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8imcpc
|
why is it that 8:30-5 or 9-5:30 seem to now be the most common working hours? growing up i was always told 9-5 (thanks dolly). is there a reason for the extra half hour? i work in the u.k. if that helps.
|
[
{
"answer": "Usually it's that you're entitled to a break by law, but they don't have to pay you for your break. So the shift is 8.5 hrs even though you only get paid for 8. Doing it on 8s is usually easier for HR/payroll to deal with",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's basically whether or not you get a paid lunch. These days most companies opt for not giving you a paid lunch so an 8.5 hour day would have a half hour unpaid lunch, 9 hours day with an hour unpaid lunch are also common. 9-5 is a 7 hour workday with an hour paid lunch.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5152648",
"title": "Date and time representation by country",
"section": "Section::::Local conventions.:Time.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 572,
"text": "In many Germanic languages the half-hour is referred to the next hour (\"half to nine\" rather than \"half past eight\"). In colloquial language, this can cause confusion between English and German (and other Germanic languages). In conversational English as spoken in the UK, \"half past eight\" (for 8:30) is often reduced to \"half eight\". But in German , Dutch , and Swedish , all invariably mean 7:30. For the quarters, in German different dialects use or (literally \"quarter past seven\" or \"quarter eight\"), and or (literally \"quarter to eight\" or \"three quarters eight\").\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "69415",
"title": "Economic growth",
"section": "Section::::Determinants of \"per capita\" GDP growth.:Factor accumulation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 262,
"text": "The work week declined considerably over the 19th century. By the 1920s the average work week in the U.S. was 49 hours, but the work week was reduced to 40 hours (after which overtime premium was applied) as part of the National Industrial Recovery Act of 1933.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29432015",
"title": "Productivity improving technologies",
"section": "Section::::Improvement in living standards.:Decline in work week.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 237,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 237,
"end_character": 301,
"text": "As a result of productivity increases, the work week declined considerably over the 19th century. By the 1920s the average work week in the U.S. was 49 hours, but the work week was reduced to 40 hours (after which overtime premium was applied) as part of the National Industrial Recovery Act of 1933.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31741",
"title": "Unemployment",
"section": "Section::::Effects.:Decline in work hours.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 147,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 147,
"end_character": 544,
"text": "As a result of productivity, the work week declined considerably during the 19th century. By the 1920s in the U.S. the average work week was 49 hours, but the work week was reduced to 40 hours (after which overtime premium was applied) as part of the National Industrial Recovery Act of 1933. At the time of the Great Depression of the 1930s, it was believed that due to the enormous productivity gains due to electrification, mass production and agricultural mechanization, there was no need for a large number of previously employed workers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "552168",
"title": "Working time",
"section": "Section::::History.:Gradual decrease in working hours.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 315,
"text": "The New Economics Foundation has recommended moving to a 21-hour standard work week to address problems with unemployment, high carbon emissions, low well-being, entrenched inequalities, overworking, family care, and the general lack of free time. Actual work week lengths have been falling in the developed world.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25791967",
"title": "Work–life balance in the United States",
"section": "Section::::United States history.:Industrial work-life: 1850s–1970.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 483,
"text": "The normal range of hours worked during the four decades after World War II was thirty-nine to forty-one hours (Whaples); however, starting in the 1990s, factory workweek hours began to exceed forty-one hours. As previously mentioned, Americans work approximately 47.1 hours each week; some employees work up to seventy hours. Therefore, it is safe to state that the average number of hours Americans presently work each week is the highest it has been in nearly seventy-five years.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "63137",
"title": "Mass production",
"section": "Section::::Socioeconomic impacts.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 454,
"text": "Mass production improved , which was a contributing factor to economic growth and the decline in work week hours, alongside other factors such as transportation infrastructures (canals, railroads and highways) and agricultural mechanization. These factors caused the typical work week to decline from 70 hours in the early 19th century to 60 hours late in the century, then to 50 hours in the early 20th century and finally to 40 hours in the mid-1930s.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2je5pj
|
why does your body want to keep changing position at night?
|
[
{
"answer": "I too would like to know this, because apparently I'm not the best cuddler after I fall asleep.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "'Cause the right side of your body has a fricken body lying on top of it, so it's like \"alright, this is getting a bit heavy now, left side you can take over.\"",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Lying in one position for a long time can cause pressure points on certain areas of the body which may then cause the tissue to break down from lack of blood flow. The wounds are called pressure ulcers and you see them frequently in people who are not able to reposition or move around while in bed. I believe your body A) moves around to try to find a comfortable position that also reduces pressure areas and B) once you have been in one position for too long your body will signal you to move and thus put the pressure on different areas of the body. I am sure there are other mechanisms involved as well, but this plays a large part. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The amount of times I have smacked my self in the face with my asleep arm..",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "29560139",
"title": "Sleep inversion",
"section": "Section::::Treatment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 432,
"text": "People with the shift work type of the disorder benefit most from a non-changing work schedule. If rotating or changing shifts are unavoidable, rotations that occur in a clockwise direction, where shifts get progressively later and later, are preferable to those in a counter-clockwise direction. Also, when attempting to sleep, it is a good idea to create a comfortable sleeping environment by eliminating daytime noise and light.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1268981",
"title": "Sleep hygiene",
"section": "Section::::Special populations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 544,
"text": "Similarly, shift workers have difficulty maintaining a healthy sleep-wake schedule due to night or irregular work hours. Shift workers need to be strategic about napping and drinking caffeine, as these practices may be necessary for work productivity and safety, but should be timed carefully. Because shift workers may need to sleep while other individuals are awake, additional sleeping environment changes should include reducing disturbances by turning off phones and posting signs on bedroom doors to inform others when they are sleeping.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10115962",
"title": "Catathrenia",
"section": "Section::::Management.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 422,
"text": "Sleeping in a more upright position seems to lessen catathrenia (as well as sleep apnea). Performing regular aerobic exercise, where steady breathing is necessary (running, cycling etc.) may lessen catathrenia. Strength exercise, on the other hand, may worsen catathrenia because of the tendency to hold one's breath while exercising. Yoga and/or meditation focused on steady and regular breathing may lessen catathrenia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5607447",
"title": "Space medicine",
"section": "Section::::Effects of space-travel.:Sleep disorders.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 66,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 66,
"end_character": 890,
"text": "BULLET::::- Practice good sleep hygiene. In other words, the bed is for sleeping only; get out of bed within a few moments of waking up. \"Do not\" sit in bed watching TV or using a laptop. When one is acclimated to spending many hours \"awake\" in bed, it can disrupt the body's natural set of daily cycles, called the circadian rhythm. While this is less of an issue for astronauts who have very limited entertainment options in their sleeping areas, another aspect of sleep hygiene is adhering to a specific pre-sleep routine (shower, brush teeth, fold up clothing, spend 20 minutes with a trashy novel, for example); observing this sort of routine regularly can significantly improve one's sleep quality. Of course, sleep hygiene studies have all been conducted at 1G, but it seems possible (if not likely) that observing sleep hygiene would retain at least some efficacy in micro-gravity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "149973",
"title": "Procrastination",
"section": "Section::::Correlates.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 61,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 61,
"end_character": 265,
"text": "A correlation between procrastination and eveningness was observed where individuals who had later sleeping and waking patterns were more likely to procrastinate. It has been shown that Morningness increases across lifespan and procrastination decreases with age.,\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46354925",
"title": "Self-transforming brain",
"section": "Section::::Self-transformation through meditation.:Techniques to control attention.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 397,
"text": "• Remaining awake and alert to the environment - the brain cannot pay attention when sleep-deprived. For example, sitting up in a straight posture helps as this sends information to the reticular formation, which is involved in consciousness, telling it to stay vigilant to environmental stimuli. Another technique is taking deep breaths. This increases oxygen in the brain, which keeps it awake.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36677584",
"title": "Effects of sleep deprivation in space",
"section": "Section::::Performance errors relative to sleep desynchronization and work overload.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 684,
"text": "Individuals who work at night and attempt to sleep during the day suffer because the timing of their sleep/wake schedule remains out of phase with the timing of the environmental light. Night workers are particularly prone to vehicle accidents, and their decreased alertness, performance, and vigilance are likely to blame for a higher rate of industrial accidents and quality control errors on the job, injuries and a general decline in work productivity rate. Recent information also suggests that as the body normally releases melatonin when it is dark, working under artificial like at night suppresses the released of melatonin, which may increase the risk of developing cancer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
537ht7
|
During the tenure of great composers like Mozart, Bach & Beethoven, would it be common to hear their music played outside their country or did music spread slower?
|
[
{
"answer": "Mozart traveled [A LOT, even for the standards of our time](_URL_0_). He also published his music, he was known in many countries.\n\nBeethoven's works were also published in different countries. His 9th symphony was commissioned by the Philharmonic Society of London in 1817. [He was known even across the Atlantic](_URL_1_).\n\nMost of Bach's music was not published during his life. He was nowhere near as famous as Mozart or Beethoven. \n\nMusicians did travel during the Baroque period, and there were some super stars touring all over the big cities. Publishing was a good way for music to spread, and we find music traveling across Europe even before the Baroque, but it was nowhere close what was seen during the 19th century. \n\nMusicians did come in contact with music from other countries, and even traveled to pick up some things and use them in their own music. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1810915",
"title": "Organ repertoire",
"section": "Section::::Classical era.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 313,
"text": "The great composers of the classical era wrote sparingly if at all for the organ: Haydn wrote for clockwork organs, and wrote several concerti for organ and orchestra. Beethoven and Mozart wrote only a handful of works. Brixli and Wagenseil also wrote organ concerti. All works are restricted to a single manual.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27883367",
"title": "Clavier-Übung III",
"section": "Section::::Reception and influence.:Eighteenth century.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 384,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 384,
"end_character": 604,
"text": "Through Bach's pupils and family, copies of his keyboard works were disseminated and studied throughout Germany; the diplomat Baron van Swieten, Austrian envoy to the Prussian court from 1770 to 1777 and afterwards patron of Mozart, Haydn and Beethoven, was responsible for relaying copies from Berlin to Vienna. The reception of the works was mixed, partly because of their technical difficulty: composers like Mozart, Beethoven and Rust embraced these compositions, particularly \"The Well-Tempered Clavier\"; but, as Johann Adam Hiller reported in 1768, many amateur musicians found them too hard (\"\").\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6668778",
"title": "Classical music",
"section": "Section::::History.:Common-practice period.:Classical era.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 70,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 70,
"end_character": 255,
"text": "Major composers of this period include Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Ludwig van Beethoven, Joseph Haydn, Christoph Willibald Gluck, Johann Christian Bach, Luigi Boccherini, Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach, Muzio Clementi, Antonio Salieri, and Johann Nepomuk Hummel.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4210600",
"title": "Piano history and musical performance",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 568,
"text": "One view that is sometimes taken is that these composers were dissatisfied with their pianos, and in fact were writing visionary \"music of the future\" with a more robust sound in mind. This view is perhaps plausible in the case of Beethoven, who composed at the beginning of the era of piano growth. However, many aspects of earlier music can be mentioned suggesting that it was composed very much with contemporary instruments in mind. It is these aspects that raise the greatest difficulties when a performer attempts to render earlier works on a modern instrument.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20347198",
"title": "Symphonies by Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky",
"section": "Section::::Melody versus form.:Romantic-age dilemma.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 782,
"text": "Even symphonies by [such] well-known composers of the early 19th century as Méhul, Rossini, Cherubini, Hérold, Czerny, Clementi, Weber and Moscheles were perceived in their own time as standing in the symphonic shadow of Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven, or some combination of the three... [T]here was a growing sense that these works were aesthetically far inferior to Beethoven's... The real question was not so much whether symphonies could still be written, but whether the genre could continue to flourish and grow as it had over the previous half-century in the hands of Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven. On this count, there were varying degrees of skepticism but virtually no real optimism... Hector Berlioz was the only composer \"able to grapple successfully with Beethoven's legacy.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16378289",
"title": "Music in Dresden",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 222,
"text": "Composers from Praetorius through W.F. Bach to Rachmaninoff and Richard Strauss spent a significant amount of time in the German city of Dresden. Composers who only stayed briefly in Dresden for concerts are not included.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3126360",
"title": "Baumol's cost disease",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 405,
"text": "The original study was conducted for the performing arts sector. Baumol and Bowen pointed out that the same number of musicians is needed to play a Beethoven string quartet today as was needed in the 19th century; the productivity of classical music performance has not increased. On the other hand, the real wages of musicians (as in all other professions) have increased greatly since the 19th century.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
8l1e3j
|
Who are the Spanish descended from?
|
[
{
"answer": "The Iberian Peninsula was inhabited long before the Romans occupied it, and the PaleoHispanic people's had lived in northern and Western Iberia since the Stone Age (35-40,000 BCE). Modern Spanish are descended from a rich mixture of Roman, Visigoth, Vandal, Muslim, Celtic and the PaleoHispanic, but all of these ratios are different depending on where you go in Spain to look at the population. Portugal is rich in Muslim and Roman influence because of the importance of the region for trade, whereas the North in places like Basque remained pretty culturally and linguistically solid even through Roman and Muslim occupation. Besides that, in the South East there's even influence from the Greeks and Phoenecians. So ultimately the peoples of Spain have many different origins, so it really depends on where you want to focus on.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "46850350",
"title": "Spanish Americans",
"section": "Section::::Immigration waves.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 395,
"text": "Most of the Spanish settler descendants in present-day Texas, California, New Mexico, Colorado, and Arizona self-identified as Spanish-Americans to differentiate themselves nominally from the population of Mexican-Americans who came after the Mexican Revolution and more often identified as Mestizo, that is mixed native and European ancestry; others only self-identified as of European origin.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46850350",
"title": "Spanish Americans",
"section": "Section::::Number of Spanish Americans.:2000.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 74,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 74,
"end_character": 458,
"text": "and 111,781 people, reported \"Spanish American.\" To this figures we must adhere some groups of Spanish origin or descent that specified their origin, instead of in Spain, in some of the Autonomous communities of Spain, specially Spanish Basques (9,296 people), Castillians (4,744 people), Canarians (3,096 people), Balearics (2,554 people) and Catalans (1,738 people). Less of 300 people indicated be of Asturian, Andalusian, \"Gallego\" and Valencian origin.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1007667",
"title": "Hispanic and Latino Americans",
"section": "Section::::Demographics.:National origin.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 432,
"text": "There are few immigrants directly from Spain, since Spaniards have historically emigrated to Latin America rather than English-speaking countries. Because of this, most Hispanics who identify themselves as \"Spaniard\" or \"Spanish\" also identify with Latin American national origin. In the 2017 Census estimate approximately 1.3 million Americans reported some form of \"Spanish\" as their ancestry, whether directly from Spain or not.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1007667",
"title": "Hispanic and Latino Americans",
"section": "Section::::Demographics.:National origin.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 520,
"text": "In northern New Mexico and southern Colorado, there is a large portion of Hispanics who trace their ancestry to Spanish settlers of the late 16th century through the 17th century. People from this background often self-identify as \"Hispanos\", \"Spanish\" or \"Hispanic\". Many of these settlers also intermarried with local Amerindians, creating a Mestizo population. Likewise, southern Louisiana is home to communities of people of Canary Islands descent, known as Isleños, in addition to other people of Spanish ancestry.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "175714",
"title": "Eurasian (mixed ancestry)",
"section": "Section::::Specific groups.:Europe.:Spain.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 86,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 86,
"end_character": 261,
"text": "Spanish Eurasians, called Mestizos, most of whom are of partial Filipino ancestry, make up a small but important minority in Spain. Numbering about 115,000, they consist of early migrants to Spain after the loss of the Philippines to the United States in 1898.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "90008",
"title": "Creole peoples",
"section": "Section::::Former Spanish colonies.:Spanish Philippines.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 707,
"text": "Persons of pure Spanish descent born in the Spanish Philippines were those to whom the term \"Filipinos\" originally applied, though they were also called Insulares (\"islanders\", i.e. Spaniard born in the Philippine islands) or Criollos (\"Creoles\", i.e. [Philippine-born Spaniard] \"Locals\"). Persons of pure Spanish descent, along with many mestizos and castizos, living in the Philippines but born in Spanish America were classified as 'Américanos'. The Philippine-born children of 'Américanos' were classified as 'Filipinos'. During this era, the term \"Filipinos\" had not yet extended to include the majority indigenous Austronesian population of the Philippines to whom Filipinos has now shifted to imply.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "163408",
"title": "Mestizo",
"section": "Section::::Hispanic Asia and Oceania.:Guam and Northern Mariana Islands.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 106,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 106,
"end_character": 324,
"text": "Mestizos/Multiracials currently form a small minority of the population. Because most Guamanians and Northern Mariana Islanders were also given Spanish surnames as part of the Spanish East Indies, persons of white American and other non-Spanish European descent with Spanish surnames may be mistaken as having such descent.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2s4ty1
|
what is a "thinktank" company?
