matters, despite the obviousness of the featured silhouette, Dagul asks Polgas his opinion on who the mystery benefactor was, to which the dog convincingly feigns indifference to such matters, effectively keeping his actions with the gold secret.\n",
"On 1 March 1579, now in the Pacific Ocean, off the coast of Ecuador, \"Golden Hind\" challenged and captured the Spanish galleon . This galleon had the largest treasure captured to that date: over 360,000 pesos (equivalent to around £480m in 2017).\n",
"BULLET::::- Marking the largest ransom in United States history up to that time, $250,000 was paid by the president of a bank in Beverly Hills, California, for the safe release of his 11-year-old son, who had been kidnapped from his home three days earlier. A few days short of three years later, Ronald Lee Miller, an investigator for the Internal Revenue Service, would be indicted for the crime before the 3-year statute of limitations expired. After his conviction, Miller would be sentenced to life imprisonment without parole. None of the ransom money would ever be found.\n",
"The Inca, now settled in Zaruma, felt compelled to contribute to the ransom of Atahualpa when he was taken prisoner by the Spanish. In 1533, their chief Quinará decided to take a lot of gold in order to pay this ransom. Records say that he crossed the river Pisco Bamba, Catamayo Canton, but on learning of Atahualpa's execution he buried the gold in deep galleries close to the Guatuchi Hacienda in Loja Province.\n",
"On 17 November the Spaniards sacked the Inca army camp, in which they found great treasures of gold, silver, and emeralds. Noticing their lust for precious metals, Atahualpa offered to fill a large room about long and wide up to a height of once with gold and twice with silver within two months. It is commonly believed that Atahualpa offered this ransom to regain his freedom. But Hemming says that he did so to save his life. None of the early chroniclers mention any commitment by the Spaniards to free Atahualpa once the metals were delivered.\n"
] |
Why was the practice of presenting men, who refused to enlist in the army, a white feather supported by early feminist organizations?
|
The so-called 'Order of the White Feather' was created in Britain in 1914 by a former admiral, and essentially involved handing out 'white feathers' to anyone, specifically men, not seen as supporting the war effort, ie not enlisting. Some British women's organizations handed out feathers, an act that symbolizes 'cowardice' on the part of the receiver and which predated WWI. However, they seem to have been a minority, [with Stephen Badsey indicating that most references to them he's seen from the time being in the context of complaints against their activities.] (_URL_0_) It would seem their activities were curtailed, and by 1915 Compulsion had been introduced under the Derby Plan, and eventually Conscription was introduced at the beginning of 1916. The appearance of the White Feather seems to have died out by 1916, which seems to suggest a correlation with Conscription being enacted.
It's also worth noting that few men before conscription enlisted purely on compulsion; the Derby Plan netted 80 000 in 1915, the roughly same number as that of volunteers in August 1914. [Compare this again to the over 100 000 men that volunteered in the first fortnight of September 1914, following the publishing of the Mons Dispatch.] (_URL_1_)
If you want some good sources on wartime Britain (1914-1918), I'd highly recommend *The Last Great War: British Society in the First World War* by Adrian Gregory, *A Kingdom United* by Catriona Pannell, *Myriad Faces of War* by Trevor Wilson and *Different Wars, Different Experiences* by Janet K Watson.
|
[
"Despite their obvious distinctions from men, women were eager to volunteer. Many of the servicewomen came from restricted backgrounds; therefore they found the army liberating. Other reasons women volunteered included escaping unhappy homes or marriages, or to have a more stimulating job. The overwhelming reason for joining the army, though, was patriotism. As in World War I, Great Britain was in a patriotic fervour throughout World War II to protect itself from foreign invasion. Women, for the first time, were given the opportunity to help in their native land's defense, which explains the high number of female volunteers at the beginning of the war. Despite the overwhelming response to the call for female volunteers, some women refused to join the forces; many were unwilling to give up the civilian job they had, and others had male counterparts that were unwilling to let them go . Others felt that war was still a man's job, and not something women should be involved in. Similar to the men's forces, women's forces were mostly volunteer throughout the war. When women's conscription did come into effect, however, it was highly limited. For example, married women were exempt from any obligation to serve unless they chose to do so, and those who were called could opt to serve in civil defense (the home front).\n",
"One the primary roles of women in conscription was in the recruiting and campaigns. They would often be on posters or in the posts. They would be positioned during this time as vulnerable, perhaps with children, and be made out to be weak, and therefore in need of protection. One quote from one photos even recounts, 'Any right—minded woman would rather be a mother or sister of a dead hero than of a living shirker.' Women during World War I were also a huge pacifist movement often going through great deals to hold out for peace. Once again, they portrayed themselves as wives, sisters, sweethearts or mothers. Women often did less dangerous jobs that needed to be done for instance visiting and healing wounded soldiers. Often, they would hold small or confectionery sales, such as sold buttons on button days, rattled collection boxes on collection days, organised fetes, baked cakes, put together 'comfort parcels' and, above all they knitted. Quite a few women looked to take a greater part in the more war related activities. This included cooking, stretcher bearing, drivers, interpreters and munitions workers. However the government did not allow it.\n",
"The women's suffrage movement was sharply divided, the slight majority becoming very enthusiastic patriots and asking their members to give white feathers (the sign of the coward) in the streets to men who appeared to be of military age to shame them into service. After assaults became prevalent the Silver War Badge was issued to men who were not eligible or had been medically discharged.\n",
"Women had different motivations for joining the army, just as did their male counterparts. A common reason was to escape pre-arranged marriages. Sarah Edmonds, for example, left her home in maritime Canada and fled to the United States to avoid marriage—but took the ultimate protective step of dressing as a man and enlisting in the Union Army to avoid detection. Loreta Janeta Velazquez, on the other hand, was driven to enlist by more personal motivations; inspired by the example of Joan of Arc and other historical women warriors, she was idealistic about feminine potential on the battlefield, insisting that,“when women have rushed to the battlefield, they have invariably distinguished themselves.” Sarah Rosetta Wakeman had been living as a man long before the outbreak of the war, hoping to find better-paying work on the riverboats of New York rather than as a female domestic servant. She was, therefore, compelled to enlist by an economic imperative; the prospect of steady pay as an enlisted soldier in the Union Army appeared to be preferable to the instability of day labour. Whatever the original motivations of the individual female soldiers, however, they ultimately took part in the war on similar terms as their male brothers-in-arms.\n",
"The woman war worker was commonly used as a symbol of the home front, perhaps because, unlike a male figure, the question of why she was not serving in the armed forces would not be raised. In many stories, the woman worker appeared as an example to a selfish woman who then reformed and obtained employment.\n",
"During the American Civil War, women's public roles were expanded out of necessity as men joined the military. Some women organized events to raise funds to aid soldiers' families, ran family businesses and farms, or volunteered as nurses to help care for wounded soldiers. Thomas was active in these efforts. In March 1862, Indiana Governor Oliver P. Morton established the Indiana Sanitary Commission to help raise funds and gather supplies for troops in the field. Thomas initially worked in Richmond, Indiana, for a year gathering supplies for the war effort. Beginning in January 1863, Governor Morton and the Indiana Sanitary Commission enlisted the aid of women, including Thomas, to help carry supplies to the front line ans to serve as nurses. \n",
"Civilian women were hired by the French army in the First World War, thereby opening new opportunities for them, forcing a redefinition of military identity, and revealing the strength of anti-Republicanism within the Army. Officers by the 1920s accepted women as part of their institution. \n"
] |
In the Byzantine Empire, what type of names did people have?
|
That depends on the time period and location. Up until around the sixth century, you can see a lot of emperors having Latinate names, like Flavius Sabbatius Iustinianus (not that I'm biased!), Constantinus, or Iulianus. Later, more Hellenic names appear, like Basileios the Bulgar-Slayer or Alexios Komnenos. It's worth noting that those two are usually anglicized and latinized, respectively, as Basil and Alexius Comnenus. Now, since the Byzantine heartland was around the southern Balkans and Anatolia, Greek names would dominate the lower classes in much of the Empire. At its further reaches, one could also find Slavs, Armenians, Arabs, and others. Furthermore, in Constantinople there existed a large Italian presence thanks to the merchant republics.
Again, though, you're asking about a period of roughly a thousand years and an area covering much of the eastern Mediterranean. It's hard to generalize.
|
[
"Many peoples neighboring on the Byzantine Empire used names expressing concepts like \"The Great City\", \"City of the Emperors\", \"Capital of the Romans\" or similar. During the 10th to 12th century Constantinople was one of the largest two cities in the world, the other being Baghdad.\n",
"Of Byzantine origin according to tradition and a family of warriors and priests at the outset, its members will later distinguish themselves in the fields of trade, shipping, arts and letters. Their surname is mentioned for the first time by the mid-12th century in the person of a great Byzantine hagiographer of that era Luca Cancellari (in Greek: Λουκάς Καγκελλάρης), to whom are assigned the oldest and best icons of Virgin Mary and who is often confused with the Apostle Luke. Etymologically it goes back to the Latin \"cancellarius\", which means \"chief secretary\" or \"chancellor\", designates an office and thus in its original form must have been Cangellarios (in Greek: Καγκελλάριος). After the fall of Constantinople they fled to Corfu, from where they migrated in the early 16th century to settle at the village Vari in the region of Erisso, in Cephalonia, where they were entrusted with the military command of the region. Their inscription in the Golden Book of the island (in Italian: Libro d'Oro) is recorded in 1652, however, members of the family participated already before 1560 to the Council of Notables (in Italian: \"Conseglio dei Primarii\") and later to the Community Council (in Italian: \"Conseglio della Communità\") of Cephalonia. In the 16th century they will migrate to other parts of the island (St. George Castle, Pirgo, Plagia, Vassilikades, Asso, Cothria) and in the 17th and 18th centuries at Sami (Alevrata, Grizata, Zervata), Lixouri (Mantzavinata) and Argostoli. With the liberation of Lefkada from the Ottoman yoke, members will establish themselves there (Santa Maura, City of Lefkas or Amaxiki, St Peter), as well as at Preveza and Arta. During the 19th century members will settle in mainland Greece (Athens, Andravida, Patras etc.), the Ottoman Empire (Constantinople, Kios, Princes Islands), Romania (Braila), Crimea (Kerch) and Egypt (Suez, Alexandria). In the 20th century they will migrate to Africa (Asmara of Eritrea, Belgian Congo, Burundi, etc.), Jerusalem, Cyprus, the United States, Australia and other places.\n",
"Of those rulers, only two names are known: Salusios (Σαλούσιος) and the \"protospatharios\" Turcoturios (Tουρκοτούριος), who probably reigned some time in the 10th and 11th centuries. They were still closely linked to the Byzantines, both by a pact of ancient vassalage and culturally, with the use of the Greek language (in a country of the Romance language) and Byzantine art.\n",
"During most of the Middle Ages, the Byzantine Greeks self-identified as \"Rhōmaîoi\" (, \"Romans\", meaning citizens of the Roman Empire), a term which in the Greek language had become synonymous with Christian Greeks. The Latinizing term \"Graikoí\" (Γραικοί, \"Greeks\") was also used, though its use was less common, and nonexistent in official Byzantine political correspondence, prior to the Fourth Crusade of 1204. The Eastern Roman Empire (today conventionally named the \"Byzantine Empire\", a name not used during its own time) became increasingly influenced by Greek culture after the 7th century when Emperor Heraclius ( 610–641 AD) decided to make Greek the empire's official language. Although the Catholic Church recognized the Eastern Empire's claim to the Roman legacy for several centuries, after Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne, king of the Franks, as the \"Roman Emperor\" on 25 December 800, an act which eventually led to the formation of the Holy Roman Empire, the Latin West started to favour the Franks and began to refer to the Eastern Roman Empire largely as the \"Empire of the Greeks\" (\"Imperium Graecorum\"). In the eastern Roman Empire the use of the Latinizing term \"Graikoí\" (Γραικοί, \"Greeks\") was uncommon and nonexistent in official Byzantine political correspondence, prior to the Fourth Crusade of 1204. While this Latin term for the ancient \"Hellenes\" could be used neutrally, its use by Westerners from the 9th century onwards in order to challenge Byzantine claims to ancient Roman heritage rendered it a derogatory exonym for the Byzantines who barely used it, mostly in contexts relating to the West, such as texts relating to the Council of Florence, to present the Western viewpoint.\n",
"The origin of the title is uncertain. It has been suggested that it derives from the Byzantine imperial name \"Nikephoros\", via Arabic \"Nikfor.\" It is sometimes also said that it derives from the Armenian \"takavor\", \"king\". The term and its variants (\"tekvur\", \"tekur\", \"tekir\", etc.) began to be used by historians writing in Persian or Turkish in the 13th century, to refer to \"denote Byzantine lords or governors of towns and fortresses in Anatolia (Bithynia, Pontus) and Thrace. It often denoted Byzantine frontier warfare leaders, commanders of \"akritai\", but also Byzantine princes and emperors themselves\", e.g. in the case of the \"Tekfur Sarayı \", the Turkish name of the Palace of the Porphyrogenitus in Constantinople (mod. Istanbul).\n",
"In the Chinese histories, the names of Romans and Byzantines were often transliterated into Chinese as they were heard, yet occasionally the surname stemmed from their country of origin, Daqin (大秦). For instance, the Roman merchant Qin Lun (秦論), who visited the Eastern Wu court of Sun Quan in 226 AD, bears the surname derived from the name for his homeland, while having a given name that is perhaps derived from the Greek name Leon (e.g. Leon of Sparta). In the Han-era intermediate spoken language between Old Chinese and Middle Chinese, the pronunciation for his given name \"Lun\" (論) would have sounded quite different than modern spoken Mandarin: K. 470b *li̯wən / li̯uĕn or *lwən / luən; EMC lwən or lwənh.\n",
"Regnal numbers, used in many monarchies since medieval times to differentiate among rulers with the same name in the same office reigning over the same territory, were never used in the Roman Empire. Despite the increase in emperors with the same name during the Middle Ages, such as the several Michaels and Constantines, the practice was never introduced. Instead, the Byzantines used nicknames and patronymics to distinguish rulers of the same name. As such, the numbering of Byzantine emperors is a purely historiographical invention, created by historians beginning with Edward Gibbon in his \"History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire\".\n"
] |
To what extent did the Soviet-Polish war cause Poland to be successfully invaded in 1939?
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The Polish army was strong for a country of its economical development - it was well trained and equipped with modern arms. However, they were unable to stand up to the full power of a grand power such as Germany, and even less the power of two grand powers (Germany and the Soviet Union).
The Soviet-Polish war and the Polish gains in it earned it the enmity of the Soviet Union. It already had the enmity of Germany due to existing partially on previously German land that the Germans wanted back. It also had the enmity of Lithuania, since it had annexed the city of Vilnius and the area around it.
Czechoslovakia and Poland also had a strained relationship, since Czechoslovakia had used the timing of the Polish-Soviet war to grab the contested area of Teschen from Poland.
Poland had friendly relations with Romania and France though.
As you can see from this, the Polish-Soviet war placed Poland in a strategic and diplomatic vice from which it could not escape. Once Germany and the Soviet Union came to an agreement, there was very little the Poles could do to change their situation.
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[
"The Polish–Soviet War (February 1919 – March 1921) was an armed conflict between Soviet Russia and Soviet Ukraine on the one hand and the Second Polish Republic and the short-lived Ukrainian People's Republic on the other. The war was the result of conflicting expansionist ambitions. Poland, whose statehood had just been re-established by the Treaty of Versailles following the Partitions of Poland in the late 18th century, sought to secure territories it had lost at the time of the partitions. The aim of the Soviet states was to control those same territories, which the Russian Empire had gained in the partitions of Poland.\n",
"The Polish–Soviet war erupted in 1919 in the aftermath of World War I. The root causes were twofold: a territorial dispute dating back to Polish–Russian wars in the 17–18th centuries; and a clash of ideology due to RSFSR's goal of spreading communist rule further west, to Europe (Soviet westward offensive of 1918–19). At that time both countries had just undergone transition: in 1918 Poland reclaimed independence after 123 years of partitions. In 1917 the October Revolution replaced the liberal, democratic Provisional Government, that had previously displaced the Tsar in Russia, with Soviet rule. The war ended with the Treaty of Riga in 1921, which settled the border issue and regulated Polish-Soviet relations until the German-Soviet invasion of Poland in 1939.\n",
"In 1920, the Polish-Soviet War broke out after Poland attempted to annex parts of Belarus and Western Ukraine; by May 1920 they had conquered Kiev. After forcing the Polish army back, Lenin urged the Russian Army to push into Poland itself, believing that the Polish proletariat would rise up to support the Russian troops and thus spark European revolution. Although Trotsky and other Bolsheviks were sceptical, they eventually agreed to the invasion; however, the Polish proletariat failed to raise up against their government, and the Red Army was defeated at the Battle of Warsaw. Lenin had also sent a note to E. M. Sulyanski, in which he called on the Red Army to hang kulaks, clergy, and landed gentry, before blaming these attacks on Green armies. The Polish armies began to push the Red Army back into Russia, forcing Sovnarkom to sue for peace; the war culminated in the Peace of Riga, a treaty in which Russia ceded territory to Poland and paid them reparations.\n",
"In 1939 the invading forces consisted of 1.5 million Germans and nearly half a million Soviets. Poland's territory was divided between Nazi Germany and the USSR. In the summer and autumn of 1941 the lands annexed in the east by the Soviets, containing large Ukrainian and Belarusian populations, were overrun by Nazi Germany in the initially successful Operation Barbarossa against the Soviet Union.The occupying countries' actions eclipsed the sovereign Polish state and inflicted massive damage to the country's cultural heritage. Other war crimes against Poland included deportations aimed at ethnic cleansing, imposition of forced labor, pacifications, and genocidal acts. \n",
"Following German aggression on Poland, and in accordance with the secret protocol of Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, Soviet forces invaded eastern Poland on September 17, 1939. As bulk of the Polish Army was concentrated in the west, fighting Germans, the Soviets met with little resistance and their troops quickly moved westwards. Polish authorities originally intended to organize anti-German resistance in Stanisławów Voivodeship \"(see: Romanian Bridgehead)\", with Polish Army units planned to stand ground until the spring of 1940 when French attack on Germany was expected. However, the Soviet invasion of Poland rendered these plans ineffectual. It is estimated that prior to Soviet counter-offensive in the later part of World War II, over 18,000 Polish civilians in Stanisławów Voivodeship fell victims to OUN-UPA massacres.\n",
"The Polish-Soviet war, began in 1919, was the most important of the regional wars. Piłsudski first carried out a major military thrust into Ukraine in 1920 and in May Polish-Ukrainian forces reached Kiev. Just a few weeks later, however, the Polish offensive was met with a Soviet counter-offensive, and Polish forces were forced into a retreat by the Red Army. Poland was driven out of Ukraine and back into the Polish heartland. Most observers at the time marked Poland for extinction and Bolshevization, However at the Battle of Warsaw Piłsudski organized a stunning counterattack that won a famous victory. This \"Miracle on the Vistula\" became an iconic victory in Polish memory. Piłsudski resumed the offensive, pushing the Red forces east. Eventually both sides, exhausted, signed a compromise peace treaty at Riga in early 1921 that divided the disputed territories of Belarus and Ukraine between the two combatants. These acquisitions were recognized by the international agreement with the Entente. The treaty gave Poland an eastern border well beyond what the peacemakers in Paris had envisioned, and added 4,000,000 Ukrainians, 2,000,000 Jews, and 1,000,000 Belarusians to Poland's minority population.\n",
"In September 1939 Poland was invaded and divided between Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union (USSR), with most of Eastern Galicia falling under Soviet rule. Although the Soviets initially sought to win over the local Ukrainian population, their policies grew increasingly repressive. Ukrainian organizations not controlled by the Soviets were limited or abolished. Hundreds of credit unions and cooperatives that had served the Ukrainian people between the wars were shut down, and Ukrainian libraries, reading rooms, and newspapers were similarly closed. Mass arrests led to the deportation of up to 500,000 Ukrainians from regions annexed by the USSR between 1939 and the German invasion.\n"
] |
why is perpetual energy from gravity impossible?
