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Libertarian socialism William Godwin's anarchism exerted an ideological influence on some of this, but more so the socialism of Robert Owen and Charles Fourier. After success of his British venture, Owen himself established a cooperative community within the United States at New Harmony, Indiana during 1825. One member... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18048 |
Libertarian socialism While libertarian socialism has roots in both socialism and liberalism, different forms have different levels of influence from the two traditions. For instance, mutualist anarchism is more influenced by liberalism while communist and syndicalist anarchism are more influenced by socialism. However... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18048 |
Libertarian socialism Revolutions could only come through force of circumstances and/or the inherently rebellious instincts of the masses (the "instinct for freedom") (Bakunin, Chomsky), or in Bakunin's words: "All that individuals can do is to clarify, propagate, and work out ideas corresponding to the popular instinc... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18048 |
Libertarian socialism Morris played peacemaker, but he sided with the anti-Parliamentarians, who won control of the League, which consequently lost the support of Engels and saw the departure of Eleanor Marx and her partner Edward Aveling to form the separate Bloomsbury Socialist Society. However, "the most important r... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18048 |
Libertarian socialism ] The second course is illustrated in the tendency, developing from the Dutch and German far-lefts, which inclined towards the complete eradication of the party form". In the emerging Soviet Union, there appeared left-wing uprisings against the Bolsheviks which were a series of rebellions and upri... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18048 |
Libertarian socialism Korsch rejected the eternal and static, and he was obsessed by the essential role of practice in a theory's truth. For Korsch, no theory could escape history, not even Marxism. In this vein, Korsch even credited the stimulus for Marx's Capital to the movement of the oppressed classes". In rejectin... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18048 |
Libertarian socialism Part of this antagonism can be traced to the International Workingmen's Association, the First International, a congress of radical workers, where Mikhail Bakunin, who was fairly representative of anarchist views; and Karl Marx, whom anarchists accused of being an "authoritarian", came into confli... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18048 |
Libertarian socialism In the mid-20th century, some libertarian socialist groups emerged from disagreements with Trotskyism which presented itself as Leninist anti-Stalinism. As such, the French group Socialisme ou Barbarie emerged from the Trotskyist Fourth International, where Cornelius Castoriadis and Claude Lefort ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18048 |
Libertarian socialism In the People's Republic of China (PRC) since 1967, the terms ultra-left and left communist refers to political theory and practice self-defined as further left than that of the central Maoist leaders at the height of the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution (GPCR). The terms are also used retroa... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18048 |
Libertarian socialism Whereas the central Maoist leaders encouraged the masses to criticize reactionary ideas and habits among the alleged 5% of bad cadres, giving them a chance to "turn over a new leaf" after they had undergone "thought reform", the ultra-left argued that cultural revolution had to give way to politic... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18048 |
Libertarian socialism Autonomist Marxism, neo-Marxism and Situationist theory are also regarded as being anti-authoritarian variants of Marxism that are firmly within the libertarian socialist tradition. As such, "[i]n New Zealand, no situationist group was formed, despite the attempts of Grant McDonagh. Instead, McDon... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18048 |
Libertarian socialism Principally this regards the currents of classical anarchism, developed in the 19th century, in their commitments to autonomy and freedom, decentralization, opposing hierarchy, and opposing the vanguardism of authoritarian socialism. Mutualism began as a 19th century socialist movement adopted and... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18048 |
Libertarian socialism The Catalan politician Francesc Pi i Margall became the principal translator of Proudhon's works into Spanish and later briefly became president of Spain in 1873 while being the leader of the Democratic Republican Federal Party. According to George Woodcock, "[t]hese translations were to have a pr... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18048 |
Libertarian socialism Social anarchists oppose private ownership of the means of production, seeing it as a source of inequality and instead advocate social ownership be it through collective ownership as with Bakuninists and collectivist anarchists; common ownership as with communist anarchists; and cooperative owners... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18048 |
Libertarian socialism ] that Proudhonian Anarchism was to be found in the United States at least as early as 1848 and that it was not conscious of its affinity to the Individualist Anarchism of Josiah Warren and Stephen Pearl Andrews [...]. William B. Greene presented this Proudhonian Mutualism in its purest and most s... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18048 |
Libertarian socialism French individualist anarchist Émile Armand shows clearly opposition to capitalism and centralized economies when he said that the individualist anarchist "inwardly he remains refractory – fatally refractory – morally, intellectually, economically (The capitalist economy and the directed economy, ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18048 |
Libertarian socialism And from those easy as well as beautiful problems anarchism deals with and he who puts them in practice and lives them are anarchists. [...] The priority which without rest an anarchist must make is that in which no one has to exploit anyone, no man to no man, since that non-exploitation will lead... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18048 |