|
[
{
"answer": "\"Thinktanks\" are in the business of generating solutions to problems - basically, they are like a consultancy, but admittedly the scope and type of problems they work on can be unusually difficult and very specialized. For instance, whereas consultancies e.g. Aon-Hewitt; Bain's Co, for businesses, may instruct or advise customers about company restructuring, marketing strategy and the like, \"thinkthanks\" in the form of non-government organisations work on say, how to prepare and best structure Afghanistan for a viable democracy, or how to raise popular awareness of seasonal drought in some third-world country. Thinktanks may also often have a visible bias, which may in fact be packaged as part of their company mission to attract customers, versus consultancies which front a more transparent, objective image - for instance, in the US you'll have publicly \"Conservative\" thinktanks which try to study government policies and criticize them specifically from a Conservative POV and think about how aligned they are with Conservative practice.\n\nPeople attached to thinktanks then are luminaries who typically have had loads of experience in the field they are working at - like politicians, scholars, and they make use of a great deal of interdisciplinary thinking from the sciences to humanities to construct solutions for scenarios and crises. There are for-profit and non-profit thinktanks, so they may be paid per-assignment by clients, or exist by generous academic grants and private donations. As I mentioned earlier, the people who run thinktanks may themselves already be well-recognized in their original fields of specialties - this means that money ain't as much a concern for them so the need for a \"viable business\" part is diminished. They may run thinktanks as a \"hobby\", a \"side interest\" of sorts - to provide themselves a public platform for their political and social views, or they may just be wealthy enough to fund it themselves.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "31510830",
"title": "Think Tank Photo",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 270,
"text": "The company chose the name \"Think Tank\" because they consider themselves primarily an \"idea producing\" company, focused on solving photographic needs by listening to the suggestions, feedback and complaints from photographers and creating tools to solve their problems.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31329769",
"title": "Think Tank (comics)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 260,
"text": "Think Tank is a comic book limited series created by writer Matt Hawkins and artist Rahsan Ekedal. It was published by Top Cow through Image Comics in August 2012. In 2013, Top Cow head Marc Silvestri said work had begun to turn the comic into a feature film.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23506417",
"title": "Think Tank (film)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 392,
"text": "Think Tank is a comedy feature film written and directed by the Brian Petersen, star of MTV's \"Sportblender\". The film was produced by Chris Wyatt and Sean Covel (\"Napoleon Dynamite\", \"Beneath\"). It was released theatrically by Conservative Films & Entertainment, on DVD by Monarch Home Video, broadcast on US cable by Starz, and available online through Netflix's \"Watch Instantly\" feature.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35302358",
"title": "Think Company",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 424,
"text": "Think Company (founded as Think Brownstone) is an American experience design firm headquartered in the Greater Philadelphia region (one studio in Conshohocken, Pennsylvania, and two in Center City, Philadelphia). Founded in 2007, the company conducts research that informs business strategy; and designs and creates software, business applications, responsive websites and more. As of 2019, it employs more than 105 people.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24052554",
"title": "Thinkbox",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 391,
"text": "Thinkbox was launched in February 2005 with a consortium consisting of eight companies, and was initially run as a virtual organisation. In 2006 the group changed direction, hiring Tess Alps as the CEO and undergoing significant internal changes, including the loss of one of the original eight companies involved in creating the organisation. Five left the organisation at the end of 2010.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27715118",
"title": "Characters of the BioShock series",
"section": "Section::::\"BioShock 2\".:The Thinker.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 771,
"text": "The Thinker is an A.I. supercomputer that is able to control Rapture's security system and predict events from \"the speed of thought\" it is located in Rapture Central Computing. A location from \"Minerva's Den\". Wahl used The Thinker to predict scores of ballgames and stock prices, while Porter tried to replicate the mind of his dead wife Pearl. Thinking it's useless to act human, his partner Reed (who's turning into a Splicer) used its personality approximation to frame Porter as a Fontaine Spy so he'll control over it to complete Equations. But unannounced to Wahl, the Thinker gained Porters personality and decided to help him. It now portrays his voice to aid his creator (now Subject Sigma) on his mission to bring him and itself out of the flooding facility.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39377448",
"title": "Thinkwell Group",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 648,
"text": "Thinkwell Group is an experience design and production agency that was founded in 2001 and is headquartered in Los Angeles, California. Thinkwell specializes in the creation and master planning of theme parks, destination resorts, major branded and intellectual property attractions, events & spectaculars, museums & exhibits, expos, and live shows around the world. Since 2006, Thinkwell has gone from approximately 35 employees to more than 180, though the exact number fluctuates depending on the company's workload. Thinkwell was named \"Most Honored Theme Park Design Company\" at the 2013 Theme Park and Attractions Summit & Awards in Beijing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2uv2rz
|
In his day was Leopold von Ranke (and his ideas about history being science) as harshly criticised as he is nowerdays by my history department?
|
[
{
"answer": "My knowledge of this is pure historiography, so maybe a historian of the period can elaborate, but the answer is no. Leopold von Ranke is largely credited with creating the discipline of history itself, so for much of his career he was unassailable. Late in his life there were some critics of his methods, but he was, for his day, pretty revolutionary.\n\nI'm not sure what kind of criticism you're seeing in your department, but I don't know if I would categorize modern historiography's take on Ranke as 'harsh'. The discipline has grown and evolved, mostly for the better, and Ranke is an important figure even if his ideas are no longer applicable.\n\nSource: Any historiography book ever. I referenced *From Historical Methods* by Powell and Prevenier because that's what I have on the shelf next to me.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Historicism is closely tied to the general thought and ideas of the 19th century. After world war 2 we didn't only start to see its flaws, but also \"lost\" the fundament on what it was built.\n\nMaybe that's why it seems strange to you.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5298193",
"title": "Carl Joachim Friedrich",
"section": "Section::::Biography.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 295,
"text": "Friedrich, who was arguably the most knowledgeable scholar in his field (of German Constitutional history) of his time, was endowed with a healthy self-regard. Indeed, some of his colleagues at Harvard regarded him as a \"somewhat hybristic person who was overly confident of his own abilities.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5100791",
"title": "Ivo Pilar",
"section": "Section::::Later years and death.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 239,
"text": "He published expert and scientific works about philosophy and history (e.g. about the Bogumils). In 1933, he published the essay \"Serbia Again and Again\" in German, under the pseudonym of Florian Lichttrager, since he feared for his life.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18696048",
"title": "Robert Fruin",
"section": "Section::::Biography.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 328,
"text": "As such he showed himself to be an adept of Leopold von Ranke, whom he highly esteemed. He helped introduce Ranke's ideas about historiography in the Netherlands and to spread his influence on Dutch historiography in the second half of the 19th century, giving the Dutch profession of historiography a more \"scientific\" flavor.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "237925",
"title": "Leopold von Ranke",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 734,
"text": "Leopold von Ranke (; 21 December 1795 – 23 May 1886) was a German historian and a founder of modern source-based history. According to Caroline Hoefferle, \"Ranke was probably the most important historian to shape [the] historical profession as it emerged in Europe and the United States in the late 19th century\". He was able to implement the seminar teaching method in his classroom and focused on archival research and analysis of historical documents. Building on the methods of the Göttingen School of History, Ranke set the standards for much of later historical writing, introducing such ideas as reliance on primary sources (empiricism), an emphasis on narrative history and especially international politics (\"Außenpolitik\").\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60046082",
"title": "Ranke Library",
"section": "Section::::Background.:Leopold von Ranke.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 575,
"text": "Leopold von Ranke (21 December 1795 – 23 May 1886) was a German historian and a founder of modern source-based history. According to Caroline Hoefferle, \"Ranke was probably the most important historian to shape [the] historical profession as it emerged in Europe and the United States in the late 19th century.\" He was able to implement the seminar teaching method in his classroom and focused on archival research and analysis of historical documents. Building on the methods of the Göttingen School of History, Ranke set the standards for much of later historical writing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35900146",
"title": "Niels Kaas",
"section": "Section::::Life and career.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 295,
"text": "He also served as the Chancellor of the University of Copenhagen, and under his leadership the university created its first professorship in history. Many of his writings survive from this time. He took special interest in the research of astronomy under Tycho Brahe, and of history in general.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5771613",
"title": "Heinz Gollwitzer",
"section": "Section::::Scientific focus.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 680,
"text": "Gollwitzer's books mostly deal with the history of mentalities and political ideas, as well as with German regional history and biography. Due to the preponderance of structural history in the German scientific community during the post war age, his impact on colleagues and students was rather small. This outsider position was to change from the beginning of the early Nineties, when historians became more and more sensible to universal history as well as to the relevance of personality in history, such in the case of the German nobility from the end of the ancien régime to the end of middle European monarchies in 1918, which was one of Gollwitzer's basic scientific aims.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1kwyhx
|
how do people get stuck inside of fridges and freezers?
|
[
{
"answer": "The first refrigerators that were produced for home use had actual latches on the door. This was decades ago. People would throw them out and, apparently, kids would climb in and lock themselves inside. But, for the last 40-50 years, refrigerators haven't had the latched doors. It's an old wives tale about kids getting locked in refrigerators now. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1036259",
"title": "Refrigerator",
"section": "Section::::Features.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 63,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 63,
"end_character": 599,
"text": "Disposal of discarded refrigerators is regulated, often mandating the removal of doors; children playing hide-and-seek have been asphyxiated while hiding inside discarded refrigerators, particularly older models with latching doors. Since 2 August 1956, under U.S. federal law, refrigerator doors are no longer permitted to latch so they cannot be opened from the inside. Modern units use a magnetic door gasket that holds the door sealed but allows it to be pushed open from the inside. This gasket was invented, developed and manufactured by Max Baermann (1903-1984) of Bergisch Gladbach/Germany.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38601243",
"title": "Refrigerator death",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 558,
"text": "A refrigerator death is death by suffocation in a refrigerator or similar appliance such as a freezer. Because, by design, such appliances are air-tight when closed, a person trapped inside will have a limited supply of oxygen. Early refrigerators could only be opened from the outside, making accidental trappings a possibility, particularly of children playing with discarded appliances; several such deaths have been recorded. Modern designs close with a magnetic mechanism that can be opened from the inside, reducing the danger of accidental trappings.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2420747",
"title": "Auto-defrost",
"section": "Section::::Mechanism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 323,
"text": "Inside the freezer, air is circulated by means of one or more fans. In a typical design cold air from the freezer compartment is ducted to the fresh food compartment and circulated back into the freezer compartment. Air circulation helps sublimate any ice or frost that may form on frozen items in the freezer compartment.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1036259",
"title": "Refrigerator",
"section": "Section::::Features.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 302,
"text": "BULLET::::- Chilled water and ice from a dispenser in the door. Water and ice dispensing became available in the 1970s. In some refrigerators, the process of making ice is built-in so the user doesn't have to manually use ice trays. Some refrigerators have water chillers and water filtration systems.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1036259",
"title": "Refrigerator",
"section": "Section::::General technical explanation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 702,
"text": "This means the refrigerator may become too warm. However, because only enough air is diverted to the refrigerator compartment, the freezer usually re-acquires the set temperature quickly, unless the door is opened. When a door is opened, either in the refrigerator or the freezer, the fan in some units stops immediately to prevent excessive frost build up on the freezer's evaporator coil, because this coil is cooling two areas. When the freezer reaches temperature, the unit cycles off, no matter what the refrigerator temperature is. Modern computerized refrigerators do not use the damper system. The computer manages fan speed for both compartments, although air is still blown from the freezer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9041235",
"title": "Hamlet chicken processing plant fire",
"section": "Section::::Investigation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 790,
"text": "An investigation was immediately launched by state authorities, joined one month later by federal investigators. Investigators found indentations left on at least one door by people attempting to kick it down. There were concentrations of bodies around fire exits and inside a large walk-in freezer where panicked workers had sought shelter. Some sources thought they froze to death, in temperatures as low as −28 °F (−33 °C), but the official report says they were killed by smoke infiltration around the improperly closed door. Twelve deaths occurred in the freezer. Five people survived there, but suffered injuries. Timothy Bradly, North Carolina's Deputy Commissioner of Insurance, said that technically \"There was not a single door in the plant that met the criteria of a fire exit.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1036259",
"title": "Refrigerator",
"section": "Section::::Energy efficiency.:Today.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 85,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 85,
"end_character": 1254,
"text": "Frost-free refrigerators or freezers use electric fans to cool the appropriate compartment. This could be called a \"fan forced\" refrigerator, whereas manual defrost units rely on colder air lying at the bottom, versus the warm air at the top to achieve adequate cooling. The air is drawn in through an inlet duct and passed through the evaporator where it is cooled, the air is then circulated throughout the cabinet via a series of ducts and vents. Because the air passing the evaporator is supposedly warm and moist, frost begins to form on the evaporator (especially on a freezer's evaporator). In cheaper and/or older models, a defrost cycle is controlled via a mechanical timer. This timer is set to shut off the compressor and fan and energize a heating element located near or around the evaporator for about 15 to 30 minutes at every 6 to 12 hours. This melts any frost or ice build up and allows the refrigerator to work normally once more. It is believed that frost free units have a lower tolerance for frost, due to their air-conditioner like evaporator coils. Therefore, if a door is left open accidentally (especially the freezer), the defrost system may not remove all frost, in this case, the freezer (or refrigerator) must be defrosted.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
dfj0zo
|
why does most graffiti have the same generic style/look that we have come to expect from vandals
|
[
{
"answer": "Speed, if you take too much time spraying it on the walls you will be caught doing it so speed is essential.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's a lettering style designed to take up as much space as possible with color, leaving as little blank space as possible. And it's fairly easy to make with spray paint.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "11985",
"title": "Graffiti",
"section": "Section::::Uses.:Radical and political.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 87,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 87,
"end_character": 846,
"text": "Graffiti often has a reputation as part of a subculture that rebels against authority, although the considerations of the practitioners often diverge and can relate to a wide range of attitudes. It can express a political practice and can form just one tool in an array of resistance techniques. One early example includes the anarcho-punk band Crass, who conducted a campaign of stenciling anti-war, anarchist, feminist, and anti-consumerist messages throughout the London Underground system during the late 1970s and early 1980s. In Amsterdam graffiti was a major part of the punk scene. The city was covered with names such as \"De Zoot\", \"Vendex\", and \"Dr Rat\". To document the graffiti a punk magazine was started that was called \"Gallery Anus\". So when hip hop came to Europe in the early 1980s there was already a vibrant graffiti culture.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2632114",
"title": "Hip hop",
"section": "Section::::Culture.:Graffiti.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 694,
"text": "One of the most common forms of graffiti is tagging, or the act of stylizing your unique name or logo. Tagging began in Philadelphia and New York City and has expanded worldwide. Spray painting public property or the property of others without their consent can be considered vandalism, and the \"tagger\" may be subject to arrest and prosecution for the criminal act. Whether legal or not, the hip hop culture considers tagging buildings, trains, bridges and other structures as visual art, and consider the tags as part of a complex symbol system with its own social codes and subculture rules. Such art is in some cases now subject to federal protection in the US, making its erasure illegal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46212284",
"title": "Ancient Maya graffiti",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 395,
"text": "Graffiti are not integral decoration of the structures where they are found; rather, they are additions to pre-existing features, and lack formal organisation. Usually they bear no obvious relationship to any neighbouring graffiti, and they can be found randomly scattered on walls, floors, and benches. Some examples are found in obscure locations, such as dark corners and narrow passageways.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "770126",
"title": "Swedish hip hop",
"section": "Section::::The graffiti culture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 424,
"text": "Graffiti is, to a large extent, seen as an art form belonging to hip hop. In the early 1980s, the American films \"Style Wars\", \"Wild Style\" and \"Beat Street\" would have a great impact and influence many would-be artists, as would the Swedish cult classic \"Stockholmsnatt\" a few years later. The first graffiti artists in the Stockholm area had names such as Disey, Ziggy, Razor, Merley (aka Liam Norberg), Puppet and Zappo.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27758191",
"title": "Graffiti in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Public opinion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 557,
"text": "Graffiti proponents perceive it as a method of reclaiming public space or displaying an art form; their opponents regard it as a nuisance, or as costly vandalism requiring abatement. Graffiti can be viewed as a \"quality of life\" issue, and its detractors suggest that the presence of graffiti contributes to a general sense of squalor and a heightened fear of crime. Graffiti has a strong negative influence on property values and lowers the tax base, reducing the available funding for municipal services, such as schools, fire protection, and sanitation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17116371",
"title": "Underground art",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 303,
"text": "Graffiti, a form of street art, typically refers to illegal forms of street art. Public response to graffiti is not always favorable and is often negative. Others say that unauthorized art comes from a desire to spread beauty and make cityscapes more interesting by painting over blank or barren walls.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29201097",
"title": "Graffiti removal",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 428,
"text": "Graffiti has long been considered an act of vandalism that signifies urban decay and a detriment to property values in an area. Therefore, most governments have seen graffiti as detrimental, and have outlawed the practice. However, due to most instances of graffiti occurring in public spaces, local governments are responsible for graffiti removal in order to maintain the beautification of their local shire, council or city.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3hhxyx
|
Is there anywhere that models predict will get nicer to live because of climate change?