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Gravity pulls things down. You can exploit this for energy, but only once.
Once the object has exhausted its "gravitational potential" (i.e. hit the ground) you can't extract any more without first picking it up again.
We do extract energy from falling water in hydroelectric dams, but again the water can only pass the dam once.
|
[
"Gravity also acts at a distance, without an apparent energy source, but to get energy out of a gravitational field (for instance, by dropping a heavy object, producing kinetic energy as it falls) one has to put energy in (for instance, by lifting the object up), and some energy is always dissipated in the process. A typical application of gravity in a perpetual motion machine is Bhaskara's wheel in the 12th century, whose key idea is itself a recurring theme, often called the overbalanced wheel: moving weights are attached to a wheel in such a way that they fall to a position further from the wheel's center for one half of the wheel's rotation, and closer to the center for the other half. Since weights further from the center apply a greater torque, it was thought that the wheel would rotate for ever. However, since the side with weights further from the center has fewer weights than the other side, at that moment, the torque is balanced and perpetual movement is not achieved. The moving weights may be hammers on pivoted arms, or rolling balls, or mercury in tubes; the principle is the same.\n",
"Even machines which extract energy from long-lived sources - such as ocean currents - will run down when their energy sources inevitably do. They are not perpetual motion machines because they are consuming energy from an external source and are not isolated systems.\n",
"A consequence of the law of conservation of energy is that a perpetual motion machine of the first kind cannot exist, that is to say, no system without an external energy supply can deliver an unlimited amount of energy to its surroundings. For systems which do not have time translation symmetry, it may not be possible to define conservation of energy. Examples include curved spacetimes in general relativity or time crystals in condensed matter physics.\n",
"Perpetual motion is motion of bodies that continues indefinitely. A perpetual motion machine is a hypothetical machine that can do work indefinitely without an energy source. This kind of machine is impossible, as it would violate the first or second law of thermodynamics.\n",
"The perpetual resource concept is a complex one because the concept of resource is complex and changes with the advent of new technology (usually more efficient recovery), new needs, and to a lesser degree with new economics (e.g. changes in prices of the material, changes in energy costs, etc.). On the one hand, a material (and its resources) can enter a time of shortage and become a strategic and critical material (an immediate exhaustibility crisis), but on the other hand a material can go out of use, its resource can proceed to being perpetual if it was not before, and then the resource can become a paleoresource when the material goes almost completely out of use (e.g. resources of arrowhead-grade flint). Some of the complexities influencing resources of a material include the extent of recyclability, the availability of suitable substitutes for the material in its end-use products, plus some other less important factors.\n",
"Continuity equations are a stronger, local form of conservation laws. For example, a weak version of the law of conservation of energy states that energy can neither be created nor destroyed—i.e., the total amount of energy in the universe is fixed. This statement does not rule out the possibility that a quantity of energy could disappear from one point while simultaneously appearing at another point. A stronger statement is that energy is \"locally\" conserved: energy can neither be created nor destroyed, \"nor\" can it \"teleport\" from one place to another—it can only move by a continuous flow. A continuity equation is the mathematical way to express this kind of statement. For example, the continuity equation for electric charge states that the amount of electric charge in any volume of space can only change by the amount of electric current flowing into or out of that volume through its boundaries.\n",
"Gravitational energy is the potential energy associated with gravitational force, as work is required to elevate objects against Earth's gravity. The potential energy due to elevated positions is called gravitational potential energy, and is evidenced by water in an elevated reservoir or kept behind a dam. If an object falls from one point to another point inside a gravitational field, the force of gravity will do positive work on the object, and the gravitational potential energy will decrease by the same amount.\n"
] |
When I see gray, what wavelengths am I seeing?
|
Many times the color grey is generated by a mixture of compounds. Some which absorb and some which reflect. For instance if you mix white paint with black paint you will end up with a grey color because the mixture contains compounds which reflect all light and compounds which absorb all light. So at any given point in the mixture you would expect to have both compounds and depending on which compound the light hits determines if it is reflected or absorbed.
You can also have large molecules with multiple groups some of which absorb multiple wavelengths of light while other parts of the molecule reflect.
|
[
"Wavelengths and frequencies in gray indicate dominant wavelengths and frequencies, not actual range of spectrum composing a specified color, which extends farther to both sides and is averaged by receptors to give a near-spectral appearance.\n",
"The normal three kinds of light-sensitive photoreceptor cells in the human eye (cone cells) respond most to yellow (long wavelength or L), green (medium or M), and violet (short or S) light (peak wavelengths near 570 nm, 540 nm and 440 nm, respectively). The difference in the signals received from the three kinds allows the brain to differentiate a wide gamut of different colors, while being most sensitive (overall) to yellowish-green light and to differences between hues in the green-to-orange region.\n",
"Most light sources emit light at many different wavelengths; a source's \"spectrum\" is a distribution giving its intensity at each wavelength. Although the spectrum of light arriving at the eye from a given direction determines the color [[Wikt:sensation|sensation]] in that direction, there are many more possible spectral combinations than color sensations. In fact, one may formally define a color as a class of spectra that give rise to the same color sensation, although such classes would vary widely among different species, and to a lesser extent among individuals within the same species. In each such class the members are called \"[[Metamerism (color)|metamers]]\" of the color in question.\n",
"Of the colours in the visible spectrum of light, blue has a very short wavelength, while red has the longest wavelength. When sunlight passes through the atmosphere, the blue wavelengths are scattered more widely by the oxygen and nitrogen molecules, and more blue comes to our eyes. This effect is called Rayleigh scattering, after Lord Rayleigh, the British physicist who discovered it. It was confirmed by Albert Einstein in 1911.\n",
"It is based on the Young-Helmholtz theory that the normal human eye sees color because its inner surface is covered with millions of intermingled cone cells of three types: in theory, one type is most sensitive to the end of the spectrum we call \"red\", another is more sensitive to the middle or \"green\" region, and a third which is most strongly stimulated by \"blue\". The named colors are somewhat arbitrary divisions imposed on the continuous spectrum of visible light, and the theory is not an entirely accurate description of cone sensitivity. But the simple description of these three colors coincides enough with the sensations experienced by the eye that when these three colors are used the three cones types are adequately and unequally stimulated to form the illusion of various intermediate wavelengths of light.\n",
"Humans are able to see an array of colours because light in the visible spectrum is made up of different wavelengths (from 380 to 760 nm). Our ability to see in colour is due to three different cone cells in the retina, containing three different photopigments. The three cones are each specialized to best pick up a certain wavelength (420, 530 and 560 nm or roughly the colours blue, green and red). The brain is able to distinguish the wavelength and colour in the field of vision by figuring out which cone has been stimulated. The physical dimensions of colour include wavelength, intensity and purity while the related perceptual dimensions include hue, brightness and saturation.\n",
"The human eye uses three types of cones to sense light in three bands of color. The biological pigments of the cones have maximum absorption values at wavelengths of about 420 nm (blue), 534 nm (bluish-green), and 564 nm (yellowish-green). Their sensitivity ranges overlap to provide vision throughout the visible spectrum. The maximum efficacy is 683 lm/W at a wavelength of 555 nm (green). By definition, light at a frequency of hertz has a luminous efficacy of 683 lm/W.\n"
] |
how do people get hd clips from tv to the internet?
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A PC with a "Capture Card" of one kind or another.
HD material from a cable/satellite box gets fed into the computer, where it's "captured", and can then be edited and uploaded. It's not legal, but it is rather easy with modern software.
|
[
"The Slingbox is a TV streaming media device made by Sling Media that encodes local video for transmission over the Internet to a remote device (sometimes called placeshifting). It allows users to remotely view and control their cable, satellite, or digital video recorder (DVR) system at home from a remote Internet-connected PC, smartphone, or tablet as if he or she were at home.\n",
"The basic way to watch the videos was through the Google Video website, video.google.com. Each video had a unique web address in the format of codice_1, and that page contained an embedded Flash Video file which could be viewed in any Flash-enabled browser.\n",
"Digital content and data is embedded in a standard TV video stream as codice_1 files and transmitted over a satellite TV channel. “Audiences record this video stream from their common satellite TV receiver to a USB drive, transfer it to their smartphone or computer, and use Toosheh software to decode this video stream back into text, audio, or video files to be made available for viewing.\" In short, content is hidden inside video files and can then be extracted for users with the Toosheh software.\n",
"While living together the creators became frustrated with the need to plug an HDMI cable into their computers to get videos onto the TV. The team set out to create an app which made it easy for internet-connected televisions to receive video wirelessly from a laptop or mobile phone. The project was initially launched as a hobby, however quickly became the group's main focus after receiving early traction. According to the Chrome App Store, Videostream currently has just over 2,000,000 active users as of May, 2016.\n",
"Live video can also be streamed and shared from a cell phone through applications like Qik and InstaLively. The uploaded video can be shared to friends through emails or social networking sites. Most Live video streaming application works over the cell network or through Wi-Fi. They also require most users to have a dataplan from their cell phone carriers.\n",
"The service has access to video on demand: current HD providers include BBC, FilmFlex, Fox, History, National Geographic Channel and PictureBox programming. Notable content includes \"Planet Earth\" and \"Dexter\".\n",
"Some (very few), but certainly not all, digital video recorders which are designed to send information to a service provider over a telephone line or Internet (or any other way) can gather and send real-time data on users' viewing habits.\n"
] |
Are there any animals whose blood is not red?
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Yes, but it's not particularly common. A common example is the [horseshoe crab](_URL_0_), which has hemocyanin in place of hemoglobin. Vertebrate blood's red color comes largely from hemoglobin, which is bright red when oxygenated and a darker red when deoxygenated. Hemocyanin is blue when oxygenated and colorless when deoxygenated, so horseshoe crab blood is generally described as blue. Hemocyanin is also used by molluscs (like some snails) and other arthropods (like some spiders).
|
[
"Vertebrate blood is bright red when its hemoglobin is oxygenated and dark red when it is deoxygenated. Some animals, such as crustaceans and mollusks, use hemocyanin to carry oxygen, instead of hemoglobin. Insects and some mollusks use a fluid called hemolymph instead of blood, the difference being that hemolymph is not contained in a closed circulatory system. In most insects, this \"blood\" does not contain oxygen-carrying molecules such as hemoglobin because their bodies are small enough for their tracheal system to suffice for supplying oxygen.\n",
"As in other lizards of the genus \"Prasinohaema\", the blood of \"P. virens\" is green, rather than the usual red coloration of most vertebrates. The green blood pigmentation results in a strikingly bright lime-green coloration of muscles, bones, tongue, and mucosal tissue, and is the result of the accumulation of the bile pigment biliverdin in levels that would be toxic in all other vertebrates. Biliverdin is formed from the breakdown of hemoglobin, and is normally converted to bilirubin. However, mutation in various genes regulating bilirubin formation is believed to lead to the formation and accumulation of high levels of biliverdin. It is speculated that the high biliverdin concentration protects against malaria.\n",
"Some animals are colored purely incidentally because their blood contains pigments. For example, amphibians like the olm that live in caves may be largely colorless as color has no function in that environment, but they show some red because of the haem pigment in their red blood cells, needed to carry oxygen. They also have a little orange colored riboflavin in their skin. Human albinos and people with fair skin have a similar color for the same reason.\n",
"Almost all vertebrates, including all mammals and humans, have red blood cells. Red blood cells are cells present in blood in order to transport oxygen. The only known vertebrates without red blood cells are the crocodile icefish (family Channichthyidae); they live in very oxygen-rich cold water and transport oxygen freely dissolved in their blood. While they no longer use hemoglobin, remnants of hemoglobin genes can be found in their genome.\n",
"The blood of most mollusks – including cephalopods and gastropods – as well as some arthropods, such as horseshoe crabs, is blue, as it contains the copper-containing protein hemocyanin at concentrations of about 50 grams per liter. Hemocyanin is colorless when deoxygenated and dark blue when oxygenated. The blood in the circulation of these creatures, which generally live in cold environments with low oxygen tensions, is grey-white to pale yellow, and it turns dark blue when exposed to the oxygen in the air, as seen when they bleed. This is due to change in color of hemocyanin when it is oxidized. Hemocyanin carries oxygen in extracellular fluid, which is in contrast to the intracellular oxygen transport in mammals by hemoglobin in RBCs.\n",
"Animals without blood were divided into soft-shelled \"Malakostraka\" (crabs, lobsters, and shrimps); hard-shelled \"Ostrakoderma\" (gastropods and bivalves); soft-bodied \"Malakia\" (cephalopods); and divisible animals \"Entoma\" (insects, spiders, scorpions, ticks). Other animals without blood included fish lice, hermit crabs, red coral, sea anemones, sponges, starfish and various worms: Aristotle did not classify these into groups.\n",
"In general, red blood cells in mammals lack a cell nucleus when mature, and the red blood cells of other vertebrates have nuclei. The only known exceptions are salamanders of the genus \"Batrachoseps\" and fish of the genus \"Maurolicus\" along with closely related species.\n"
] |
degrees of education
|
Associate's Degree: 2 years
Bachelor's Degree: 4 years
Master's Degree: Bachelor's + 2 years
Doctoral/Ph.D: Bachelor's + 4-6 years.
|
[
"The Master of Education (M.Ed. or Ed.M.; Latin \"Magister Educationis\" or \"Educationis Magister\") is a master's degree awarded by universities in many countries. This degree in education often includes the following majors: curriculum and instruction, counseling, school psychology, and administration. It is often conferred for educators advancing in their field. Similar degrees (providing qualifications for similar careers) include the Master of Arts in Education (M.A.Ed. or M.A.E.) and the Master of Science in Education (M.S.Ed. or M.S.E.). The Master of Arts in Teaching, however, is substantially different.\n",
"The Graduate School was created in 1971, initiating its academic activities with the programs of doctorate and masters in Education. The master's degree in Psychology and Philosophy were created in 1988, and the doctorate in Psychology in 1994. Subsequently, created the master's degree in Civil Law and Nutrition and Dietetics.\n",
"The 12 schools offer Doctor of Philosophy degrees (or appropriate professional degrees) in 66 programs and Master's Degrees in 103 programs. Undergraduate degrees are awarded in 72 programs by six schools: architecture and planning, arts and sciences, engineering, music, nursing, and philosophy.\n",
"Graduate degrees offered include the Master of Education in seventeen major programs, the Master of Arts in three major programs, the Master of Arts in Teaching in two major programs, the Master of Science in eight major programs, Master of Science in Exercise Physiology, Master of Public Administration, Master of Business Administration, Master of Science in Nursing, Master of Art Education, Master of Music Education, Master of Music Performance, Master of Social Work, Master of Library and Information Science, the Education Specialist in ten major programs, the Doctor of Education in three major programs, the Doctor of Speech-Language Pathology, and the Doctor of Public Administration. New baccalaureate and graduate degree programs are added from time to time to meet the needs of the population served by the University.\n",
"The United States Department of Education published a \"Structure of US Education\" in 2008 that differentiated between associate degrees, bachelor's degrees, first professional degrees, master's degrees, intermediate graduate qualifications and research doctorate degrees. This included doctoral degrees in the \"first professional degree\", \"intermediate graduate qualification\" and \"research doctorate degree\" categories.\n",
"The College of Education was founded in 1935 and offers programs that include a Doctorate in Educational Leadership, Masters in Adult Education and Training, Counseling, Curriculum and Instruction, Educational Administration, Literacy for Special Needs, Master in Teaching, Master in Teaching with Special Education Endorsement, Special Education, Student Development Administration, and Teaching English as a second or foreign language (ESL). Educational specialist degree programs include Educational Administration and School Psychology, and special education and certificate programs offered include Superintendent, Principal, and Professional Development.\n",
"The School of Graduate Studies, that formally opened in 1962, offers the following courses: Master of Science in Accountancy; Master of Business Administration; Doctor of Philosophy in Commerce major in Management; Master of Arts in Education with majors in Educational Administration, Reading Education, Pedagogy, Religious Education, and Guidance and Counseling; Master of Arts in Physical Education; Doctor of Philosophy major in Educational Management; Master of Arts in Teaching with majors in: English, Secondary Biology, Secondary Mathematics, Physics, Chemistry; Master of Arts with majors in Language (English), Biology, Physics, Chemistry, Mathematics; Doctor of Philosophy in Science Education with majors in Biology, and Mathematics; Master of Public Administration; Doctor of Public Administration; Master of Science in Nursing with majors in Nursing Administration, Community Health Nursing (Primary Health Care), Adult Health Nursing (Medial-Surgical Nursing) and Maternal and Child Health Nursing; Master of Science in Management Engineering; Master in Engineering major in Civil Engineering; Master of Library and Information Science: Master in Information Technology; and Master of Developmental Arts and Design. The School used to offer the Innovative Master in Public Administration (Certificate in Modern Local Government, Certificate in Local Fiscal Administration and Economic Promotion, Diploma in Local Public Administration and Governance). \n"
] |
why has easter turned into a time to celebrate finding chocolate/eggs from a bunny?
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You might ask why did Easter turned into a Christian holiday "celebrating" the torture and death of their god when it is actually (and originally) about the Spring Equinox and fertility.
