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Green roof Some kinds of green roofs also place higher demands on the waterproofing system of the structure, both because water is retained on the roof and due to the possibility of roots penetrating the waterproof membrane. Another disadvantage is that the wildlife they attract may include pest insects which could eas... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=192025 |
Green roof The maintenance energy use for green roofs has many variables including: climate, intensity of rainfall, type of building, type of vegetation, and external coatings. The most significant effect comes from scarce rainfall which will increase the maintenance energy due to the watering required. During a 10-yea... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=192025 |
Green roof Extensive green roofs, by contrast, are designed to be virtually self-sustaining and should require only a minimum of maintenance, perhaps a once-yearly weeding or an application of slow-release fertiliser to boost growth. Extensive roofs are usually only accessed for maintenance. They can be established on ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=192025 |
Green roof This is because the pitch of the roof reduces the risk of water penetrating through the roof structure, allowing the use of fewer waterproofing and drainage layers. In ancient times green roofs consisted of cave-like structures or sod roofs covered with earth and plants commonly used for agriculture, dwellin... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=192025 |
Green roof In the UK, their uptake has been slow, but a number of cities have developed policies to encourage their use, notably London and Sheffield. Green roofs are also becoming increasingly popular in North America, although they are not as common as in some parts of Europe. Numerous North American cities offer tax... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=192025 |
Green roof In a recent study on the impacts of green infrastructure, in particular green roofs in the Greater Manchester area, researchers found that adding green roofs can help keep temperatures down, particularly in urban areas: "adding green roofs to all buildings can have a dramatic effect on maximum surface temper... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=192025 |
Green roof Such practices are derided by purists. The roofs are colonised by spiders and insects (many of which are becoming extremely rare in the UK as such sites are developed) and provide a feeding site for insectivorous birds. Laban, a centre for contemporary dance in London, has a brown roof specifically designed ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=192025 |
Green roof "OLIN", Macallen Building, South Boston, MA. "Landworks Studio, Inc.", and Museo del Acero Horno3, Monterrey, Mexico. "Surfacedesign Inc.+ Harari arquitectos" 2008 Award: Gannett/USA Today Headquarters, McLean, Virginia. Michael Vergason Landscape Architects, Ltd. 2007 Award: Washington Mutual Center Roof Ga... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=192025 |
Green roof Since 2008, City Councils and influential business groups in Australia have become active promoting the benefits of green roofs. "The Blueprint to Green Roof Melbourne" is one program being run by the Committee for Melbourne. In June 2014 ecological artist Lloyd Godman, with structural engineer Stuart Jones ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=192025 |
Green roof By 31 January 2011, industrial buildings were required to render 10% or of their roofs green. Toronto City Hall's Podium roof was renovated to include a rooftop garden, the largest publicly accessible roof in the city. The green roof was opened to the public in June 2010. Many green roofs in Canada also use ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=192025 |
Green roof The community has the largest number of green roofs in the country. In Egypt, soil-less agriculture is used to grow plants on the roofs of buildings. No soil is placed directly on the roof itself, thus eliminating the need for an insulating layer; instead, plants are grown on wooden tables. Vegetables and fr... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=192025 |
Green roof In France, an extensive, cable-supported green roof has been created on the International School in Lyon. Another huge green roof of roughly has been incorporated into the new museum L'Historial de la Vendée which opened in June 2006 at Les Lucs-sur-Boulogne. Long-held green roof traditions started in the ea... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=192025 |
Green roof It was founded in 1975 by eight professional organizations for "the improvement of environmental conditions through the advancement and dissemination of plant research and its planned applications". The FLL green roof working group is only one of 40 committees which have published a long list of guidelines a... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=192025 |
Green roof The FBB has developed to become an innovative lobbying group with a strong market presence, internationally known through its cooperation with other European associations. Today, approximately 100 member companies use the multifaceted services offered by FBB, which offers a greater degree of market expertise... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=192025 |