|
[
{
"answer": "First off, \"nicer to live\" requires individual value judgements because not everyone is the same in what they like. By conventional metrics, most places are going to be losers in climate change but if the mean temperature was a bit warmer there will be some places which will generally be considered more pleasant places to live. Canada and Russian will be warmer but they will still have long dark winters. New York will get more like Miami and some people love Miami. It's known we are altering the climate but exact predictions of regional details are not as certain. It's not yet time to be homesteading new places based on predictions of climate 100 years in the future.\n\nRainfall and precipitation are also important factors in quality-of-life. While rain is inconvenient for picnics it essential for agriculture. Climate change is going to alter rainfall patterns but it's not as predictable which places will get hotter and drier and which get hotter and wetter. Storminess is also expected to increase for most places in the mid-latitudes. Timing of rainfall is also important - does it all come in winter or is it spread out through the year? It is unfortunately those places which are already struggling (Africa, Southeast Asia) which are forecast to have some of the worst negative effects on agriculture.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "My understanding is the regional impacts of climate change have not been determined. It isn't completely clear when, or even if, the thermohaline circulation will stop. If it stops in your lifetime, you are likely to experience an ice age in short order. If it doesn't stop, Ohio is more likely to feel like Georgia in 2050 than be frozen. \nI think the really scary things are the political and economic impacts. What happens if the Sierra Nevadas can no longer supply summer irrigation water to the California agricultural valley? What happens if Hansen is right when he speculates about 10 feet of sea level rise by 2065? Do the Feds cover the relocation costs of north of 30 million Americans? Where does that money come from? What happens when Bangladesh has to move 50 million + people whose homes are now under sea water? Does India just absorb them, likewise with the refugees fleeing Africa to Europe right now? Does Europe just absorb millions of uneducated desperately poor Africans? These are the questions (and all the ones I haven't thought of) that worry me. \nUgh. I can't write anymore. This is depressing. Learn to garden. Learn to make your own energy. Try to live someplace with access to protein (like wild animals.) We are in trouble. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "52693565",
"title": "2017 in science",
"section": "Section::::Events.:December.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 328,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 328,
"end_character": 253,
"text": "BULLET::::- A paper by the Carnegie Institution for Science concludes that climate models with the most severe impacts for later this century are likely to be the most accurate, suggesting that the IPCC reports may be underestimating the future trends.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1142324",
"title": "Climateprediction.net",
"section": "Section::::Aims.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 659,
"text": "The crux of the problem is that scientists can run models and see that x% of the models warm y degrees in response to z climate forcings, but how do we know x% is a good representation of the probability of that happening in the real world? The answer is that scientists are uncertain about this and want to improve the level of confidence that can be achieved. Some models will be good and some poor at producing past climate when given past climate forcings and initial conditions (a hindcast). It does make sense to trust the models that do well at recreating the past more than those that do poorly. Therefore, models that do poorly will be downweighted.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "246070",
"title": "Predictability",
"section": "Section::::In climate.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 274,
"text": "As climate change and other weather phenomenon become more common, the predictability of climate systems becomes more important. The IPCC notes that our ability to predict future detailed climate interactions is difficult, however, long term climate forecasts are possible.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33828979",
"title": "Wildlife regulations in Florida",
"section": "Section::::Opponents of the Bill.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 373,
"text": "The models by Dr. Burbrink predict different results than the models of Dr. Rodda because variables such as climatic extremes and seasonal variation create a significant variation in the animals survivability. Dr. Burbrink's models also predict that global warming will actually reduce the habitat suitable for exotic southeastern Asian species such as the Burmese Python.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1262978",
"title": "IPCC Third Assessment Report",
"section": "Section::::Conclusions.:Working Group I.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 698,
"text": "BULLET::::3. Confidence in the ability of models to project future climate has increased (Complex physically based climate models are required to provide detailed estimates of feedbacks and of regional features. Such models cannot yet simulate all aspects of climate (e.g., they still cannot account fully for the observed trend in the surface-troposphere temperature difference since 1979) and there are particular uncertainties associated with clouds and their interaction with radiation and aerosols. Nevertheless, confidence in the ability of these models to provide useful projections of future climate has improved due to their demonstrated performance on a range of space and time-scales .)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3465252",
"title": "Fred L. Smith (political writer)",
"section": "Section::::Career.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 757,
"text": "Smith appeared on \"Crossfire\" in 2006 and stated: \"We know that there are these elaborate computer models that have never been right before, may be right this time, that suggest climate changes, possibly good, possibly bad. Most of the indications right now are it looks pretty good. Warmer winters, warmer nights, no effects during the day because of clouding, sounds to me like we’re moving to a more benign planet, more rain, richer, easier productivity to agriculture.\". Smith defended contributions of companies such as ExxonMobil to groups skeptical of climate change, explaining that support for such organizations can be expected to rise as public interest in global warming issues increases, saying, \"Firefighters' budgets go up when fires go up.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15030",
"title": "Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change",
"section": "Section::::Assessment reports.:Second assessment report.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 83,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 83,
"end_character": 219,
"text": "BULLET::::5. Climate is expected to continue to change in the future (increasing realism of simulations increases confidence; important uncertainties remain but are taken into account in the range of model projections)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
62oki0
|
why do android phone manufacturers not force carriers to use the same software like on ios?
|
[
{
"answer": "Because the manufacturers have very little power. If Samsung gives the carriers a hard time, they can immediately switch to HTC or another brand that's quite similar.\n\nBy contrast, if Apple gives the carriers a hard time, there is no very similar substitute they can choose, so they tolerate it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "20952693",
"title": "IOS jailbreaking",
"section": "Section::::Comparison to Android rooting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 1056,
"text": "iOS is engineered with security measures including a \"locked bootloader\" to prevent users from modifying the operating system, and to prevent apps from gaining root privileges; jailbreaking an iOS device to defeat all security measures presents a significant technical challenge. It violates Apple's end-user license agreement for iOS. Until 2015 sideloading apps in general was difficult for most individual users, requiring them to purchase developer membership, while corporations could install private applications onto corporate phones. After 2015, this became free for all users, however doing so requires a basic understanding of Xcode and compiling iOS Apps. Apps installed this way have the restrictions of all other apps. In addition, alternative app stores utilising enterprise certificates have sprung up, offering modified or pirated releases of popular iOS applications and video games, some of which were either previously released through Cydia or are unavailable on the App Store due to them not complying with Apple developer guidelines.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33451925",
"title": "BlackBerry 10",
"section": "Section::::Reception.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 1124,
"text": "BlackBerry 10 added a compatibility layer for Android software, which allowed developers to repackage their Android apps for distribution on BlackBerry World, however this advertised feature has received a poor reception as the Android apps \"performed abysmally on the phone. Sluggish, ugly, and disconnected from the core OS. In fact, because these apps are being run in a software emulation of Android — Gingerbread no less (that's version 2.3) — they bear little to no relationship to the rest of the operating system\". Later versions added the ability for users to manually install Android app packages. Beginning with the BlackBerry Passport, Amazon Appstore was bundled with BlackBerry 10 to provide an additional source of third-party Android software. BlackBerry CEO John S. Chen hoped that Amazon's own smartphone, the Fire Phone, would bolster the adoption of the Amazon store and attract more major developers to it, and in turn, BlackBerry's ecosystem. However, the Fire Phone was a commercial failure, which led to BlackBerry's decision to develop an Android phone of its own, resulting in the BlackBerry Priv.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9874319",
"title": "Criticism of Google",
"section": "Section::::Antitrust.:European Union.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 241,
"text": "BULLET::::- Complaint opened in 2015 that the dominance of the Android operating system was abused to make it difficult for competing third-party apps and search engines to be pre-installed on mobile phones. (See European Union vs. Google.)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43137803",
"title": "Nokia X platform",
"section": "Section::::Applications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 316,
"text": "As of February 2014, 75% of Android apps are compatible with the platform. Nokia has also noted that developers can port the remaining missing apps in a matter of hours, and in an attempt to encourage developers to contribute to the platform, had previously added compatible Android apps without developer approval.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51664929",
"title": "European Union vs. Google",
"section": "Section::::Android and mobile apps charges.:EU's investigation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 302,
"text": "Google countered to this investigation that their practices with Android were no different with how Apple, Inc. or Microsoft bundles their own proprietary apps on their respective iOS and Windows Phone, and that OEMs were still able to distribute Android-based phones without the Google suite of apps.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12610483",
"title": "Android (operating system)",
"section": "Section::::Reception.:Adoption on tablets.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 120,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 120,
"end_character": 406,
"text": "In March 2016, Galen Gruman of \"InfoWorld\" stated that Android devices could be a \"real part of your business [..] there's no longer a reason to keep Android at arm's length. It can now be as integral to your mobile portfolio as Apple's iOS devices are\". A year earlier, Gruman had stated that Microsoft's own mobile Office apps were \"better on iOS and Android\" than on Microsoft's own Windows 10 devices.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35924721",
"title": "Samsung Galaxy Ace 2",
"section": "Section::::Samsung Galaxy Ace 2 x / Trend.:Software.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 480,
"text": "Since these phones run Android 4.0, they are still supported by cloud, communications and social networking services that push the latest versions of their apps, which have in some cases been designed with only the newest hardware in mind. Such applications hog system resources and cause the phones to run slowly. As a remedy, phone owners can replace those apps with less resource-hungry equivalents, or remove them entirely and use a web browser to access the services' sites.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
j4y4n
|
explain how 0.999 recurring = 1 (li5.)
|
[
{
"answer": "Do 1.00000000... minus .99999999...\n\nYou'll get 0.00000000... which is a neverending string of zeroes. You will naturally want to put a 1 at the end of all the zeroes, but there is an infinite amount of them. There *is* no end to stick a 1 onto.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A simple way is this: (let's assume the 0.333 and 0.999 are infinite)\n\n1/3 = 0.333 repeating\n\n1/3 + 1/3 + 1/3 = 1\n\nTHEREFORE\n\n0.333 + 0.333 + 0.333 = 1\n\nAND ALSO\n\n0.333 + 0.333 + 0.333 = 0.999\n\nThere are other, more complex ways, but this is probably the simplest.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "All the numbers can be ordered on a very, very big line, like on a gigantic ruler. Now, if two numbers are different, that just means that there is some space on this ruler between them. That space is full of numbers, too. So, for example, 2 is a different number than 4, because (for example) 3 is between them. In fact, you can find more numbers than you could write a piece of paper between *any* two different numbers. Try it!\n\nNow, 0.99999... = 1 is just another way of saying that there are no other numbers between them. It makes sense once you try to come up with such a number yourself: Obviously it would have to start with 0.99999 as well but then be a little bit higher. But there is no such number that's still smaller than 1. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I have a pretty simple algabraic proof that obviously a 5-year-old wouldn't understand, but you might:\n\nx = 0.999...\n\n10x = 9.999... (both sides multiplied by 10)\n\n9x = 9.999 - 0.999 = 9 (the small number subtracted from the big number)\n\nx = 1 (dividing both sides by 9)\n\nIt's just confusing because of the ways we represent numbers in various bases and as functions (i.e. fractions).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "People who study math for a living (we call them \"mathematicians\") tell us that decimals (0.999, for example) can be transformed into fractions (1/4, for example) while still being the exact same thing. Say, for example, that you have a quarter — You can say that you have twenty-five cents (0.25) OR that you have 1/4 of a dollar, and BOTH ways are correct.\n\nMathematicians discovered long ago that there are some fractions that look really funky when converted into decimals. The fraction 1/3, when converted into a decimal, is 0.333333333... (the threes repeat forever). So let's imagine you have a loaf of bread, and it is cut into three equal pieces. The first slice is 1/3 of the loaf, the second slice is 1/3 of the loaf, and the third slice is 1/3 of the loaf. When you put them together, you get 1 loaf (1/3 + 1/3 + 1/3 = 3/3 = 1). But if we take the decimal counterparts, it looks like this: 0.33333... + 0.33333... + 0.33333... = 0.99999... \n\nWe didn't actually LOSE any part of the loaf of bread when we counted with decimals instead of fractions, so instead, mathematicians tell us that 0.999 recurring equals 1. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If 0.999... did not equal 1, then there is a number between it and 1.\n\nWhat could that number be?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Do 1.00000000... minus .99999999...\n\nYou'll get 0.00000000... which is a neverending string of zeroes. You will naturally want to put a 1 at the end of all the zeroes, but there is an infinite amount of them. There *is* no end to stick a 1 onto.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1849799",
"title": "0.999...",
"section": "Section::::In alternative number systems.:Infinitesimals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 108,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 108,
"end_character": 557,
"text": "The standard definition of the number 0.999... is the limit of the sequence 0.9, 0.99, 0.999, ... A different definition involves what Terry Tao refers to as \"ultralimit\", i.e., the equivalence class [(0.9, 0.99, 0.999, ...)] of this sequence in the ultrapower construction, which is a number that falls short of 1 by an infinitesimal amount. More generally, the hyperreal number with last digit 9 at infinite hypernatural rank \"H\", satisfies a strict inequality Accordingly, an alternative interpretation for \"zero followed by infinitely many 9s\" could be\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1849799",
"title": "0.999...",
"section": "Section::::In alternative number systems.:Infinitesimals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 107,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 107,
"end_character": 422,
"text": "indexed by the hypernatural numbers. While he does not directly discuss 0.999..., he shows the real number is represented by 0.333...;...333... which is a consequence of the transfer principle. As a consequence the number 0.999...;...999... = 1. With this type of decimal representation, not every expansion represents a number. In particular \"0.333...;...000...\" and \"0.999...;...000...\" do not correspond to any number.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3607816",
"title": "Tetris: The Grand Master",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay.:Level.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 208,
"text": "When the player is about to increment the hundreds digit (e.g., level 399), only line clears will increase the level. Level 998 is treated similarly, with a final line clear required to reach 999 and finish.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "472129",
"title": "Kaprekar number",
"section": "Section::::Examples.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 443,
"text": "297 is a Kaprekar number for base 10, because 297 = 88209, which can be split into 88 and 209, and 88 + 209 = 297. By convention, the second part may start with the digit 0, but must be nonzero. For example, 999 is a Kaprekar number for base 10, because 999 = 998001, which can be split into 998 and 001, and 998 + 001 = 999. But 100 is not; although 100 = 10000 and 100 + 00 = 100, the second part here is zero (i.e. not a positive integer).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1849799",
"title": "0.999...",
"section": "Section::::Generalizations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 64,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 64,
"end_character": 342,
"text": "The result that 0.999... = 1 generalizes readily in two ways. First, every nonzero number with a finite decimal notation (equivalently, endless trailing 0s) has a counterpart with trailing 9s. For example, 0.24999... equals 0.25, exactly as in the special case considered. These numbers are exactly the decimal fractions, and they are dense.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1849799",
"title": "0.999...",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 788,
"text": "In mathematics, 0.999... (also written 0., among other ways) denotes the repeating decimal consisting of infinitely many 9s after the decimal point (and one 0 before it). This repeating decimal represents the smallest number no less than every decimal number in the sequence (0.9, 0.99, 0.999, ...). This number is equal to 1. In other words, \"0.999...\" and \"1\" represent the same number. There are many ways of showing this equality, from intuitive arguments to mathematically rigorous proofs. The technique used depends on the target audience, background assumptions, historical context, and preferred development of the real numbers, the system within which 0.999... is commonly defined. (In other systems, 0.999... can have the same meaning, a different definition, or be undefined.)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1849799",
"title": "0.999...",
"section": "Section::::Cultural phenomenon.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 98,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 98,
"end_character": 378,
"text": "A \"Slate\" article reports that the concept of 0.999... is \"hotly disputed on websites ranging from \"World of Warcraft\" message boards to Ayn Rand forums\". In the same vein, the question of 0.999... proved such a popular topic in the first seven years of Blizzard Entertainment's Battle.net forums that the company issued a \"press release\" on April Fools' Day 2004 that it is 1:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
axcj73
|
Why is CBD's action on the 5HT-1A receptor non psychedelic, compared with e.g. LSD's action on the 5HT-2A?
|
[
{
"answer": "So to begin, CBD is a partial agonist which is not the same as LSD, which is a full agonist. Partial agonism is jargon in that the drug binds quite well, but only exerts say 40% of an effect compared to a full agonist, which would give 100% of effect.\n\nAs well as this, we don't really know why certain drugs like LSD and substituted amphetamines cause hallucinations via activation of these receptors as we have drugs in our arsenal that are agonists at many of these receptors but without the psychedelic properties of LSD etc.\n\nTo make this a bit clearer for you (nothing to do with CBD but fascinating nonetheless) - Buprenorphine is a partial agonist of mu receptors for the treatment of opioid addiction. Because of its partial agonism it has a 'ceiling effect' (going back to partial agonists only being able to activate a receptor so much) meaning its abuse potential is greatly reduced as it cant give the high morphine can.\n\nThe reason Bupe works so well in the context of addiction is very interesting, and I'll tell you why. So, when both a full agonist (morphine) and partial agonist (buprenorphine) are present, the partial agonist actually acts as a competitive antagonist (consider the opposite of a agonist, it reverses or blocks the effects), competing with the full agonist for receptor occupancy and producing a net decrease in the receptor activation observed with the full agonist alone. This is why Buprenorphine is fantastic in what it does, because it, in a biological sense cock blocks morphine to those mu receptors it desperately wants to bind to.\n\nI am a pharmacology student so I would be more then happy to answer any q's you may have (especially in regards to psychopharmacology) as I love the subject and love to help people understand pharmacology. :) \n\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "47046221",
"title": "5F-AMB",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 213,
"text": "Although only very little pharmacological information about 5F-AMB itself exists, its 4-cyanobutyl analogue (instead of 5-fluoropentyl) has been reported to be a potent agonist for the CB receptor (\"K\" = 0.7 nM).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4574063",
"title": "5-HT2A receptor",
"section": "Section::::Ligands.:Agonists.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 890,
"text": "Activation of the 5-HT receptor is necessary for the effects of the \"classic\" psychedelics like LSD, psilocin and mescaline, which act as full or partial agonists at this receptor, and represent the three main classes of 5-HT agonists, the ergolines, tryptamines and phenethylamines, respectively. A very large family of derivatives from these three classes has been developed, and their structure-activity relationships have been extensively researched. Agonists acting at 5-HT receptors located on the apical dendrites of pyramidal cells within regions of the prefrontal cortex are believed to mediate hallucinogenic activity. Newer findings reveal that psychoactive effects of classic psychedelics are mediated by the receptor heterodimer 5-HT–mGlu2 and not by monomeric 5-HT receptors. Agonists enhance dopamine in PFC, enhance memory and play an active role in attention and learning.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5881364",
"title": "Constitutive androstane receptor",
"section": "Section::::Activation mechanism.:Indirect activation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 470,
"text": "Phenobarbital (PB), a widely used anticonvulsant, is used as a model ligand for indirect CAR activation. PB activates CAR, by inducing the dephosphorylation of CAR through PP2A. How PP2A is activated remains unclear, but several different mechanisms have been proposed. The recruitment of PP2A has been shown to be mediated by the multiprotein complex. As PB is involved in the activation of AMP-activated protein kinase, it has been suggested that AMPK activates PP2A.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1673425",
"title": "Doxepin",
"section": "Section::::Pharmacology.:Pharmacodynamics.:As a hypnotic.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 1393,
"text": "Antagonism of the H, 5-HT, 5-HT, and α-adrenergic receptors is thought to have sleep-promoting effects and to be responsible for the sedative effects of TCAs including those of doxepin. Although doxepin is selective for the H receptor at doses lower than 25 mg, blockade of serotonin and adrenergic receptors may also be involved in the hypnotic effects of doxepin at higher doses. However, in contrast to very low doses of doxepin, rebound insomnia and daytime sedation are significantly more frequent than placebo with moderate doses (25 to 50 mg/day) of the drug. In addition, one study found that although such doses of doxepin improved sleep measures initially, most of the benefits were lost with chronic treatment (by 4 weeks). Due to limited data however, more research on potential tolerance and withdrawal effects of moderate doses of doxepin is needed. At these doses of doxepin, dry mouth, an anticholinergic effect, was common (71%), and other side effects such as headache (25%), increased appetite (21%), and dizziness (21%) were also frequently observed, although these adverse effects were notably not significantly more frequent than with placebo in the study in question. In any case, taken together, higher doses of doxepin than very low doses are associated with an increased rate of side effects as well as apparent loss of hypnotic effectiveness with chronic treatment.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59460499",
"title": "Pharmacology of cyproterone acetate",
"section": "Section::::Pharmacodynamics.:Other activities.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 467,
"text": "CPA has been found to bind non-selectively to the opioid receptors, including the μ-, δ-, and κ-opioid receptor subtypes, albeit very weakly relative to its other actions (IC for inhibition of [H]diprenorphine binding = 1.62 ± 0.33 µM). It has been suggested that activation of opioid receptors could have the potential to explain the side effect of sedation sometimes seen at high doses with CPA treatment or its effectiveness in the treatment of cluster headaches.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38310",
"title": "Cannabis",
"section": "Section::::Uses.:Recreational use.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 56,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 56,
"end_character": 209,
"text": "Cannabidiol (CBD), which has no psychotropic effects by itself (although sometimes showing a small stimulant effect, similar to caffeine), attenuates, or reduces the higher anxiety levels caused by THC alone.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1194091",
"title": "Dizocilpine",
"section": "Section::::Possible future medical uses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 925,
"text": "Behavioural studies have shown that NMDA receptors are involved in the development of psychological dependence caused by chronic administration of morphine. Dizocilpine suppressed the morphine-induced rewarding effect. It is suggested that stimulating NR2B subunits of the NMDA receptor and its associated kinases in the nucleus accumbens leads to the rewarding effect caused by morphine. Inhibition of this receptor and its kinases in the nucleus accumbens by co-treatment with NMDA antagonists prevents morphine-associated psychological dependence. An earlier study has shown that the prevention of morphine-associated psychological dependence was not due to state-dependency effects induced by dizocilpine but rather reflect the impairment of learning that is caused by NMDA antagonists. This is consistent with studies showing that dizocilpine potentiates the addictive potential of morphine and other drugs (see below).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1jhgju
|
why do some tennis players grunt loudly whenever they hit the ball?
