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Electromigration There are also grave differences with time dependent current: direct current or different alternating current waveforms cause different effects. Two forces affect ionized atoms in a conductor: 1) The direct electrostatic force "F", as a result of the electric field, which has the same direction as the ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=563847 |
Electromigration In a homogeneous crystalline structure, because of the uniform lattice structure of the metal ions, there is hardly any momentum transfer between the conduction electrons and the metal ions. However, this symmetry does not exist at the grain boundaries and material interfaces, and so here momentum is t... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=563847 |
Electromigration Normally, the amount of momentum imparted by the relatively low-mass electrons is not enough to permanently displace the atoms. However, in high-power situations (such as with the increasing current draw and decreasing wire sizes in modern VLSI microprocessors), if many electrons bombard the atoms with... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=563847 |
Electromigration The total atomic flux formula_6 is a combination of the fluxes caused by the different atom migration forces. The major forces are induced by the electric current, and by the gradients of temperature, mechanical stress and concentration. formula_8. To define the fluxes mentioned above: Assuming a vacan... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=563847 |
Electromigration However, as interconnect technology advances at the nanometer scale, the validity of Black's equation becomes increasingly questionable. Historically, aluminium has been used as conductor in integrated circuits, due to its good adherence to substrate, good conductivity, and ability to form ohmic contac... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=563847 |
Electromigration However, if you reduce wire width to below the average grain size of the wire material, grain boundaries become "crosswise", more or less perpendicular to the length of the wire. The resulting structure resembles the joints in a stalk of bamboo. With such a structure, the resistance to electromigration... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=563847 |
Electromigration Particular attention must be paid to vias and contact holes.The current carrying capacity of a via is much less than a metallic wire of same length. Hence multiple vias are often used, whereby the geometry of the via array is very significant: multiple vias must be organized such that the resulting cur... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=563847 |
Electromigration The complete mathematical model describing electromigration consists of several partial differential equations (PDEs) which need to be solved for three-dimensional geometrical domains representing segments of an interconnect structure. Such a mathematical model forms the basis for simulation of electro... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=563847 |
Electromigration Electromigrated Nanogaps have shown great promise as electrodes in use in molecular scale electronics. Researchers have used feedback controlled electromigration to investigate the magnetoresistance of a quantum spin valve. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=563847 |
Expression vector An expression vector, otherwise known as an expression construct, is usually a plasmid or virus designed for gene expression in cells. The vector is used to introduce a specific gene into a target cell, and can commandeer the cell's mechanism for protein synthesis to produce the protein encoded by the... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=564380 |
Expression vector The cloned gene may be transferred from a specialized cloning vector to an expression vector, although it is possible to clone directly into an expression vector. The cloning process is normally performed in "Escherichia coli". Vectors used for protein production in organisms other than "E.coli" may h... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=564380 |
Expression vector Gene expression however may also be constitutive (i.e. protein is constantly expressed) in some expression vectors. Low level of constitutive protein synthesis may occur even in expression vectors with tightly controlled promoters. After the expression of the gene product, it is usually necessary to p... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=564380 |
Expression vector Different organisms may be used to express a gene's target protein, and the expression vector used will therefore have elements specific for use in the particular organism. The most commonly used organism for protein production is the bacterium "Escherichia coli". However, not all proteins can be succ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=564380 |
Expression vector Another possibility is to manipulate the redox environment of the cytoplasm. Other more sophisticated systems are also being developed; such systems may allow for the expression of proteins previously thought impossible in "E. coli", such as glycosylated proteins. The promoters used for these vector a... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=564380 |