Libertarian socialism This individualism would, in turn, protect against governments "armed with economic power as they are now with political power" over their citizens. However, Wilde advocated non-capitalist individualism, saying that "of course, it might be said that the Individualism generated under conditions of ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18048 |
Libertarian socialism Libertarian Marxism includes such currents as Luxemburgism, council communism, left communism, Socialisme ou Barbarie, the Johnson–Forest tendency, world socialism, Lettrism/Situationism and autonomism/workerism and New Left. Libertarian Marxism has often had a strong influence on both post-left a... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18048 |
Libertarian socialism It predates Leninism as De Leonism's principles developed in the early 1890s with De Leon's assuming leadership of the SLP whereas Leninism and its vanguard party idea took shape after the 1902 publication of Lenin's "What Is To Be Done?" The highly decentralized and democratic nature of the propo... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18048 |
Libertarian socialism The core principle of council communism is that the state and the economy should be managed by workers' councils, composed of delegates elected at workplaces and recallable at any moment. As such, council communists oppose state-run bureaucratic socialism. They also oppose the idea of a revolution... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18048 |
Libertarian socialism Council communists support workers' revolutions, but they oppose one-party dictatorships. Council communists also believed in diminishing the role of the party to one of agitation and propaganda, rejected all participation in elections or parliament and argued that workers should leave the reactio... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18048 |
Libertarian socialism Different factions from the old Bordigist International Communist Party are also considered left communist organizations. The Johnson–Forest tendency is a radical left tendency in the United States associated with Marxist theorists C.L.R. James and Raya Dunayevskaya, who used the pseudonyms J. R. ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18048 |
Libertarian socialism It existed from 1948 until 1965. The animating personality was Cornelius Castoriadis, also known as Pierre Chaulieu or Paul Cardan. Because he explicitly both rejected Leninist vanguardism and criticised spontaneism, for Castoriadis "the emancipation of the mass of people was the task of those peo... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18048 |
Libertarian socialism With their ideas rooted in Marxism and the 20th century European artistic avant-gardes, they advocated experiences of life being alternative to those admitted by the capitalist order, for the fulfillment of human primitive desires and the pursuing of a superior passional quality. For this purpose,... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18048 |
Libertarian socialism After publishing in the last issue of the magazine an analysis of the May 1968 revolts and the strategies that will need to be adopted in future revolutions, the Situationist International was dissolved in 1972. Autonomism is a set of left-wing political and social movements and theories close to ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18048 |
Libertarian socialism Autonomist Marxism is thus a "bottom up" theory which draws attention to activities that autonomists see as everyday working class resistance to capitalism, for example absenteeism, slow working and socialization in the workplace. All this influenced the German and Dutch autonomen, the worldwide S... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18048 |
Libertarian socialism The Catalan politician Francesc Pi i Margall became the principal translator of Proudhon's works into Spanish and later briefly became president of Spain in 1873 while being the leader of the Federal Democratic Republican Party. For prominent anarcho-syndicalist Rudolf Rocker: Pi i Margall was a d... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18048 |
Libertarian socialism The name of this political position appeared for the first time between 1922–1923 within the discourse of catalan anarcho-syndicalist Salvador Segui when he said: "We have to intervene in politics in order to take over the positions of the bourgoise". During the autumn of 1931, the "Manifesto of t... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18048 |
Libertarian socialism When the republican forces lost the Spanish Civil War, the city of Madrid was turned over to the Francoist forces in 1939 by the last non-Francoist mayor of the city, the anarchist Melchor Rodríguez García. In 1950, a clandestine group formed within the Francophone Anarchist Federation (FA) called... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18048 |
Libertarian socialism There was a strong left-libertarian current in the British labour movement and the term "libertarian socialist" has been applied to a number of democratic socialists, including some prominent members of the British Labour Party. The Socialist League was formed in 1885 by William Morris and others ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18048 |
Libertarian socialism Defined in this way, libertarian socialism in the contemporary political mainstream is distinguished from modern social democracy and democratic socialism principally by its political decentralism rather than by its economics. The multi-tendency Socialist Party USA also has a strong libertarian so... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18048 |
Libertarian socialism In the Spanish autonomous community of Catalonia, "Jacobin" reports about the contemporary political party Candidatura d'Unitat Popular (CUP) as follows: Merging aspects of anarchism, ecology, environmentalism, green politics, Marxism and socialism, eco-socialists generally believe that the capita... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18048 |