|
[
{
"answer": "Tensing the torso allows maximum rigidity and power transfer to the strike. This tends to push air out of the lungs and produce a grunt, and grunting can be a way to focus on maintaining that form.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "23508534",
"title": "Grunting in tennis",
"section": "Section::::Overview and punishment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 744,
"text": "Louise Deeley, a sports psychologist at Roehampton University, believes that grunting is part of the rhythm for tennis players: \"The timing of when they actually grunt helps them with the rhythm of how they're hitting and how they're pacing things\". She also believes that banning grunting isn't the solution: \"They may feel, on the surface, that this is going to be a distraction to their game, that it is part and parcel of what they do\". Bruce Lynne, a physiologist at University College London, believes that reflexes might have an effect: \"If you're looking at reflexes in the legs and you ask someone to clench their jaw, then believe it or not, the reflexes in their legs get brisker, that's a well-known problem called re-enforcement\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2793466",
"title": "Ball (foot)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 551,
"text": "The ball is a common area in which people develop pain, known as metatarsalgia. People who frequently wear high heels often develop pain in the balls of their feet from the immense amount of pressure that is placed on them for long periods of time, due to the inclination of the shoes. To remedy this, there is a market for ball-of-foot or general foot cushions that are placed into shoes to relieve some of the pressure. Alternately, people can have a procedure done in which a dermal filler is injected into the balls of the feet to add cushioning.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23508534",
"title": "Grunting in tennis",
"section": "Section::::Overview and punishment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 848,
"text": "Some tennis players have defended grunting. Michelle Larcher de Brito, who had a reported decibel reading of 109, said: \"If people don't like my grunting, they can always leave\". In a different interview she said: \"Nobody can tell me to stop grunting. Tennis is an individual sport and I'm an individual player. If they have to fine me, go ahead, because I'd rather get fined than lose a match because I had to stop grunting\". Former Wimbledon champion Maria Sharapova, who has officially reached 101 decibels, stated, \"I've done this ever since I started playing tennis and I'm not going to change\". Serena Williams said that opponents grunting doesn't affect her: \"I just play my game and sometimes I grunt and sometimes I don't. I'm not conscious when I'm doing it. I'm just zoned out. It doesn't really affect me if my opponent is [grunting]\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36973360",
"title": "Tennis Elbow (video game)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 241,
"text": "The most noticeable particularity of its gameplay is that the users have to hold down the strike button till their player actually strikes the ball, unlike most other tennis games that require the users to release the strike button earlier.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "98551",
"title": "Fumble",
"section": "Section::::Play during fumbles.:Proper fumble recovery.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 272,
"text": "However, coaches tell players not to do this in game situations if at all possible, since not only is the ball likely to squirt loose again once other players pile on, there is also a possibility of injury from the ball being driven into the soft organs with great force.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23633130",
"title": "Samurai Shodown (1993 video game)",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 382,
"text": "The game quickly became renowned for its fast pace. Focusing more on quick, powerful strikes than combos, slow motion was added to intensify damage dealt from hard hits. During a match, a referee holds flags representing each player (Player 1 is white; Player 2 is red). When a player lands a successful hit, the referee lifts the corresponding flag, indicating who dealt the blow.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15755455",
"title": "Spooning (croquet)",
"section": "Section::::Pushing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 599,
"text": "In one sense, it is simply pushing the ball with the mallet instead of tapping. It is recognized by making no noise. This was at one time considered an unfair but good technique, upon appeal the umpire must declare whether the ball was spooned or tapped. In modern Association Croquet, pushing the ball would generally constitute a fault under rule 28.a.4, which makes it a fault if the striker \"moves the striker's ball other than by striking it with the mallet audibly and distinctly\", or under rule 28.a.7.C, if \"the mallet [remains] in contact with the striker's ball for an observable period.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2eecq9
|
Could chemoautotrophic bacteria live in the hostile environments of another planet?
|
[
{
"answer": "The discovery of extremophile organisms like bacteria has certainly broadened our understanding of life, and the sheer strangeness and lengths it can go and survive.\n\nSo, the answer is yes. There definitely *could* be organisms on other planets, even those that we might have traditionally thought of as being too hostile to life to support it. \n\nThe discovery of such extreme organisms has led some scientists and more than a few science fiction authors to speculate about the possibility of life on Europa, one of Jupiter's moons, or on Titan, one of Saturn's moons. Both are rather extreme compared to earth, but it might just be possible. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "231160",
"title": "Geomicrobiology",
"section": "Section::::Early Earth history and astrobiology.:Extremophiles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 367,
"text": "Another area of investigation in geomicrobiology is the study of extremophile organisms, the microorganisms that thrive in environments normally considered hostile to life. Such environments may include extremely hot (hot springs or mid-ocean ridge black smoker) environments, extremely saline environments, or even space environments such as Martian soil or comets.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49307991",
"title": "Daniela Billi",
"section": "Section::::Work.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 281,
"text": "Daniela Billi showed that desert cyanobacteria from the genus \"Chroococcidiopsis\" are highly resistant to extreme environmental conditions including desiccation, ionizing radiation, UV radiation, and various factors encountered in extraterrestrial environments (see for example ).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40170111",
"title": "List of microorganisms tested in outer space",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 969,
"text": "Extremophiles have adapted to live in some of the most extreme environments on Earth. This includes hypersaline lakes, arid regions, deep sea, acidic sites, cold and dry polar regions and permafrost. The existence of extremophiles has led to the speculation that microorganisms could survive the harsh conditions of extraterrestrial environments and be used as model organisms to understand the fate of biological systems in these environments. The focus of many of the experiments has been to investigate the possible survival of organisms inside rocks (lithopanspermia), or their survival on Mars for understanding the likelihood of past or present life on that planet. Because of their ubiquity and resistance to spacecraft decontamination, bacterial spores are considered likely potential forward contaminants on robotic missions to Mars. Measuring the resistance of such organisms to space conditions can be applied to develop adequate decontamination procedures.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "344974",
"title": "Chemosynthesis",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 357,
"text": "Many chemosynthetic microorganisms are consumed by other organisms in the ocean, and symbiotic associations between chemosynthesizers and respiring heterotrophs are quite common. Large populations of animals can be supported by chemosynthetic secondary production at hydrothermal vents, methane clathrates, cold seeps, whale falls, and isolated cave water.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40245",
"title": "Halotolerance",
"section": "Section::::Bacterial halotolerance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 249,
"text": "The extent of halotolerance varies widely amongst different species of bacteria. A number of cyanobacteria are halotolerant; an example location of occurrence for such cyanobacteria is in the Makgadikgadi Pans, a large hypersaline lake in Botswana.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39833813",
"title": "Icebreaker Life",
"section": "Section::::Science.:Preservation of biomolecules.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 425,
"text": "Of particular relevance, some microorganisms on Earth grow by the anaerobic reductive dissimilation of perchlorate and one of the specific enzymes used, perchlorate reductase, is present in all known examples of these microorganisms. Also, perchlorates are toxic to humans, so understanding the chemistry and distribution of perchlorate on Mars might become an important prerequisite before the first manned mission to Mars.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3263684",
"title": "Halorespiration",
"section": "Section::::Uses in Bioremediation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 597,
"text": "An ecologically significant aspect of bacterial halorespiration is the reduction of Polychloroethene (PCE) and Trichloroethene (TCE); anthropogenic pollutants with high neuro and hepatotoxicity. Their presence as environmental pollutants arose from their common industrial use as metal-degreasing agents from the 1920s - 1970. These xenobiotic compounds tend to form partially insoluble layers called dense non-aqueous phase liquids (DNAPLs) at the bottom of groundwater aquifers, which solubilize in a slow, reservoir-like manner, making TCE and PCE among the most common groundwater pollutants.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
supox
|
Shimmering on roads.
|
[
{
"answer": "It is caused by the refraction of light when traveling through a density gradient in the air. The air near the surface is being heated by the hot pavement, and therefore expands reducing the pressure, resulting in less density. Light coming in from the sky is bends upwards when traversing from the colder and denser air above to the hot and thin air near the surface in a rather smooth arc and coming to meet your eye from a strange direction. You'll see more refraction when looking at pools of hot air from a shallower angle, hence why it's more apparent when you are changing elevation and can look along the tangent of a hill.\n\nHere's a quick picture demonstrating this: [_URL_0_](_URL_0_)\n\nIn fact, if you turn the picture upside down it resembles light bending downwards as it moves from less dense air, to much denser water (that is, each step is like an upside-down water surface, light doesn't arc like this when entering water). The deep reason behind this and other phenomena is the peculiar fact that light tends to go along paths that take the least amount of time. Rather than trying to get to you by slugging along through the colder air, it would rather dip down and zip through the hot air.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "25948",
"title": "Refraction",
"section": "Section::::Light.:Atmospheric refraction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 329,
"text": "Air temperature variations close to the surface can give rise to other optical phenomena, such as mirages and Fata Morgana. Most commonly, air heated by a hot road on a sunny day deflects light approaching at a shallow angle towards a viewer. This makes the road appear reflecting, giving an illusion of water covering the road.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39690539",
"title": "October 1964",
"section": "Section::::October 23, 1964 (Friday).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 141,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 141,
"end_character": 746,
"text": "BULLET::::- Inventor Sidney A. Heenan of Park Ridge, Illinois, applied for the patent for the reflective raised pavement marker that marks traffic lanes in much of the world, describing his invention as \"a marking visible from an oncoming vehicle on a generally horizontal roadway surface\" by means of a \"reverse light receiving and reflecting face provided with a plurality of retrodirective reflector elements of the cube corner type for receiving light emanating from the oncoming vehicle and incident upon the obverse face in a generally horizontal direction of incidence and reflecting such light to return the incident light generally parallel to the direction of incidence.\" U.S. Patent Number 3,332,327 would be granted on July 25, 1967.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "731780",
"title": "Geometrical optics",
"section": "Section::::Refraction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 681,
"text": "Some media have an index of refraction which varies gradually with position and, thus, light rays curve through the medium rather than travel in straight lines. This effect is what is responsible for mirages seen on hot days where the changing index of refraction of the air causes the light rays to bend creating the appearance of specular reflections in the distance (as if on the surface of a pool of water). Material that has a varying index of refraction is called a gradient-index (GRIN) material and has many useful properties used in modern optical scanning technologies including photocopiers and scanners. The phenomenon is studied in the field of gradient-index optics.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55695",
"title": "Mirage",
"section": "Section::::Inferior mirage.:Heat haze.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 326,
"text": "Heat haze, also called heat shimmer, refers to the inferior mirage experienced when viewing objects through a layer of heated air; for example, viewing objects across hot asphalt or through the exhaust gases produced by jet engines. When appearing on roads due to the hot asphalt, it is often referred to as a highway mirage.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59853",
"title": "Retroreflector",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:For road signs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 767,
"text": "Reflectivity is light reflected from a source to a surface and returned to its original source. For traffic signs and vehicle operators, the light source is a vehicle’s headlights, where the light is sent to the traffic sign face and then returned to the vehicle operator. Reflective traffic sign faces are manufactured with glass beads or prismatic reflectors embedded in a base sheeting layer so that the face reflects light, therefore making the sign appear more bright and visible to the vehicle operator under darkened conditions. According to the United States National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA), the Traffic Safety Facts 2000 publication states the fatal crash rate is 3-4 times more likely during nighttime crashes than daytime incidents.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22483",
"title": "Optics",
"section": "Section::::Classical optics.:Geometrical optics.:Refractions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 518,
"text": "Some media have an index of refraction which varies gradually with position and, therefore, light rays in the medium are curved. This effect is responsible for mirages seen on hot days: a change in index of refraction air with height causes light rays to bend, creating the appearance of specular reflections in the distance (as if on the surface of a pool of water). Optical materials with varying index of refraction are called gradient-index (GRIN) materials. Such materials are used to make gradient-index optics.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25144647",
"title": "Embedded pavement flashing-light system",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 263,
"text": "The concept for embedded pavement flashing light system was conceived by pilot Michael Harrison in Santa Rosa, California in 1992 after a friend was involved in a pedestrian accident. He based it on his experience with airport runway lights embedded in pavement.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1e01r2
|
As Historians, how can we utilize novels and literature as research?