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[
"Traditional Easter foods commonly consumed in Australia include Hot Cross Buns, recalling the cross of the Crucifixion, and chocolate Easter Eggs – symbolic of the promise of \"New Life\" offered by the Resurrection. Although chocolate eggs are now eaten throughout the period, eggs were traditionally exchanged on Easter Sunday and, as in other nations, young children believe their eggs to be delivered by the Easter Bunny. A local variant on this tradition is the story of the Easter Bilby, which seeks to raise the profile of an endangered Australian native, the Bilby whose existence is threatened by the imported European rabbit population.\n",
"A custom originating in Germany, the Easter Bunny is a popular legendary anthropomorphic Easter gift-giving character analogous to Santa Claus in American culture. Many children around the world follow the tradition of coloring hard-boiled eggs and giving baskets of candy. Since the rabbit is a pest in Australia, the Easter Bilby is available as an alternative. Manufacturing their first Easter egg in 1875, British chocolate company Cadbury sponsors the annual Easter egg hunt which takes place in over 250 National Trust locations in the United Kingdom. On Easter Monday, the President of the United States holds an annual Easter egg roll on the White House lawn for young children.\n",
"According to anthropologist Krystal D'Costa, there is no evidence to connect the tradition of Easter eggs with Ostara. Eggs became a symbol in Christianity associated with rebirth as early as the 1st century AD, via the iconography of the Phoenix egg. D'Costa theorizes that eggs became associated with Easter specifically in medieval Europe, when eating them was prohibited during the fast of Lent. D'Costa highlights that a common practice in England at that time was for children to go door-to-door begging for eggs on the Saturday before Lent began. People handed out eggs as special treats for children prior to their fast.\n",
"A number of companies have made use of the popularity of Easter and more specifically Easter egg hunts to promote the sales of their candy products. Most notable have been chocolatiers including Cadbury with their annual Easter Egg Trail which takes place in over 250 National Trust locations in the UK. In 2015, the British chocolate company Thorntons worked with the geocaching community to hide chocolate eggs across the United Kingdom.\n",
"The Christian custom of Easter eggs, specifically, started among the early Christians of Mesopotamia, who stained eggs with red coloring \"in memory of the blood of Christ, shed at His crucifixion\". The Christian Church officially adopted the custom, regarding the eggs as a symbol of the resurrection of Jesus, with the Roman Ritual, the first edition of which was published in 1610 but which has texts of much older date, containing among the Easter Blessings of Food, one for eggs, along with those for lamb, bread, and new produce. The blessing is for consumption as a food, rather than decorated. \n",
"Easter eggs, also called Paschal eggs, are eggs that are sometimes decorated. They are usually used as gifts on the occasion of Easter. As such, Easter eggs are common during the season of Eastertide (Easter season). The oldest tradition is to use dyed and painted chicken eggs, but a modern custom is to substitute chocolate eggs wrapped in colored foil, hand-carved wooden eggs, or plastic eggs filled with confectionery such as chocolate. However, real eggs continue to be used in Central and Eastern European tradition. Although eggs, in general, were a traditional symbol of fertility and rebirth, in Christianity, for the celebration of Eastertide, Easter eggs symbolize the empty tomb of Jesus, from which Jesus resurrected. In addition, one ancient tradition was the staining of Easter eggs with the colour red \"in memory of the blood of Christ, shed as at that time of his crucifixion.\" This custom of the Easter egg can be traced to early Christians of Mesopotamia, and from there it spread into Russia and Siberia through the Orthodox Churches, and later into Europe through the Catholic and Protestant Churches. This Christian use of eggs may have been influenced by practices in \"pre-dynastic period in Egypt, as well as amid the early cultures of Mesopotamia and Crete.\"\n",
"Manufacturing their first Easter egg in 1875, Cadbury created the modern chocolate Easter egg after developing a pure cocoa butter that could be moulded into smooth shapes. By 1893, Cadbury had 19 different varieties of chocolate Easter egg on sale.\n"
] |
Why we're African slaves not more common in the uk?
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There was a legal question regarding whether or not the state of enslavement could exist on British soil. The situation was ambiguous, and certain West Indian plantation owners did bring slaves back to Britain with them, as personal valets/maids and the like. However, it became increasingly common, as the 18th century progressed, for enslaved persons to bring a legal challenge against their 'owners' in the courts, to claim their freedom and avoid being sent back to the harshness of plantation life. The earliest such case was in 1690. Judgements varied - there are cases of enslaved persons being granted their liberty, sometimes permanently and sometimes temporarily; as well as cases where the state of enslavement was confirmed rather than overturned.
The most high-profile case of this type was that of James Somersett, a slave 'owned' by a Boston government official, with whom he travelled to Britain. (This is at a point where the US is still a British colony, just about). Somersett escaped, but was recaptured and sent aboard a ship bound for Jamaica. A suit for his release was brought by abolitionist campaigners, and after a lengthy deliberation, the judge Lord Mansfield determined that Somersett had the right not to be forcibly removed from the country against his will. Crucially, he did not rule that slavery on British soil was illegal, but it was interpreted this way by many slaves and masters alike.
So, in short, the number of enslaved black people in the UK was always tiny, due largely to the fact that their ambiguous legal status there meant that their 'owners' risked losing their slaves via legal mechanism. There was a small community of free black people in 18th century Britain, primarily of former slaves who had been granted freedom - the writer Olaudah Equiano was one, as were Francis Barber (the servant and heir of the writer Samuel Johnson), and Ignatius Sancho. It's estimated that there were around 15,000 black people living in London by the end of the 18th century, although these numbers are difficult to fully reconstruct because racial identity is not always recorded in datasets such as parish registers.
|
[
"In the book \"\", the author Charles Mann cites sources that speculate that the reason African slaves were brought to the British Americas was because of their immunity to malaria. Britain did not have large numbers of African slaves, there were plenty of unemployed workers who could come as indentured servants. In the area above the Mason–Dixon line, the malaria protozoa did not fare well, the English-speaking indentured servant proved more profitable as he would work toward his freedom and hence worked with less supervision and coercion. As malaria spread, places such as the tidewater of Virginia and South Carolina which had previously been habitable by white people became endemic with malaria. Small white landholders were at a disadvantage to plantation owners, as they risk complete economic ruin when they were sick, while plantation owners relied on more malaria resistant West African slaves. Malaria caused huge losses to British forces in the South during the revolutionary war as well as to Union forces during the Civil War. Malaria also helped weaken the Native American population and make them more susceptible to other diseases.\n",
"African slaves were not bought or sold in London itself but were brought by masters from other places. Together with people from other nations, especially non-Christian ones, Africans were considered foreigners and thus ineligible to be English subjects. At the time, England had no naturalisation procedure. The African slaves' legal status was unclear until the 1772 Somersett's Case, when the fugitive slave James Somersett forced a decision by the courts. Somersett had escaped and his master, Charles Steuart, had him captured and imprisoned on board a ship, intending to ship him to Jamaica to be resold into slavery. While in London, Somersett had been baptised and three godparents issued a writ of \"habeas corpus\". As a result, Lord Mansfield, Chief Justice of the Court of the King's Bench, had to judge whether Somersett's abduction was lawful or not under English Common Law. No legislation had ever been passed to establish slavery in England. The case received national attention and five advocates supported the action on behalf of Somersett.\n",
"African slaves were not bought or sold in London but were brought by masters from other areas. Together with people from other nations, especially non-Christian, Africans were considered foreigners, not able to be English subjects. At the time, England had no naturalization procedure. The African slaves' legal status was unclear until 1772 and Somersett's Case, when the fugitive slave James Somersett forced a decision by the courts. Somersett had escaped, and his master, Charles Steuart, had him captured and imprisoned on board a ship, intending to ship him to Jamaica to be resold into slavery. While in London, Somersett had been baptized; three godparents issued a writ of \"habeas corpus\". As a result, Lord Mansfield, Chief Justice of the Court of the King's Bench, had to judge whether Somersett's abduction was lawful or not under English Common Law. No legislation had ever been passed to establish slavery in England. The case received national attention, and five advocates supported the action on behalf of Somersett.\n",
"By the 1680s, with the consolidation of England's Royal African Company, enslaved Africans were arriving in English colonies in larger numbers, and the institution continued to be protected by the British government. Colonists now began purchasing slaves in larger numbers.\n",
"Within British society were slave owners. By the mid 18th century, London had the largest Black population in Britain, made up of free and enslaved people, as well as many runaways. The total number may have been about 10,000. Many of these people were forced into beggary due to the lack of jobs and racial discrimination. Owners of African slaves in England would advertise slave-sales and for re-capture runaways.\n",
"While a smaller number of African slaves were kept and sold in England, slavery in Great Britain had not been authorized by statute there. In 1772, it was made unenforceable at common law in England and Wales by a legal decision. The large British role in the international slave trade continued until 1807. Slavery flourished in most of Britain's colonies, with many wealthy slave owners living in England and holding considerable power.\n",
"By the 18th century, the overwhelming number of black slaves was such that Amerindian slavery was less commonly used. Africans, who were taken aboard slave ships to the Americas, were primarily obtained from their African homelands by coastal tribes who captured and sold them. Europeans traded for slaves with the slave capturers of the local native African tribes in exchange for rum, guns, gunpowder, and other manufactures.\n"
] |
Does a satellite experience centrifugal force or centripetal force?
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It depends on your frame of reference. In an inertial frame stationary with respect to the Earth, the satellite is only subject to a centripetal force (gravity).
In a reference frame co-rotating with the satellite, the centripetal force is still there, and there is additionally a centrifugal force equal and opposite to the centripetal force.
|
[
"Newton's idea of a centripetal force corresponds to what is nowadays referred to as a central force. When a satellite is in orbit around a planet, gravity is considered to be a centripetal force even though in the case of eccentric orbits, the gravitational force is directed towards the focus, and not towards the instantaneous center of curvature.\n",
"Of those, the gravitational force and the centrifugal force are conservative and therefore have no overall contribution to fluid moving in closed loops. Ekman number (defined above), which is the ratio between the two remaining forces, namely the viscosity and Coriolis force, is very low inside Earth's outer core, because its viscosity is low (1.2-1.5 x10 pascal-second ) due to its liquidity.\n",
"Centrifugal force is an outward force apparent in a rotating reference frame. It does not exist when a system is described relative to an inertial frame of reference. All measurements of position and velocity must be made relative to some frame of reference. For example, an analysis of the motion of an object in an airliner in flight could be made relative to the airliner, to the surface of the Earth, or even to the Sun. A reference frame that is at rest (or one that moves with no rotation and at constant velocity) relative to the \"fixed stars\" is generally taken to be an inertial frame. Any system can be analyzed in an inertial frame (and so with no centrifugal force). However, it is often more convenient to describe a rotating system by using a rotating frame—the calculations are simpler, and descriptions more intuitive. When this choice is made, fictitious forces, including the centrifugal force, arise.\n",
"To eliminate non-gravitational forces such as light pressure and solar wind on the test masses, each spacecraft is constructed as a zero-drag satellite, and effectively floats around the masses, using capacitive sensing to determine their position relative to the spacecraft, and very precise thrusters to keep itself centered around them.\n",
"Centripetal force causes the acceleration measured on the rotating surface of the Earth to differ from the acceleration that is measured for a free-falling body: the apparent acceleration in the rotating frame of reference is the total gravity vector minus a small vector toward the north-south axis of the Earth, corresponding to staying stationary in that frame of reference.\n",
"A non-rotating body of planetary scale or larger would be pulled by gravity into a sphere. Virtually all bodies rotate, however. The centrifugal force deforms the body so that it has an equatorial bulge. Because of the bulge the gravitational force on the satellite is not directly toward the center of the central body, but is offset toward the equator. Whichever hemisphere the satellite is in it is preferentially pulled slightly toward the equator. This creates a torque on the orbit. This torque does not reduce the inclination; rather, it causes a torque-induced gyroscopic precession, which causes the orbital nodes to drift with time.\n",
"More realistically, however, the spacecraft is subject to gravitational forces from many bodies. Gravitation from Earth and Moon dominate the spacecraft's acceleration, and since the spacecraft's own mass is negligible in comparison, the spacecraft's trajectory may be better approximated as a restricted three-body problem. This model is a closer approximation but lacks an analytic solution, requiring numerical calculation via methods such as Runge-Kutta.\n"
] |
how was the internet made? like how did they discover coding, etc?
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Computers predate the internet by several decades, but the origins of the internet can be traced back to a US Military project in the 1960's called Arpanet. They wanted to see if they could get computers to communicate with each other. The first data packet was sent from a computer at UCLA to one at Stanford in 1969. The technology that came out of Arpanet ultimately led to the commercial internet.
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[
"As the Internet grew from a forum for sharing information to a marketplace for doing business, a technology matured that allowed computers to transact with each other more easily. Out of these Internet roots, web service technology was born.\n",
"While the Internet began with a U.S. Government research project in the late 1950s, the web in its present form did not appear on the Internet until after Tim Berners-Lee and his colleagues at the European laboratory (CERN) proposed the concept of linking documents with hypertext. But it was not until Mosaic, the forerunner of the famous Netscape Navigator appeared, that the Internet became more than a file serving system.\n",
"The history of the Internet begins with the development of electronic computers in the 1950s. Initial concepts of wide area networking originated in several computer science laboratories in the United States, United Kingdom, and France. The U.S. Department of Defense awarded contracts as early as the 1960s, including for the development of the ARPANET project, directed by Robert Taylor and managed by Lawrence Roberts. The first message was sent over the ARPANET in 1969 from computer science Professor Leonard Kleinrock's laboratory at University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA) to the second network node at Stanford Research Institute (SRI).\n",
"Made with Code is an initiative launched by Google on 19 July 2014. Google aimed to empower young women in middle and high schools with computer programming skills. Made with Code was created after Google's own research found out that encouragement and exposure are the critical factors that would influence young females to pursue Computer Science. It was reported that Google is funding $50 million to Made with Code, on top of the initial $40 million invested since 2010 in organizations like Code.org, Black Girls Code, and Girls Who Code. The Made with Code initiative involves both online activities as well as real life events, collaborating with notable firms like Shapeways and App Inventor.\n",
"Internetworking started as a way to connect disparate types of networking technology, but it became widespread through the developing need to connect two or more local area networks via some sort of wide area network. The original term for an internetwork was catenet.\n",
"The origins of the Internet date back to research commissioned by the federal government of the United States in the 1960s to build robust, fault-tolerant communication with computer networks. The primary precursor network, the ARPANET, initially served as a backbone for interconnection of regional academic and military networks in the 1980s. The funding of the National Science Foundation Network as a new backbone in the 1980s, as well as private funding for other commercial extensions, led to worldwide participation in the development of new networking technologies, and the merger of many networks. The linking of commercial networks and enterprises by the early 1990s marked the beginning of the transition to the modern Internet, and generated a sustained exponential growth as generations of institutional, personal, and mobile computers were connected to the network. Although the Internet was widely used by academia since the 1980s, commercialization incorporated its services and technologies into virtually every aspect of modern life.\n",
"In the 1950s and 1960s, with the creation of computers, is where the history of the Internet begins. In 1969 came the invention of Arpanet, the first network to run on packet-switching technology. These were the first hosts on what would one day become the Internet. The concept of email was first created by Ray Tomlinson in 1971, and this innovation was followed by Project Gutenberg and eBooks. Tim Berners-Lee is considered the inventor of the World Wide Web; he implemented the first successful communication between a HyperText Transfer Protocol client and a server.\n"
] |
Does boiling the same tap water multiple times change anything in it?
|
Boiling water multiple times reduces the dissolved oxygen and any other dissolved gases, as the solubility for these decreases with temperature.
No new minerals are added or dissolved upon multiple boils - whatever minerals come out of your tap are mostly unchanged during the events you describe, but one major chemical change is that water treated with chlorine will allow chlorine to evaporate. However, many municipalities use chloramine, which does not evaporate.
I don't think any of this will have a significant effect of the solubility for your tea, so the brewing process would be identical in all cases.
|
[
"The traditional advice of boiling water for ten minutes is mainly for additional safety, since microbes start getting eliminated at temperatures greater than and bringing it to its boiling point is also a useful indication that can be seen without the help of a thermometer, and by this time, the water is disinfected. Though the boiling point decreases with increasing altitude, it is not enough to affect the disinfecting process.\n",
"Boiling water is used as a method of making it potable by killing microbes that may be present. The sensitivity of different micro-organisms to heat varies, but if water is held at 70 °C (158 °F) for ten minutes, many organisms are killed, but some are more resistant to heat and require one minute at the boiling point of water.\n",
"Normally, boiling water does not boil over. When fats, starches, and some other substances are present in boiling water, for example by adding milk or pasta, boiling over can occur. A film forms on the surface of the boiling liquid; for example, cream can boil over as milk fat separates from the milk. The increased viscosity of the liquid causes the steam bubbles to form foam trapped under the film, pushing the film up and over the lip of the pot, boiling over. A milk watcher disrupts this process by collecting small bubbles of steam into one large bubble and releasing it in a manner which may puncture the surface film. The device also rattles when boiling occurs, alerting the cook who may then lower the heat setting of the stove.\n",
"When the handle is pressed, cool tap water flows into the tank and displaces the near-boiling water, which flows out of the spout. On releasing the handle the valve closes and hot water stops flowing. The cool water is then heated to up to about ready for use however the Quooker PRO-VAQ water tank heats the water to meaning the water flows out of the spout at . It is widely acknowledged that the inventor of the boiling water tap was the founder of Quooker, Henri Peteri. \n",
"As stated above, the water in the primary circuits is kept under a constant elevated pressure to avoid its boiling. Since the water transfers all the heat from the core and is irradiated, the integrity of this circuit is crucial. Four main components can be distinguished:\n",
"\"Nucleate boiling\" is characterized by the growth of bubbles or pops on a heated surface, which rises from discrete points on a surface, whose temperature is only slightly above the liquids. In general, the number of nucleation sites are increased by an increasing surface temperature.\n",
"BULLET::::1. Boiling: Bringing water to its boiling point (about 100 °C or 212 F at sea level), is the oldest and most effective way since it eliminates most microbes causing intestine related diseases, but it cannot remove chemical toxins or impurities. For human health, complete sterilization of water is not required, since the heat resistant microbes are not intestine affecting. The traditional advice of boiling water for ten minutes is mainly for additional safety, since microbes start getting eliminated at temperatures greater than . Though the boiling point decreases with increasing altitude, it is not enough to affect the disinfecting process. In areas where the water is \"hard\" (that is, containing significant dissolved calcium salts), boiling decomposes the bicarbonate ions, resulting in partial precipitation as calcium carbonate. This is the \"fur\" that builds up on kettle elements, etc., in hard water areas. With the exception of calcium, boiling does not remove solutes of higher boiling point than water and in fact increases their concentration (due to some water being lost as vapour). Boiling does not leave a residual disinfectant in the water. Therefore, water that is boiled and then stored for any length of time may acquire new pathogens.\n"
] |
What did people in the 'Old West' name their pets?