Expression vector However, when 2 or more plasmids are used, each plasmid needs to use a different antibiotic selection as well as a different origin of replication, otherwise one of the plasmids may not be stably maintained. Many commonly used plasmids are based on the ColE1 replicon and are therefore incompatible wit... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=564380 |
Expression vector The vectors used in yeast two-hybrid system contain fusion partners for two cloned genes that allow the transcription of a reporter gene when there is interaction between the two proteins expressed from the cloned genes. Baculovirus, a rod-shaped virus which infects insect cells, is used as the expres... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=564380 |
Expression vector The "Agrobacterium" provides a mechanism for transformation, integration of into the plant genome, and the promoters for its "vir" genes may also be used for the cloned genes. Concerns over the transfer of bacterial or viral genetic material into the plant however have led to the development of vector... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=564380 |
Expression vector It is of particular use in producing membrane-associating proteins that require chaperones for proper folding and stability as well as containing numerous post-translational modifications. The downside, however, is the low yield of product in comparison to prokaryotic vectors as well as the costly nat... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=564380 |
Expression vector The advantage of such system is that protein may be produced much faster than those produced "in vivo" since it does not require time to culture the cells, but it is also more expensive. Vectors used for "E. coli" expression can be used in this system although specifically designed vectors for this sy... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=564380 |
Expression vector Examples from the past include prion contamination in growth hormone extracted from pituitary glands harvested from human cadavers, which caused Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease in patients receiving treatment for dwarfism, and viral contaminants in clotting factor VIII isolated from human blood that resulte... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=564380 |
Expression vector Transgenic animals have also been produced to study animal biochemical processes and human diseases, or used to produce pharmaceuticals and other proteins. They may also be engineered to have advantageous or useful traits. Green fluorescent protein is sometimes used as tags which results in animal tha... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=564380 |
Antimonite In chemistry, antimonite refers to a salt of antimony(III), such as NaSb(OH) and NaSbO (meta-antimonite), which can be prepared by reacting alkali with antimony trioxide, SbO. These are formally salts of antimonous acid, Sb(OH), whose existence in solution is dubious. Attempts to isolate it generally form Sb... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=565005 |
Chalcanthite Chalcanthite, whose name derives from the Greek, ' and ', meaning copper flower, is a richly colored blue/green water-soluble sulfate mineral CuSO·5HO. It is commonly found in the late-stage oxidation zones of copper deposits. Due to its ready solubility, chalcanthite is more common in arid regions. is a p... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=565010 |
Chalcanthite Second, higher quality crystals can be easily grown synthetically, and, as such, there is a concern that disreputable mineral dealers would present a sample as natural when it is not. Given that chalcanthite is found in oxidized copper deposits, it is frequently found in association with other copper miner... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=565010 |
Standard electrode potential In electrochemistry, standard electrode potential is defined as "the measure the individual potential of reversible electrode at standard state with ions at an effective concentration of 1mol dm at the pressure of 1 atm". The basis for an electrochemical cell, such as the galvanic cell, is ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=566959 |
Standard electrode potential At each electrode-electrolyte interface there is a tendency of metal ions from the solution to deposit on the metal electrode trying to make it positively charged. At the same time, metal atoms of the electrode have a tendency to go into the solution as ions and leave behind the electrons a... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=566959 |
Standard electrode potential The galvanic cell potential results from a "pair" of electrodes. Thus, only one empirical value is available in a pair of electrodes and it is not possible to determine the value for each electrode in the pair using the empirically obtained galvanic cell potential. A reference electrode, st... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=566959 |
Standard electrode potential For practical measurements, the electrode in question is connected to the positive terminal of the electrometer, while the standard hydrogen electrode is connected to the negative terminal. The larger the value of the standard reduction potentials, the easier it is for the element to be red... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=566959 |