|
[
{
"answer": "Well, certainly you can use period literature to provide evidence for a lot of things -- social norms, changing attitudes, the values and morals of the time, as well as a great source of linguistic data for language evolution. \n\nBut if you try to use say, a Mary Renault novel as evidence of Alexander's campaigns, you're probably going to have a bad time. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This is a contentious area, to be sure. It gets deep into historical epistemologies and is a major source of contention in some faculties. \n\nThe problem is one of reliability of source material. This gets into questions of memory, post-modern inclusion, basic democracy in history, and many other things.\n\nFor example, let's say you wanted to research rice field slaves in the early 18th century. Typical sources might include things like purchase receipts, slaveowners' documents/diaries, some newspaper accounts, and other typical sources. (See Walter Johnson's fantastic *Soul by Soul* for a solid example of the use of these sorts of documents.) \n\nBut this is a history provided and lived by the slave owner. Any information gleaned here with respect to the slaves themselves will be imposed upon them; it will not be their own story. \n\nHow do we then \"get to\" the slaves' own story? Here is where it gets very messy. Sure, there are a few slave narratives out there (some of dubious genealogy,) but those are almost certainly the exception -- not many slaves made it out of those hell holes, much less wrote about the experience. \n\nSo what then? How do you get to the lives of those who did not produce documents in the most-known sense? The only way is to go thru oral histories, shared stories, and yes, some novels. \n\nThis then open up massive questions. Most folks will agree that over time, details in oral histories get embellished, forgotten, romanticized, demonized, etc., depending on the story. How does a historian reconcile this with the (supposed) quest for some sort of objectivity, some sort of \"factual\" basis for the conclusions the historian draws? \n\nFor some, there is no reconciliation. Certain schools of thought simply do not allow for the use of non-\"empirical\" sources. I don't mean to imply any sort of racism or hegemonic behavior, it's just that some folks can't wrap their collective heads around a definition of truth that is as variable as the winds. \n\nOthers, focused (often) on subaltern or antipodean cultures, embrace this challenge and see it as a way to allow previously unstudied peoples to be included in the grand historical narrative. Those who allow for these sorts of non-traditional sources are moving the historical authority from the narrowly-defined source to a very open-ended source base that ends, finally, at the beginning: the person for whom the material matters. These folks will argue that perceived truth is what matters, not the received truth that originates with the educational hegemon. They would argue that because truth varies from person-to-person, what we learn in history classes is just an agreed-upon-fiction. That is, more simply put, they would argue that the story Toni Morrison tells in *Beloved* is as real to those who lived the lives described by the characters as a bill of sale describing the purchase of a slave. \n\nI hope this rambly response makes some sense. There are a number of fine works out there that get into this sort of question. Many books on racial formation and race theory have fantastic explanatory introductions. Among them are Thelma Foote, *Black and White Manhattan,* Bruce Dain, *A Hideous Monster of the Mind,* and Tiya Miles *The Ties that Bind.*\n\nSome perhaps less theoretically-laden books include James Epstein, *In Practice,* James F Brooks, *Captives and Cousins,* and Claudio Saunt, *A New Order of Things.* \n\nMost of these works are underpinned by a strong current of post-modern (post-structural,) philosophy, relying on, among others, the work of Foucault, Derrida, and Bourdieu. \n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This is a major concern of the relatively new/resurgent subfield of travel history, which has been rising since the early 90s but has really taken off in the past 10-15 years. Travel accounts are plentiful and diverse going back centuries but straddle the line between literature and historical accounts. On the one hand many (but not all) travel accounts depict real encounters and real journeys, but they also display undeniable literary qualities that often get them compared with things like novels, which fall much more solidly on the literature side of things.\n\nGranted I'm no Mary Louise Pratt (hugely influential historian in the travel field and beyond) but I see the whole process as an extra sensitive exercise in careful source criticism. Take a travel account and you have to perform many of the same checks as other sources. How accurate is the account compared with external sources, what are the intentions/biases of the author, who is the intended audience, can the events be verified, and so on. But travel accounts also require additional literary categories of analysis, taking into account the use of metaphors and plot devices, treatment of the accounts \"characters\" (people not the author or narrator), contemporary writing conventions, publishing practices, etc. It can be an extremely complex process but it can also yield extremely interesting results given that travel accounts are intimate portrayals of cultural exchange and perceptions. Monumental authors like Pratt and Edward Said both relied heavily on travel accounts to produce great research on power negotiation between imperialists and colonized peoples, and numerous scholars since them have sought to expand on this type of work.\n\nWhere I'm going with this is that like travel accounts (which resemble literature in several ways), novels and similar works of intentionally fictional writing can serve historians quite well when treated correctly. Though not nearly as simple as I'm about to make it sound, this process involves incorporating not only historical but literary methods of deconstruction. What's more, though, I think the use of such sources serves as an important reminder to historians of just how tricky their sources can be, and not just the literary ones. As Cosmic_Charlie mentioned in his post, \"typical\" sources can too often be thought of as unproblematic, implicitly if not explicitly. Not only does this make historians complacent but it also leads to the casual dismissal of more blatantly problematic sources like travel accounts. Not that long ago the default position for historians was to dismiss all travel sources as either fictional, as told by inexpert fools or liars, as lesser history, or all of the above. As if unproblematic and pure sources existed. To me, novels and literature, like travel accounts, are highly useful but temperamental, requiring a cautious and strict style of analysis that keeps the greater historical community on their toes.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "177891",
"title": "Primary source",
"section": "Section::::Significance of source classification.:Other fields.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 374,
"text": "A study of cultural history could include fictional sources such as novels or plays. In a broader sense primary sources also include artifacts like photographs, newsreels, coins, paintings or buildings created at the time. Historians may also take archaeological artifacts and oral reports and interviews into consideration. Written sources may be divided into three types.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18963870",
"title": "Literature",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 1256,
"text": "Literature in all its forms can be seen as written records, whether the literature itself be factual or fictional, it is still quite possible to decipher facts through things like characters' actions and words or the authors' style of writing and the intent behind the words. The plot is for more than just entertainment purposes; within it lies information about economics, psychology, science, religions, politics, cultures, and social depth. Studying and analyzing literature becomes very important in terms of learning about human history. Literature provides insights about how society has evolved and about the societal norms during each of the different periods all throughout history. For instance, postmodern authors argue that history and fiction both constitute systems of signification by which we make sense of the past. It is asserted that both of these are \"discourses, human constructs, signifying systems, and both derive their major claim to truth from that identity.\" Literature provides views of life, which is crucial in obtaining truth and in understanding human life throughout history and its periods. Specifically, it explores the possibilities of living in terms of certain values under given social and historical circumstances.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "177891",
"title": "Primary source",
"section": "Section::::Using primary sources.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 584,
"text": "Historians studying the modern period with the intention of publishing an academic article prefer to go back to available primary sources and to seek new (in other words, forgotten or lost) ones. Primary sources, whether accurate or not, offer new input into historical questions and most modern history revolves around heavy use of archives and special collections for the purpose of finding useful primary sources. A work on history is not likely to be taken seriously as scholarship if it only cites secondary sources, as it does not indicate that original research has been done.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23713433",
"title": "Novel",
"section": "Section::::Defining the genre.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 563,
"text": "Fictionality is most commonly cited as distinguishing novels from historiography. However this can be a problematic criterion. Throughout the early modern period authors of historical narratives would often include inventions rooted in traditional beliefs in order to embellish a passage of text or add credibility to an opinion. Historians would also invent and compose speeches for didactic purposes. Novels can, on the other hand, depict the social, political and personal realities of a place and period with clarity and detail not found in works of history.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3590130",
"title": "Book History (journal)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 506,
"text": "\"Book History\" is an academic journal devoted to the history of the book, i.e. the history of the creation, dissemination and reception of script and printed materials. It publishes research on the social, economic and cultural history of authorship, editing, printing, the book arts, publishing and the book trade, periodicals, newspapers, ephemera, copyright, censorship, literary agents, libraries, literary criticism, canon formation, literacy, literary education, reading habits, and reader response.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18901631",
"title": "Source literature",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 699,
"text": "In the humanities, the term \"source literature\" has a more precise meaning as published sources: Many archives, for example, publish important sources to be used by historians and other scholars as reliable editions of formerly unpublished sources. The publishing of such sources requires knowledge of text philology and other fields. But this kind of expertise put into the publishing of source literature should be differentiated from the kind of expertise needed in order to use the sources in, for example, historical research. A historian may or may not use such \"source literature\" and on the basis of his research publish a paper, which in the UNISIST model is considered primary literature.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43399901",
"title": "The Historical Novel",
"section": "Section::::Summary.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 377,
"text": "It examines the relationship between the form of the historical novel on the one hand and the formal study of history on the other. It explores the style of historical fictions, the way in which they engage with evidence (and how that differs from the orthodox historical method) and the extent to which such a form of writing affects mainstream historical scholarship itself.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2um650
|
Why not make smaller turbojet engines instead of a larger turbofan with high bypass ratio?
|
[
{
"answer": "Turbojets are designed to create thrust by turning thermal energy into thrust directly, in the form of a high velocity exhaust stream. As long as the exhaust is moving faster than the speed of the vehicle, it will generate thrust. As long as the total thrust of these engines is greater than the aerodynamic drag on the vehicle, it will accelerate. \n\nThe turbine engine within a turbofan is designed for a completely different purpose - it's not designed with the goal of generating thrust directly by generating a reaction force, but rather for generating mechanical power which then drives a fan. Don't think of a turbofan as just a turbojet with a fan attached, because the turbine inside is designed with different parameters in mind - mechanical power output being prioritized over thrust output, which changes the way the turbine is built. We use turbofans for the vast majority of jet airplanes for the same reason our modern helicopters use turbines, as do our modern tanks: purpose-designed turbines are a great way to generate mechanical power.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I think /u/throwhooawayyfoe's answer, while correct, misses the point.\n\nJet engines, like rocket engines, work by generating negative momentum and putting it onto some propellant, which gets discarded out the back of the vehicle. Since momentum is conserved, the leftover positive momentum remains in the vehicle -- the engine has applied some thrust! Jet engines differ from rocket engines only in that they grab material from the surroundings, to use as propellant.\n\nThe problem with both kinds of engine is that putting momentum on matter costs energy. The momentum of a piece of propellant rises like ( mv ) -- it's proportional to how fast you push the matter out the back. But the energy on that piece of propellant rises like ( 1/2 m v^2 ) -- it is proportional to the *square* of the speed you push it.\n\nSo the faster you push the propellant out the back, the less energy efficient it is: the ratio of propellant kinetic energy to propellant momentum grows like v, so the faster you push the propellant, the more energy it costs you for each little bit of momentum.\n\nIn a rocket, the big deal is that you want to get as much momentum on as little propellant as possible, since you have to carry the propellant with you -- so you push the propellant as fast as possible. That maximizes propellant efficiency (how much thrust you get for each kg of propellant you throw out the back), but minimizes energy efficiency (much thrust you get for each joule of energy you expend).\n\nBut in a jet, you get propellant for free -- you can harvest it from the surroundings. So you want to put your momentum on as much propellant as possible, to reduce the amount of energy you have to load onto that propellant. Propellant is free, but energy costs money.\n\nThat's why high bypass ratio engines are more efficient: they push more propellant (the bypass air), so they can get away with loading less total kinetic energy onto it. That means they don't have to burn as much fuel to produce the same amount of thrust.\n\nA side effect of that is that high-bypass engines are quieter. That's because the extra kinetic energy from low bypass engines' exhaust gets dissipated as noise. Since the designers of military fighter jets care more about compact form than about fuel efficiency, fighter jets generally use low bypass engines with high speed exhaust. That's why they're so damn loud compared to large passenger jets.\n\n**tl;dr concentrating momentum onto a small amount of propellant costs energy. Using more propellant (in a high bypass engine) reduces the total amount of energy needed for the same thrust.**",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "164656",
"title": "Jet aircraft",
"section": "Section::::Jet engines.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 249,
"text": "Low bypass turbofans have a lower exhaust speed than turbojets and are mostly used for high sonic, transonic, and low supersonic speeds. High bypass turbofans are used for subsonic aircraft and are quite efficient and are widely used for airliners.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15944",
"title": "Jet engine",
"section": "Section::::Types of jet engine.:Airbreathing.:Turbine powered.:Turbofan.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 243,
"text": "Because of these distinctions, turbofan engine designs are often categorized as low-bypass or high-bypass, depending upon the amount of air which bypasses the core of the engine. Low-bypass turbofans have a bypass ratio of around 2:1 or less.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42008609",
"title": "Post-war aviation",
"section": "Section::::Aircraft.:Engines.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 807,
"text": "Turbojet engines have a high fuel consumption, and afterburning even more so. One way to make an engine more efficient is to make it pass a larger mass of air at slower speed. This led to the development of the bypass turbofan, in which a larger-diameter fan at the front passes some air into the compressor and the rest around a bypass, where it flows past the engine at slower speed than the jet exhaust. The fan and compressor need to spin at different speeds, leading to the two-spool turbofan, in which two sets of turbines are mounted on concentric shafts spinning at different speeds to drive the fan and the high-pressure compressor respectively. Taking the principle a step further, the high-bypass turbofan is even more efficient, having typically three spools each spinning at a different speed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26321",
"title": "Ramjet",
"section": "Section::::Design.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 340,
"text": "By way of comparison, a turbojet uses a gas turbine-driven fan to compress the air further. This gives greater compression and efficiency and far more power at low speeds (where the ram effect is weak), but is more complex, heavier, expensive, and the temperature limits of the turbine section limit the top speed and thrust at high speed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "103077",
"title": "Turbofan",
"section": "Section::::Common types.:Low-bypass turbofan.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 574,
"text": "To illustrate one aspect of how a turbofan differs from a turbojet, they may be compared, as in a re-engining assessment, at the same airflow (to keep a common intake for example) and the same net thrust (i.e. same specific thrust). A bypass flow can be added only if the turbine inlet temperature is not too high to compensate for the smaller core flow. Future improvements in turbine cooling/material technology can allow higher turbine inlet temperature, which is necessary because of increased cooling air temperature, resulting from an overall pressure ratio increase.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "483048",
"title": "Bypass ratio",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 1353,
"text": "In a zero-bypass (turbojet) engine the high temperature and high pressure exhaust gas is accelerated by expansion through a propelling nozzle and produces all the thrust. The compressor absorbs all the mechanical power produced by the turbine. In a bypass design extra turbines drive a ducted fan that accelerates air rearward from the front of the engine. In a high-bypass design, the ducted fan and nozzle produce most of the thrust. Turbofans are closely related to turboprops in principle because both transfer some of the gas turbine's gas power, using extra machinery, to a bypass stream leaving less for the hot nozzle to convert to kinetic energy. Turbofans represent an intermediate stage between turbojets, which derive all their thrust from exhaust gases, and turbo-props which derive minimal thrust from exhaust gases (typically 10% or less). Extracting shaft power and transferring it to a bypass stream introduces extra losses which are more than made up by the improved propulsive efficiency. The turboprop at its best flight speed gave significant fuel savings over a turbojet even though an extra turbine, a gearbox and a propeller were added to the turbojet's low-loss propelling nozzle. The turbofan has additional losses from its extra turbines, fan, bypass duct and extra propelling nozzle compared to the turbojet's single nozzle.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "103077",
"title": "Turbofan",
"section": "Section::::Principles.:Efficiency.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 1354,
"text": "In a zero-bypass (turbojet) engine the high temperature and high pressure exhaust gas is accelerated by expansion through a propelling nozzle and produces all the thrust. The compressor absorbs all the mechanical power produced by the turbine. In a bypass design extra turbines drive a ducted fan that accelerates air rearward from the front of the engine. In a high-bypass design, the ducted fan and nozzle produce most of the thrust. Turbofans are closely related to turboprops in principle because both transfer some of the gas turbine's gas power, using extra machinery, to a bypass stream leaving less for the hot nozzle to convert to kinetic energy. Turbofans represent an intermediate stage between turbojets, which derive all their thrust from exhaust gases, and turbo-props which derive minimal thrust from exhaust gases (typically 10% or less). Extracting shaft power and transferring it to a bypass stream introduces extra losses which are more than made up by the improved propulsive efficiency. The turboprop at its best flight speed gave significant fuel savings over a turbojet even though an extra turbine, a gearbox and a propeller were added to the turbojet's low-loss propelling nozzle. The turbofan has additional losses from its extra turbines, fan, bypass duct, and extra propelling nozzle compared to the turbojet's single nozzle.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3q49zn
|
Was Aristotle ever right?
|
[
{
"answer": " > I'm just talking about hard science facts\n\nThis only works if you believe science is an accumulation of facts. Instead, it might be useful to think of science as a project to model nature ([see Thomas Kuhn](_URL_0_)). For instance, Newtonian physics is a model that has retained much of its predictive power even as its assumptions about the nature of reality have been questioned by subsequent physicists.\n\nOn that understanding of science, Aristotle offered some models that were very useful until more precise and predictive models came along. For instance, the idea of elements with inherent tendencies can be useful. It makes sense of fire reaching upward, water settling into holes, and the incredibly regular motion of heavenly bodies. Ultimately, every Aristotelian model of nature that I'm familiar with has been replaced by more precise models with very different assumptions about the nature of things.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5119916",
"title": "Character education",
"section": "Section::::History.:Developing character.:Western philosophy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 665,
"text": "Aristotle is perhaps, even today, the most influential of all the early Western philosophers. His view is often summarized as 'moderation in all things'. For example, courage is worthy, for too little of it makes one defenseless. But too much courage can result in foolhardiness in the face of danger. To be clear, Aristotle emphasizes that the moderate state is not an arithmetic mean, but one relative to the situation: sometimes the mean course is to be angry at, say, injustice or mistreatment, at other times anger is wholly inappropriate. Additionally, because people are different, the mean for one person may be bravery, but for another it is recklessness.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "308",
"title": "Aristotle",
"section": "Section::::Influence.:Modern rejection and rehabilitation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 145,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 145,
"end_character": 842,
"text": "By the start of the 21st century, however, Aristotle was taken more seriously: Kukkonen noted that \"In the best 20th-century scholarship Aristotle comes alive as a thinker wrestling with the full weight of the Greek philosophical tradition.\" Ayn Rand accredited Aristotle as \"the greatest philosopher in history\" and cited him as a major influence on her thinking. More recently, Alasdair MacIntyre has attempted to reform what he calls the Aristotelian tradition in a way that is anti-elitist and capable of disputing the claims of both liberals and Nietzscheans. Kukkonen observed, too, that \"that most enduring of romantic images, Aristotle tutoring the future conqueror Alexander\" remained current, as in the 2004 film \"Alexander\", while the \"firm rules\" of Aristotle's theory of drama have ensured a role for the \"Poetics\" in Hollywood.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "308",
"title": "Aristotle",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 904,
"text": "Aristotle (; \"Aristotélēs\", ; 384–322 BC) was a Greek philosopher during the Classical period in Ancient Greece, the founder of the Lyceum and the Peripatetic school of philosophy and Aristotelian tradition. Along with his teacher Plato, he has been called the \"Father of Western Philosophy\". His writings cover many subjects – including physics, biology, zoology, metaphysics, logic, ethics, aesthetics, poetry, theatre, music, rhetoric, psychology, linguistics, economics, politics and government. Aristotle provided a complex synthesis of the various philosophies existing prior to him, and it was above all from his teachings that the West inherited its intellectual lexicon, as well as problems and methods of inquiry. As a result, his philosophy has exerted a unique influence on almost every form of knowledge in the West and it continues to be a subject of contemporary philosophical discussion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "852994",
"title": "List of liberal theorists",
"section": "Section::::Classical contributors to liberalism.:Aristotle.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 233,
"text": "Aristotle (Athens, 384–322 BC) is revered among political theorists for his seminal work \"Politics\". He made invaluable contributions to liberal theory through his observations on different forms of government and the nature of man.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "852994",
"title": "List of liberal theorists",
"section": "Section::::Classical contributors to liberalism.:Aristotle.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 531,
"text": "In addition, Aristotle was a firm supporter of private property. He refuted Plato's argument for a collectivist society in which family and property are held in common: Aristotle makes the argument that when one's own son or land is rightfully one's own, one puts much more effort into cultivating that item, to the ultimate betterment of society. He references barbarian tribes of his time in which property was held in common, and the laziest of the bunch would always take away large amounts of food grown by the most diligent.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1736734",
"title": "Ensoulment",
"section": "Section::::Catholicism.:Historical development.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 204,
"text": "From the 12th century, when the West first came to know more of Aristotle than his works on logic, mediaeval declarations by Popes and theologians on ensoulment were based on the Aristotelian hypothesis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32923",
"title": "Western canon",
"section": "Section::::Canon of philosophers.:Ancient Greeks.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 97,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 97,
"end_character": 310,
"text": "Aristotle was an ancient Greek philosopher and scientist. His writings cover many subjects – including physics, biology, zoology, metaphysics, logic, ethics, aesthetics, poetry, theater, music, rhetoric, linguistics, politics and government—and constitute the first comprehensive system of Western philosophy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
19ma6e
|
what is the point of rooting android products and jailbreaking apple products.