Libertarian socialism As we have to keep selling to keep buying, we must persuade others to buy our goods just to ensure our survival, which leads to the production of goods with no previous use that can be sold to sustain our ability to buy other goods. Eco-socialists like Kovel stress that this contradiction has reac... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18048 |
Libertarian socialism Notable contemporary writers espousing green anarchism include Murray Bookchin, Daniel Chodorkoff, anthropologist Brian Morris and people around Institute for Social Ecology; and those critical of technology such as Layla AbdelRahim, Derrick Jensen, George Draffan and John Zerzan; and others such ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18048 |
Libertarian socialism His most famous work is "Progress and Poverty" (1879), a treatise on inequality, the cyclic nature of industrialized economies and the use of the land value tax as a remedy. Georgists argue that a tax on land value is economically efficient, fair and equitable; and that it can generate sufficient ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18048 |
Libertarian socialism Guild socialism is a political movement advocating workers' control of industry through the medium of trade-related guilds "in an implied contractual relationship with the public". It originated in the United Kingdom and was at its most influential in the first quarter of the 20th century. It was ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18048 |
Libertarian socialism In this work, guilds were presented as an alternative to state-control of industry or conventional trade union activity. Unlike the existing trade unions, guilds would not confine their demands to matters of wages and conditions, but would seek to obtain control of industry for the workers whom th... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18048 |
Libertarian socialism Revolutionary syndicalism is a type of economic system proposed as a replacement for capitalism and an alternative to state socialism, which uses federations of collectivised trade unions or industrial unions. It is a form of socialist economic corporatism that advocates interest aggregation of mu... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18048 |
Libertarian socialism Christian anarchism is a movement in political theology that combines anarchism and Christianity. It is the belief that there is only one source of authority to which Christians are ultimately answerable, the authority of God as embodied in the teachings of Jesus. More than any other Bible source,... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18048 |
Libertarian socialism In the 1930s, Day worked closely with fellow activist Peter Maurin to establish the Catholic Worker Movement, a nonviolent, pacifist movement that continues to combine direct aid for the poor and homeless with nonviolent direct action on their behalf. The importance of Day within Catholicism goes ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18048 |
Libertarian socialism Kumarappa, a close supporter of Gandhi. Gandhian economics places importance to means of achieving the aim of development and this means must be non-violent, ethical and truthful in all economic spheres. In order to achieve this means, he advocated trusteeship, decentralization of economic activit... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18048 |
Libertarian socialism While political systems are largely hierarchical, with each layer of authority from the individual to the central government have increasing levels of authority over the layer below, Gandhi believed that society should be the exact opposite, where nothing is done without the consent of anyone, dow... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18048 |
Libertarian socialism Anarchist historian George Woodcock reports that "The Conquest of Violence" "was read widely by British and American pacifists during the 1930s and led many of them to adopt an anarchistic point of view". Platformism is a tendency within the wider anarchist movement based on the organisational the... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18048 |
Libertarian socialism Journals like "Radical America" and "Black Mask" in the United States and "Solidarity", "Big Flame" and "Democracy & Nature", succeeded by "The International Journal of Inclusive Democracy", in the United Kingdom introduced a range of left-libertarian ideas to a new generation. social ecology, aut... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18048 |
Libertarian socialism According to ABC News: "The group was known for street theater pranks and was once referred to as the 'Groucho Marxists'". Social ecology is closely related to the work and ideas of Murray Bookchin and influenced by anarchist Peter Kropotkin. Social ecologists assert that the present ecological cr... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18048 |
Libertarian socialism Democratic confederalism is the proposal of a libertarian socialist political system that "is open towards other political groups and factions. It is flexible, multi-cultural, anti-monopolistic, and consensus-oriented". Abdullah Öcalan, who is the leader of the Kurdistan Workers' Party, founded th... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18048 |
Libertarian socialism Proposed as an alternative to contemporary capitalist market economies and also an alternative to centrally planned socialism or coordinatorism, it is described as "an anarchistic economic vision" and it could be considered a form of socialism as under parecon the means of production are owned by ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18048 |
Libertarian socialism Inclusive Democracy is a political theory and political project that aim for direct democracy, economic democracy in a stateless, moneyless and marketless economy, self-management (democracy in the social realm) and ecological democracy. As distinguished from the political project which is part of... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18048 |
Libertarian socialism An artificial market is proposed by this tendency as a solution to the problem of maintaining freedom of choice for the consumer within a marketless and moneyless economy, an artificial market operates in much the same way as traditional markets, but uses labour vouchers or personal credit in plac... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18048 |