|
I'm honestly more curious about horse names
|
[
"Bob and Larry narrates that a long time ago, way out in the West somewhere, on a ranch known as the Okie-Dokie corral, there lived a group of cowboy brothers. One of the brothers named Reuben greets the viewers with \"'Allo, little doggies!\" After that, the rest of the brothers were introduced, who are all named Simeon, Levi, Izzy, Zeb, Gad, Ash, Dan, Natty, and Jude. There was also Baby Ben, but \"he was too little to come outside\". There was also one more brother, named Little Joe (played by Larry the Cucumber). Little Joe then comes out from the ranchhouse, to which Jude says, \"Look who finally decided to get up.\" Joe then tells his brothers to hear about the dream that he had last night, but Jude tells him to be quiet because they are working. Little Joe understands, before Bob narrates that Little Joe was a little different than his brothers, because aside from talking differently, God gave him great organizational abilities, to which Jude quips, \"You should see his sock drawer.\"\n",
"The term \"dogies\" is used to describe orphaned calves in the context of ranch work in the American West, as in \"Keep them dogies moving\". In some places, a cow kept to provide milk for one family is called a \"house cow\". Other obsolete terms for cattle include \"neat\" (this use survives in \"neatsfoot oil\", extracted from the feet and legs of cattle), and \"beefing\" (young animal fit for slaughter).\n",
"\"Man Gave Names to All the Animals\" is a song written by Bob Dylan that appeared on Dylan's 1979 album \"Slow Train Coming\" and was also released as a single in some European countries. It was also released as a promo single in US. The single became a chart hit in France and Belgium. However, the song also has detractors who consider it the worst song Dylan ever wrote. A 2013 reader's poll conducted by \"Rolling Stone\" ranked \"Man Gave Names to All the Animals\" the 4th worst Bob Dylan song, behind the hit single from \"Slow Train Coming\", \"Gotta Serve Somebody\" in second place.\n",
"The Hound Dogs name is an homage to Tupelo's best-known native, the \"King of Rock 'n Roll\" Elvis Presley, in particular his cover version of \"Hound Dog\", which became that song's best-known version and one of Presley's best-known recordings in general. (They are the second football team to use the name in homage to Presley; the first, the Memphis Hound Dogs, was a proposed NFL expansion team that was not accepted to the league upon its expansion in 1995.)\n",
"The New King James Version refers to \"little dogs\" (, \"kynarioi\") and the Amplified Bible refers to \"pet dogs\". According to the Cambridge Bible for Schools and Colleges, \"the heathen are compared not to the great wild dogs infesting Eastern towns (1 Kings 14:11; 1 Kings 16:4; 2 Kings 9:10), but to the small dogs attached to households\".\n",
"It has often been said they were dubbed \"animals\" because of their wild stage act, and the name stuck. In a 2013 interview, Eric Burdon denied this, stating it came from a gang of friends they used to hang out with, one of whom was \"Animal\" Hogg and the name was intended as a kind of tribute to him. The Animals' success in their hometown and a connection with Yardbirds manager Giorgio Gomelsky motivated them to move to London in 1964 in the immediate wake of Beatlemania and the beat boom take-over of the popular music scene, just in time to play an important role in the so-called British Invasion of the US music charts.\n",
"The place name \"Cowabbie\" is derived from expression used by the local Aboriginals for cows when they were first seen in the area by these early inhabitants, and Cowabbie Station is one of the functioning properties in the area.\n"
] |
How did Italians preserve the tomatos needed for many of their dishes, prior to the invention of canning?
|
Sorry, other poster is dead wrong, tomatoes were eaten fresh only rarely before the invention of commercial canning, getting down on fresh tomatoes is a pretty modern thing, your pre-canning tomato breeds would not make for tasty fresh eating, pretty acidic. But they were certainly preserved, it's a smart question you've asked! What they did was make a paste of tomatoes, called conserva. [I have previously written here about how they made (and make!) conserva,](_URL_0_) including a video!
However, in the era of conserva (and in Italy today, depending on region of course) tomatoes were a minor vegetable. For a little on how the tomato came to be seen as #1 Most Italian Food, [read here.](_URL_1_) (Despite it not being my specialità at all, I've apparently made myself a little side career in tomato history here, because people ask about it so often!)
|
[
"The misconception that the tomato has been central to Italian cuisine since its introduction from the Americas is often repeated. Though the tomato was introduced from the Spanish New World to European botanists in the 16th century, tomato sauce made a relatively late entry in Italian cuisine: in Antonio Latini's cookbook \"Lo scalco alla moderna\" (Naples, 1692).\n",
"The industry of preserving tomatoes originated in 19th-century Naples, resulting in the export to all parts of the world of the famous \"\"pelati\"\" (peeled tomatoes) and the \"\"concentrato\"\" (tomato paste). There are traditionally several ways of preparing home-made tomato preserves, either bottled tomato juice, or chopped into pieces. The famous \"\"conserva\"\" (sun dried concentrated juice) tomato is cooked for a long time and becomes a dark red cream with a velvety texture.\n",
"Although tomatoes were introduced to Italy in the 16th century and incorporated in Italian cuisine in the 17th century, description of the first Italian tomato sauces dates from the late 18th century: the first written record of pasta with tomato sauce can be found in the 1790 cookbook \"L'Apicio Moderno\" by Roman chef Francesco Leonardi. Before tomato sauce was introduced, pasta was eaten dry with the fingers; the liquid sauce demanded the use of a fork.\n",
"The tomato is the edible, often red, berry of the plant \"Solanum lycopersicum\", commonly known as a tomato plant. The species originated in western South America and Central America. The Nahuatl (Aztec language) word \"tomatl\" gave rise to the Spanish word \"tomate\", from which the English word \"tomato\" derived. Its domestication and use as a cultivated food may have originated with the indigenous peoples of Mexico. The Aztecs used tomatoes in their cooking at the time of the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire, and after the Spanish encountered the tomato for the first time after their contact with the Aztecs, they brought the plant to Europe. From there, the tomato was introduced to other parts of the European-colonized world during the 16th century.\n",
"The tomato was introduced to cultivation in the Middle East by John Barker, British consul in Aleppo \"circa\" 1799 to 1825. Nineteenth century descriptions of its consumption are uniformly as an ingredient in a cooked dish. In 1881, it is described as only eaten in the region \"within the last forty years\". Today, the tomato is a critical and ubiquitous part of Middle Eastern cuisine, served fresh in salads (e.g., Arab salad, Israeli salad, Shirazi salad and Turkish salad), grilled with kebabs and other dishes, made into sauces, and so on.\n",
"BULLET::::- Tomato – indigenous Americans were the first peoples in the world to domesticate and cultivate the tomato by 500 BC. The tomato was an essential ingredient that formed the basis of many indigenous foods including tamales, tostado, soups, and salads.\n",
"Culinary historian Alan Davidson argues that the tomato and potato were initially treated with suspicion due to their similarity to the poisonous belladonna plant. This explains why Spanish society was initially slow to incorporate the tomato into their diet (relative to the initial popularity of other foods, such as chocolate and maize).\n"
] |
why does the burn of putting your leg in hot water seem to come a second or so after it’s been pulled out?
|
So there’s ‘two’ nervous systems that usually work together. This is an example of where one takes over first.
- CNS = Brain. It controls the actions you think about so it takes longer to work.
- PNS = No Brain. Controls reflex actions, ones you don’t have to think about, so it’s faster.
The leg in hot water reaction would work something like this:
1. Leg goes into water
2. PNS realises you are in danger.
3. PNS moves leg out of the water because it knows you’re in danger.
4. CNS realises leg is out of water
5. CNS realises leg is in pain and lets the brain know, meaning you only then feel pain.
I hope that’s simple enough, ask any questions if you need clarification.
|
[
"If the burn has been initially noticed, then HF should be washed off with a forceful stream of water for ten to fifteen minutes to prevent its further penetration into the body. Clothing used by the person burned may also present a danger. Hydrofluoric acid exposure is often treated with calcium gluconate, a source of Ca that binds with the fluoride ions. Skin burns can be treated with a water wash and 2.5 percent calcium gluconate gel or special rinsing solutions. Because HF is absorbed, further medical treatment is necessary. Calcium gluconate may be injected or administered intravenously. Use of calcium chloride is contraindicated and may lead to severe complications. Sometimes surgical excision of tissue or amputation is required.\n",
"The modern medicine does in fact recommend the application of any kind of heat preferably to souse the affected limb into hot water (40-42 °C). Beside this first aid attempt to ease the pain it is recommended to clean the wound and to see a physician because antibiotics, further analgesics or even a tetanus prophylaxis might be appropriate.\n",
"BULLET::::- Hot-tub folliculitis is caused by the bacterium \"Pseudomonas aeruginosa\". The folliculitis usually occurs after sitting in a hot tub that was not properly cleaned before use. Symptoms are found around the body parts that sit in the hot tub: the legs, hips, chest, buttocks, and surrounding areas. Symptoms are amplified around regions that were covered by wet clothing, such as bathing suits.\n",
"The most important first action is to stop the burning process. The source of the burn should promptly be removed (or the patient removed from the source). If the person is on fire, he/she must be told to stop, drop and roll, or extinguish the fire by covering them with heavy blanket, wool, coat, or rug. Burning clothing should be removed as should all jewelry that could act as a tourniquet as swelling occurs, but burned clothing stuck to the skin must not be removed. Cooling the burn with cold running water has been shown to be beneficial if accomplished within 30 minutes of the injury. The pain or inflammation can then be effectively treated using acetaminophen (paracetamol), or ibuprofen. Ice, butter, cream and ointment cannot be used since they can worsen the burn.\n",
"Applying first aid for scalds is the same as for burns. First, the site of the injury should be removed from the source of heat, to prevent further scalding. If the burn is at least second degree, remove any jewelry or clothing from the site, unless it is already stuck to the skin. Cool the scald for about 20 minutes with cool or lukewarm (not cold) water, such as water from a tap.\n",
"BULLET::::- Aquajogging is a form of exercise that decreases strain on joints and bones. The water supplies minimal impact to muscles and bones, which is good for those recovering from injury. Furthermore, the resistance of the water as one jogs through it provides an enhanced effect of exercise (the deeper you are the greater the force needed to pull your leg through).\n",
"Early cooling (within 30 minutes of the burn) reduces burn depth and pain, but care must be taken as over-cooling can result in hypothermia. It should be performed with cool water and not ice water as the latter can cause further injury. Chemical burns may require extensive irrigation. Cleaning with soap and water, removal of dead tissue, and application of dressings are important aspects of wound care. If intact blisters are present, it is not clear what should be done with them. Some tentative evidence supports leaving them intact. Second-degree burns should be re-evaluated after two days.\n"
] |
Why don’t everyday movements cause sub-concussive impacts?
|
This is counterintuitive, but if the density of the egg in your example is roughly the same as the density of the fluid (so that it can float in it) then shaking the jar wouldn't make it bounce, it would keep floating roughly in the middle no matter what you do.
Sudden acceleration only causes problems proportional to differences in density, causing different parts of the system to experience different forces corresponding to that acceleration, so that difference becomes a force between components and can cause deformation. If the density is roughly the same (and the stuff is mostly incompressible) then nothing much happens in response to small accelerations.
|
[
"Other issues arise when one attempts to locate a movement's impact in all arenas. Impacts are most often studied at the political level, and yet it has been proven that they have individual, cultural, institutional, and international effects as well. Lastly, and most importantly, there is the issue of causality. It is very difficult to prove that a social movement caused a certain outcome, rather than other social phenomena, and scholars have used that argument to discredit studies of movement impacts.\n",
"Motion sickness occurs in connection with travel or movement when an incongruity comes about between visually perceived movement and the vestibular system's sense of bodily movement. Most kinds are considered \"terrestrial\" motion sickness, such as being carsick, airsick, seasick, or sick from reality simulation. Symptoms include dizziness, fatigue, vertigo, depressed appetite, nonspecific malaise, gastrointestinal discomfort, (most commonly) nausea, and nausea-caused vomiting (see Sopite syndrome). If the cause of the nausea is not resolved, the sufferer will usually vomit, but vomiting may not relieve the feeling of weakness and nausea, which means the person might continue to vomit until the underlying cause of the nausea is resolved.\n",
"When it comes to regulation of movement, the globus pallidus has a primarily inhibitory action that balances the excitatory action of the cerebellum. These two systems evolved to work in harmony with each other to allow smooth and controlled movements. Imbalances can result in tremors, jerks, and other movement problems, as seen in some people with progressive neurological disorders characterized by symptoms like tremors.\n",
"Motion-triggered contact insufficiency (MTCI) describes the effect of increased contact resistance occurring during or after mechanical stress or movement of an electrical contact system, sometimes appearing after a considerable amount of use, independent of electric current, difficult to detect due to temporary nature.\n",
"However, another experiment demonstrated that the aftereffect was not as intense when subjects walked onto the stationary sled with the opposite leg of the one they'd stepped with in the MOVING trials. If the after-effect was generated by a fear that the platform would move, it would be triggered whenever and however the subject stepped onto it. This therefore suggests that the after-effect is mainly generated by procedural memory, which is most intense when the conditions of the adaptation phase are perfectly replicated.\n",
"The after-effect is pre-emptive in that it anticipates a threat to balance rather than being triggered by one. Postural control is usually generated by an external threat, for example a slippery surface will lead to a more cautionary gait, but in this case the postural adaptation is an aversive, 'just in case' strategy. When stepping onto the broken escalator, the person will anticipate its movement, just to make sure they would not fall if the escalator were to move. The person undertakes a 'worst case scenario' which seems the most strategic option: preparing for the platform to move even though it won't is better than the opposite.\n",
"This can affect reactions towards the conflict itself, and an audience’s general psychological wellbeing, which biasses their view of the world as excessively chaotic and may cause serious anxiety and emotional difficulties, and a sense of disempowerment and disconnection. \n"
] |
why are commercials so bad? why dont companies hire comedians or any other kind of professional to create commercials for them?
|
Cost. Using big stars or producers is expensive, add on the cost of the time slot for the commercial and it cuts into company money.
The smaller the business, the lower quality production
|
[
"BULLET::::- Advertising: Some moviegoers complain about commercial advertising shorts played before films, arguing that their absence used to be one of the main advantages of going to a movie theater. Other critics such as Roger Ebert have expressed concerns that these advertisements, plus an excessive number of movie trailers, could lead to pressure to restrict the preferred length of the feature films themselves to facilitate playing schedules. So far, the theater companies have typically been highly resistant to these complaints, citing the need for the supplementary income. Some chains like Famous Players and AMC Theatres have compromised with the commercials restricted to being shown before the scheduled start time for the trailers and the feature film. Individual theaters within a chain also sometimes adopt this policy.\n",
"Addictive melodies and tunes are common marketing techniques used in commercials. In some commercials, idols sing a short song dedicated to the product they are selling, such as SHINee's short commercial song that emphasized characteristics of a Korean snack called \"bbushuh bbushuh\". Sometimes, idols alter their songs or trending songs to advertise a good. More uncommon but not rare, there are some instances when idol groups develop whole, new songs or music videos solely to advertise goods. For example, a girl group, Apink, and a boy group, B.A.P., collaborated to create a song and a music video called \"Skoolooks\" that advertised Skoolooks' new uniform for girls and boys. Another example is SNSD's song and music video, \"Cooky\".\"Cooky\" was also the name of an LG smartphone, and in the music video, the members can be seen dancing and playing with the \"Cooky\" smartphones as they sing \"Cooky, cooky\". These commercial music videos have the same characteristics of standard K-pop music video with its addictive hook and 3-4 minutes time length.\n",
"They exist to allow network television stations to send content to smaller local stations. The shows contain no commercials, just a small gap of blank video to allow the local station to insert their own. The exception for this is for \"barter\" syndicated programming, where only the commercials required to be shown are included, with black space provided to mark local commercial time.\n",
"BULLET::::- The American sketch comedy series \"Saturday Night Live\" produces fictional commercials on a regular basis, usually shown after the guest host's monologue as an \"introductory commercial\", prior to the beginning of the main show. While many of these ads parody actual TV commercials, they are simple \"comedic parodies\" of the style of the real advertisement rather than its product.\n",
"Although they were silly, the commercials were well written. The commercials were smarter and funnier than most non-advertising cartoons of the time. Each spot held genuine entertainment value for viewers (and had a miniature story-line containing a plot, some form of conflict, and usually a final resolution), guaranteeing TV audiences would pay attention. Also, the background use of actual imagery from Minnesota's natural wilderness helped get across the product's emphasis on natural and pure ingredients much more effectively than mere advertising copy could. The founder of Campbell Mithun, the ad agency that created the Hamm's Bear, once said, \"We believe the legend of the Hamm's bear, like that of Paul Bunyan, will grow greater and greater as time goes on.\"\n",
"The \"commercials\" feature many parodies of current TV adverts and other running jokes, including conversations between housewives Mary (Fenton Stevens putting on a high-pitched voice) and June (Atkinson-Wood); goods and services of dubious legality offered by \"Honest Ron – the others are a con\" (Stevens); and \"blindingly obvious\" patronising public service announcements (\"Do not throw boiling water over a child\").\n",
"Because a single television advertisement can be broadcast repeatedly over the course of weeks, months, and even years (the Tootsie Roll company has been broadcasting a famous advertisement that asks \"How many licks does it take to get to the tootsie center of a Tootsie Pop?\" for over three decades), television advertisement production studios often spend very large sums of money in the production of a single thirty-second television spot. This significant expenditure has resulted in a number of high-quality advertisements with high production values, the latest in special effects technology, the most popular personalities, and the best music. A number of television advertisements are so elaborately produced that they can be considered miniature thirty-second movies; indeed, many film directors have directed television advertisements both as a way to gain exposure and to earn a paycheck. One of film director Ridley Scott's most famous cinematic moments was a television advertisement he directed for the Apple Macintosh computer, that was broadcast in 1984. Although this advertisement was broadcast only once (aside from occasional appearances in television advertisement compilation specials and one 1 a.m. airing in Idaho a month before the Super Bowl so that the advertisement could be submitted for the 1983 Clio Awards), it has become famous and well-known, to the point where it is considered a classic television moment.\n"
] |
What exactly are virtual particles? For example, a Weyl Fermion is apparently exciting for semiconductor applications, but what properties does it have that make it so?
|
Virtual particles appear in perturbative field theory. When calculating observables in a field theory, it is almost always impossible to solve the problem exactly, so you develop a method to compute things approximately (this is called perturbation theory). The most useful way to do this is to introduce Feynman diagrams - it turns out that every term you need to calculate can be represented by a picture which looks like some process occurring, so all you need to do is write down all possible pictures and translate the pictures into math (much easier than deriving the exact terms from scratch every time).