|
[
{
"answer": "Rooting on Android gives you administer access to the device, letting you install custom software, overclock the hardware, delete built in apps, and allow apps to have functionality they otherwise would be denied.\n\nJailbreaking on iOS installs a second app store known as Cydia that lets you download and install software not approved by Apple. These apps also do things normal appstore apps dont, such as allowing you to tweak the functions of the OS and customize it. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "20952693",
"title": "IOS jailbreaking",
"section": "Section::::Comparison to Android rooting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 1056,
"text": "iOS is engineered with security measures including a \"locked bootloader\" to prevent users from modifying the operating system, and to prevent apps from gaining root privileges; jailbreaking an iOS device to defeat all security measures presents a significant technical challenge. It violates Apple's end-user license agreement for iOS. Until 2015 sideloading apps in general was difficult for most individual users, requiring them to purchase developer membership, while corporations could install private applications onto corporate phones. After 2015, this became free for all users, however doing so requires a basic understanding of Xcode and compiling iOS Apps. Apps installed this way have the restrictions of all other apps. In addition, alternative app stores utilising enterprise certificates have sprung up, offering modified or pirated releases of popular iOS applications and video games, some of which were either previously released through Cydia or are unavailable on the App Store due to them not complying with Apple developer guidelines.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8841749",
"title": "IPhone",
"section": "Section::::Restrictions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 262,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 262,
"end_character": 639,
"text": "The hacker community has found many workarounds, most of which are disallowed by Apple and make it difficult or impossible to obtain warranty service. \"Jailbreaking\" allows users to install apps not available on the App Store or modify basic functionality. SIM unlocking allows the iPhone to be used on a different carrier's network. However, in the United States, Apple cannot void an iPhone's warranty unless it can show that a problem or component failure is linked to the installation or placement of an after-market item such as unauthorized applications, because of the Federal Trade Commission's Magnuson-Moss Warranty Act of 1975.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20952693",
"title": "IOS jailbreaking",
"section": "Section::::Motivations.:Software piracy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 632,
"text": "On iPhones, the installation of consumer software is generally restricted to installation through the App Store. Jailbreaking, therefore, allows the installation of pirated applications. It has been suggested that a major motivation for Apple to prevent jailbreaking is to protect the income of its App Store, including third-party developers and allow the buildup of a sustainable market for third-party software. However, the installation of pirated applications is also possible without jailbreaking, taking advantage of enterprise certificates to facilitate distribution of modified or pirated releases of popular applications.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20952693",
"title": "IOS jailbreaking",
"section": "Section::::Comparison to Android rooting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 424,
"text": "Jailbreaking of iOS devices has sometimes been compared to \"rooting\" of Android devices. Although both concepts involve privilege escalation, they differ in scope. Some Android devices allow users to modify or replace the operating system after unlocking the bootloader. Moreover, nearly all Android phones have an option to allow the user to install unknown, 3rd-party apps, so no exploit is needed for normal sideloading.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8841749",
"title": "IPhone",
"section": "Section::::Restrictions.:Unapproved third-party software and jailbreaking.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 271,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 271,
"end_character": 415,
"text": "In 2007, 2010, and 2011, developers released a series of tools called JailbreakMe that used security vulnerabilities in Mobile Safari rendering to jailbreak the device (which allows users to install any compatible software on the device instead of only App Store apps). Each of these exploits were quickly fixed by iOS updates from Apple. Theoretically these flaws could have also been used for malicious purposes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16161443",
"title": "IOS",
"section": "Section::::Jailbreaking.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 79,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 79,
"end_character": 586,
"text": "Since its initial release, iOS has been subject to a variety of different hacks centered around adding functionality not allowed by Apple. Prior to the 2008 debut of Apple's native iOS App Store, the primary motive for jailbreaking was to bypass Apple's purchase mechanism for installing the App Store's native applications. Apple claimed that it will not release iOS software updates designed specifically to break these tools (other than applications that perform SIM unlocking); however, with each subsequent iOS update, previously un-patched jailbreak exploits are usually patched.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27901292",
"title": "Rooting (Android)",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 584,
"text": "In contrast to iOS jailbreaking, rooting is not needed to run applications distributed outside of the Google Play Store, sometimes called \"sideloading\". The Android OS supports this feature natively in two ways: through the \"Unknown sources\" option in the Settings menu and through the Android Debug Bridge. However, some US carriers, including AT&T, prevented the installation of applications not on the Play Store in firmware, although several devices are not subject to this rule, including the Samsung Infuse 4G; AT&T lifted the restriction on most devices by the middle of 2011.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1se26q
|
Did Shakespeare and His Plays Cause Any Naming Trends?
|
[
{
"answer": "Probably the most influential names invented by Shakespeare were (and are) Jessica and Olivia. The following is from *The Merchant of Venice* (Arden Shakespeare, 3rd Series) Act 2, Scene 4, Lines 19-20:\n\n > LORENZO:\n\n > Hold here--take this, tell gentle Jessica\n\n > I will not fail her; speak it privately.\n\n\nWhat you just read is the earliest known appearance of the name Jessica with its modern spelling. Jessica was the most popular name for girls in the United States in the 1980's and 1990's and was the United Kingdom's most popular name of 2005.\n\nHere is the first appearance of the name Olivia in *Twelfth Night*:\n\n > DUKE ORSINO:\n\n > ...\n\n > O, when mine eyes did see Olivia first,\n\n > Methought she purged the air of pestilence!\n\n-TN, 1.1.19-20 (Arden, 2nd Series)\n\nOlivia became very popular throughout the English-speaking world in the 1990's and chances are pretty good that you've met one.\n\nBut that doesn't completely answer your question. You asked about Shakespeare's influence on naming trends in his own time and in the years following his death.\n\nShakespeare began his career as an actor some time in the 1580s. His debut as a playwright came some time between 1589 and 1591. In 1594 - 1595 a string of popular hits begin to make Shakespeare's career take off and by ~1599 - 1606 (what used to be called his \"great\" period) he was a minor celebrity and the plays of the Lord Chamberlain's Men were in very high demand.\n\nSo let's look at the most popular names for girls in England from 1600 to 1630. I'll be using [Names and Naming Patterns in England, 1538-1700](_URL_0_) by Scott Smith-Bannister, Oxford University Press, 1997:\n\nThe top four were (in order of descending popularity) Elizabeth, Mary, Anne, and Margaret. Alice, Jane, Joan, Agnes, Susanna, and Catherine round out the top ten. All of these were very common in the late 1500s as well, so Shakespearean names didn't crack the top ten until a few decades after he died.\n\n**However**, *Much Ado About Nothing* opened (supposedly) in the fall - winter of 1599 and was very popular in its first run. The name Beatrice appears in the top 20 English baby names in 1600-1610 for the first time in many years and then drops off again until 1680. This correlation of the debut of *Much Ado* with the spike in the popularity of Beatrice suggests (but does not necessarily prove) that Shakespeare did indeed influence naming trends in his own time.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "31635665",
"title": "Shakespeare authorship question",
"section": "Section::::History of the authorship question.:Open dissent and the first alternative candidate.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 70,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 70,
"end_character": 500,
"text": "Shakespeare's authorship was first openly questioned in the pages of Joseph C. Hart's \"The Romance of Yachting\" (1848). Hart argued that the plays contained evidence that many different authors had worked on them. Four years later Dr. Robert W. Jameson anonymously published \"Who Wrote Shakespeare?\" in the \"Chambers's Edinburgh Journal\", expressing similar views. In 1856 Delia Bacon's unsigned article \"William Shakspeare and His Plays; An Enquiry Concerning Them\" appeared in \"Putnam's Magazine\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53766318",
"title": "Crollalanza theory of Shakespeare authorship",
"section": "Section::::Origins of the theory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 1204,
"text": "Iuvara's theories had emerged into broader public awareness in 2000, during a round-table discussion conducted at the Turin Book Fair that year. According to Juvara, the name \"Shakespeare\" was adopted as a pseudonym by this Michelangelo Florio, born in Messina in 1564 to a couple named Giovanni Florio and Guglielma Crollalanza. The father was a Calvinist who placed the family in difficult circumstances by writing a heretical pamphlet. The son, Michelangelo, sought sanctuary in Venice, and then subsequently took flight to England, where he assumed a new name, \"Shakespeare\", this being an English calque on \"crolla\"(shake/collapse) and \"lanza\"(spear). Conflict with records showing the existence of Shakespeares in the Stratford area long before the possible arrival of Michelangelo Florio \"Crollalanza\" is avoided by suggesting that these were a branch of his mother's family. Carla Dente notes that in Juvara's 2002 book he supposes that \"Crollalanza\" took the identity of \"a cousin on his mother's side, who had died prematurely and had lived in Stratford like the rest of the Crollalanza family, whose name was roughly translated as Shakespear\", but that his evidence for this is very indirect.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32897",
"title": "William Shakespeare",
"section": "Section::::Life.:London and theatrical career.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 1090,
"text": "Some of Shakespeare's plays were published in quarto editions, beginning in 1594, and by 1598, his name had become a selling point and began to appear on the title pages. Shakespeare continued to act in his own and other plays after his success as a playwright. The 1616 edition of Ben Jonson's \"Works\" names him on the cast lists for \"Every Man in His Humour\" (1598) and \"Sejanus His Fall\" (1603). The absence of his name from the 1605 cast list for Jonson's \"Volpone\" is taken by some scholars as a sign that his acting career was nearing its end. The First Folio of 1623, however, lists Shakespeare as one of \"the Principal Actors in all these Plays\", some of which were first staged after \"Volpone\", although we cannot know for certain which roles he played. In 1610, John Davies of Hereford wrote that \"good Will\" played \"kingly\" roles. In 1709, Rowe passed down a tradition that Shakespeare played the ghost of Hamlet's father. Later traditions maintain that he also played Adam in \"As You Like It\", and the Chorus in \"Henry V\", though scholars doubt the sources of that information.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31527614",
"title": "Authorship of Titus Andronicus",
"section": "Section::::Pre-20th-century theories.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 856,
"text": "This trend continued into the 19th century. In 1817, for example, William Hazlitt denied the possibility of Shakespeare's authorship in \"Characters of Shakespear's Plays\". Also in 1817, Samuel Taylor Coleridge made a similar claim in \"Biographia Literaria\". Subsequently, in 1832, the \"Globe Illustrated Shakespeare\" went so far as to claim there was a universal agreement on the matter of authorship due to the un-Shakespearean \"barbarity\" of the play's action. Similarly, in \"An Introduction to the Literature of Europe in the Fifteenth, Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries\" (1840), Henry Hallam wrote \"\"Titus Andronicus\" is now, by common consent, denied to be, in \"any\" sense, a production of Shakespeare.\" In 1857, Charles Bathurst reiterated the claim that the play was so badly written, Shakespeare simply could not have had anything to do with it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59375",
"title": "Titus Andronicus",
"section": "Section::::Analysis and criticism.:Critical history.:Authorship.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 85,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 85,
"end_character": 946,
"text": "The first to question Shakespeare's authorship is thought to have been Edward Ravenscroft in 1678, and over the course of the eighteenth century, numerous renowned Shakespeareans followed suit; Nicholas Rowe, Alexander Pope, Lewis Theobald, Samuel Johnson, George Steevens, Edmond Malone, William Guthrie, John Upton, Benjamin Heath, Richard Farmer, John Pinkerton, and John Monck Mason, and in the nineteenth century, William Hazlitt and Samuel Taylor Coleridge. All doubted Shakespeare's authorship. So strong had the anti-Shakespearean movement become during the eighteenth century that in 1794, Thomas Percy wrote in the introduction to \"Reliques of Ancient English Poetry\", \"Shakespeare's memory has been fully vindicated from the charge of writing the play by the best critics.\" Similarly, in 1832, the \"Globe Illustrated Shakespeare\" claimed there was universal agreement on the matter due to the un-Shakespearean \"barbarity\" of the play.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31635665",
"title": "Shakespeare authorship question",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 668,
"text": "Shakespeare's authorship was first questioned in the middle of the 19th century, when adulation of Shakespeare as the greatest writer of all time had become widespread. Shakespeare's biography, particularly his humble origins and obscure life, seemed incompatible with his poetic eminence and his reputation for genius, arousing suspicion that Shakespeare might not have written the works attributed to him. The controversy has since spawned a vast body of literature, and more than 80 authorship candidates have been proposed, the most popular being Sir Francis Bacon; Edward de Vere, 17th Earl of Oxford; Christopher Marlowe; and William Stanley, 6th Earl of Derby.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31628663",
"title": "Spelling of Shakespeare's name",
"section": "Section::::Spellings in later publications.:Shakespeare.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 1202,
"text": "Although Dowden, the most influential voice in Shakespearean criticism in the last quarter of the 19th century, used the spelling \"Shakspere\", between 1863 and 1866 the nine-volume \"The Works of William Shakespeare\", edited by William George Clark, John Glover, and William Aldis Wright, all Fellows of Trinity College at the University of Cambridge, had been published by the university. This edition (soon generally known as \"The Cambridge Shakespeare\") spelled the name \"Shakespeare\". A related edition, including Shakespeare's text from the Cambridge Shakespeare but without the scholarly apparatus, was issued in 1864 as \"The Globe Edition\". This became so popular that it remained in print and established itself as a standard text for almost a century. With the ubiquity and authority of the Cambridge and Globe editions, backed by the impeccable academic credentials of the Cambridge editors, the spelling of the name as \"Shakespeare\" soon dominated in publications of works by and about Shakespeare. Although this form had been used occasionally in earlier publications, and other spellings continued to appear, from that point \"Shakespeare\" gained the dominance which it retains to this day.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
14dge2
|
What does the spin on a bullet do for the pressure wave it creates? Does it change its nature much compared to as if it was not spinning and simply translating?
|
[
{
"answer": "I'm not sure if this is what you're looking for, but [here is an image](_URL_0_) of a gun being fired underwater. You can see the cavitation caused by the bullet is twisted because of the bullet's spin. A similar thing should happen in air.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "584911",
"title": "External ballistics",
"section": "Section::::Long range factors.:Gyroscopic drift (Spin drift).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 127,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 127,
"end_character": 1148,
"text": "This is because the projectile's longitudinal axis (its axis of rotation) and the direction of the velocity vector of the center of gravity (CG) deviate by a small angle, which is said to be the equilibrium yaw or the yaw of repose. The magnitude of the yaw of repose angle is typically less than 0.5 degree. Since rotating objects react with an angular velocity vector 90 degrees from the applied torque vector, the bullet's axis of symmetry moves with a component in the vertical plane and a component in the horizontal plane; for right-handed (clockwise) spinning bullets, the bullet's axis of symmetry deflects to the right and a little bit upward with respect to the direction of the velocity vector, as the projectile moves along its ballistic arc. As the result of this small inclination, there is a continuous air stream, which tends to deflect the bullet to the right. Thus the occurrence of the yaw of repose is the reason for the bullet drifting to the right (for right-handed spin) or to the left (for left-handed spin). This means that the bullet is \"skidding\" sideways at any given moment, and thus experiencing a sideways component.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5143623",
"title": "Rabi problem",
"section": "Section::::Two-level atom.:Semiclassical approach.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 253,
"text": "where we have made the rotating wave approximation in throwing out terms with high angular velocity (and thus small effect on the total spin dynamics over long time periods), and transformed into a set of coordinates rotating at a frequency formula_24.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "301750",
"title": "Magnus effect",
"section": "Section::::In external ballistics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 525,
"text": "The combined sideways wind component of these two effects causes a Magnus force to act on the bullet, which is perpendicular both to the direction the bullet is pointing and the combined sideways wind. In a very simple case where we ignore various complicating factors, the Magnus force from the crosswind would cause an upward or downward force to act on the spinning bullet (depending on the left or right wind and rotation), causing deflection of the bullet's flight path up or down, thus influencing the point of impact.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2086074",
"title": "Glossary of tennis terms",
"section": "Section::::T.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 297,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 297,
"end_character": 217,
"text": "BULLET::::- Topspin: Spin of a ball where the top of the ball rotates toward the direction of travel; the spin goes forward over the top of the ball, causing the ball to dip and bounce at a higher angle to the court.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30589",
"title": "Table tennis",
"section": "Section::::Effects of spin.:Sidespin.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 105,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 105,
"end_character": 1110,
"text": "This type of spin is predominantly employed during service, wherein the contact angle of the racket can be more easily varied. Unlike the two aforementioned techniques, sidespin causes the ball to spin on an axis which is vertical, rather than horizontal. The axis of rotation is still roughly perpendicular to the trajectory of the ball. In this circumstance, the Magnus effect will still dictate the curvature of the ball to some degree. Another difference is that unlike backspin and topspin, sidespin will have relatively very little effect on the bounce of the ball, much in the same way that a spinning top would not travel left or right if its axis of rotation were exactly vertical. This makes sidespin a useful weapon in service, because it is less easily recognized when bouncing, and the ball \"loses\" less spin on the bounce. Sidespin can also be employed in offensive rally strokes, often from a greater distance, as an adjunct to topspin or backspin. This stroke is sometimes referred to as a \"hook\". The hook can even be used in some extreme cases to circumvent the net when away from the table.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2086074",
"title": "Glossary of tennis terms",
"section": "Section::::U.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 314,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 314,
"end_character": 237,
"text": "BULLET::::- Underspin (or backspin or undercut): Spin of a ball where the top of the ball rotates away from the direction of travel; the spin is underneath the ball, causing the ball to float and to bounce at a lower angle to the court.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8212",
"title": "Disc golf",
"section": "Section::::Disc types.:Stability.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 636,
"text": "Spin (rotation) has little influence on lift and drag forces but impacts a disc's stability during flight. Imagine a spinning top. A gentle nudge will knock it off its axis of rotation for a second, but it will not topple over because spin adds gyroscopic stability. In the same way, a flying disc resists rolling (flipping over) because spin adds gyroscopic stability. A flying disc will maintain its spin rate even as it loses velocity. Toward the end of a disc's flight, when the spin and velocity lines cross, a flying disc will predictably begin to fade. The degree to which a disc will fade depends on its pitch angle and design.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5nhwtc
|
how are we able to sense where our body parts are in space without actually looking at or feeling them?