Libertarian socialism However, "[w]hile they were not opposed to strikes as such—they were opposed to trade unions and the struggle for the eight-hour day. This anti-reformist tendency was accompanied by an anti-organisational tendency, and its partisans declared themselves in favour of agitation amongst the unemployed... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18048 |
Libertarian socialism In these municipalities, an assembly of local representatives forms the "Juntas de Buen Gobierno" or Councils of Good Government (JBGs). These are not recognized by the federal or state governments and they oversee local community programs on food, health and education as well as taxation. The EZL... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18048 |
Libertarian socialism Zapata's introduction to anarchism came via a local schoolteacher, Otilio Montaño Sánchez—later a general in Zapata's army, executed on 17 May 1917—who exposed Zapata to the works of Peter Kropotkin and Flores Magón at the same time as Zapata was observing and beginning to participate in the strug... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18048 |
Libertarian socialism Referred to as left-wing market anarchists or market-oriented left-libertarians, proponents of this approach strongly affirm the classical liberal ideas of self-ownership and free markets while maintaining that taken to their logical conclusions, these ideas support anti-capitalist, anti-corporati... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18048 |
Libertarian socialism Unlike right-libertarians, they believe that neither claiming nor mixing one's labor with natural resources is enough to generate full private property rights and maintain that natural resources (land, oil, gold and trees) ought to be held in some egalitarian manner, either unowned or owned collec... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18048 |
Libertarian socialism The term is still used in this sense in France today and has spread into English usage as a result of the translation of texts by Gilles Dauvé and "Théorie Comuniste", two key figures in this tendency. In collaboration with other left communists such as François Martin and Karl Nesic, Dauvé has at... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18048 |
Libertarian socialism Due to the popularity of the Tiqqun-related works "Call" and "The Coming Insurrection" in the American anarchist circles, it tended to be this latter sense of "communization" that was employed in American anarchist and insurrectionist communiques, notably within the Californian student movement of... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18048 |
Libertarian socialism The housing and employment crisis in most of Western Europe led to the formation of communes and squatter movements like that of Barcelona, Spain. In Denmark, squatters occupied a disused military base and declared the Freetown Christiania, an autonomous haven in central Copenhagen. Around the tur... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18048 |
Libertarian socialism One might say that contemporary anarchism is about responsibility, whether sexual, ecological or socio-economic; it flows from an experience of conscience about the manifold ways in which the West ravages the rest; it is an ethical outrage at the yawning inequality, impoverishment and disenfranchi... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18048 |
Libertarian socialism Libertarian socialists in the early 21st century have been involved in the alter-globalization movement, squatter movement; social centers; infoshops; anti-poverty groups such as Ontario Coalition Against Poverty and Food Not Bombs; tenants' unions; housing cooperatives; intentional communities ge... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18048 |
Lorenz curve In economics, the is a graphical representation of the distribution of income or of wealth. It was developed by Max O. Lorenz in 1905 for representing inequality of the wealth distribution. The curve is a graph showing the proportion of overall income or wealth assumed by the bottom "x"% of the people, alt... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18135 |
Lorenz curve This can be depicted by the straight line "y" = "x"; called the "line of perfect equality." By contrast, a perfectly unequal distribution would be one in which one person has all the income and everyone else has none. In that case, the curve would be at "y" = 0% for all "x" < 100%, and "y" = 100% when "x" ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18135 |
Lorenz curve For a population of size "n", with a sequence of values "y", "i" = 1 to "n", that are indexed in non-decreasing order ( "y" ≤ "y"), the is the continuous piecewise linear function connecting the points ( "F", "L" ), "i" = 0 to "n", where "F" = 0, "L" = 0, and for "i" = 1 to "n": For a discrete probability ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18135 |
Lorenz curve The for a probability distribution is a continuous function. However, Lorenz curves representing discontinuous functions can be constructed as the limit of Lorenz curves of probability distributions, the line of perfect inequality being an example. The information in a may be summarized by the Gini coeffic... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18135 |
Labour economics seeks to understand the functioning and dynamics of the markets for wage labour. Labour is a commodity that supplied by labourers in exchange for a wage paid by demanding firms. Labour markets or job markets function through the interaction of workers and employers. looks at the suppliers of labour ser... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18178 |
Labour economics Macroeconomic techniques look at the interrelations between the labour market, the goods market, the money market, and the foreign trade market. It looks at how these interactions influence macro variables such as employment levels, participation rates, aggregate income and gross domestic product. The ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18178 |
Labour economics A firm requiring specific skills will help determine the size of the market. Variables like employment level, unemployment level, labour force, and unfilled vacancies are called stock variables because they measure a quantity at a point in time. They can be contrasted with flow variables which measure ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18178 |