In these pictures, one has lines which represent (or maybe just "look like") particles which violate the equation E^2 = (pc)^2 + (mc^(2))^(2); we call these "virtual particles." They only appear when doing this particular approximation. Virtual particles are never detected in real life, and they never appear in cases where you can do exact calculations, but they are useful mnemonics to use when discussing a calculation to a fellow physicist. I wouldn't describe them as ever "coming into existence;" they're just a tool which comes from a very specific type of calculation, and don't necessarily correspond to anything physical.
I recommend [Matt Strassler's writeup on virtual particles](_URL_2_) if you want more info re: virtual particles.
> For example, a Weyl Fermion is apparently exciting for semiconductor applications, but what properties does it have that make it so?
I think there's a confusion here. The Weyl fermions which have been of interest in recent condensed matter physics are **not** virtual particles; they are [quasiparticles](_URL_0_). Quasiparticles are a kind of collective excitation which occurs as an aggregate excitation of many degrees of freedom. Basically, when you have an enormous amount of electrons interacting, the low-energy excitations which are made up of many electrons may look nothing like an electron, but rather like something totally different. Especially in the last ~30 years or so, we've found systems whose quasiparticles with extremely exotic properties, such as quasiparticles which are neither fermions nor bosons, or quasiparticles with fractional charge.
Recently, people have found that Weyl fermions can be realized in condensed matter applications ([theoretic review](_URL_1_), plus [experiments](_URL_3_)). Weyl fermions are massless particles which obey fermionic statistics. The interesting thing about their recent realization in condensed matter is that they remain massless under any sort of perturbation in the system, and the way in which they arise and their mass is protected is very interesting (it'd be hard to elaborate in this post without either getting technical or by making it twice as long).
I can't really speak to applications - it's really fundamental research. We've only barely found that this sort of object exists, let alone found ways in which it can be engineered for a real purpose.
(Weyl fermions also appear in particle physics, though the realizations are rather different from the recent condensed matter one).
|
[
"Optical properties of semiconductor quantum dot-inorganic nanotube hybrids reveal efficient resonant energy transfer from the quantum dot to the inorganic nanotubes upon photoexcitation. Nanodevices based on one-dimensional nanomaterials are thought for next-generation electronic and photoelectronic systems having small size, faster transport speed, higher efficiency and less energy consumption. A high-speed photodetector for visible and near-infrared light based on individual WS nanotubes has been prepared in laboratory. Inorganic nanotubes are hollow and can be filled with another material, to preserve or guide it to a desired location or generate new properties in the filler material which is confined within a nanometer-scale diameter. To this goal, inorganic nanotube hybrids were made by filling WS nanotubes with molten lead, antimony or bismuth iodide salt by a capillary wetting process, resulting in PbI@WS, SbI@WS or BiI@WS core–shell nanotubes.\n",
"In the language of materials science, nanoscale semiconductor materials tightly confine either electrons or electron holes. Quantum dots are sometimes referred to as artificial atoms, emphasizing their singularity, having bound, discrete electronic states, like naturally occurring atoms or molecules.\n",
"Indium phosphide-based photonic integrated circuits, or PICs, commonly use alloys of to construct quantum wells, waveguides and other photonic structures, lattice matched to an InP substrate, enabling single-crystal epitaxial growth onto InP.\n",
"On March 25, 2016, researchers from Griffith University and the University of Queensland announced they had built a quantum Fredkin gate that uses the quantum entanglement of particles of light to swap qubits. The availability of quantum Fredkin gates may facilitate the construction of quantum computers.\n",
"Quantum simulation is of great interest in the context of condensed matter physics, where it may provide valuable insights into the properties of interacting quantum systems. The ultracold atoms are used to implement an analogue of the condensed matter system of interest, which can then be explored using the tools available in the particular implementation. Since these tools may differ greatly from those available in the actual condensed matter system, one can thus experimentally probe otherwise inaccessible quantities. Furthermore, ultracold atoms may even allow to create exotic states of matter, which cannot otherwise be observed in nature.\n",
"Potential applications of quantum dots include single-electron transistors, solar cells, LEDs, lasers, single-photon sources, second-harmonic generation, quantum computing, and medical imaging. Their small size allows for some QDs to be suspended in solution, which may lead to use in inkjet printing and spin-coating. They have been used in Langmuir-Blodgett thin-films. These processing techniques result in less expensive and less time-consuming methods of semiconductor fabrication.\n",
"In February 2013, a new technique, boson sampling, was reported by two groups using photons in an optical lattice that is not a universal quantum computer, but may be good enough for practical problems.\n"
] |
why is the water contained in a source like soda any less beneficial?
|
Soda is > 90% water (probably 98% or so). If you want to drink 8 glasses of water a day, 8 sodas would do it but the sugar and sodium would be terrible for you're health. Someone who says they don't drink any water, just soda, or that drinking soda doesn't count as water has no idea what they're talking about. It would be like saying you're not eating beef if you eat a hamburger.
|
[
"Bottled noncarbonated drinking water competes in the marketplace with carbonated beverages (including carbonated water) sold in individual plastic bottles. Consumption of water often is considered a healthier substitute for sodas.\n",
"By itself, carbonated water appears to have little impact on health. While carbonated water is somewhat acidic, this acidity can be partially neutralized by saliva. A study found that sparkling mineral water is slightly more erosive to teeth than non-carbonated water but is about 100 times less erosive to teeth than soft drinks are.\n",
"In recent years, the single-serve bottled water industry has responded to consumer concern about the environmental impact of disposable water bottles by significantly reducing the amount of plastic used in bottles. The reduced plastic content also results in a lower weight product that uses less energy to transport. Other bottle manufacturing companies are experimenting with alternative materials such as corn starch to make new bottles that are more readily biodegradable.\n",
"Some surveys \"found that bottled water, far from being an alternative to tap water, seems to be mostly consumed as a substitute for alcoholic and traditional soft drinks (e.g. AWWA-RF 1993; FWR 1996) – the exception being when water contamination presents serious health risks and the trust in the tap water company is highly eroded (e.g. Lonnon 2004).\" Another explanation for the rise in popularity of bottled water is alternative explanation is that \"the consumption of 'pure' and 'natural' bottled water in degraded environments may represent a symbolic purging behavior.\"\n",
"In 2001, a WWF study, \"Bottled water: understanding a social phenomenon\", warned that in many countries, bottled water may be no safer or healthier than tap water and it sold for up to 1,000 times the price. It said the booming market would put severe pressure on recycling plastics and could lead to landfill sites drowning in mountains of plastic bottles. Also, the study discovered that the production of bottled water uses more water than the consumer actually buys in the bottle itself.\n",
"Adding soda water to 'short' drinks such as spirits dilutes them and makes them 'long' not to be confused with long drinks such as those made with vermouth. Carbonated water also works well in short drinks made with whiskey, brandy, and Campari. Soda water may be used to dilute drinks based on cordials such as orange squash. Soda water is a necessary ingredient in many cocktails, such as whiskey and soda or Campari and soda.\n",
"Bottled water is perceived by many as being a safer alternative to other sources of water such as tap water. Bottled water usage has increased even in countries where clean tap water is present. This may be attributed to consumers disliking the taste of tap water or its organoleptics. Another contributing factor to this shift could be the marketing success of bottled water. The success of bottled water marketing can be seen by Perrier's transformation of a bottle of water into a status symbol. However, while bottled water has grown in both consumption and sales, the industry's advertising expenses are considerably less than other beverages. According to the Beverage Marketing Corporation (BMC), in 2013, the bottled water industry spent $60.6 million on advertising. That same year, sports drinks spent $128 million, sodas spent $564 million, and beer spent $1 billion.\n"
] |
how are some mods in gaming compatible to new game versions while other mods need to be updated? (eg. skyrim - compatible after patch but minecraft - mods need updates)
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It depends on what those mods were doing to the game files, and what was changed in those files between versions.
For example, if you alter the "running speed" value in the movement script, it's not likely the company is going to change the way movement works between versions, so your mod will still work.
For a counter example, if you use a mesh or model reference, or change a script for object physics, when the new version is released with updated models and textures, or new things that use/affect the physics script, you're going to need to change your mod.
If you don't, you may end up with any assortment of bugs:
* invalid texture/models, and so your stuff just doesn't show up (animations don't work, invisible objects, clipping through things, etc)
* your mod to the physics script breaking (your fireball now throws upwards. not where the camera is looking)
* your mod breaking the new changes to physics (walking off a ledge on a horse results in their flying)
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[
"Mods (short for modifications) are an optional upgrade for characters within the game. Once the player's account reaches level 50, Mods become available to any of their characters that are level 50 or above. There are different categories of mods, each of which yields a different primary effect on the stats of the character that has equipped it. This effect allows players to increase statistical areas of their characters to yield better performance in battle.\n",
"Mods can have a variety of different effects, such as adding new items and objectives, altering or creating new environments, or even adding a completely new character for play in the case of the popular \"Werivar\" mod.\n",
"Many mods are not publicly released to the gaming community by their creators. Some are very limited and just include some gameplay changes or even a different loading screen, while others are total conversions and can modify content and gameplay extensively. A few mods become very popular and convert themselves into distinct games, with the rights getting bought and turning into an official modification.\n",
"Aside from the official expansion packs, third-party mods are available on sites such as the Steam Workshop. The mods can change the game's setting, add or remove features and game mechanics, and make graphical improvements. Popular mods include \"Extended Timeline\", which expands the game's scope from 2 AD to the year 9999, the \"Game of Thrones\" adaptation \"A Song of Ice and Fire,\" and complete overhauls such as \"MEIOU & Taxes\".\n",
"For advanced mods such as \"Desert Combat\" that are total conversions, complicated modeling and texturing software is required to make original content. Advanced mods can rival the complexity and work of making the original game content (short of the engine itself), rendering the differences in ease of modding small in comparison to the total amount of work required. Having an engine that is for example easy to import models to, is of little help when doing research, modeling, and making a photorealistic texture for a game item. As a result, other game characteristics such as its popularity and capabilities have a dominating effect on the number of mods created for the game by users.\n",
"BULLET::::- Game modification – are made by the general public or a developer, and can be entirely new games in themselves, but mods are not standalone software and require the user to have the original release in order to run.\n",
"A variety of community-created modifications (\"mods\") have been created for the Windows version of the game. These mods add multiple gameplay changes, such as new player characters and levels. Examples include \"Unleashed Project\", an effort to re-create \"Sonic Unleashed\" using \"Sonic Generations\" as a base; \"Super Mario Generations\", a mod that replaces Sonic with Mario; and \"Super Sonic Generations\", which expands upon the character's super forms.\n"
] |
Why do specific laws apply to the universe?
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Physicists are much better at answering 'how' than why. E.g: "How do magnets work?" "How does gravity work?"
Why is a much more philosophical question and is, in a sense, much less defined (and therefore less interesting :P) than actually learning *how* things work.
|
[
"Since the current laws of physics are only known to be valid in this universe, it is possible that the laws of physics are different in parallel universes, giving a God-like entity more power. If the number of universes is unlimited, then the power of a certain God-like entity is also unlimited, since the laws of physics may be different in other universes, and accordingly making this entity omnipotent. Unfortunately concerning a multiverse there is a lack of empirical correlation. To the extreme there are theories about realms beyond this multiverse (Nirvana, Chaos, Nothingness).\n",
"According to Mach's principle, local physics laws are determined by a large-scale structure of the universe and changes in any part of the universe affect a corresponding impact on all of its parts First of all, such changes are due by the entropic interaction. Once they have a place in one part of the universe, the entropy of the universe as a whole changes as well. That is, the entire universe “feels” such changes at the same time. In other words, the entropic interaction between different parts of any thermodynamic system happens instantly without the transfer of any material substance, meaning it is always a long-range action. After that, some processes emerge inside the system to transfer some substances or portions of energy in the appropriate direction. These actions are produced by one (or few) of basic interactions according to the mode of short-range action.\n",
"We also assume that the universe obeys a number of physical laws. Mathematically, each physical law can be expressed with respect to the coordinates given by an inertial frame of reference by a mathematical equation (for instance, a differential equation) which relates the various coordinates of the various objects in the spacetime. A typical example is Maxwell's equations. Another is Newton's first law.\n",
"There is a philosophical debate within the physics community as to whether a theory of everything deserves to be called \"the\" fundamental law of the universe. One view is the hard reductionist position that the TOE is the fundamental law and that all other theories that apply within the universe are a consequence of the TOE. Another view is that emergent laws, which govern the behavior of complex systems, should be seen as equally fundamental. Examples of emergent laws are the second law of thermodynamics and the theory of natural selection. The advocates of emergence argue that emergent laws, especially those describing complex or living systems are independent of the low-level, microscopic laws. In this view, emergent laws are as fundamental as a TOE.\n",
"For example, physical laws such as the law of gravity or scientific laws attempt to describe the fundamental nature of the universe itself. Laws of mathematics and logic describe the nature of rational thought and inference (Kant's transcendental idealism, and differently G. Spencer-Brown's work \"Laws of Form\", was precisely a determination of the \"a priori\" laws governing human thought before any interaction whatsoever with experience).\n",
"Unlike \"law fundamentalists\", some philosophers are \"law pluralists\": they question what it means to have a law of physics. One example is the \"Best Standards Analysis\", which says that the laws are only useful ways to summarize all past events, rather than there being metaphysically \"pushy\" entities (this route still brings one into conflict with the idea of free will). Some law pluralists further believe there are simply no laws of physics. The mathematical universe hypothesis suggests that there are other universes in which the laws of physics and fundamental constants are different. Andreas Albrecht of Imperial College in London called it a \"provocative\" solution to one of the central problems facing physics. Although he \"wouldn't dare\" go so far as to say he believes it, he noted that \"it's actually quite difficult to construct a theory where everything we see is all there is\".\n",
"According to Thomas Aquinas a thing which requires completion by another is said to be in potency to that other: realization of potency is called actuality. The universe is conceived of as a series of things arranged in an ascending order, or potency and act at once crowned and created by God, who alone is pure act. God is changeless because change means passage from potency to act, and so he is without beginning and end, since these demand change. Matter and form are necessary to the understanding of change, for change requires the union of that which becomes and that which it becomes. Matter is the first, and form the second. All physical things are composed of matter and form. The difference between a thing as form or character and the actual existence of it is denoted by the terms essence and being (or existence). It is only in God that there is no distinction between the two. Both pairs - matter & form and essence & being - are special cases of potency and act. They are also modes: modes do not add anything to the idea of being, but are ways of making explicit what is implicit in it.\n"
] |
what exactly happens to your skin when it reacts to posion ivy?
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It's called a type IV hypersensitivity reaction, more commonly known as an allergic reaction. This is a special type of allergic reaction that is not caused by histamine like most allergies are. This type of reaction is due to T cells attacking your own cells because they have an antigen (poison ivy) in them and your immune system thinks that it's a virus or bacteria. The end result is that your immune system ends up attacking your own cells, which activates the inflammatory response, which is what causes the redness and itchiness.
One thing to note is that you need to be sensitized in order to have this type of reaction. That means that you brushed against some poison ivy at some other time and that "activated" your immune response. Since it has now been activated, the next time you come in contact with poison ivy, you will get the associated dermatitis.
Edit: Sorry, I forgot to mention this. Cortisone should help with the itchiness and inflammation. Antihistamines won't do shit.
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[
"The pentadecylcatechols of the oleoresin within the sap of poison ivy and related plants causes the allergic reaction; the plants produce a mixture of pentadecylcatechols, which collectively is called urushiol. After injury, the sap leaks to the surface of the plant where the urushiol becomes a blackish lacquer after contact with oxygen.\n",
"Pharmacological studies have demonstrated that allixin exerts an anti-promoting activity against skin tumors induced by the chemical 12-\"O\"-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate (TPA) and an inhibitory effect on aflatoxin B1-induced mutagenesis. Allixin may therefore be responsible, at least in part, for the tumor-preventative effects of garlic extract.\n",
"A well-known example of a hapten is urushiol, which is the toxin found in poison ivy. When absorbed through the skin from a poison ivy plant, urushiol undergoes oxidation in the skin cells to generate the actual hapten, a reactive quinone-type molecule, which then reacts with skin proteins to form hapten adducts. Usually, the first exposure causes only sensitization, in which there is a proliferation of effector T-cells. After a subsequent, second exposure, the proliferated T-cells can become activated, generating an immune reaction that produces typical blisters of a poison ivy exposure.\n",
"Another allergen is urushiol, a resin produced by poison ivy and poison oak, which causes the skin rash condition known as urushiol-induced contact dermatitis by changing a skin cell's configuration so that it is no longer recognized by the immune system as part of the body. Various trees and wood products such as paper, cardboard, MDF etc. can also cause mild to severe allergy symptoms through touch or inhalation of sawdust such as asthma and skin rash.\n",
"It can cause allergic reactions, with numerous large surveys identifying it as being in the \"top five\" allergens most commonly causing patch test reactions. It may cause inflammation, redness, swelling, soreness, itching, and blisters, including allergic contact dermatitis, stomatitis (inflammation and soreness of the mouth or tongue), cheilitis (inflammation, rash, or painful erosion of the lips, oropharyngeal mucosa, or angles of their mouth), pruritus, hand eczema, generalized or resistant plantar dermatitis, rhinitis, and conjunctivitis.\n",
"Prostaglandin analogs may cause changes in iris color and eyelid skin, growth of eyelashes, stinging, blurred vision, eye redness, itching, and burning. Beta blockers' side effects include low blood pressure, reduced pulse rate, fatigue, shortness of breath, and in rare occasions, reduced libido and depression. Alpha agonists can cause burning or stinging, fatigue, headache, drowsiness, dry mouth and nose, and also they have a higher likelihood of allergic reaction. Carbonic anhydrase inhibitors may cause stinging, burning, and eye discomfort.\n",
"In a September 2, 2008 document, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration recommended applying topical over-the-counter skin protectants, such as calamine, to relieve the itch caused by poisonous plants such as poison ivy, poison oak, and poison sumac.\n"
] |
What makes some cancer "inoperable"?
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Sometimes the cancer can occur in places where it would otherwise kill the patient. Like a tumor deep inside the brain might require a surgeon to do too much damage getting it out, or risk breaking up the tumor and causing it to spread in the body (the cancer cells can take up residence in other places, including the wound channel on the way out). With something like lung cancer, the cancer might just be spread in too much delicate tissue (lung tissue is very volumous; they say that you have like a tennis court of area in your lungs), and they wouldn't be able to just cut it out without damaging too much tissue or destroying the organ.