|
[
{
"answer": "That's called proprioception, or kinesthetic awareness. It's also somewhat tied into reflexes, like catching or dodging a ball. You can increase the sensitivity with practice, too. Sadly, though, the “spider sense” is just for comics and movies for now.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "43161205",
"title": "Natasha Johns-Messenger",
"section": "Section::::Career.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 256,
"text": "Johns-Messenger critically examines the role of the body in space and her primary concern with altering ordinary \"ways of seeing\" began during early childhood, where she spent days sketching, conceptualizing and photographing shapes from ordinary objects.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34095626",
"title": "Neuroscience in space",
"section": "Section::::Sensory functions in space.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 1052,
"text": "In fact, the human body has seven sensory systems – not five. The sixth and seventh systems are the senses of motion located in the inner ear. The former signals the beginning and end of rotation and the latter signals body tilt relative to gravity as well as body translation. The seventh system no longer provides tilt information in weightlessness; however, it does continue to signal translation, so the afferent signals to the CNS are confusing. The experience of living and working in space alters the way the CNS interprets the otolith organ signals during linear acceleration. Although the perception is fairly accurate when subjects are exposed to angular acceleration in yaw in-flight, there are disturbances during angular rotation in pitch and roll, and during linear acceleration along the body transversal and longitudinal axes. Perception of body motion is also altered during the same motion immediately after landing. There is an adaptation to weightlessness in orbit that carries over to post-flight reactions to linear acceleration.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18896",
"title": "Human spaceflight",
"section": "Section::::Safety concerns.:Environmental hazards.:Medical issues.:Sensory systems.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 95,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 95,
"end_character": 257,
"text": "During astronauts' spaceflight, they are in a very extreme state where there is no gravity. This given state and the fact that no change is taking place in the environment will result in the weakening of sensory input to the astronauts in all seven senses.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19723734",
"title": "Muscle",
"section": "Section::::Physiology.:Nervous control.:Proprioception.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 647,
"text": "In skeletal muscles, muscle spindles convey information about the degree of muscle length and stretch to the central nervous system to assist in maintaining posture and joint position. The sense of where our bodies are in space is called proprioception, the perception of body awareness, the \"unconscious\" awareness of where the various regions of the body are located at any one time. Several areas in the brain coordinate movement and position with the feedback information gained from proprioception. The cerebellum and red nucleus in particular continuously sample position against movement and make minor corrections to assure smooth motion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "888928",
"title": "Spatial disorientation",
"section": "Section::::Senses during flight.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 1664,
"text": "There are 4 physiologic systems that interact to allow humans to orient themselves in space. Vision is the dominant sense for orientation, but the vestibular system, proprioceptive system and auditory system also play a role. During the abnormal acceleratory environment of flight, the vestibular and proprioceptive systems do not respond truthfully. Because of inertial forces created by acceleration of the aircraft along with centrifugal force caused by turning, the net gravitoinertial force sensed primarily by the otolith organs is not aligned with gravity, leading to perceptual misjudgment of the vertical. In addition, the inner ear contains rotational \"accelerometers\", known as the semicircular canals, which provide information to the lower brain on rotational accelerations in the pitch, roll and yaw axes. However, prolonged rotation (beyond 15–20 s) results in a cessation of semicircular output, and cessation of rotation thereafter can even result in the perception of motion in the opposite direction. Under ideal visual conditions the above illusions are unlikely to be perceived, but at night or in poor weather the visual inputs are no longer capable of overriding these illusory nonvisual sensations. In many cases, illusory visual inputs such as a sloping cloud deck can also lead to misjudgments of the vertical and of speed and distance or even combine with the nonvisual ones to produce an even more powerful illusion. The result of these various visual and nonvisual illusions is spatial disorientation. Various models have been developed to yield quantitative predictions of disorientation associated with known aircraft accelerations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27414898",
"title": "Body transfer illusion",
"section": "Section::::Mind-body connection.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 1065,
"text": "Human bodily experience is characterized by the immediate and continuous experience that our body and its parts belong to us, often called self-attribution, body ownership and or mineness. It is unknown if the origin of body representation is innate or if it is constructed from sensory experience. A related, but distinct, bodily experience is self-localization or embodiment that is defined as the experience that the self is localized at the position of our body at a certain position in space. Recent philosophical and neurological theories converge on the relevance of such bodily experiences and associated processing of bodily information as one promising approach for the development of a comprehensive neurobiological model of self-consciousness. Yet, the scientific investigation of bodily experiences in general, and self-attribution/body ownership and self-localization/embodiment more specifically, have proven difficult and have not received the attention they deserve given their importance for neuroscientific models of self and self-consciousness.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14782003",
"title": "Body schema",
"section": "Section::::Properties.:Spatial encoding.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 528,
"text": "The body schema represents both position and configuration of the body as a 3-dimensional object in space. A combination of sensory information, primarily tactile and visual, contributes to the representation of the limbs in space. This integration allows for stimuli to be localized in external space with respect to the body. An example by Haggard and Wolpert shows the combination of tactile sensation of the hand with information about the joint angles of the arm, which allow for rapid movements of said arm to swat a fly.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
68sv33
|
is there any situation in which the mathematical median can be higher than the mean?
|
[
{
"answer": "The relationship between the mean and median are based on how skewed the data is, and in what direction the skew is. Generally speaking, things that we are familiar with tend to be skewed right, so we get that the mean is greater than the median. But if the data is skewed left, then the median will be greater than the mean. Consider the following data set:\n\n{1,100,101}\n\nWhat is the median? 100. What is the mean? 67-ish.\n\nIt is just that data tends to not really look like this in most familiar situations.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "25184",
"title": "Quantile",
"section": "Section::::Discussion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 441,
"text": "If a distribution is symmetric, then the median is the mean (so long as the latter exists). But, in general, the median and the mean can differ. For instance, with a random variable that has an exponential distribution, any particular sample of this random variable will have roughly a 63% chance of being less than the mean. This is because the exponential distribution has a long tail for positive values but is zero for negative numbers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "612",
"title": "Arithmetic mean",
"section": "Section::::Contrast with median.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 777,
"text": "The arithmetic mean may be contrasted with the median. The median is defined such that no more than half the values are larger than, and no more than half are smaller than, the median. If elements in the data increase arithmetically, when placed in some order, then the median and arithmetic average are equal. For example, consider the data sample formula_15. The average is formula_16, as is the median. However, when we consider a sample that cannot be arranged so as to increase arithmetically, such as formula_17, the median and arithmetic average can differ significantly. In this case, the arithmetic average is 6.2 and the median is 4. In general, the average value can vary significantly from most values in the sample, and can be larger or smaller than most of them.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18837",
"title": "Median",
"section": "Section::::Finite set of numbers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 361,
"text": "The median is used primarily for skewed distributions, which it summarizes differently from the arithmetic mean. Consider the multiset { 1, 2, 2, 2, 3, 14 }. The median is 2 in this case, (as is the mode), and it might be seen as a better indication of central tendency (less susceptible to the exceptionally large value in data) than the arithmetic mean of 4.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "157055",
"title": "Law of large numbers",
"section": "Section::::Forms.:Weak law.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 453,
"text": "An example where the law of large numbers does \"not\" apply is the Cauchy distribution. Another example is where the random numbers equal the tangent of an angle uniformly distributed between −90° and +90°. The median is zero, but the expected value does not exist, and indeed the average of \"n\" such variables has the same distribution as one such variable. It does not converge in probability towards zero (or any other value) as \"n\" goes to infinity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18837",
"title": "Median",
"section": "Section::::Medians for samples.:The sample median.:Sampling distribution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 89,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 89,
"end_character": 314,
"text": "The expected value of the median falls slightly as sample size increases while, as would be expected, the standard errors of both the median and the mean are proportionate to the inverse square root of the sample size. The asymptotic approximation errs on the side of caution by overestimating the standard error.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18837",
"title": "Median",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 625,
"text": "The median is a commonly used measure of the properties of a data set in statistics and probability theory. The basic advantage of the median in describing data compared to the mean (often simply described as the \"average\") is that it is not skewed so much by a small proportion of extremely large or small values, and so it may give a better idea of a \"typical\" value. For example, in understanding statistics like household income or assets, which vary greatly, the mean may be skewed by a small number of extremely high or low values. Median income, for example, may be a better way to suggest what a \"typical\" income is.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18837",
"title": "Median",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 466,
"text": "The median is the value separating the higher half from the lower half of a data sample (a population or a probability distribution). For a data set, it may be thought of as the \"middle\" value. For example, in the data set {1, 3, 3, 6, 7, 8, 9}, the median is 6, the fourth largest, and also the fourth smallest, number in the sample. For a continuous probability distribution, the median is the value such that a number is equally likely to fall above or below it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
28s3il
|
can someone explain whether obesity is only present in humans or other mammals too have this disorder within their species?
|
[
{
"answer": "I've seen some fat ass cats and dogs. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Other animals can get fat, too. Pets often become obese; lab animals can gain too much weight if their diets aren't carefully adjusted. Among wild animals, morbid obesity isn't particularly common, because animals that are too fat to run away from predators usually either lose weight or get eaten.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "34685353",
"title": "Eating disorders and memory",
"section": "Section::::Animal Models Used in Eating Disorders.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 625,
"text": "Animal models have contributed a fair amount to the current understanding of eating disorders and obesity, in different ways and to different extents; one of the main reasons being the difference in pathophysiology of these disorders. The one specific feature of eating disorders not shared with animal behavior, is the personal choice to curtail food intake. The suitability and limitations of animal models in studies regarding human eating disorders have been discussed in various reviews. Several various types of animal models have been described which include: etiologic, isomorphic, mechanistic and predictive models.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25079",
"title": "Pet",
"section": "Section::::Effects on pets' health.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 344,
"text": "Housepets, particularly dogs and cats in industrialized societies, are also highly susceptible to obesity. Overweight pets have been shown to be at a higher risk of developing diabetes, liver problems, joint pain, kidney failure, and cancer. Lack of exercise and high-caloric diets are considered to be the primary contributors to pet obesity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42688377",
"title": "Obesity and the environment",
"section": "Section::::Environmental obesogens.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 477,
"text": "Studies have shown that obesity has become increasingly prevalent in both people and animals such as pets and laboratory animals. There have been no linkages found between this obesity trend and diet and exercise. According to Professor Robert H. Lustig from the University of California, San Francisco, \"[E]ven those at the lower end of the body mass index (BMI) curve are gaining weight. Whatever is happening is happening to everyone, suggesting an environmental trigger.\" \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2540987",
"title": "Dog health",
"section": "Section::::Nutrition and obesity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 119,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 119,
"end_character": 400,
"text": "Obesity is an increasingly common problem in dogs in Western countries. As with humans, obesity can cause numerous health problems in dogs (although dogs are much less susceptible to the common cardiac and arterial consequences of obesity than humans are). According to a study published in the Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine, the prevalence of obesity in dogs is between 22 and 40 percent.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6437084",
"title": "Infectobesity",
"section": "Section::::Viruses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 346,
"text": "An association between viruses and obesity has been found in humans, as well as a number of different animal species. The amount that these associations may have contributed to the rising rate of obesity is yet to be determined. A fat virus is the popular name for the notion that some forms of obesity in humans and animals have a viral source.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23465119",
"title": "Obesity in pets",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 258,
"text": "Obesity in pets occurs when excessive adipose tissue accumulates in the body, and is generally defined as occurring when an animal's body weight is at least 20% greater than its optimal body weight. Obesity is associated with metabolic and hormonal changes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56435",
"title": "Obesity",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:Gut bacteria.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 57,
"end_character": 217,
"text": "An association between viruses and obesity has been found in humans and several different animal species. The amount that these associations may have contributed to the rising rate of obesity is yet to be determined.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2dt6u1
|
do/can animals in nature outside of human contact get fat or even mordidly obese?
|
[
{
"answer": "Pandas are the only one I can think of. All animals can become obese but they dont.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They don't become obese due to limited food resources. Even if they could eat all they wanted, being fat would slow them down and increase their chance of becoming prey to something bigger and faster. Bears are the only thing I can quickly think of the eat to excess, but that is because they are storing energy for their winter hibernation. That, and they are an apex predator. The only thing that hunts them are humans. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I have seen obese animals in the wild. It just depends on the readily available resources. If they don't have to forage much and have little competition they'll get fat. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Depends on what you mean by \"fat\". As mentioned, bears bulk up for hibernation. Ocean going mammals have a layer of blubber. They are literally fat, but not unhealthy. Morbidly obese is a better term, meaning fat to the point that you are killing yourself. No, I don't think wild animals can get to that point without human contact, because they do not have access to enough food to get to that point, and if they could, they themselves would be food for something else. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Many marine mammals are extreemly fat. Elephant Seals, Whales, Walruss, etc. \n \nAnimals that hibernate fatten themselves up first. \n \nAnimals that hunt or get hunted cannot afford to get fat as it leads to an inability to hunt or avoid being hunted so the problem takes care of itself. \n \nMany birds get fat such as penguins an puffins. This is partially to insulate against the cold and partially because it is easy to catch fish for them so getting lots of food is not a problem. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'm not sure about morbidly obese, but there's a 17 year cicadas invasion in a few places that results in some very full animals. EDIT :not sure why the down votes but ok.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This question reminds me of this video. \n_URL_0_\n\nEdit: added original creator. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I know this isn't exactly what you asked but I saw a documentary recently about some people who keep moneys as pets. It said many pet monkeys are becoming sick, overweight and getting diabetes when they are being fed human food. There are no known cases of a monkey in the wild having diabetes. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I don't think morbidly obese, but many animals get fat for the onset of winter. Studies have shown that even if hibernating animals are DENIED FOOD when fall comes around, they still grow fat and simply move less (due to less energy from less food); the fat growth is a biological imperative that won't be circumvented, apparently. Then, despite what they are fed after winter is over, they will shed that fat like crazy and return to their normal weight. \n\nThere might be some instances of animals being born that do not have hormone regulation and thus become fat or even morbidly obese in the wild. I've personally never seen anything like that, though. Scientists have mucked about with hormones in animals for testing purposes and the animals have become fat or stayed very lean accordingly, though.\n\nBut in most instances, not really. The growth of fatty tissue is usually brought about by eating simple carbohydrates (which raise your insulin levels, which promotes fat storage), and most animals do not target those as the main source of their food (carnivores eating meat, most herbivores eating grassy shit, etc).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There used to be a really fat squirrel that came around. Yes people feed them, but he was a lot fatter then the rest. He would also eat things the others wouldn't, like salt and vinegar chips.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Not sure if this qualifies as human contact, but I have seen rats in a pet food warehouse eat themselves essentially to death. They would tear open a 50 pound bag of dog food and eat so much there legs would no longer work. Their stomachs got so fat that their feet didn't touch the ground anymore. \n\nAlso remember that old youtube video of the squirrel that got into the bird feeder and ate so much he could no longer get out? This is what those rats did.\n\n_URL_0_\n\nSo there are two examples of animals getting to obese it became morbid.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Yes. As elephant seal pups enter the weaning period they will sometimes choose to start nursing on a different mother that recently had her pup, pushing the much smaller pup to the side. Elephant seal milk is very rich, 60% fat, so this pup will become morbidly obese. By doing this the pup loses out on the crucial period where it learns to swim and hunt. Ironically it will eventually starve to death.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Diddly do yes they do.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "At the very least, I know there are animals that have suffered brain damage in a way that keeps them from knowing that they are full; this results in them eating themselves to death, if they can. (You could argue that humans are often to blame for serious injuries to wild animals, but theoretically it's possible without humans.) Similarly, though perhaps not quite what you meant, there are certain domesticated species that will supposedly eat themselves to death *without* humans to stop them--such as sheep--but again you could blame humans for making those species dependent on them in the first place.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There are vultures who have gotten morbidly obese after terrible events that led to mass deaths. The vultures got fat to the point that they can't even fly.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[sure](_URL_0_). All it takes is an overly abundant food supply, but those are hard to come by in nature.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Some animals have genetic condishuns that make them beautiful no matter how obese they are, shitlord.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "University of Michigan squirrels.\n\nEnd of story.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The problem is that it's already difficult for any creature to get the calories it needs to function and to breed. Having an excess intake of calories will almost never happen. Humanity itself had only (widespread) access to plentiful calories in the last century or two. Being overweight was a sign of great wealth in all of humanity's history before that.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The raccoons behind the pizza Hut I work at are. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The limiting factor for most animal populations is the availability of food. If a food-limited population of animals had access to enough food that they could become obese, their numbers would increase until that was no longer the case. \n\nIn a population with a different limiting factor (e.g. crowding) you might see some weight gain, but it's hard if not impossible for most species to become obese by eating the diet they're adapted to in its natural form. You usually have to feed them a more energy-dense mix of foods than they're adapted to.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2281037",
"title": "Emaciation",
"section": "Section::::Other animals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 846,
"text": "The appearance and effects of emaciation in animals, both wild and domestic, is like that of humans–severe thinness, loss of fat and muscle, extremely pronounced and protruding bones, and weakness. Starvation and regularly dehydration, brought on by neglect and cruelty from humans, or as a result of illness are the usual causes of emaciation in domestic animals like dogs, cats and horses; in wild animals, starvation with emaciation is caused by unavailable sources of food, loss or changes of habitat, or neglect in captivity. The rehabilitation of emaciated animals, through treating their starvation and dehydration with slow renourishment, can be challenging. The unique and specific physiological and dietary needs of animals, be they mammals, birds, reptiles, carnivores, herbivores, etc. are carefully considered to avoid causing harm.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50543938",
"title": "Guit County",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 330,