Green roof Studies of the thermodynamics of the roof in September 2008 concluded that the thermal performance of the building was significantly affected by the installation. In further studies, in August 2009, energy savings of 50% were observed for air conditioning in the floor directly below the installation. The ten... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=192025 |
Green roof Its filter tanks have of flat concrete roofs. To keep the interior cool and prevent bacterial growth in the filtration beds, a drainage layer of gravel and a layer of soil was spread over the roofs, which had been waterproofed with asphalt. A meadow developed from seeds already present in the soil; it is now... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=192025 |
Green roof The new Bo01 urban residential development (in the Västra Hamnen (Western Harbour) close to the foot of the Turning Torso office and apartment block, designed by Santiago Calatrava) is built on the site of old shipyards and industrial areas, and incorporates many green roofs. In 2012, the shopping mall Empor... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=192025 |
Green roof Extensive green roofs are sometimes used to blend buildings into rural surroundings, for example by Rolls-Royce Motor Cars, who has one of the biggest green roofs in Europe (covering more than on their factory at Goodwood, West Sussex. The University of Sheffield has created a Green Roof Centre of Excellence... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=192025 |
Green roof One of the largest expanses of extensive green roof is to be found in the US, at Ford Motor Company's River Rouge Plant, Dearborn, Michigan, where of assembly plant roofs are covered with sedum and other plants, designed by William McDonough; the $18 million assembly avoids the need of what otherwise would b... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=192025 |
Green roof Covered in native vegetation and having an expected lifetime of fifty years, this green roof will not only save the USPS approximately $30,000 a year in heating and cooling costs, but will also significantly reduce the amount of storm water contaminants entering the municipal water system. In 2001, atop Chic... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=192025 |
Green roof The roof was transformed in 2010 as part of Mayor Michael Bloomberg's NYC Green Infrastructure campaign, and supposedly serves to capture some of the rain that falls on it rather than letting it run off and contribute to flooding in the adjacent Union Square subway station. Some cost can also be attributed t... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=192025 |
Green roof With the passage of Denver's Green Roof Initiative in the November 2017 elections, effective January 2018, new buildings or existing buildings meeting the initiative's thresholds are required to have rooftop gardens, optionally combined with solar photovoltaic panels. Seattle is another city in which green r... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=192025 |
Green roof In light of the success in Seattle, other cities such as Portland, Chicago, and Washington, D.C. have all made efforts to develop their own Green Factor programs. The Seattle City Hall has led the way by implementing a green roof project that has involved the planting of more than 22,000 pots of sedum, fescu... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=192025 |
Over-the-counter drug Over-the-counter (OTC) drugs are medicines sold directly to a consumer without a prescription from a healthcare professional, as opposed to prescription drugs, which may be sold only to consumers possessing a valid prescription. In many countries, OTC drugs are selected by a regulatory agency to e... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=192042 |
Over-the-counter drug In Canada, there are four drug schedules: All medications other than Schedule 1 may be considered an OTC drug, as they do not require prescriptions for sale. While the National Association of Pharmacy Regulatory Authorities provides recommendations on the scheduling of drugs for sale in Canada, ea... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=192042 |
Over-the-counter drug Examples are naproxen and diclofenac in small amounts, cinnarizine, 400 mg ibuprofen up to 20 tablets and also 500 mg paracetamol up to 50 tablets. Drugs in the AV category can be sold at supermarkets, gas stations etc. and include only drugs with minimal risk to the public, like paracetamol up to... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=192042 |
Over-the-counter drug There is also the possibility that certain OTC drug products are marketed under the grandfathering provisions of the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act, but the FDA has never formally acknowledged that any legitimate grandfathered OTC drug exists. Examples of OTC substances approved in the Unite... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=192042 |
Over-the-counter drug They may be unavailable in convenience and grocery stores that stock other non-restricted OTC medications. For example, many drugstores have moved products containing pseudoephedrine, an OTC product, into locations where customers must ask a pharmacist for them. A prescription is not required; the... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=192042 |