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[
"Overdiagnosed patients cannot benefit from the detection and treatment of their \"cancer\", because the cancer was never destined to cause symptoms or death. They can only be harmed. There are three categories of harm associated with overdiagnosis:\n",
"Although most benign tumors are not life-threatening, many types of benign tumors have the potential to become cancerous (malignant) through a process known as tumor progression. For this reason and other possible negative health effects, some benign tumors are removed by surgery.\n",
"Ovarian cancer usually has a relatively poor prognosis. It is disproportionately deadly because it lacks any clear early detection or screening test, meaning most cases are not diagnosed until they have reached advanced stages.\n",
"There are several reasons for this high death toll from cancer in developing countries. Due to poverty, lack of resources and vast distances, public access to treatment maybe difficult or non-existent. There is also not enough awareness (public or professional) about cancer to help either prevent the disease developing or to support early diagnosis. As a result, 80% of cancer patients present with advanced/incurable cancers. Unfortunately, in many cases, palliative care will not be available to them at the end of their lives.\n",
"Compared with the general population, people with cancer have a higher risk of arterial thrombotic events such as stroke, myocardial infarction and peripheral arterial embolism. This risk has a potential to be further increased in women undergoing controlled ovarian hyperstimulation for fertility preservation, but is usually only associated with cases of ovarian hyperstimulation syndrome (OHSS). On the other hand, venous thromboembolism rarely occurs unless a pregnancy is achieved, and is therefore usually not particularly relevant in the stage of oocyte retrieval. Therefore, the recommended controlled ovarian hyperstimulation protocol for in women with cancer is an antagonist protocol using a GnRH agonist for final maturation induction, in order to decrease the risk of OHSS. When used in conjunction with oocyte or embryo cryopreservation, using GnRH agonist rather than hCG for final maturation induction has no evidence of a difference in live birth rate (in contrast to fresh cycles where usage of GnRH agonist has a lower live birth rate). Anticoagulant prophylaxis is recommended to be administered only to selected subgroups of women such as those with other risk factors of hypercoagulability or those who do develop early OHSS.\n",
"The success of cancer immunoprevention in preclinical models suggests that it might have an impact also in humans. The main problems to be solved are the definition of appropriate human applications and of the risks for human health.\n",
"Cancer is a significant issue that is affecting the world. Specifically in the U.S, it is expected for there to be 1,735,350 new cases of cancer, and 609,640 deaths by the end of 2018. Adequate treatment can prevent many cancer deaths but there are racial and social disparities in treatments which has a significant factor in high death rates. Minorities are more likely to suffer from inadequate treatment while white patients are more likely to receive efficient treatments in a timely manner. Having satisfactory treatment in timely manner can increase the patients likelihood of survival. It has been shown that chances of survival are significantly greater for white patients than for African American patients.\n"
] |
resting membrane potential. why it hyper/hypopolarizes?
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The potassium and sodium ion concentrations are what cause the neuron to fire. Or actually they allow the action potential to propagate along the nerve.
A nerve cell starts off polarized,meaning the outside of the membrane is positively charged and the inside is negatively charged. the outside contains excess sodium ions the inside excess potassium ions. For the action potential to propagate a stimulus reaches the neuron, which opens gated ion channels allowing sodium ions to rush in which start the depolarization of the neuron. At a certain point the depolarization becomes an unstoppable wave as the gated ion channels all along the neuron open and sodium rushes in. this is the threshold potential. The neuron is completely depolarized and the signal transmitted.
After the cell is depolarized gated ion channels on the inside open and allow potassium ions to flow out. Restoring the polarization but now by a different ion balance. At a point more potassium ions are on the outside than sodium ions on the inside and the gated ion channels close.This causes the membrane potential to drop below resting potential and is said to be hyperpolarized. During the following refractory period ion pumps restore the original ion balance and the nerve cell can't transmit during this period.
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[
"This phase is also known as the \"plateau\" phase due to the membrane potential remaining almost constant, as the membrane slowly begins to repolarize. This is due to the near balance of charge moving into and out of the cell. During this phase delayed rectifier potassium channels allow potassium to leave the cell while L-type calcium channels (activated by the flow of sodium during phase 0), allow the movement of calcium ions into the cell. These calcium ions bind to and open more calcium channels (called ryanodine receptors) located on the sarcoplasmic reticulum within the cell, allowing the flow of calcium out of the SR. These calcium ions are responsible for the contraction of the heart. Calcium also activates chloride channels called I, which allow Cl to enter the cell. Together the movement of both Ca and Cl oppose the voltage change caused by K . As well as this the increased calcium concentration increases the activity of the sodium-calcium exchanger, and the increase in sodium entering the cell increases activity of the sodium-potassium pump. The movement of all of these ions results in the membrane potential remaining relatively constant. This phase is responsible for the large duration of the action potential and is important in preventing irregular heartbeat (cardiac arrhythmia).\n",
"Each excitable patch of membrane has two important levels of membrane potential: the resting potential, which is the value the membrane potential maintains as long as nothing perturbs the cell, and a higher value called the threshold potential. At the axon hillock of a typical neuron, the resting potential is around –70 millivolts (mV) and the threshold potential is around –55 mV. Synaptic inputs to a neuron cause the membrane to depolarize or hyperpolarize; that is, they cause the membrane potential to rise or fall. Action potentials are triggered when enough depolarization accumulates to bring the membrane potential up to threshold. When an action potential is triggered, the membrane potential abruptly shoots upward and then equally abruptly shoots back downward, often ending below the resting level, where it remains for some period of time. The shape of the action potential is stereotyped; this means that the rise and fall usually have approximately the same amplitude and time course for all action potentials in a given cell. (Exceptions are discussed later in the article). In most neurons, the entire process takes place in about a thousandth of a second. Many types of neurons emit action potentials constantly at rates of up to 10–100 per second. However, some types are much quieter, and may go for minutes or longer without emitting any action potentials.\n",
"During single action potentials, transient depolarization of the membrane opens more voltage-gated K channels than are open in the resting state, many of which do not close immediately when the membrane returns to its normal resting voltage. This can lead to an \"undershoot\" of the membrane potential to values that are more polarized (\"hyperpolarized\") than was the original resting membrane potential. Ca-activated K channels that open in response to the influx of Ca during the action potential carry much of the K current as the membrane potential becomes more negative. The K permeability of the membrane is transiently unusually high, driving the membrane voltage \"V\" even closer to the K equilibrium voltage \"E\". Hence, hyperpolarization persists until the membrane K permeability returns to its usual value.\n",
"When the membrane is in thermodynamic equilibrium (i.e., no net flux of ions), the membrane potential must be equal to the Nernst potential. However, in physiology, due to active ion pumps, the inside and outside of a cell are not in equilibrium. In this case, the resting potential can be determined from the Goldman equation, which is a solution of G-H-K influx equation under the constraints that total current density driven by electrochemical force is zero:\n",
"In non-excitable cells, and in excitable cells in their baseline states, the membrane potential is held at a relatively stable value, called the resting potential. For neurons, typical values of the resting potential range from –70 to –80 millivolts; that is, the interior of a cell has a negative baseline voltage of a bit less than one-tenth of a volt. The opening and closing of ion channels can induce a departure from the resting potential. This is called a depolarization if the interior voltage becomes less negative (say from –70 mV to –60 mV), or a hyperpolarization if the interior voltage becomes more negative (say from –70 mV to –80 mV). In excitable cells, a sufficiently large depolarization can evoke an action potential, in which the membrane potential changes rapidly and significantly for a short time (on the order of 1 to 100 milliseconds), often reversing its polarity. Action potentials are generated by the activation of certain voltage-gated ion channels.\n",
"This phase is also known as the pacemaker potential. Immediately following an action potential, when the membrane potential is very negative (it is hyperpolarised) the voltage slowly begins to increase. This is initially due to the closing of potassium channels, which reduces the flow of potassium ions (I) out of the cell (see phase 3, below). Alongside the deactivation of the potassium channels, cause activation of hyperpolarisation-activated cyclic nucleotide–gated (HCN) channels. Activation of these channels at very negative membrane potential is an unusual property for ion channels, therefore the flow of sodium (Na) and some potassium (K) through the activated HCN channel is referred to as a \"funny current\" (I). This funny current causes the membrane potential of the cell to gradually increase, as the positive charge (Na and K) is flowing into the cell. Another mechanism involved in pacemaker potential is known as the calcium clock. Here, calcium is released spontaneously from the sarcoplasmic reticulum (a calcium store) into the cell, this is known as a spontaneous Ca spark. This increase in calcium within the cell then activates a sodium-calcium exchanger (NCX), which removes one Ca from the cell, and exchanges it for 3 Na into the cell (therefore removing a charge of +2 from the cell, but allowing a charge of +3 to enter the cell) therefore in-creasing the membrane potential. The calcium is later pumped back into the cell via calcium channels located on the cell membrane and SR membrane. The increase in membrane potential produced by these mechanisms, activates T-type calcium channels and then L-type calcium channels (which open very slowly). These channels allow a flow of calcium ions (Ca) into the cell, making the membrane potential more positive.\n",
"The resting membrane potential is usually around –70 mV. The typical neuron has a threshold potential ranging from –40 mV to –55 mV. Temporal summation occurs when graded potentials within the postsynaptic cell occur so rapidly that they build on each other before the previous ones fade. Spatial summation occurs when postsynaptic potentials from adjacent synapses on the cell occur simultaneously and add together. An action potential occurs when the summated EPSPs, minus the summated IPSPs, in an area of membrane reach the cell's threshold potential.\n"
] |
How fast was the decline of civilisation in Europe (including Britain) after the fall of the Roman empire?
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This is a difficult question to answer, due to the size of the empire and how different regions reacted differently to the decline of Roman authority, but generally I would say that though decline was visible in the West, it was a gradual one. In the Eastern Mediterranean, not much has changed at all - Egypt was as prosperous as ever, fringe areas such as the Negev desert or the Limestone Massifs in Syria were still densely populated and cities continued to grow in size. In the East, the economy and the empire were as vigorous as ever. Even in the West, things weren't so grim. Vandal Africa for instance was still very productive and Chris Wickham has suggested that Roman taxation system didn't collapse there because they were reverting to a more 'barbarian' form of rule, it was because the Vandal elites were getting so rich from confiscated estates that they didn't need the Roman taxation system any more.
There is plenty of evidence that the West declined in material terms of course, with Bryan Ward-Perkins' book *The Fall of Rome and the End of Civilization* being a very accessible overview of the archaeological evidence - tiled roofs, which were available to all Romans, even the poorest peasants, disappeared when Roman rule disappeared, and more generally, expensive and complex pottery became rarer and can only be found in a few ports in the Western Mediterranean, rather than widespread as before. Britain in particularly declined significantly, as it was a fringe province anyway - things such as patterned mosaics (a very Roman form of decoration) generally arrived a century after they reached Gaul, a much more Romanised province. When Roman authority disappeared, the integrated trade networks connecting cities and provinces faded away too, as there was no centralised bureaucracy overseeing the distribution of goods or friendly armies protecting the means of exchange. Instead, locals had to make do with local goods, with only the elite still capable of procuring luxury goods abroad.
However, though there was a decline in material prosperity, there wasn't a collapse of civilisation. People liked the things they had, and even if there was no longer an emperor ruling over them, they wouldn't abandon the things they were used to. The 'barbarian' Franks, Visigoths, Ostrogoths and Vandals that took over the western provinces of the empire were all used to the Roman way of life, and they didn't want to lose all its advantages either. Above all, there was still a Roman Empire for them to look up to - the emperor in Constantinople was still an awe-inspiring figure and we have letters from Francia and Ostrogothic Italy all clamouring for titles and recognition from the East. Rome was very much alive after 476 and post-Roman warlords recognised that. They all made an effort to keep in place local elites, such as local senators and bishops, to secure their rule. These tribes were never the majority in any given province and they needed to placate the local Romanised population. In Italy for instance the Senate still met, the Romans manned the bureaucracy and education was kept at a high standard. The same was less true in Francia and Visigothic Spain, due to warfare and the less integrated economy they had, but the decline in Roman institutions was slow and generally unwanted, since Roman institutions and luxury goods were good things that leaders didn't want to destroy.
Let me know if you have any more questions :)
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[
"By comparison, what is now the territory of China experienced 0.1 per cent annual growth from 1 CE to 1800 CE. After population decline following the disintegration of the western half of the Roman state in the fifth and sixth centuries, Europe probably re-attained Roman-era population totals in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries and, following another decline associated with the Black Death, consistently exceeded them after the mid-15th century.\n",
"The collapse of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century is thought to have brought general strife and anarchy to society, but the actual events are not well understood. Archaeology certainly shows a reduction in the expensive goods found before and the Roman cities began to be abandoned, but much of British society had never had such things. Certainly, numerous peoples took advantage of the absence of Roman power, but how they affected British society is far from clear. The hegemony of Roman rule gave way to a selection of splintered, often competing, societies, including later the heptarchy. Rather than think of themselves as a small part of a larger Roman empire, they reverted to smaller tribal allegiances.\n",
"In 476 the western Roman Empire, which had ruled modern-day Italy, France, Spain, Portugal and England for centuries, collapsed due to a combination of economic decline, and drastically reduced military strength which allowed invasion by barbarian tribes originating in southern Scandinavia and modern-day northern Germany. Historical opinion is divided as to the reasons for the fall of Rome, but the societal collapse encompassed both the gradual disintegration of the political, economic, military, and other social institutions of Rome as well as the barbarian invasions of Western Europe.\n",
"The decline and collapse of the Roman Empire saw (and was partly caused by) the large-scale movement of people in Eastern Europe and Asia. This is largely seen as beginning with nomadic horsemen from Asia (specifically the Huns) moving into the richer pasture land to the west, thus forcing the local peoples there to move further west and so on until eventually the Goths were forced to cross into the Roman Empire, resulting in continuous war with Rome which played a major role in the fall of the Roman Empire. During this period there were the large-scale movements of peoples establishing new colonies all over western Europe. The events of this time saw the development of many of the modern day nations of Europe like the Franks in France and Germany and the Anglo-Saxons in England.\n",
"The Roman Empire emerged from the Roman Republic when Julius Caesar and Augustus Caesar transformed it from a republic into a monarchy. Rome reached its zenith in the 2nd century, then fortunes slowly declined (with many revivals and restorations along the way). The reasons for the decline of the Empire are still debated today, and are likely multiple. Historians infer that the population appears to have diminished in many provinces—especially western Europe—from the diminishing size of fortifications built to protect the cities from barbarian incursions from the 3rd century on. Some historians even have suggested that parts of the periphery were no longer inhabited because these fortifications were restricted to the center of the city only. Tree rings suggest \"distinct drying\" beginning in 250.\n",
"Two contrasting models of the end of sub-Roman Britain have been described by Richard Reece as \"decline and immigration\" and \"invasion and displacement\". It has long been held that the Anglo-Saxons migrated to Britain in large numbers in the 5th and 6th centuries, substantially displacing the British people. The Anglo-Saxon historian Frank Stenton in 1943, although making considerable allowance for British survival, essentially sums up this view, arguing \"that the greater part of southern England was overrun in the first phase of the war\". This interpretation was based on the written sources, particularly Gildas but also the later sources such as the Anglo-Saxon historian Bede, that cast the arrival of the Anglo-Saxons as a violent event. The toponymic and linguistic evidence was also considered to support this interpretation, as very few British place names survived in eastern Britain, very few British Celtic words entered the Old English language and the Brythonic language and peoples migrated from south-western Britain to Armorica, which eventually became Brittany. This interpretation particularly appealed to earlier English historians, who wanted to further their view that England had developed differently from Europe, with a limited monarchy and love of liberty. This, it was argued, came from the mass Anglo-Saxon invasions. While this view was never universal – Edward Gibbon believed that there had been a great deal of British survival – it was the dominant paradigm. Though many scholars would now employ this argument, the traditional view is still held by many other historians, Lawrence James writing in 2002 that England was \"submerged by an Anglo-Saxon current which swept away the Romano-British.\"\n",
"The popular view is that the fall of the Western Roman Empire caused a \"dark age\" in western Europe in which \"knowledge and civility\", the \"arts of elegance,\" and \"many of the useful arts\" were neglected or lost. Conversely, however, the lot of the farmers who made up 80 percent or more of the total population, may have improved in the aftermath of the Roman Empire. The fall of Rome saw the \"shrinking of tax burdens, weakening of the aristocracy, and consequently greater freedom for peasants.\" The countryside of the Roman Empire was dotted with \"villas\" or estates, characterized by Pliny the Elder as \"the ruin of Italy.\" The estates were owned by wealthy aristocrats and worked in part by slaves. More than 1,500 villas are known to have existed in England alone. With the fall of Rome, the villas were abandoned or transformed into utilitarian rather than elite uses. \"In western Europe, then, we seem to see the effect of a release from the pressure of the Roman imperial market, army and taxation, and a return to farming based more on local needs.\"\n"
] |
do people in other countries have the same view of the moon that i do if we look at it at the same time?
|
Because the moon is tidally locked (the sun only shines on one side at any given time), only one side of the moon is illuminated. This is why we had to send spacecraft to the far side of the moon to see what it looked like.