Kelvin–Helmholtz instability The (after Lord Kelvin and Hermann von Helmholtz) typically occurs when there is velocity shear in a single continuous fluid, or additionally where there is a velocity difference across the interface between two fluids. A common example is seen with wind blowing over water, the instability ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=567946 |
Kelvin–Helmholtz instability Through the aforementioned definition of the Kelvin-Helmholtz instability, the distinction between Kelvin-Helmholtz instability and small scale turbulence can be difficult. Although the two are not inherently inseparable, Kelvin-Helmholtz is viewed as a two dimensional phenomena compared to... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=567946 |
Kelvin–Helmholtz instability The study of this instability is applicable in plasma physics, for example in inertial confinement fusion and the plasma–beryllium interface. At times a situation in which there in a state of static stability, evident by heavier fluids found below than the lower fluid, the Rayleigh-Taylor i... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=567946 |
Kelvin–Helmholtz instability In the spatial approach, experimenters simulate a lab experiment with natural inlet and outlet conditions (convective instability). The Kelvin-Helmholtz instability phenomena is an all encompassing occurrence of fluid flow seen time and time again in nature. From the waves of the ocean to t... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=567946 |
Sulfur dye Sulfur dyes are the most commonly used dyes manufactured for cotton in terms of volume. They are inexpensive, generally have good wash-fastness, and are easy to apply. Sulfur dyes are predominantly black, brown, and dark blue. Red sulfur dyes are unknown, although a pink or lighter scarlet color is available... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=568133 |
Sulfur dye Members of the sulfur bake dyes class are Sulfur Orange 1, Sulfur Brown 21, and Sulfur Green 12. Sulfur dyes are water-insoluble. In the presence of a reducing agent and at alkali pH's at elevated temperature of around 80 °C, the dye particles disintegrate, which then becomes water-soluble and hence can be a... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=568133 |
Sulfur dye Future developments in the field of reducing dye levels by means of electro-chemical processes are promising. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=568133 |
Valence electron In chemistry and physics, a valence electron is an outer shell electron with an atom, and that can participate in the formation of a chemical bond if the outer shell is not closed; in a single covalent bond, both atoms in the bond contribute one valence electron in order to form a shared pair. The pres... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=568674 |
Valence electron When an electron loses energy (thereby causing a photon to be emitted), then it can move to an inner shell which is not fully occupied. Valence energy levels correspond to the principal quantum numbers ("n" = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 ...) or are labeled alphabetically with letters used in the X-ray notation (K, L... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=568674 |
Valence electron However, transition elements have partially filled ("n" − 1) energy levels, that are very close in energy to the "n" level. So as opposed to main group elements, a valence electron for a transition metal is defined as an electron that resides outside a noble-gas core. Thus, generally, the electrons in ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=568674 |
Valence electron Because the number of valence electrons which actually participate in chemical reactions is difficult to predict, the concept of the valence electron is less useful for a transition metal than for a main group element; the d electron count is an alternative tool for understanding the chemistry of a tra... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=568674 |
Valence electron Within each group (each periodic table column) of metals, reactivity increases with each lower row of the table (from a light element to a heavier element), because a heavier element has more electron shells than a lighter element; a heavier element's valence electrons exist at higher principal quantum... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=568674 |
Valence electron Within each group of nonmetals, reactivity decreases with each lower rows of the table (from a light element to a heavy element) in the periodic table, because the valence electrons are at progressively higher energies and thus progressively less tightly bound. In fact, oxygen (the lightest element in ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=568674 |
Valence electron Such a "free" electron can be moved under the influence of an electric field, and its motion constitutes an electric current; it is responsible for the electrical conductivity of the metal. Copper, aluminium, silver, and gold are examples of good conductors. A nonmetallic element has low electrical con... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=568674 |
Valence electron The properties of semiconductors are best explained using band theory, as a consequence of a small energy gap between a valence band (which contains the valence electrons at absolute zero) and a conduction band (to which valence electrons are excited by thermal energy). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=568674 |