Over-the-counter drug " However, products containing the substance are still OTC in most states, since no prescription is required. A similar regulation once applied to some forms of emergency contraception. However, on February 25, 2014 the FDA approved generic one-pill emergency contraception products for unrestricte... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=192042 |
Over-the-counter drug A prescription is not required for [P] medicines, and pharmacy sales assistants are required by Royal Pharmaceutical Society codes to ask certain questions, which varies for what the customer says. If they ask for a specific product, the pharmacy assistant must ask "Who is it for," "How long have ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=192042 |
Over-the-counter drug OTC drugs are usually also required to have little or no abuse potential, although in some areas drugs such as codeine are available OTC (usually in strictly limited formulations or requiring paperwork or identification to be submitted during purchase). Over time, often 3–6 years, drugs that prove... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=192042 |
Antonio de Ulloa y de la Torre-Giralt, FRS, FRSA, KOS (12 January 1716 – 3 July 1795) was a Spanish general of the navy, explorer, scientist, author, astronomer, colonial administrator and the first Spanish governor of Louisiana. He was appointed to that office after France ceded the territory to Spain in 1763, followi... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=192411 |
Antonio de Ulloa In 1745, having finished their scientific labours, Ulloa and Jorge Juan prepared to return to Spain, agreeing to travel on different ships in order to minimize the danger of losing their important samples and records. The ship upon which Ulloa was travelling was captured by the British, and he was take... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=192411 |
Antonio de Ulloa Ulloa was appointed by the Spanish Crown to serve as the first Spanish governor of West Louisiana, and reached New Orleans, the major city and port, on 5 March 1766. The French colonists refused to recognize Spanish rule, and expelled Ulloa from Louisiana by a Creole uprising during the Louisiana Rebel... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=192411 |
Antonio de Ulloa Ulloa is the namesake for the meteorological term "Ulloa's halo" (also known as "Bouguer's halo"), which an observer may see infrequently in fog when the sun breaks through (for example, on a mountain) — effectively a "fog-bow" (as opposed to a "rain-bow"). A fog-bow is defined as "an infrequently obse... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=192411 |
Aluminium hydroxide Aluminium hydroxide, Al(OH), is found in nature as the mineral gibbsite (also known as hydrargillite) and its three much rarer polymorphs: bayerite, doyleite, and nordstrandite. is amphoteric in nature, i.e., it has both basic and acidic properties. Closely related are aluminium oxide hydroxide, AlO... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=193294 |
Aluminium hydroxide In 1957, a symposium on alumina nomenclature attempted to develop a universal standard, resulting in gibbsite being designated γ-Al(OH), bayerite becoming α-Al(OH), and nordstrandite being designated Al(OH). Based on their crystallographic properties, a suggested nomenclature and designation is for ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=193294 |
Aluminium hydroxide The polymorphs vary in how the layers stack together, with the arrangements of the molecules and layers determined by the acidity, presence of ions (including salt) and the substrate it forms on. Under most conditions, gibbsite is the most chemically stable form of aluminium hydroxide. All forms of ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=193294 |
Aluminium hydroxide Freshly precipitated aluminium hydroxide forms gels, which are the basis for the application of aluminium salts as flocculants in water purification. This gel crystallizes with time. gels can be dehydrated (e.g. using water-miscible non-aqueous solvents like ethanol) to form an amorphous aluminium h... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=193294 |
Aluminium hydroxide Brand names include Alu-Cap, Aludrox, Gaviscon or Pepsamar. It reacts with excess acid in the stomach, reducing the acidity of the stomach content, which may relieve the symptoms of ulcers, heartburn or dyspepsia. Such products can cause constipation, because the aluminium ions inhibit the contracti... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=193294 |
Aluminium hydroxide is sometimes called "alum", a term generally reserved for one of several sulfates. Vaccine formulations containing aluminium hydroxide stimulate the immune system by inducing the release of uric acid, an immunological danger signal. This strongly attracts certain types of monocytes which differentia... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=193294 |
Magnesium hydroxide is the inorganic compound with the chemical formula Mg(OH). It occurs in nature as the mineral brucite. It is a white solid with low solubility in water (). is a common component of antacids, such as milk of magnesia, as well as laxatives. Combining a solution of many magnesium salts with alkaline w... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=193305 |
Magnesium hydroxide Not only does this increase in water content soften the feces, it also increases the volume of feces in the intestine (intraluminal volume) which naturally stimulates intestinal motility. Furthermore, Mg ions cause the release of cholecystokinin (CCK), which results in intraluminal accumulation of w... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=193305 |