In other countries, the moon may be in a different position in the sky due to its position on Earth, and because of the angle the moon may seem to look different, but the part of the moon you can SEE (as in the part that is bright) is the same.
|
[
"Generally, the Moon can be viewed even with the naked eye, however it may be more enjoyable with optical instruments. The primary lunar surface features detectable to the naked eye are the lunar maria or \"seas\", large basaltic plains which form imaginary figures as the traditional \"Moon Rabbit\" or familiar \"Man in the Moon\". The maria cover about 35% of the surface. The contrast between the less reflective dark gray maria and the more reflective gray/white lunar highlands is easily visible without optical aid. Under good viewing conditions, those with keen eyesight may also be able to see some of the following features:\n",
"BULLET::::- The Moon is a separate entity, with its own distinct culture but is under the control of the same government as Earth. Humans native to the Moon are called \"Lunies\", and tend toward tall, lean body types regularly reaching eight feet in height. They are frequently referred to as looking much like Tolkien's Elves due to their physiques and alien allure.\n",
"The Moon is a very commonly observed astronomical object, especially by amateur astronomers and skygazers. This is due to several reasons: the Moon is the brightest object in the night sky, the Moon is the largest object in the night sky, and the Moon has long been significant in many cultures, such as being the basis for many calendars. The Moon also does not require any kind of telescope or binoculars to see effectively, making it extremely convenient and common for people to observe.\n",
"Lunar pareidolia refers to the pareidolic images seen by humans on the face of the Moon. The Moon's surface is a complex mixture of dark areas (the lunar \"maria\", or \"seas\") and lighter areas (the highlands). Being a natural element seen constantly by humans throughout the ages, many cultures have seen shapes in these dark and light areas that have reminded them of people, animals, or objects, often related to their folklore and cultural symbols; the most famous are the Man in the Moon in Western folklore and the Moon Rabbit of Asia and the Americas. Other cultures perceive the silhouette of a woman, a frog, a moose, a buffalo, or a dragon (with its head and mouth to the right and body and wings to the left) in the full moon. To many cultures of Melanesia and Polynesia, the Moon is seen to be a cook over a three-stone fire. Alternatively, the vague shape of the overall dark and light regions of the moon may resemble a Yin Yang symbol.\n",
"When people describe the images they see on the Moon, such as a face, they are not directly seeing that image displayed upon the Moon. They are rather looking at an irregular section of the Moon's surface. The irregular section consists of deep holes, called craters, and hills.\n",
"The Moon is the largest natural satellite of and the closest major astronomical object to Earth. The Moon may be observed by using a variety of optical instruments, ranging from the naked eye to large telescopes. The Moon is the only celestial body upon which surface features can be discerned with the unaided eyes of most people.\n",
"The Man in the Moon is an imaginary figure resembling a human face, head, or body, that observers from some cultural backgrounds typically perceive in the bright disc of the full moon. Several versions are displayed above. \n"
] |
why is it now 4k and 8k instead of 2160p and 4320p
|
Well, for one thing, it's easier to say, and easier to remember.
But I believe the real reason is that using the horizontal pixel count a more consistent number to use over vertical, since number of vertical pixels changes according to the aspect ratio of a movie, e.g. 1.78:1, 1.85, 2.35:1, etc all have a different height in pixels. yet the same 4K of horizontal resolution. Indeed, this is what they use in digital theaters now; 2K, 4K, 8K.
In the days of old, that didn't matter - everything was 4x3 or 16x9, and movie's original aspect ratios were an afterthought. But we've moved more and more towards home theaters and watching movies, it just makes sense to normalize the terminology with what they use in the cinema world.
|
[
"The term \"2160p\" could be applied to any format with a height of 2160 pixels, but it is most commonly used in reference to the 4K UHDTV resolution of due to its association with the well-known 720p and 1080p HDTV formats. Although is both a 4K resolution and a 2160p resolution, these terms cannot always be used interchangeably since not all 4K resolutions are 2160 pixels tall, and not all 2160p resolutions are ≈4000 pixels wide. However, some companies have begun using the term \"4K\" to describe devices with support for a 2160p resolution, even if it is not close to 4000 pixels wide. For example, many \"4K\" dash cams only support a resolution of (43); although this is a 2160p resolution, it is not a 4K resolution. Samsung also released a () TV, but marketed it as a \"4K\" TV despite its 5K-class resolution.\n",
"2.5G (\"second and a half generation\") is used to describe 2G-systems that have implemented a packet-switched domain in addition to the circuit-switched domain. It doesn't necessarily provide faster service because bundling of timeslots is used for circuit-switched data services (HSCSD) as well.\n",
"The Pimax 5K+ is based on similar hardware to the Pimax 8K, but features a lower resolution, at 2560×1440 displays per eye instead of 4K. Since this resolution is accepted as input, the headset eliminates the need for upscaling. Early previews of the devices noted that the 5K+ featured a sharper image, while the 8K had a significantly reduced screen-door effect. Launched alongside the 8K, the 5K+ units began shipping in large numbers sooner; as of February 2019, a majority of backers had received their headsets, while leaving hundreds of Kickstarter backers waiting for their 8K unit.\n",
"On August 23, 2012, UHDTV was officially approved as a standard by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU), standardizing both 4K and 8K resolutions for the format in ITU-R Recommendation BT.2020.\n",
"30p can be preferable over 24p since performing a standards conversion to 25i PAL has fewer technical complexities – any NTSC-PAL converter will do. The larger differences between the 30p and 25i framerates will cause less noticeable motion artifacts upon conversion.\n",
"As of 2016, the world uses 1080p as the mainstream HD standard. However, there is a rapid increase in media content being released in 4K and even 5K resolution. Online streaming services such as Netflix and Amazon Video launched videos in 4K resolution in 2014 and are actively expanding their collection of videos in 4K resolution. As 4K content becomes more common, the usefulness of 5K displays in editing and content creation may lead to a higher demand in the future.\n",
"BULLET::::- 50p/60p is a progressive format and is used in high-end HDTV systems. While it is not technically part of the ATSC or DVB broadcast standards yet, reports suggest that higher progressive frame rates will be a feature of the next-generation high-definition television broadcast standards. In Europe, the EBU considers 1080p50 the next step future proof system for TV broadcasts and is encouraging broadcasters to upgrade their equipment for the future. Many modern cameras can shoot video at 50p and 60p in various resolutions. YouTube allowed users to upload videos at 50 FPS and 60 FPS in June 2014. YouTube also allowed full HFR videos previously uploaded before 2014.\n"
] |
What would have Mary called her son?
|
Jesus is his name as passed through a number of transitions through other languages. The original Hebrew or Aramaic name would be something like Yoshua.
Some modern groups make a big deal of calling Jesus by his "real" name. Earlier centuries didn't worry about that though. It was common for names of biblical figures, foreign royalty, etc to be changed into a fitting form in your own language. Mary wouldn't be Mary either, but more like Maryam, with the "a" as in "hard". Medieval kings were known by many different names: Charles would also be Karl, Carlos, Karel... the view that there is exactly one version of a name that is the proper name is a rather modern idea.
|
[
"The birth of Mary is narrated in the Quran with references to her father as well as her mother. Mary's father is called \"Imran\". He is the equivalent of Joachim in Christian tradition. Her mother, according to al-Tabari, is called \"Hannah\", which is the same name as in Christian tradition (Saint Anne). Muslim literature narrates that Imran and his wife were old and childless and that, one day, the sight of a bird in a tree feeding her young aroused Anne's desire for a child. She prayed to God to fulfill her desire and vowed, if her prayer was accepted, that her child would be dedicated to the service of God.\n",
"Mary, mother of the Jesus of the New Testament, bore a Judeo-Aramaic variant of this name, \"Maryām\" (מרים). In the New Testament of the Bible, written in Greek, her name is transliterated \"Mariam\" (Μαριάμ) or \"Maria\". Several other women in the New Testament, including St. Mary Magdalene, are called by the same name.\n",
"Mary is conceived by her parents as we are all conceived. But in her case it is a pure act of faith and love, in obedience to God's will, as an answer to prayer. In this sense her conception is truly \"immaculate.\" And its fruit is woman who remains forever the most pure Virgin and Mother of God.\n",
"According to the apocryphal Gospel of James, Mary was the daughter of Saint Joachim and Saint Anne. Before Mary's conception, Anne had been barren and was far advanced in years. Mary was given to service as a consecrated virgin in the Temple in Jerusalem when she was three years old, much like Hannah took Samuel to the Tabernacle as recorded in the Old Testament.\n",
"Maryam in Syriac () is a common adjective connoting blessing and perhaps the verb \"[God] exalts her\". Mary, the figure from whom this Sura takes its name, is the only female referred to by name in the entire Qur'an. She is attributed the honorific title 'Sister of Aaron' in verse 28, and Jesus is referred to by his familial connection to her in verse 34; in a text and culture in which individuals were identified by their descent from male family members, the identifying title 'son of Mary' places startling emphasis on Mary's motherhood. This emphasis draws attention to the unique circumstances of Jesus's birth; it was not a biological process, and no father was involved, but it rejects the Christian belief that he was begotten by God. The text describes the agony of Mary's childbirth in great detail, including her wish that she had died long ago in order to avoid such pain. Despite this great hardship, God is portrayed as compassionate and attentive to Mary's needs; He urges her not to worry and provides her with food. Feminist reading of the text points to this treatment of childbirth as verification of the process's special significance.\n",
"Roman Catholic tradition identifies this person as Mary mother of John Mark and also as mother of James, son of Zebedee, and names her \"Mary Salome\" making her the third of the three Marys at the resurrection. She also therefore becomes the person referred as \"the mother of the sons of Zebedee\" (James and Joseph). Her feast day is October 22.\n",
"Mary is identified in the synoptic gospels as one of the women who went to Jesus' tomb after he was buried. Mark 16:1 and Luke 24:10 refer to \"Mary the mother of James\" as one of the women who went to tomb, while Matthew 27:56 says that \"Mary the mother of James and Joseph\" was watching the crucifixion from a distance, while Mark 15:40 calls her \"Mary the mother of James the younger and of Joses\" (NKJV). Although James the younger is often identified with James, son of Alphaeus, the New Advent Encyclopedia identifies him with both James, son of Alphaeus and James the brother of Jesus (James the Just). \n"
] |
why don't artists just release their entire album as singles to increase chart performance and song sales?
|
A lot of artists produce songs which are meant to be listened together and in sequence as they enhance and compliment one another. If they were sold individually and listened to individually they would sound a lot worse because the artist would have failed to create an atmosphere needed to enjoy some of their works.
Something that goes along with this is, people tend to ignore a lot of songs released by artists because they're not considered hits, they may not necessarily be bad, but as mentioned above they don't stand well on their own.
|
[
"As the decades passed, the recording industry concentrated more on album sales than singles sales. Musicians eventually expressed their creative output in the form of full-length albums rather than singles, and by the 1990s many record companies stopped releasing singles altogether (see \"Album Cuts\", below). Eventually, a song's airplay points were weighted more so than its sales. \"Billboard\" has adjusted the sales/airplay ratio many times to more accurately reflect the true popularity of songs.\n",
"Though album sales tend to produce more revenue and, over time, act as a greater measure of an artist's success, this chart receives less media attention than the UK Singles Chart, because overall sales of an album are more important than its peak position. 2005 saw a record number of artist album sales with 126.2 million sold in the UK. In February 2015, it was announced that due to the falling sales of albums and rise in popularity of audio streaming, the Official Albums Chart would begin including streaming data from March 2015. Under the revised methodology, the Official Charts Company takes the 12 most streamed tracks from one album, with the top-two songs being down-weighted in line with the average of the rest. The total of these streams is divided by 1000 and added to the pure sales of the album. This calculation was designed to ensure that the chart rundown continues to reflect the popularity of the albums themselves, rather than just the performance of one or two smash hit singles. The final number one album on the UK Albums Chart to be based purely on sales alone was \"Smoke + Mirrors\" by Imagine Dragons. On 1 March 2015, \"In the Lonely Hour\" by Sam Smith became the first album to top the new streaming-incorporated Official Albums Chart.\n",
"The Official Charts Company stated that due to the immediate availability of an artist's back catalogue in the streaming era, \"the concept of a greatest hits has changed, with many artists opting to re-work their hits to give them a fresh spin\", comparing it to Take That's 2018 greatest hits \"Odyssey\".\n",
"With consumers abandoning albums, performers \"started concentrating on dishing out singles as opposed to churning out albums\". Critics of the trend argued that single songs \"never truly showed an artist’s true prowess and every singer or songwriter proved to be a one-hit wonder\". \n",
"A more recent study that examined pre-release file sharing of music albums, using BitTorrent software, also discovered positive impacts for \"established and popular artists but not newer and smaller artists.\" According to Robert G. Hammond of North Carolina State University, an album that leaked one month early would see a modest increase in sales. \"This increase in sales is small relative to other factors that have been found to affect album sales.\"\n",
"Record chart performance is inherently relative, as they rank songs, albums and records in comparison to each other at the same time, as opposed to music recording sales certification methods, which are measured in absolute numbers. Comparing the chart positions of songs at different times thus does not provide an accurate comparison of a song's overall impact. The nature of most charts, particularly weekly charts, also favors songs that sell very well for a brief period of time; thus, a song that is only briefly popular may chart higher than a song that sells more copies in the long range, but more slowly. As a result, a band's biggest hit single may not be its best-selling single.\n",
"Due to the single's availability to download for free, chart positions were severely affected particularly in Germany, France, The Netherlands and the U.K. where the sale of downloads account for much of a songs chart positioning.\n"
] |
what is the physiology behind being gay, lesbian, bisexual, transgender?
|
We're not really clear on it yet. There's some studies that suggest that transgendered people have brains that are physically closer to that of the sex they identify as, and some theories about hormone differences while in utero altering brain chemistry, but there's no real concrete answers yet.
|
[
"The concepts of gender identity and transgender identity differ from that of sexual orientation. Sexual orientation describes an individual's enduring physical, romantic, emotional, or spiritual attraction to another person, while gender identity is one's personal sense of being a man or a woman. Transgender people have more or less the same variety of sexual orientations as cisgender people. In the past, the terms \"homosexual\" and \"heterosexual\" were incorrectly used to label transgender individuals' sexual orientation based on their birth sex. Professional literature often uses terms such as \"attracted to men\" (androphilic), \"attracted to women\" (gynephilic), \"attracted to both\" (bisexual), or \"attracted to neither\" (asexual) to describe a person's sexual orientation without reference to their gender identity. Therapists are coming to understand the necessity of using terms with respect to their clients' gender identities and preferences. For example, a person who is assigned male at birth, transitions to female, and is attracted to men would be identified as heterosexual.\n",
"The consensus of scientific research and clinical literature demonstrate that same-sex attractions, feelings, and behaviors are normal and positive variations of human sexuality. There is now a large body of scientific evidence that indicates that being gay, lesbian, or bisexual is compatible with normal mental health and social adjustment.\n",
"Attitudes toward lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender (LGBT) people, and their experiences in the Muslim world, have been influenced by its religious, legal, social, political, and cultural history.\n",
"Human sexuality is the capacity to have erotic experiences and responses. Human sexuality can also refer to the way one person is sexually attracted to another person of the opposite sex (heterosexuality), the same sex (homosexuality), or having both tendencies (bisexuality). The lack of sexual attraction is referred to as asexuality. Human sexuality impacts cultural, political, legal and philosophical aspects of life, as well as being widely connected to issues of morality, ethics, theology, spirituality, or religion. It is not, however, directly tied to gender.\n",
"The relationship between religion and LGBT people (lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender) can vary greatly across time and place, within and between different religions and sects, and regarding different forms of homosexuality, bisexuality, and transgender identity.\n",
"LGBT culture is the common culture shared by lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender people. It is sometimes referred to as \"gay culture\" or \"queer culture\", but those terms can also be specific to gay men's culture.\n",
"Sexuality is a basis of health discrimination and inequity throughout the world. Homosexual, bisexual, transgender, and gender-variant populations around the world experience a range of health problems related to their sexuality and gender identity, some of which are complicated further by limited research.\n"
] |
How were the craters on the side of the moon facing earth created?
|
[Here are Earth and Moon, to scale](_URL_0_)
Does that answer the question?
|
[
"The crater was discovered in January 2008 during the first flyby of the planet by \"MESSENGER\" spacecraft. It contains a large (), nearly circular pit crater. Multiple examples of pit craters have been observed on Mercury on the floors of impact craters, leading to the name pit-floor craters for the impact structures that host these features. Unlike impact craters, pit craters are rimless, often irregularly shaped, steep-sided, and often display no associated ejecta or lava flows. These pit craters are thought to be evidence of shallow volcanic activity and may have formed when retreating magma caused an unsupported area of the surface to collapse, creating a pit. They are analogs of Earth's volcanic calderas. Pit-floor craters may provide an indication of internal igneous processes where other evidence of volcanic processes is absent or ambiguous. The discovery of multiple pit-floor craters augments evidence that volcanic activity has been a widespread process in the geologic evolution of Mercury's crust.\n",
"Pit craters are common near volcanoes in the Tharsis and Elysium system of volcanoes. Pit craters form when a void is produced by a cracking of the surface caused by stretching. Also, lava may drain out of an underground chamber, thus leaving an empty space. When material slides into a void, a pit crater or a pit crater chain forms. Pit craters do not have rims or ejecta around them, like impact craters do. On Mars, individual pit craters can join to form chains or even to form troughs that are sometimes scalloped. Pit craters are not common on Earth. Sinkholes, where the ground falls into a hole (sometimes in the middle of a town) resemble pit craters on Mars. However, on the Earth these holes are caused by limestone being dissolved thereby causing a void. The image below of Arsia Chasmata contains a pit crater chain.\n",
"Pitiscus is a lunar impact crater that lies in the southern part of the Moon's near side, just to the northwest of the larger crater Hommel. It was named after German mathematician Bartholomaeus Pitiscus. The crater is worn, but still forms a prominent feature upon the surface. The rim is roughly circular, but appears oval from the Earth due to foreshortening. There is an outward bulge to the south-southeast where the interior has slumped. The remainder of the inner wall still displays terraces, although they are worn and rounded due to erosion.\n",
"Crater morphology provides information about the physical structure and composition of the surface. Impact craters allow us to look deep below the surface and into Mars geological past. Lobate ejecta blankets (pictured left) and central pit craters are common on Mars but uncommon on the Moon, which may indicate the presence of near-surface volatiles (ice and water) on Mars. Degraded impact structures record variations in volcanic, fluvial, and aeolian activity.\n",
"Crater morphology provides information about the physical structure and composition of the surface and subsurface at the time of impact. For example, the size of central peaks in Martian craters is larger than comparable craters on Mercury or the Moon. In addition, the central peaks of many large craters on Mars have pit craters at their summits. Central pit craters are rare on the Moon but are very common on Mars and the icy satellites of the outer Solar System. Large central peaks and the abundance of pit craters probably indicate the presence of near-surface ice at the time of impact. Polewards of 30 degrees of latitude, the form of older impact craters is rounded out (\"softened\") by acceleration of soil creep by ground ice.\n",
"At one time this crater was considered to have formed due to volcanic activity, in contrast to most lunar craters which are considered to have been created through impacts. However it is more likely that the crater was formed by an impact against a surface that was still partly molten. This has left the crater with a sharp-edged, circular rim and a flat, dark-hued interior floor. Indeed, the albedo of the interior floor matches that of the lunar mare to the west. The southeast part of the floor is fractured with a series of narrow rilles. The floor along the northwest and northeast edges is more rugged, and these sections have escaped the lava that covered the remainder of the floor.\n",
"BULLET::::- Astronomers conclude that the many grooves on Phobos, one of two moons orbiting Mars, were caused by boulders, ejected from the asteroid impact that created Stickney crater (which takes up a substantial portion of the moon's surface), that rolled around on the surface of the moon.\n"
] |
what type of data is obtained from underground nuclear tests?
|
The main purpose of a test is find out whether the device can be safely armed and successfully detonated. The tests are performed underground for environmental and safety purposes, but can make taking precise measurements difficult.