Brominated vegetable oil (BVO) is a complex mixture of plant-derived triglycerides that have been reacted to contain atoms of the element bromine bonded to the molecules. is used primarily to help emulsify citrus-flavored soft drinks, preventing them from separating during distribution. has been used by the soft drink ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=569689 |
Brominated vegetable oil Numerous generic citrus sodas also use it, including "Clover Valley"/Dollar General sodas and Stars & Stripes. On May 5, 2014, Coca-Cola and PepsiCo said they would remove BVO from their products. BVO is one of four substances that the U.S. Food and Drug Administration has defined as interim fo... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=569689 |
Brominated vegetable oil One case reported that a man who consumed two to four liters of a soda containing BVO on a daily basis experienced memory loss, tremors, fatigue, loss of muscle coordination, headache, and ptosis of the right eyelid, as well as elevated serum chloride. In the two months it took to correctly dia... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=569689 |
1986 California Proposition 65 Proposition 65 (formally titled The Safe Drinking Water and Toxic Enforcement Act of 1986) is a California law passed by direct voter initiative in 1986 by a 63%–37% vote. Its goals are to protect drinking water sources from toxic substances that cause cancer and birth defects and to redu... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=570103 |
1986 California Proposition 65 All substances listed show their known risk factors, a unique CAS chemical classification number, the date they were listed, and, if so, whether they have been delisted. Proposition 65 has been highly successful in reducing exposures to known toxic chemicals, especially in consumer produc... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=570103 |
1986 California Proposition 65 The people of California find that hazardous chemicals pose a serious potential threat to their health and well-being, that state government agencies have failed to provide them with adequate protection, and that these failures have been serious enough to lead to investigations by federal... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=570103 |
1986 California Proposition 65 Lawsuits may also be brought by private parties "acting in the public interest," but only after providing notice of the alleged violation to the Attorney General, the appropriate district attorney and city attorney, and the business accused of the violation. A Proposition 65 Notice of Vio... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=570103 |
1986 California Proposition 65 Users can do this by searching in a Microsoft Excel chemical list or a website offering the search by chemical name or CAS Number. Product manufacturers may also learn if a chemical in their products has been removed from the Proposition 65 list, such as saccharin, removed December 2010. ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=570103 |
1986 California Proposition 65 Proposition 65 has also caused government and industry to cooperate on scientific issues of chemical risk, resulting in risk-based standards for 282 toxic chemicals in the law's first few years of operation, an accomplishment described by a Governor's Task Force as "100 years of progress ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=570103 |
1986 California Proposition 65 For exposures from other sources, such as car exhaust in a parking garage, a standard sign might read: "This area contains chemicals known to the State of California to cause cancer, or birth defects or other reproductive harm". Political controversy over the law, including industry attem... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=570103 |
1986 California Proposition 65 Utility companies mail a Prop 65 notice to all customers each year to warn them about exposures to natural gas, petroleum products and sandblasting. Abuse of enforcement lawsuits has also been a consistent theme of Proposition 65 opponents, who criticize the motives of citizen enforcers. ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=570103 |
1986 California Proposition 65 In the 2013–14 session of the California State Assembly, a consensus bill, AB 227, introduced by Assemblyman Mike Gatto (D-Los Angeles), effectively offered to protect certain small companies in specified circumstances from the threat of citizen enforcement lawsuits, by providing them wit... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=570103 |
1986 California Proposition 65 Over the years, Prop 65 has led to consent agreements for a variety of consumer products, such as bibs, bicycles, products containing brass, cookware, cosmetics, exercise mats, ceramic ware and glassware, clothing, fake leather upholstery, headphone cables, jewelry, lunchboxes, poker chip... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=570103 |
1986 California Proposition 65 Various specific phthalates are also restricted in varying concentrations in notepads with vinyl coverings, purses, slippers, flip flops with rhinestones and similar plastic footwear, ear buds and headsets, and exercise/fitness mats. Restriction on volatile organic compounds (VOCs) is def... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=570103 |