Magnesium hydroxide This was so successful (advertised in Australia and approved by the Royal College of Surgeons in 1838) that he was appointed resident physician to Anglesey and two subsequent Lords Lieutenant, and knighted. His fluid magnesia product was patented two years after his death in 1873. The term "milk of ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=193305 |
Magnesium hydroxide Some magnesium hydroxide products sold for antacid use (such as Maalox) are formulated to minimize unwanted laxative effects through the inclusion of aluminum hydroxide, which inhibits the contractions of smooth muscle cells in the gastrointestinal tract, thereby counterbalancing the contractions in... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=193305 |
Magnesium hydroxide Other mineral mixtures that are used in similar fire retardant applications are natural mixtures of huntite and hydromagnesite. Brucite, the mineral form of Mg(OH) commonly found in nature also occurs in the 1:2:1 clay minerals amongst others, in chlorite, in which it occupies the interlayer positio... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=193305 |
Nuclear fuel cycle The nuclear fuel cycle, also called nuclear fuel chain, is the progression of nuclear fuel through a series of differing stages. It consists of steps in the "front end", which are the preparation of the fuel, steps in the "service period" in which the fuel is used during reactor operation, and steps ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=194031 |
Nuclear fuel cycle One alternative to this low-enriched uranium (LEU) fuel is mixed oxide (MOX) fuel produced by blending plutonium with natural or depleted uranium, and these fuels provide an avenue to utilize surplus weapons-grade plutonium. Another type of MOX fuel involves mixing LEU with thorium, which generates t... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=194031 |
Nuclear fuel cycle Spent fuel and other high-level radioactive waste is extremely hazardous, although nuclear reactors produce orders of magnitude smaller volumes of waste compared to other power plants because of the high energy density of nuclear fuel. Safe management of these byproducts of nuclear power, including t... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=194031 |
Nuclear fuel cycle The atoms of U-238 are said to be fertile, because, through neutron irradiation in the core, some eventually yield atoms of fissile Pu-239. Uranium ore can be extracted through conventional mining in open pit and underground methods similar to those used for mining other metals. In-situ leach mining ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=194031 |
Nuclear fuel cycle The milling process commonly yields dry powder-form material consisting of natural uranium, "yellowcake", which is sold on the uranium market as UO. Note that the material isn't always yellow. Usually milled uranium oxide, UO (triuranium octoxide) is then processed into either of two substances depen... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=194031 |
Nuclear fuel cycle The level of enrichment for a particular nuclear fuel order is specified by the customer according to the application they will use it for: light-water reactor fuel normally is enriched to 3.5% U-235, but uranium enriched to lower concentrations is also required. Enrichment is accomplished using any ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=194031 |
Nuclear fuel cycle The finished fuel rods are grouped in special fuel assemblies that are then used to build up the nuclear fuel core of a power reactor. The alloy used for the tubes depends on the design of the reactor. Stainless steel was used in the past, but most reactors now use a zirconium alloy. For the most com... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=194031 |
Nuclear fuel cycle Transports are frequently international, and are often over large distances. Nuclear materials are generally transported by specialized transport companies. Since nuclear materials are radioactive, it is important to ensure that radiation exposure of those involved in the transport of such materials ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=194031 |
Nuclear fuel cycle During a given replacement cycle only some of the assemblies (typically one-third) are replaced since fuel depletion occurs at different rates at different places within the reactor core. Furthermore, for efficiency reasons, it is not a good policy to put the new assemblies exactly at the location of... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=194031 |
Nuclear fuel cycle Used nuclear fuel is studied in Post irradiation examination, where used fuel is examined to know more about the processes that occur in fuel during use, and how these might alter the outcome of an accident. For example, during normal use, the fuel expands due to thermal expansion, which can cause cr... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=194031 |
Nuclear fuel cycle Because used fuel contains alpha emitters (plutonium and the minor actinides), the effect of adding an alpha emitter (Pu) to uranium dioxide on the leaching rate of the oxide has been investigated. For the crushed oxide, adding Pu tended to increase the rate of leaching, but the difference in the lea... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=194031 |