Labour economics While according to neoclassical theory most markets quickly attain a point of equilibrium without excess supply or demand, this may not be true of the labour market: it may have a persistent level of unemployment. Contrasting the labour market to other markets also reveals persistent compensating diffe... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18178 |
Labour economics The linear constraint indicates that every additional hour of leisure undertaken requires the loss of an hour of labour and thus of the fixed amount of goods that that labour's income could purchase. Individuals must choose how much time to allocate to leisure activities and how much to working. This a... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18178 |
Labour economics To understand what effect this might have on the decision of how many hours to work, one must look at the income effect and substitution effect. The wage increase shown in the previous diagram can be decomposed into two separate effects. The pure income effect is shown as the movement from point A to p... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18178 |
Labour economics If the substitution effect is greater than the income effect, an individual's supply of labour services will increase as the wage rate rises, which is represented by a positive slope in the labour supply curve (as at point E in the adjacent diagram, which exhibits a positive wage elasticity). This posi... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18178 |
Labour economics With a perfectly competitive goods market, the MRP is calculated by multiplying the price of the end product or service by the Marginal Physical Product of the worker. If the MRP is greater than a firm's Marginal Cost, then the firm will employ the worker since doing so will increase profit. The firm o... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18178 |
Labour economics This constantly restructures exactly what a labour market is, and leads way to cause problems for theories of inflation. The marginal revenue product of labour can be used as the demand for labour curve for this firm in the short run. In competitive markets, a firm faces a perfectly elastic supply of l... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18178 |
Labour economics In addition, the barriers to becoming a doctor are far greater than that of becoming a port cleaner. To become a doctor takes a lot of education and training which is costly, and only those who excel in academia can succeed in becoming doctors. The port cleaner, however, requires relatively less traini... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18178 |
Labour economics However, this solution has attracted criticism as executives with large stock-option packages have been suspected of acting to over-inflate share values to the detriment of the long-run welfare of the firm. Another solution, foreshadowed by the rise of temporary workers in Japan and the firing of many ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18178 |
Labour economics One common signal used is education, whereby employers assume that high-ability workers will have higher levels of education. Employers can then compensate high-ability workers with higher wages. However, signalling does not always work, and it may appear to an external observer that education has rais... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18178 |
Labour economics Inequality is commonly measured by economists using the Gini coefficient. This coefficient does not have a concrete meaning but is more used as a way to compare inequality across regions. The higher the Gini coefficient is calculated to be the larger inequality exists in a region. Over time, inequality... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18178 |
Labour economics The oaxaca decomposition is a common method used to calculate the amount of discrimination that exists when wages differ between groups of people. This decomposition aims to calculate the difference in wages that occurs because of differences in skills versus the returns to those skills. A way of model... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18178 |
Labour economics Many sociologists, political economists, and heterodox economists claim that labour economics tends to lose sight of the complexity of individual employment decisions. These decisions, particularly on the supply side, are often loaded with considerable emotional baggage and a purely numerical analysis ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18178 |
Labour economics However, over the past 25 years an increasing literature, usually designated as the economics of the family, has sought to study within household decision making, including joint labour supply, fertility, child-raising, as well as other areas of what is generally referred to as home production. The lab... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18178 |
Labour economics The American philosopher John Dewey posited that until "industrial feudalism" is replaced by "industrial democracy," politics will be "the shadow cast on society by big business". Thomas Ferguson has postulated in his investment theory of party competition that the undemocratic nature of economic insti... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18178 |
Life expectancy is a statistical measure of the average (see below) time an organism is expected to live, based on the year of its birth, its current age and other demographic factors including gender. The most commonly used measure is life expectancy at birth (LEB), which can be defined in two ways. "Cohort" LEB is th... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18669 |
Life expectancy Because of this sensitivity to infant mortality, LEB can be subjected to gross misinterpretation, leading one to believe that a population with a low LEB will necessarily have a small proportion of older people. Another measure, such as life expectancy at age 5 (e), can be used to exclude the effect of ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18669 |