Drug discovery In the fields of medicine, biotechnology and pharmacology, drug discovery is the process by which new candidate medications are discovered. Historically, drugs were discovered by identifying the active ingredient from traditional remedies or by serendipitous discovery, as with penicillin. More recently, ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=571274 |
Drug discovery Modern drug discovery is thus usually a capital-intensive process that involves large investments by pharmaceutical industry corporations as well as national governments (who provide grants and loan guarantees). Despite advances in technology and understanding of biological systems, drug discovery is sti... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=571274 |
Drug discovery The idea that the effect of a drug in the human body is mediated by specific interactions of the drug molecule with biological macromolecules, (proteins or nucleic acids in most cases) led scientists to the conclusion that individual chemicals are required for the biological activity of the drug. This ma... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=571274 |
Drug discovery Another champion of the approach of developing chemical analogues of known active substances was Sir David Jack at Allen and Hanbury's, later Glaxo, who pioneered the first inhaled selective beta2-adrenergic agonist for asthma, the first inhaled steroid for asthma, ranitidine as a successor to cimetidine... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=571274 |
Drug discovery In an estimate from 2011, 435 human genome products were identified as therapeutic drug targets of FDA-approved drugs. "Established targets" are those for which there is a good scientific understanding, supported by a lengthy publication history, of both how the target functions in normal physiology and ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=571274 |
Drug discovery Another important function of HTS is to show how selective the compounds are for the chosen target, as one wants to find a molecule which will interfere with only the chosen target, but not other, related targets. To this end, other screening runs will be made to see whether the "hits" against the chosen... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=571274 |
Drug discovery At this point, medicinal chemists will attempt to use structure-activity relationships (SAR) to improve certain features of the lead compound: This process will require several iterative screening runs, during which, it is hoped, the properties of the new molecular entities will improve, and allow the fa... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=571274 |
Drug discovery Such a molecule might be extracted from a natural product or even be a drug on the market which could be improved upon (so-called "me too" drugs). Other methods, such as virtual high throughput screening, where screening is done using computer-generated models and attempting to "dock" virtual libraries t... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=571274 |
Drug discovery The advantages of these approaches are that they allow more efficient screening and the compound library, although small, typically covers a large chemical space when compared to HTS. Phenotypic screens have also provided new chemical starting points in drug discovery. A variety of models have been used... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=571274 |
Drug discovery Despite the rise of combinatorial chemistry as an integral part of lead discovery process, natural products still play a major role as starting material for drug discovery. A 2007 report found that of the 974 small molecule new chemical entities developed between 1981 and 2006, 63% were natural derived o... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=571274 |
Drug discovery Identifying new drugs and getting them approved for market has proved to be a stringent process due to regulations set by national drug regulatory agencies. Jasmonates are important in responses to injury and intracellular signals. They induce apoptosis and protein cascade via proteinase inhibitor, have ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=571274 |
Drug discovery The first discovered medicinal properties of the isolated compound was involved in pain and fever management. They also play an active role in the suppression of cell proliferation. They have the ability to induce death in lymphoblastic leukemia and other human cancer cells. One of the most common drugs ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=571274 |
Drug discovery One class of these agents are bryostatin-like compounds, under investigation as anti-cancer therapy. As above mentioned, combinatorial chemistry was a key technology enabling the efficient generation of large screening libraries for the needs of high-throughput screening. However, now, after two decades ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=571274 |
Drug discovery Other chemical differences between these two groups include the nature of heteroatoms (O and N enriched in natural products, and S and halogen atoms more often present in synthetic compounds), as well as level of non-aromatic unsaturation (higher in natural products). As both structure rigidity and chira... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=571274 |
Drug discovery Paclitaxel was identified from Pacific yew tree "Taxus brevifolia". Paclitaxel showed anti-tumour activity by a previously undescribed mechanism (stabilization of microtubules) and is now approved for clinical use for the treatment of lung, breast, and ovarian cancer, as well as for Kaposi's sarcoma. Ear... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=571274 |