Nuclear fuel cycle During use, the fuel swells due to thermal expansion and then starts to react with the surface of the zirconium alloy, forming a new layer which contains both fuel and zirconium (from the cladding). Then, on the fuel side of this mixed layer, there is a layer of fuel which has a higher caesium to ura... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=194031 |
Nuclear fuel cycle The releases of radioactivity from normal operations are the small planned releases from uranium ore processing, enrichment, power reactors, reprocessing plants and waste stores. These can be in different chemical/physical form from releases which could occur under accident conditions. In addition th... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=194031 |
Nuclear fuel cycle If the radioisotope is tightly bound to the minerals in the soil, then less radioactivity can be absorbed by crops and grass growing on the soil. In dairy farming, one of the best countermeasures against Cs is to mix up the soil by deeply ploughing the soil. This has the effect of putting the Cs out ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=194031 |
Nuclear fuel cycle The Prussian blue reduces the biological half-life (different from the nuclear half-life) of the caesium. The physical or nuclear half-life of Cs is about 30 years. This is a constant which can not be changed but the biological half-life is not a constant. It will change according to the nature and h... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=194031 |
Nuclear fuel cycle The IAEA states that under a series of different conditions different amounts of the core inventory can be released from the fuel, the four conditions the IAEA consider are "normal operation", a spike in coolant activity due to a sudden shutdown/loss of pressure (core remains covered with water), a c... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=194031 |
Nuclear fuel cycle In addition to the emission of iodine the noble gases and tritium are released from the fuel when it is dissolved. It has been proposed that by voloxidation (heating the fuel in a furnace under oxidizing conditions) the majority of the tritium can be recovered from the fuel. A paper was written on th... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=194031 |
Nuclear fuel cycle The fuel discharged at that time (spent fuel) is stored either at the reactor site (commonly in a spent fuel pool) or potentially in a common facility away from reactor sites. If on-site pool storage capacity is exceeded, it may be desirable to store the now cooled aged fuel in modular dry storage fa... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=194031 |
Nuclear fuel cycle MOX fuel is an alternative to low-enriched uranium (LEU) fuel used in the light water reactors which predominate nuclear power generation. Currently, plants in Europe are reprocessing spent fuel from utilities in Europe and Japan. Reprocessing of spent commercial-reactor nuclear fuel is currently not... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=194031 |
Nuclear fuel cycle These materials must be isolated from the biosphere until the radioactivity contained in them has diminished to a safe level. In the U.S., under the Nuclear Waste Policy Act of 1982 as amended, the Department of Energy has responsibility for the development of the waste disposal system for spent nucl... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=194031 |
Nuclear fuel cycle After the emplacement and the retrievability period, drillholes would be backfilled and sealed. A series of tests of the technology were carried out in November 2018 and then again publicly in January 2019 by a U.S. based private company. The test demonstrated the emplacement of a test-canister in a ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=194031 |
Nuclear fuel cycle Several countries, including Japan, Switzerland, and previously Spain and Germany, are using or have used the reprocessing services offered by BNFL and COGEMA. Here, the fission products, minor actinides, activation products, and reprocessed uranium are separated from the reactor-grade plutonium, whi... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=194031 |
Nuclear fuel cycle Beginning in 2016 Russia has been testing and is now deploying Remix Fuel in which the spent nuclear fuel is put through a process like Pyroprocessing that separates the reactor Grade Plutonium and remaining Uranium from the fission products and fuel cladding. This mixed metal is then combined with a... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=194031 |
Nuclear fuel cycle It so happens that the neutron cross-section of many actinides decreases with increasing neutron energy, but the ratio of fission to simple activation (neutron capture) changes in favour of fission as the neutron energy increases. Thus with a sufficiently high neutron energy, it should be possible to... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=194031 |
Nuclear fuel cycle An accelerator-driven sub-critical reactor is unlikely to be able to maintain a constant operation period for equally long times as a critical reactor, and each time the accelerator stops then the fuel will cool down. On the other hand, if actinides are destroyed using a fast reactor, such as an Inte... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=194031 |