If buried at an adequate depth, yields can be roughly estimated based on the size of the melt crater.
Other data includes shockwave propagation rates, measured using pulse reflection. This has been used in the past to identify and correct early shell ablation, among other timing issues.
Toxic byproducts and radiation are also a point of interest.
The timings and magnitude of seismic and air waves, along with radiation, can be used to pinpoint the source of slow reactions and incomplete yields
|
[
"Nuclear Data Incorporated was a manufacturer of scientific measuring devices for high energy physics laboratories. Application areas included X-ray analysis and radiation monitoring. In the 1960s, they built minicomputers to automate their laboratory devices, such as the ND 812. Over time they replaced these custom designed computers with DEC LSI-11 minicomputers with custom peripherals. Their headquarters were located in Schaumburg, Illinois.\n",
"The CTBTO radionuclide network later made a significant detection of radioactive isotopes of xenon - xenon-131m and xenon-133 - that could be attributed to the nuclear test. The detection was made at the radionuclide station in Takasaki, Japan, located at around 1,000 kilometres, or 620 miles, from the North Korean test site. Lower levels were picked up at another station in Ussuriysk, Russia. Using Atmospheric Transport Modelling, which calculates the three-dimensional travel path of airborne radioactivity on the basis of weather data, the North Korean test site was identified as a possible source for the emission.\n",
"The detection of reactor operations and above-ground nuclear weapon tests can be carried out in various ways. One approach used since the early 1950s has been the analyses of air samples collected at ground and low-level altitudes for the presence of particular radioactive nuclides. This technique is still in use, and there are a number of ground-based, radionuclide detectors for airborne debris in continuous operation in various parts of the world. An advantage of collecting air samples in the stratosphere is that powerful above-ground nuclear explosions carry bomb debris to elevated altitudes, where it is broadly distributed by winds aloft. The collection and analyses of this debris can therefore provide direct and timely information about a particular test. This article briefly describes the successful effort to develop and implement a program of gathering air samples using high-altitude balloon systems that were used from 1953 until late in 1956. The high-altitude balloon program that collected these samples was known as Project Grab Bag.\n",
"The National Nuclear Data Center is an organization based in the Brookhaven National Laboratory that acts as a repository for data regarding nuclear chemistry, such as nuclear structure, decay, and reaction data, as well as historical information regarding previous experiments and literature. According to the ResearchGATE scientific network, \"The National Nuclear Data Center NNDC collects, evaluates, and dissiminates nuclear physics data for basic nuclear research and applied nuclear technologies.\" The current Center Head is Dr. Michal Herman.\n",
"One real-world example is a review of how xenon by-product levels could be used to distinguish if air sampling from a North Korean test, either atmospheric testing or leakage from an underground test, could be used to determine if the bomb was nuclear, and, if so, whether the Primary was plutonium or highly enriched uranium (HEU)\n",
"The treaty included a protocol which detailed technical data to be exchanged and which limited weapon testing to specific designated test sites to assist verification. The data to be exchanged included information on the geographical boundaries and geology of the testing areas. Geological data—including such factors as density of rock formation, water saturation, and depth of the water table—are useful in verifying test yields because the seismic signal produced by a given underground nuclear explosion varies with these factors at the test location. After an actual test has taken place, the geographic coordinates of the test location are to be furnished to the other party, to help in placing the test in the proper geological setting and thus in assessing the yield.\n",
"Nuclear data represents measured (or evaluated) probabilities of various physical interactions involving the nuclei of atoms. It is used to understand the nature of such interactions by providing the fundamental input to many models and simulations, such as fission and fusion reactor calculations, shielding and radiation protection calculations, criticality safety, nuclear weapons, nuclear physics research, medical radiotherapy, radioisotope therapy and diagnostics, particle accelerator design and operations, geological and environmental work, radioactive waste disposal calculations, and space travel calculations\n"
] |
How dense does air get in the compressor of a jet engine?
|
For an isentropic (idealized) compressor, the density change is equal to the pressure change raised to the power of 1/gamma (1/1.4 for air). So a (high end) compressor ratio of 40:1 will give a density ratio of 14:1.
At sea level, you're looking at 1.2 kg/m^3 ambient density, so it'd be compressed to ~17 kg/m^3. Less than half that at cruising altitude.
I wouldn't really characterize that as "incredibly dense". That's about 1 pound per cubic foot.
|
[
"Air was initially compressed (and heated) by the inlet spike and subsequent converging duct between the center body and inlet cowl. The shock waves generated slowed the air to subsonic speeds relative to the engine. The air then entered the engine compressor. Some of this compressor flow (20% at cruise) was removed after the fourth compressor stage and went straight to the afterburner through six bypass tubes. Air passing through the turbojet was compressed further by the remaining five compressor stages and then fuel was added in the combustion chamber. After passing through the turbine, the exhaust, together with the compressor bleed air, entered the afterburner.\n",
"Below five times the speed of sound and 25 kilometres of altitude, which is 20% of the speed and 20% of the altitude needed to reach orbit, the cooled air from the precooler passes into a modified turbo-compressor, similar in design to those used on conventional jet engines but running at an unusually high pressure ratio made possible by the low temperature of the inlet air. The compressor feeds the compressed air at 140 atmospheres into the combustion chambers of the main engines.\n",
"As the gas turbine is a constant volume machine, the air volume introduced in the combustion chamber after the compression stage is fixed for a given shaft speed (rpm). Thus the air mass flow in is directly related to the density of air, and the introduced volume.\n",
"At lower speeds, air passes through an inlet and is then compressed by an axial compressor. That compressor is driven by a turbine, which is powered by hot, high-pressure gas from a combustion chamber. These initial aspects are very similar to how a turbojet operates, however, there are several differences. The first is that the combustor in the turboramjet is often separate from the main airflow. Instead of combining air from the compressor with fuel to combust, the turboramjet combustor may use hydrogen and oxygen, carried on the aircraft, as its fuel for the combustor.\n",
"For purposes of generalization and definition, it can be said that centrifugal compressors often have density increases greater than 5 percent. Also, they often experience relative fluid velocities above Mach number 0.3 when the working fluid is air or nitrogen. In contrast, fans or blowers are often considered to have density increases of less than five percent and peak relative fluid velocities below Mach 0.3.\n",
"Normally, as air enters a jet engine, it is compressed by the inlet, and thus heats up. It needs much more power to compress that heated air further by the engine's compressor section, which reduces the compressor's efficiency dramatically. Furthermore, this means that high-speed engines need to be made of materials that can survive extremely high temperatures. In practice, this inevitably makes the engines heavier and also reduces the amount of fuel that can be burned, to avoid melting the gas turbine section of the engine. This in turn reduces thrust at high speed.\n",
"Air is drawn into the rotating compressor via the intake and is compressed to a higher pressure before entering the combustion chamber. Fuel is mixed with the compressed air and burns in the combustor. The combustion products leave the combustor and expand through the turbine where power is extracted to drive the compressor. The turbine exit gases still contain considerable energy that is converted in the propelling nozzle to a high speed jet.\n"
] |
Why did the Romans have so much trouble with the Germanic tribes?
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I wouldn't say I'm an expert on the Germanic tribes, but having read fairly extensively on Caesar, Varus and Germanicus, I can give you some background.
The Romans actually did a pretty good job of whipping German butt. At the end of the first century BCE, Tiberius (soon to be emperor) and his legates had done a damn fine job extending Roman borders East of the Rhine and North of the Danube rivers. So much so, they declared the tribes there pacified. Tiberius peaced out to go and deal with an Illyran revolt and Varus, a former governor of Africa and Syria was appointed to watch over these lands with three legions (soon to be extremely infamous legions).
Enter Arminius, a commander of auxiliary German forces during the roman subjugation, a roman citizen AND a Germanic Prince of the recently subdued Cherusi? tribe. He was a sneaky fucker. Playing off Varus' lust for political glory and his own ambition to unite the German tribes, Arminius convinced Varus to march north with his legions to proactively subdue a rebellion (which he was organising).
Varus being impetuous and also extremely trusting of Arminius (they had been bros for ages), rallied his troops. The legions were the 17th, 18th and 19th and took off toward modern day Mainz to expand the borders further and expand Varus' political penis.
What followed was the greatest ass kicking the Romans would receive since Cannae... The Battle of the Teutoburg Forest.
Led down a narrow trail, which according to Cassius Dio, had been ravaged by storms, the Romans were ambushed. Unable to properly form up and completely cut off from a retreat, the three legions were harassed and slaughtered all day and night as they made a cannonball run down the trail in a doomed attempt to punch free of the hell they found themselves in. I get chills thinking about how horrifying that experience would've been. Some estimates put the Roman losses at 6000 to 1, but these figures are highly disputed... though they do give you an idea of how utterly obliterated they were getting.
The 17th, 18th and 19th standards were lost. Rome was shamed. Apparently Augustus never lived it down and was often found mourning the lost up until the day he died.
"QUINTILIUS VARUS! GIVE ME BACK MY LEGIONS!" ... Awesome.
It ended Roman dominion in Germania and pretty much Roman expansion in general.
Germanicus was tasked with retrieving the standards years later and did so, because Germanicus was one of the baddest motherfuckers to ever Don the purple. You don’t get renamed Germanicus Gaius Julius Caesar for eating grapes and having orgies.
Essentially, to answer your question - the Romans didn't have a problem fighting the Germans, they were actually quite successful, having administered victorious campaigns both before and after Varus... But Varus' complete and total defeat at Teutoburg was so haunting, the Romans wanted nothing to do with the place. So much so the 17th, 18th and 19th legions were never risen again, instead those numbers were left to rot in the mud of the Black Forest forever, as a reminder to Rome of its shame.
I also think we see the Germanic tribes as implacable because culturally, the Romans chose to remember them that way - as seen in your Tacitus quote
Edit: I shot a lot of this from the hip from my mobile- can tidy it up tomorrow/others can call me on my bs.
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[
"The Empire's historical relationship with Germanic tribes was sometimes hostile, at other times cooperative, but ultimately fatal, as it was unable to prevent those tribes from assuming a dominant role in the relationship. By the early 5th century, as a result of severe losses and depleted tax income, the Western Roman Empire's military forces were dominated by Germanic troops, and Romanised Germans played a significant role in the empire's internal politics. Various Germanic and other tribes beyond the frontiers were able to take advantage of the Empire's weakened state, both to expand into Roman territory and, in some cases, to move their entire populations into lands once considered exclusively Roman, culminating in various successful migrations from 406 onwards. The crossing of the Rhine caused intense fear in Britannia, prone as it was to being cut off from the Empire by raids on the primary communications route from Italy, to Trier to the Channel Coast. In the event, this was much more than just another raid.\n",
"Though often defeated by the Romans, the Germanic tribes were remembered in Roman records as fierce combatants, whose main downfall was that they failed to join together into a collective fighting force under a unified command, which allowed the Roman Empire to employ a \"divide and conquer\" strategy against them. On occasions when the Germanic tribes worked together, the results were impressive. Three Roman legions were ambushed and destroyed by an alliance of Germanic tribes headed by Arminius at the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest in 9 CE, the Roman Empire made no further concentrated attempts at conquering Germania beyond the Rhine.\n",
"Though often defeated by the Romans, the Germanic tribes were remembered in Roman records as fierce combatants, whose main downfall was that they failed to unite successfully into one fighting force, under one command. After the three Roman legions were ambushed and destroyed by an alliance of Germanic tribes headed by Arminius at the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest in 9 AD, the Roman Empire made no further concentrated attempts at conquering Germania beyond the Rhine. Prolonged warfare against the Romans accustomed the Germanic tribes to improved tactics such as the use of reserves, military discipline and centralised command. Germanic tribes would eventually overwhelm and conquer the ancient world, giving rise to modern Europe and medieval warfare. For an analysis of Germanic tactics versus the Roman empire see tactical problems in facing the Gauls and the Germanic tribes\n",
"There is a tendency by some modern scholars to ascribe to ancient barbarians a degree of ethnic solidarity that did not exist, according to A.H.M. Jones. Germanic tribes were constantly fighting each other and even within such tribal confederations as the Franks or Alamanni there were bitter feuds between the constituent tribes and clans. Indeed, a primary reason why many tribal sub-groups surrendered to the Roman authorities (\"dediticii\") and sought to settle in the empire as \"laeti\" was in order to escape pressure from their neighbours. The few known conflicts of loyalty only arose when the Roman army was campaigning against a barbarian-born soldier's own specific clan. Ammianus himself never characterises barbarian-born troops as unreliable. On the contrary, his evidence is that barbarian soldiers were as loyal, and fought as hard, as Roman ones.\n",
"Some of the Germanic tribes are frequently credited in popular depictions of the decline of the Roman Empire in the 5th century. Many historians and archaeologists have since the 1950s shifted their interpretations in such a way that the Germanic peoples are no longer seen as \"invading\" a decaying empire but as being \"co-opted\" into helping defend territory the central government could no longer adequately administer. Germanic tribes nonetheless fought against Roman dominance when necessary. When the Roman Empire refused to allow the Visigoths to settle in Noricum for instance, they responded by sacking Rome in CE 410 under the leadership of Alaric I. Oddly enough, Alaric I did not see his imposition in Rome as an attack against the Roman Empire per se but as an attempt to gain a favorable position within its borders, particularly since the Visigoths held the Empire in high regard.\n",
"Conflict between the Germanic tribes and the forces of Rome under Julius Caesar forced major Germanic tribes to retreat to the east bank of the Rhine. Roman emperor Augustus in 12 BC ordered the conquest of the Germans, but the catastrophic Roman defeat at the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest resulted in the Roman Empire abandoning its plans to completely conquer Germania. Germanic peoples in Roman territory were culturally Romanized, and although much of Germania remained free of direct Roman rule, Rome deeply influenced the development of German society, especially the adoption of Christianity by the Germans who obtained it from the Romans. In Roman-held territories with Germanic populations, the Germanic and Roman peoples intermarried, and Roman, Germanic, and Christian traditions intermingled. The adoption of Christianity would later become a major influence in the development of a common German identity.\n",
"The Germanic tribes generally avoided open large-scale combat but by repeated Roman incursions deep into Germanic territory, Germanicus was able to force Arminius, at the head of a large but fractious coalition, into response. The Romans, along with the Chauci who fought on the Roman side as auxiliaries, defeated the allied Germanic forces, inflicting heavy losses on them. Arminius and his uncle Inguiomer were both wounded in the battle but evaded capture. The retreating Germanic army were cut down in every quarter. Many attempting to swim across the Weser died due to a storm of projectiles or by the force of the current. Many others climbed the tops of trees, and while they were hiding themselves in the boughs, the Romans brought archers up to shoot them down. According to Tacitus, \"[f]rom nine in the morning to nightfall the [Germans] were slaughtered, and ten miles were covered with arms and dead bodies.\"\n"
] |
How did mammoth hunting cultures harvest the meat?
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you should also try to ask this over at r/askanthropology but the current thinking is that the mammoth would be butchered where it fell. Bison (*Bison bison*), were much smaller and they tended to be butchered where they fell as well. There is a paper where they experimented by butchering a dead zoo elephant but I don't have my memory stick with me at the moment so I can't give you a reference, will try add it later
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[
"Several woolly mammoth specimens show evidence of being butchered by humans, which is indicated by breaks, cut marks, and associated stone tools. How much prehistoric humans relied on woolly mammoth meat is unknown, since many other large herbivores were available. Many mammoth carcasses may have been scavenged by humans rather than hunted. Some cave paintings show woolly mammoths in structures interpreted as pitfall traps. Few specimens show direct, unambiguous evidence of having been hunted by humans. A Siberian specimen with a spearhead embedded in its shoulder blade shows that a spear had been thrown at it with great force. A specimen from the Mousterian age of Italy shows evidence of spear hunting by Neanderthals. The juvenile specimen nicknamed \"Yuka\" is the first frozen mammoth with evidence of human interaction. It shows evidence of having been killed by a large predator, and of having been scavenged by humans shortly after. Some of its bones had been removed, and were found nearby. A site near the Yana River in Siberia has revealed several specimens with evidence of human hunting, but the finds were interpreted to show that the animals were not hunted intensively, but perhaps mainly when ivory was needed. Two woolly mammoths from Wisconsin, the \"Schaefer\" and \"Hebior mammoths\", show evidence of having been butchered by Palaeoamericans.\n",
"Hunting was a crucial component of hunter-gatherer societies before the domestication of livestock and the dawn of agriculture, beginning about 11,000 years ago in some parts of the world. In addition to the spear, hunting weapons developed during the Upper Paleolithic include the atlatl (a spear-thrower; before 30,000 years ago) and the bow (18,000 years ago). By the Mesolithic, hunting strategies had diversified with the development of these more far-reaching weapons and the domestication of the dog about 15,000 years ago. Evidence puts the earliest known mammoth hunting in Asia with spears to approximately 16,200 years ago.\n",
"Hunting of big game for food is an ancient practice, possibly arising with the emergence of \"Homo sapiens\" (anatomically modern humans), and possible pre-dating it, given the known propensity of other great apes to hunt, and even eat their own species. Based on cave paintings, it appears that early man hunted mammoth in groups, using a combination of spears or large rocks, or alternatively running the animal off a cliff.\n",
"The mammoths appear to have been butchered but it is unclear whether these beasts were hunted, or their meat simply scavenged from corpses. The site is internationally important due to the rarity of such sites being preserved.\n",
"Bows and arrows were used to hunt animals by 400 to 650 A.D., and pottery pieces have been found in the park that are dated to this period of time. The Paleo-Indians also continued to use game drives to hunt for meat until about 1000 AD. As hunter-gatherers, they also foraged for roots and berries for sustenance.\n",
"The woolly mammoth coexisted with early humans, who used its bones and tusks for making art, tools, and dwellings, and the species was also hunted for food. It disappeared from its mainland range at the end of the Pleistocene 10,000 years ago, most likely through climate change and consequent shrinkage of its habitat, hunting by humans, or a combination of the two. Isolated populations survived on St. Paul Island until 5,600 years ago and on Wrangel Island until 4,000 years ago. After its extinction, humans continued using its ivory as a raw material, a tradition that continues today. With a genome project for the mammoth completed in 2015, it has been proposed the species could be recreated through various means, but none of these is yet feasible.\n",
"Mammoths were typically hunted for fur, bone shelter, and bone fuel. In the southwest region around the middle Dnestr Valley, sites are dominated by reindeer and horse, accounting for 80 to 90% of the identifiable large mammal remains. Mammoth is less common, typically 15% or less, as the availability of wood eliminated the need for heavy consumption of bone fuel and collection of large bones for construction. Mammoth remains may have been collected for other raw material, namely ivory. Other large mammals in modest numbers include steppe bison and red deer.\n"
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