Drug discovery Mass spectrometry is a method in which individual compounds are identified based on their mass/charge ratio, after ionization. Chemical compounds exist in nature as mixtures, so the combination of liquid chromatography and mass spectrometry (LC-MS) is often used to separate the individual chemicals. Data... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=571274 |
Refractory metals are a class of metals that are extraordinarily resistant to heat and wear. The expression is mostly used in the context of materials science, metallurgy and engineering. The definition of which elements belong to this group differs. The most common definition includes five elements: two of the fifth p... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=573343 |
Refractory metals The artificial elements, being radioactive, are never considered to be part of the refractory metals, although technetium has a melting point of 2430 K or 2157 °C and rutherfordium is predicted to have melting point of 2400 K or 2100 °C. The melting point of the refractory metals are the highest for a... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=573343 |
Refractory metals They all are relatively stable against acids. are used in lighting, tools, lubricants, nuclear reaction control rods, as catalysts, and for their chemical or electrical properties. Because of their high melting point, refractory metal components are never fabricated by casting. The process of powder m... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=573343 |
Refractory metals Its strength at high temperatures, resistance to wear and low coefficient of friction are all properties which make it invaluable as an alloying compound. Its excellent anti-friction properties lead to its incorporation in greases and oils where reliability and performance are critical. Automotive con... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=573343 |
Refractory metals Tungsten and its alloys are often used in applications where high temperatures are present but still a high strength is necessary and the high density is not troublesome. Tungsten wire filaments provide the vast majority of household incandescent lighting, but are also common in industrial lighting as... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=573343 |
Refractory metals The largest reserves of tungsten are in China, with deposits in Korea, Bolivia, Australia, and other countries. It also finds itself serving as a lubricant, antioxidant, in nozzles and bushings, as a protective coating and in many other ways. Tungsten can be found in printing inks, x-ray screens, phot... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=573343 |
Refractory metals Many important uses have been found for tantalum owing to this property, particularly in the medical and surgical fields, and also in harsh acidic environments. It is also used to make superior electrolytic capacitors. Tantalum films provide the second most capacitance per volume of any substance afte... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=573343 |
Refractory metals Many special applications exploit these properties: for example, tungsten lamp filaments operate at temperatures up to 3073 K, and molybdenum furnace windings withstand to 2273 K. However, poor low-temperature fabricability and extreme oxidability at high temperatures are shortcomings of most refracto... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=573343 |
C3 carbon fixation This reaction occurs in all plants as the first step of the Calvin–Benson cycle. (In and CAM plants, carbon dioxide is drawn out of malate and into this reaction rather than directly from the air.) Plants that survive solely on fixation ( plants) tend to thrive in areas where sunlight intensity is mo... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=573489 |
Autocrine signaling is a form of cell signaling in which a cell secretes a hormone or chemical messenger (called the autocrine agent) that binds to autocrine receptors on that same cell, leading to changes in the cell. This can be contrasted with paracrine signaling, intracrine signaling, or classical endocrine signali... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=574917 |
Autocrine signaling Normally, the Wnt signaling pathway leads to stabilization of β-catenin through inactivation of a protein complex containing the tumor suppressors APC and Axin. This destruction complex normally triggers β-catenin phosphorylation, inducing its degradation. De-regulation of the autocrine Wnt signalin... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=574917 |
Autocrine signaling Further investigation revealed that mutant EGFR could activate the oncogenic STAT3 pathway via upregulated IL-6 autocrine signaling. Similarly, HER2 overexpression occurs in approximately a quarter of breast cancers and correlates with poor prognosis. Recent research revealed that IL-6 secretion ind... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=574917 |
Autocrine signaling Metastasis is a major cause of cancer deaths, and strategies to prevent or halt invasion are lacking. One study showed that autocrine PDGFR signaling plays an essential role in epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) maintenance in vitro, which is known to correlate well with metastasis in vivo. The... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=574917 |