Life expectancy is defined statistically as the mean number of years remaining for an individual or a group of people at a given age. Longevity refers to the characteristics of the relatively long life span of some members of a population. Maximum lifespan is the age at death for the longest-lived individual of a speci... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18669 |
Life expectancy This is referred to as the "maximum life span," which is the upper boundary of life, the maximum number of years any human is known to have lived. A theoretical study shows that the maximum life expectancy at birth is limited by the human life characteristic value δ, which is around 104 years. According... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18669 |
Life expectancy was under 25 years in the early Colony of Virginia, and in seventeenth-century New England, about 40 percent died before reaching adulthood. During the Industrial Revolution, the life expectancy of children increased dramatically. The under-5 mortality rate in London decreased from 745 in 1730–1749 to 3... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18669 |
Life expectancy In South Africa, life expectancy was 63 in 1990, 57 in 2000, and 58 in 2011. And in Zimbabwe, life expectancy was 60 in 1990, 43 in 2000, and 54 in 2011. During the last 200 years, African countries have generally not had the same improvements in mortality rates that have been enjoyed by countries in As... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18669 |
Life expectancy In United States cities such as Cincinnati, the life expectancy gap between low income and high income neighborhoods touches 20 years. Economic circumstances also affect life expectancy. For example, in the United Kingdom, life expectancy in the wealthiest and richest areas is several years higher than ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18669 |
Life expectancy Coal miners (and in prior generations, asbestos cutters) often have lower life expectancies than average. Other factors affecting an individual's life expectancy are genetic disorders, drug use, tobacco smoking, excessive alcohol consumption, obesity, access to health care, diet and exercise. Female hum... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18669 |
Life expectancy This finding contradicts papers dating from 2002 and earlier that attribute the male sex to higher in-utero mortality rates. Among the smallest premature babies (those under 2 pounds or 900 g), females have a higher survival rate. At the other extreme, about 90% of individuals aged 110 are female. The d... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18669 |
Life expectancy Of 72 selected causes of death, only 6 yielded greater female than male age-adjusted death rates in 1998 in the United States. With the exception of birds, for almost all of the animal species studied, males have higher mortality than females. Evidence suggests that the sex mortality differential in peo... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18669 |
Life expectancy In developed countries, the number of centenarians is increasing at approximately 5.5% per year, which means doubling the centenarian population every 13 years, pushing it from some 455,000 in 2009 to 4.1 million in 2050. Japan is the country with the highest ratio of centenarians (347 for every 1 milli... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18669 |
Life expectancy Other demographics that tend to have a lower life expectancy than average include transplant recipients, and the obese. Education on all levels has been shown to be strongly associated with increased life expectancy. This association may be due partly to higher income, which can lead to increased life e... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18669 |
Life expectancy are likely to have genes that code for slow aging, which often translates to good cellular repair. One theory is that if predation or accidental deaths prevent most individuals from living to an old age, there will be less natural selection to increase the intrinsic life span. That finding was supported... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18669 |
Life expectancy If a large amount of data is available, a statistical population can be created that allow the age-specific death rates to be simply taken as the mortality rates actually experienced at each age (the number of deaths divided by the number of years "exposed to risk" in each data cell). However, it is cus... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18669 |
Life expectancy The age-specific death rates are calculated separately for separate groups of data that are believed to have different mortality rates (such as males and females, and perhaps smokers and non-smokers if data are available separately for those groups) and are then used to calculate a life table from which... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18669 |
Life expectancy It can also be calculated by integrating the survival curve from 0 to positive infinity (or equivalently to the maximum lifespan, sometimes called 'omega'). For an extinct or completed cohort (all people born in year 1850, for example), it can of course simply be calculated by averaging the ages at deat... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18669 |
Life expectancy Factors that are associated with variations in life expectancy include family history, marital status, economic status, physique, exercise, diet, drug use including smoking and alcohol consumption, disposition, education, environment, sleep, climate, and health care. In order to assess the quality of th... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18669 |
Life expectancy Future trends in life expectancy have huge implications for old-age support programs like U.S. Social Security and pension since the cash flow in these systems depends on the number of recipients who are still living (along with the rate of return on the investments or the tax rate in pay-as-you-go syst... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18669 |
Life expectancy This confusion may create the expectation that an adult would be unlikely to exceed an average life expectancy, even though, with all statistical probability, an adult, who has already avoided many statistical causes of adolescent mortality, should be expected to outlive the average life expectancy calc... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18669 |
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