Nuclear fuel cycle The actinides will be mixed with a metal which will not form more actinides; for instance, an alloy of actinides in a solid such as zirconia could be used. Upon neutron bombardment, thorium can be converted to uranium-233. U is fissile, and has a larger fission cross section than both U and U, and th... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=194031 |
Nuclear fuel cycle The thorium-233 beta decays to protactinium-233 and then to uranium-233, which in turn is used as fuel. Hence, like uranium-238, thorium-232 is a fertile material. After starting the reactor with existing U-233 or some other fissile material such as U-235 or Pu-239, a breeding cycle similar to but mo... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=194031 |
Nuclear fuel cycle One of the earliest efforts to use a thorium fuel cycle took place at Oak Ridge National Laboratory in the 1960s. An experimental reactor was built based on molten salt reactor technology to study the feasibility of such an approach, using thorium fluoride salt kept hot enough to be liquid, thus elim... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=194031 |
Nuclear fuel cycle The term "nuclear fuel" is not normally used in respect to fusion power, which fuses isotopes of hydrogen into helium to release energy. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=194031 |
Heat capacity or thermal capacity is a physical property of matter, defined as the amount of heat to be supplied to a given mass of a material to produce a unit change in its temperature. The SI unit of heat capacity is joule per kelvin (J/K). is an extensive property. The corresponding intensive property is the specif... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=194227 |
Heat capacity That approximate value is quite adequate for all temperatures between, say, 15 °C and 35 °C, and surrounding pressures from 0 to 10 atmospheres, because the exact value varies very little in those ranges. One can trust that the same heat input of 204 J will raise the temperature of the block from 15 °C to... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=194227 |
Heat capacity formula_14 (Mayer's relation) formula_15 where Using the above two relations, the specific heats can be deduced as follows: formula_19 formula_20 No change in internal energy (as the temperature of the system is constant throughout the process) leads to only work done of the total supplied heat, and thus ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=194227 |
Heat capacity For complex thermodynamic systems with several interacting parts and state variables, or for measurement conditions that are neither constant pressure nor constant volume, or for situations where the temperature is significantly non-uniform, the simple definitions of heat capacity above are not useful or ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=194227 |
Heat capacity Since an increment of temperature of one degree Celsius is the same as an increment of one kelvin, that is the same unit as J/°C. The heat capacity of an object is an amount of energy divided by a temperature change, which has the dimension L·M·T·Θ. Therefore, the SI unit J/K is equivalent to kilogram met... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=194227 |
Heat capacity They include gravitating objects such as stars and galaxies, and also sometimes some nano-scale clusters of a few tens of atoms, close to a phase transition. A negative heat capacity can result in a negative temperature. According to the virial theorem, for a self-gravitating body like a star or an inters... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=194227 |
Enzyme Commission number The (EC number) is a numerical classification scheme for enzymes, based on the chemical reactions they catalyze. As a system of enzyme nomenclature, every EC number is associated with a recommended name for the respective enzyme. Strictly speaking, EC numbers do not specify enzymes, but enzyme-... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=194690 |
Enzyme Commission number The current sixth edition, published by the International Union of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology in 1992, contains 3196 different enzymes. Supplements 1-4 were published 1993-1999. Subsequent supplements have been published electronically, at the website of the Nomenclature Committee of th... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=194690 |
Oil refinery An oil refinery or petroleum refinery is an industrial process plant where crude oil is transformed and refined into more useful products such as petroleum naphtha, gasoline, diesel fuel, asphalt base, heating oil, kerosene, liquefied petroleum gas, jet fuel and fuel oils. Petrochemicals feed stock like et... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=195137 |
Oil refinery Some modern petroleum refineries process as much as 800,000 to 900,000 barrels (127,000 to 143,000 cubic meters) of crude oil per day. According to the Oil and Gas Journal in the world a total of 636 refineries were operated on the 31 December 2014 for a total capacity of . Jamnagar Refinery is the largest... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=195137 |
Oil refinery Through Islamic Spain, distillation became available in Western Europe by the 12th century. In the Northern Song Dynasty (960–1127), a workshop called the "Fierce Oil Workshop", was established in the city of Kaifeng to produce refined oil for the Song military as a weapon. The troops would then fill iron ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=195137 |