Autocrine signaling This autocrine loop is another example of an attractive therapeutic target. In HER2 overexpressing breast cancers, the HER2–IL-6–STAT3 signaling relationship could be targeted to develop new therapeutic strategies. HER2 kinase inhibitors, such as lapatinib, have also demonstrated clinical efficacy i... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=574917 |
Autocrine signaling This resistance is proposed to be because autocrine growth signaling pathways distinct from EGFR are active in NSCLC cells. Gene expression profiling revealed the prevalence of specific fibroblast growth factors (FGFs) and FGF receptors in NSCLC cell lines, and found that FGF2, FGF9 and their recept... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=574917 |
Cheminformatics (also known as chemoinformatics) refers to use of physical chemistry theory with computer and information science techniques—so called ""in silico"" techniques—in application to a range of descriptive and prescriptive problems in the field of chemistry, including in its applications to biology and relat... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=575697 |
Cheminformatics Since then, both terms, cheminformatics and chemoinformatics, have been used, although, lexicographically, cheminformatics appears to be more frequently used, despite academics in Europe declaring for the variant chemoinformatics in 2006. In 2009, a prominent Springer journal in the field, the Journal o... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=575697 |
Cheminformatics While some formats are suited for visual representations in two- or three-dimensions, others are more suited for studying physical interactions, modeling and docking studies. Chemical data can pertain to real or virtual molecules. Virtual libraries of compounds may be generated in various ways to explor... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=575697 |
Cheminformatics In this context there is also a strong relationship to chemometrics. Chemical expert systems are also relevant, since they represent parts of chemical knowledge as an "in silico" representation. There is a relatively new concept of matched molecular pair analysis or prediction-driven MMPA which is coupl... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=575697 |
Research chemical Research chemicals are chemical substances used by scientists for medical and scientific research purposes. One characteristic of a research chemical is that it is for laboratory research use only; a research chemical is not intended for human or veterinary use. This distinction is required on the lab... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=575912 |
Bacteriological water analysis is a method of analysing water to estimate the numbers of bacteria present and, if needed, to find out what sort of bacteria they are. It represents one aspect of water quality. It is a microbiological analytical procedure which uses samples of water and from these samples determines the ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=576557 |
Bacteriological water analysis It is therefore reasonable to surmise that if indicator organism levels are low, then pathogen levels will be very much lower or absent. Judgements as to suitability of water for use are based on very extensive precedents and relate to the probability of any sample population of bacteria ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=576557 |
Bacteriological water analysis In this method a measured sub-sample (perhaps 10 ml) is diluted with 100 ml of sterile growth medium and an aliquot of 10 ml is then decanted into each of ten tubes. The remaining 10 ml is then diluted again and the process repeated. At the end of 5 dilutions this produces 50 tubes coveri... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=576557 |
Bacteriological water analysis Second generation ATP tests are specifically designed for water, wastewater and industrial applications where, for the most part, samples contain a variety of components that can interfere with the ATP assay. The plate count method relies on bacteria growing a colony on a nutrient medium ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=576557 |
Bacteriological water analysis The composition of the nutrient usually includes reagents that resist the growth of non-target organisms and make the target organism easily identified, often by a colour change in the medium. Some recent methods include a fluorescent agent so that counting of the colonies can be automate... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=576557 |
Bacteriological water analysis Calculation of this is a multiple of the counted number of colonies multiplied by the dilution used. When samples show elevated levels of indicator bacteria, further analysis is often undertaken to look for specific pathogenic bacteria. Species commonly investigated in the temperate zone ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=576557 |
Bacteriological water analysis These include rosolic acid to inhibit bacterial growth in general, except for faecal coliforms, bile salts inhibit non-enteric bacteria and aniline blue indicates the ability of faecal coliforms to ferment lactose to acid that causes a pH change in the medium. "TYEA medium" contains trypt... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=576557 |
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