Oil refinery In the early twentieth century, the introduction of the internal combustion engine and its use in automobiles created a market for gasoline that was the impetus for fairly rapid growth of the petroleum industry. The early finds of petroleum like those in Ontario and Pennsylvania were soon outstripped by la... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=195137 |
Oil refinery PDVSA's Paraguaná Refinery Complex in Paraguaná Peninsula, Venezuela with a capacity of and SK Energy's Ulsan in South Korea with are the second and third largest, respectively. Prior to World War II in the early 1940s, most petroleum refineries in the United States consisted simply of crude oil distillati... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=195137 |
Oil refinery However, many of the existing refineries in the United States have revamped many of their units and/or constructed add-on units in order to: increase their crude oil processing capacity, increase the octane rating of their product gasoline, lower the sulfur content of their diesel fuel and home heating fue... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=195137 |
Oil refinery perceive obtaining a permit to build a modern refinery to be so difficult and costly that no new refineries were built (though many have been expanded) in the U.S. from 1976 until 2014, when the small Dakota Prairie Refinery in North Dakota began operation. More than half the refineries that existed in 198... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=195137 |
Oil refinery Raw or unprocessed crude oil is not generally useful in industrial applications, although "light, sweet" (low viscosity, low sulfur) crude oil has been used directly as a burner fuel to produce steam for the propulsion of seagoing vessels. The lighter elements, however, form explosive vapors in the fuel ta... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=195137 |
Oil refinery While the molecules in crude oil include different atoms such as sulfur and nitrogen, the hydrocarbons are the most common form of molecules, which are molecules of varying lengths and complexity made of hydrogen and carbon atoms, and a small number of oxygen atoms. The differences in the structure of thes... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=195137 |
Oil refinery Another method for reprocessing and upgrading these intermediate products (residual oils) uses a devolatilization process to separate usable oil from the waste asphaltene material. Oil refineries are large scale plants, processing about a hundred thousand to several hundred thousand barrels of crude oil a ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=195137 |
Oil refinery Using the Claus process, hydrogen sulfide is afterwards transformed to elementary sulfur to be sold to the chemical industry. The rather large heat energy freed by this process is directly used in the other parts of the refinery. Often an electrical power plant is combined into the whole refinery process t... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=195137 |
Oil refinery Petroleum products are usually grouped into four categories: light distillates (LPG, gasoline, naphtha), middle distillates (kerosene, jet fuel, diesel), heavy distillates and residuum (heavy fuel oil, lubricating oils, wax, asphalt). These require blending various feedstocks, mixing appropriate additives,... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=195137 |
Oil refinery For example, the vacuum distillation unit may also produce fractions that can be refined into end products such as: spindle oil used in the textile industry, light machinery oil, motor oil, and various waxes. The crude oil distillation unit (CDU) is the first processing unit in virtually all petroleum refi... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=195137 |
Oil refinery As shown in the flow diagram, the overhead distillate fraction from the distillation column is naphtha. The fractions removed from the side of the distillation column at various points between the column top and bottom are called "sidecuts". Each of the sidecuts (i.e., the kerosene, light gas oil and heavy... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=195137 |
Oil refinery The refining process releases a number of different chemicals into the atmosphere (see AP 42 Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors) and a notable odor normally accompanies the presence of a refinery. Aside from air pollution impacts there are also wastewater concerns, risks of industrial accidents ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=195137 |
Oil refinery In California's Contra Costa County and Solano County, a shoreline necklace of refineries, built in the early 20th century before this area was populated, and associated chemical plants are adjacent to urban areas in Richmond, Martinez, Pacheco, Concord, Pittsburg, Vallejo and Benicia, with occasional acci... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=195137 |
Oil refinery However, depending on the specific process in which a worker is engaged, as well as the particular method employed by the refinery in which he/she works, significant health hazards remain. Although U.S. occupational injuries were not routinely tracked/reported at the time, reports of the health impacts of ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=195137 |
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