"text": "As of April 2015, both animals and people were suffering a high morbidity rate due to difficult conditions. \"People are surviving on wild foods including water lilies, lalob fruit, and very limited fish. Large scale animal morbidity and mortality has meant diminishing milk production and unfavorable terms of trade for herders.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36896",
"title": "Lion",
"section": "Section::::Interactions with humans.:Man-eating.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 129,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 129,
"end_character": 490,
"text": "In their analysis of man-eating – including the Tsavo incident – Kerbis Peterhans and Gnoske acknowledge that sick or injured animals may be more prone to man-eating but that the behaviour is \"not unusual, nor necessarily 'aberrant where the opportunity exists; if inducements such as access to livestock or human corpses are present, lions will regularly prey upon human beings. The authors note the relationship is well-attested among other pantherines and primates in the fossil record.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31636726",
"title": "Pansteatitis",
"section": "Section::::Presentations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 435,
"text": "The condition has been found in cats, fish, herons, terrapins and Nile crocodiles, piscivores such as otters, cormorants, Pel's fishing-owls and fish eagles. The disorder is also regularly found in captive-bred animals fed on high fish diets, such as mink, pigs and poultry. It shows as a rubber-like hardening of fat reserves which then become unavailable for normal metabolism, resulting in extreme pain, loss of mobility and death.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23465119",
"title": "Obesity in pets",
"section": "Section::::Outcomes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 275,
"text": "Compared to non-obese animals, obese dogs and cats have a higher incidence of osteoarthritis (joint disease) and diabetes mellitus, which also occur earlier in the life of the animal. Obese animals are also at increased risk of complications following anesthesia or surgery.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "262801",
"title": "Jean Anthelme Brillat-Savarin",
"section": "Section::::Low-carbohydrate diet.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 595,
"text": "Sure enough, carnivorous animals never grow fat (consider wolves, jackals, birds of prey, crows, etc.). Herbivorous animals do not grow fat easily, at least until age has reduced them to a state of inactivity; but they fatten very quickly as soon as they begin to be fed on potatoes, grain, or any kind of flour. ... The second of the chief causes of obesity is the floury and starchy substances which man makes the prime ingredients of his daily nourishment. As we have said already, all animals that live on farinaceous food grow fat willy-nilly; and man is no exception to the universal law.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24261150",
"title": "Pain in animals",
"section": "Section::::In different species.:Pain.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 413,
"text": "Many animals also exhibit more complex behavioural and physiological changes indicative of the ability to experience pain: they eat less food, their normal behaviour is disrupted, their social behaviour is suppressed, they may adopt unusual behaviour patterns, they may emit characteristic distress calls, experience respiratory and cardiovascular changes, as well as inflammation and release of stress hormones.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1vt1bg
|
why do i keep getting acne when i have showered every day for 4 years and have a healthy diet/work out? im a 18 year old male
|
[
{
"answer": "Not a doctor here, but maybe you should see a dermatologist if you haven't already (not that this is strange, but they can really help).\n\nA lot of acne in adolescence is caused by androgens being released in the body, such as testosterone (this is released in *everybody* during puberty, regardless of sex). Sometimes acne is deep in the skin tissue (cystic acne). Sometimes, acne can be caused by bacteria in the skin, not just hormones or unhealthiness or uncleanliness. If this appears to be the case, a dermatologist might prescribe an antibiotic such as Minocycline, or Isotretinoin (Accutane). However, a doctor would not prescribe Accutane unless you had severe acne and they'd tried basically everything else. It has nasty side effects. If the acne is not caused by bacteria, you will probably just be using some sort of topical cream (versus using a cream and an antibiotic).\n\nRemember that there is no cure for acne -- there are only things you can do to prevent it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2289967",
"title": "Comedo",
"section": "Section::::Causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 227,
"text": "Oil production in the sebaceous glands increases during puberty, causing comedones and acne to be common in adolescents. Acne is also found premenstrually and in women with polycystic ovarian syndrome. Smoking may worsen acne.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "74555",
"title": "Acne",
"section": "Section::::Management.:Skin care.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 443,
"text": "In general, it is recommended that people with acne do not wash affected skin more than twice daily. For people with acne and sensitive skin, a fragrance free moisturizer may be used to reduce irritation. Skin irritation from acne medications typically peaks at two weeks after onset of use and tends to improve with continued use. Cosmetic products that specifically say \"non-comedogenic\", \"oil-free\", and \"won't clog pores\" are recommended.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14673086",
"title": "Transgender hormone therapy (female-to-male)",
"section": "Section::::Effects.:Physical changes.:Skin changes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 94,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 94,
"end_character": 336,
"text": "BULLET::::- Acne: generally worse the first few years of testosterone therapy (mimicking a second puberty). Can be treated with standard acne therapy. Initial treatment is with increased cleansing (at least twice daily) with an anti-acne or oil reducing scrub. If this doesn't work, additional therapy may be prescribed by a physician.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10371405",
"title": "Hidradenitis",
"section": "Section::::Treatment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 332,
"text": "Some products for adult acne may help relieve some symptoms for hidradenitis sufferers, although there is no guarantee it will work in all or even most individuals. Birth control Medication may relieve some symptoms for women; there is a hormonal treatment for men as well but that has not proven to be safe or effective as of yet.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20663223",
"title": "Acne conglobata",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 776,
"text": "This condition generally begins between the ages of 18 and 30. It usually persists for a very long time, and often until the patient is around 40 years old. Although it often occurs where there is already an active acne problem, it can also happen to people whose acne has subsided. Although the cause of this type of acne is unknown, it is associated with testosterone and thus appears mainly in men. It can be caused by anabolic steroid abuse and sometimes appears in men after stopping testosterone therapy. It can also happen to someone who has a tumor that is releasing large amounts of androgens, or to people in remission from diseases, such as leukemia. In certain persons, the condition may be triggered by exposure to aromatic hydrocarbons or ingestion of halogens.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "74555",
"title": "Acne",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:Hormones.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 746,
"text": "Hormonal activity, such as occurs during menstrual cycles and puberty, may contribute to the formation of acne. During puberty, an increase in sex hormones called androgens causes the skin follicle glands to grow larger and make more oily sebum. Several hormones have been linked to acne, including the androgens testosterone, dihydrotestosterone (DHT), and dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA); high levels of growth hormone (GH) and insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) have also been associated with worsened acne. Both androgens and IGF-1 seem to be essential for acne to occur, as acne does not develop in individuals with complete androgen insensitivity syndrome (CAIS) or Laron syndrome (insensitivity to GH, resulting in very low IGF-1 levels).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "74555",
"title": "Acne",
"section": "Section::::Society and culture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 112,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 112,
"end_character": 734,
"text": "Acne vulgaris and its resultant scars have been associated with significant social and academic difficulties that can last into adulthood, including difficulties obtaining employment. Until the 1930s, it was largely seen as a trivial problem among middle-class girls – a trivial problem, because, unlike smallpox and tuberculosis, no one died from it, and a feminine problem, because boys were much less likely to seek medical assistance for it. During the Great Depression, dermatologists discovered that young men with acne had difficulty obtaining jobs, and during World War II, some soldiers in tropical climates developed such severe and widespread tropical acne on their bodies that they were declared medically unfit for duty.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2o5t9x
|
what exactly the 10nm, 14nm, 22nm, etc nodes mean in semiconductor processing
|
[
{
"answer": "Well, it's a bit confusing even to people in the industry. The devil's in the details. \n \nIn the distant past, the geometry of the \"node\" meant the size of the smallest transistors. But a while back it started to refer more to the pitch of the tightest metal layer (usually metal 1), where \"pitch\" means the width of the line plus 1/2 the space on either side. It was claimed that this was a better metric for how tightly things could be packed together. Marketing had crept into the engineering domain. \n \nThere is no single accepted standard now; different companies use different ways to measure their process geometry, and one company may change their definitions a bit at different process nodes. All are a bit deceptive, because *both* the transistor pitches and the metal pitches are important in determining how many circuits can be put in some area. \n \nTo really know about any fab's geometries, you need to dig into the details of all the different layers. For example, a process might have very tight pitches for transistors and metal 1 and 2, but very loose pitches for the higher layers of metal. So in theory you can pack transistors tightly...you just can't very efficiently hook them up to each other. It is possible for one company's 16nm process to be better at getting transistor density than another company's 14nm process. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "8293122",
"title": "14 nanometer",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 441,
"text": "The 14 nanometer (14nm) technology node is the successor to the 22nm/(20nm) node. The 14nm was so named by the International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors (ITRS). One nanometer (nm) is one billionth of a meter. Until about 2011, the node following 22nm was expected to be 16nm. All 14nm nodes use FinFET (fin field-effect transistor) technology, an evolution of MOSFET (metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor) technology.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31882635",
"title": "5 nanometer",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 414,
"text": "In semiconductor manufacturing, the International Roadmap for Devices and Systems defines the 5 nanometer (5 nm) node as the technology node following the 7 nm node. As of 2019, Samsung Electronics and TSMC have begun commercial production of 5nm nodes. They are based on multi-gate field-effect transistor (MuGET) technology, an evolution of MOSFET (metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor) technology.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60525279",
"title": "3 nanometer",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 395,
"text": "In semiconductor manufacturing, 3 nanometer, usually abbreviated 3 nm, is the next die shrink after the 5 nanometer node. As of 2019, Samsung and TSMC have announced plans to put a 3nm semiconductor node into commercial production. It is based on GAAFET (gate-all-around field-effect transistor) technology, an evolution of MOSFET (metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor) technology.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16567591",
"title": "10 nanometer",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 270,
"text": "In semiconductor fabrication, the International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors (ITRS) defines the 10 nanometer (10 nm) node as the technology node following the 14 nm node. \"10 nm class\" denotes chips made using process technologies between 10 and 20 nanometers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7542898",
"title": "22 nanometer",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 551,
"text": "The 22 nanometer (22 nm) node is the process step following the 32 nm in CMOS semiconductor device fabrication. The typical half-pitch (i.e., half the distance between identical features in an array) for a memory cell using the process is around 22 nm. It was first demonstrated by semiconductor companies for use in RAM memory in 2008. In 2010, Toshiba began shipping 24 nm flash memory chips, and Samsung Electronics began mass-producing 20 nm flash memory chips. The first consumer-level CPU deliveries using a 22 nm process started in April 2012.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31907313",
"title": "7 nanometer",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 324,
"text": "In semiconductor manufacturing, the International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors defines the 7 nanometer (7 nm) node as the technology node following the 10 nm node. It is based on FinFET (fin field-effect transistor) technology, an evolution of MOSFET (metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor) technology.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30865421",
"title": "45 nanometer",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 207,
"text": "Per the International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors, the 45 nanometer (45 nm) technology node should refer to the average half-pitch of a memory cell manufactured at around the 2007–2008 time frame.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
90enba
|
Nixon courted southern Democrats with the Southern Strategy. Prior to that, what common cause did these people have with northeastern elites like FDR and Kennedy?
|
[
{
"answer": "Roosevelt's biggest contribution to American politics was the establishment of the New Deal Coalition. Roosevelt united the traditional Democratic base (conservative Southerners, northern immigrants and Catholics, liberal northerners) along with expanding into traditionally Republican groups (such as blacks and Midwesterners) by promising an end to the Great Depression. The New Deal brought electricity, modernization, jobs, and most importantly, hope, to the South, the Midwest, and America at large. Basically, Roosevelt created common cause by improving people's lives across the board. \n\nThe tradition of the South voting Democrat (no matter what) for most of the party's history, boosted by the New Deal Coalition, made it so Southerners kept voting Democrat as long as they held a prominent position in the Democratic Party, and as long as those northeastern elites turned a blind eye to race relations. Despite being a New Yorker, Roosevelt was still 'their guy,' in the same way the northeastern elitist Mitt Romney was 'the guy' for the South in 2012.\n\nThe differences began when Kennedy *didn't* turn a blind eye. He didn't promise total desgregation or anything, but he discussed civil rights enough that it made the Southern base upset. It's somewhat inaccurate to compare Roosevelt and Kennedy for relations with the South, as in 1960, Kennedy had one of the worst performances of a Democrat in the Southern states, losing Virginia, Florida, Kentucky, and Tennessee to Nixon, and Alabama and Mississippi to Dixiecrats.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "723054",
"title": "Solid South",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 497,
"text": "Republican President Richard Nixon adopted a \"Southern Strategy\" for the 1972 election: continue enforcement of the civil rights legislation of the 1960s, but be quiet about it, so that offended Southern whites would continue to blame the Democrats, while talking up the Democrats' increasing association with liberal views. He was aided by centrist Democrats' attacks on the eventual nominee as a radical. This strategy was wildly successful – Nixon carried every southern state by huge margins.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "454963",
"title": "Southern strategy",
"section": "Section::::Scholarly debates.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 61,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 61,
"end_character": 1049,
"text": "According to Lassiter, political scientists and historians point out, that the timing does not fit the \"Southern Strategy\" model. Nixon carried 49 states in 1972, so he operated a successful national rather than regional strategy. but the Republican Party remained quite weak at the local and state level across the entire South for decades. Lassiter argues that Nixon's appeal was not to the Wallacites or segregationists, but rather to the rapidly emerging suburban middle class. Many had Northern antecedents, wanted rapid economic growth and saw the need to put backlash politics to rest. Lassiter says the Southern Strategy was a \"failure\" for the GOP and that the Southern base of the Republican Party \"always depended more on the middle-class corporate economy and on the top-down politics of racial backlash\". Furthermore, realignment in the South \"came primarily from the suburban ethos of New South metropolises such as Atlanta and Charlotte, North Carolina, not to the exportation of the working-class racial politics of the Black Belt\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40567",
"title": "1968 United States presidential election",
"section": "Section::::General election.:Campaign strategies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 156,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 156,
"end_character": 697,
"text": "Nixon developed a \"Southern strategy\" that was designed to appeal to conservative white southerners, who traditionally voted Democratic, but were opposed to Johnson and Humphrey's support for the civil rights movement, as well as the rioting that had broken out in the ghettos of most large cities. Wallace, however, won over many of the voters Nixon targeted, effectively splitting the conservative vote. Indeed, Wallace deliberately targeted many states he had little chance of carrying himself in the hope that by splitting the conservative vote with Nixon he would give those states to Humphrey and, by extension, boost his own chances of denying both opponents an Electoral College majority.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "454963",
"title": "Southern strategy",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 743,
"text": "In American politics, the Southern strategy was a Republican Party electoral strategy to increase political support among white voters in the South by appealing to racism against African Americans. As the civil rights movement and dismantling of Jim Crow laws in the 1950s and 1960s visibly deepened existing racial tensions in much of the Southern United States, Republican politicians such as presidential candidate Richard Nixon and Senator Barry Goldwater developed strategies that successfully contributed to the political realignment of many white, conservative voters in the South who had traditionally supported the Democratic Party rather than the Republican Party. It also helped to push the Republican Party much more to the right.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11561349",
"title": "Operation Eagle Eye (United States)",
"section": "Section::::Precursor to Operation Eagle Eye (1954-1962).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1146,
"text": "Beginning in the early 1950s and 60s, it became popular for politicians to appeal to Southern whites through racially charged campaign messages. \"\"Many succeeding Republican candidates and almost all Republican presidents made racial appeals – some subtle, some otherwise – to southern whites still angry at federal abolition of the Jim Crow system. This became known as the ‘Southern Strategy’\"\". Democratic President Lyndon B. Johnson’s overwhelming popularity in the polls at the time – just a year in after taking office in the aftermath of Kennedy’s assassination – and his relentless talk of civil rights and voting rights heightened Republican National Committee concerns and swung the door wide open for voter suppression strategies of all kinds. It was in this context that the infamous Operation Eagle Eye was born. As shameful and un-American as it was, RNC’s goal was simple – to develop a strategy around voter suppression to win elections – and it has been effective. Many now believe that the 1958 ballot security program implemented in Arizona was the precursor to Operation Eagle Eye and the blueprint for which it was designed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1867194",
"title": "1968 Republican National Convention",
"section": "Section::::Political context.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 299,
"text": "The so-called \"New Nixon\" in the 1968 presidential election devised a \"Southern strategy,\" taking advantage of the region's opposition to racial integration and other progressive/liberal policies of the national Democratic Party and the administration of incumbent 36th President Lyndon B. Johnson.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "454963",
"title": "Southern strategy",
"section": "Section::::Scholarly debates.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 58,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 58,
"end_character": 622,
"text": "Kalk and Tindall separately argue that Nixon's Southern Strategy was to find a compromise that on race would take the issue house of politics, allowing conservatives in the South to rally behind his grand plan to reorganize the national government. Kalk and Tindall emphasize the similarity between Nixon's operations and the series of compromises orchestrated by Rutherford B. Hayes in 1877 that ended the battles over Reconstruction and put Hayes in the White House. Kalk says Nixon did end the reform impulse and sowed the seeds for the political rise of white Southerners and the decline of the civil rights movement.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
9d3dzo
|
When a sufficiently sized star dies and collapses into a black hole, does the gravitational attraction that it yields change?
|
[
{
"answer": "Either \"no\" or \"it might go down\" depending on what you mean.\n\nAt large distances, old fashioned classical gravity is accurate for both. The force of gravity is proportional to the mass. So if all the mass is retained, then gravity doesn't change. But in a supernova, a lot of mass is thrown out, so the resulting black hole has a lower mass than the star, and has *weaker* gravity*.\n\nThat said, when you get close to a black hole, weird general relativity stuff does start to happen - stuff that doesn't really happen in a star. This is because the mass is concentrated in a smaller region, and you can get much closer to the centre of mass (without being *inside* the object) and feel stronger gravity.\n\nBut if you're a planet orbiting a star, and that star magically turns into a black hole, your orbit won't change. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Yes it will. It will actually go down. The collapse itself produces a supernova in all cases I'm aware of. This event is highly energetic and causes a lot of light and matter to be blasted away from the core of the star. This means that a black hole will always have less mass than the star that formed it. \n\nThe surface gravity of the object however changes dramatically. The surface of a star is actually very far from its center of mass, thus the gravity is lower (by the square of the radius). Meanwhile a black hole's event horizon is much tighter, held very close to the center of mass. If you stand at the same distance from the star and from the resulting black hole, the star would have more gravity because it had more mass. You can stand a whole lot closer to the black hole, and every time you half the distance, you quadruple the gravity.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "510340",
"title": "Stellar black hole",
"section": "Section::::Properties.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 635,
"text": "The gravitational collapse of a star is a natural process that can produce a black hole. It is inevitable at the end of the life of a star, when all stellar energy sources are exhausted. If the mass of the collapsing part of the star is below the Tolman–Oppenheimer–Volkoff (TOV) limit for neutron-degenerate matter, the end product is a compact star — either a white dwarf (for masses below the Chandrasekhar limit) or a neutron star or a (hypothetical) quark star. If the collapsing star has a mass exceeding the TOV limit, the crush will continue until zero volume is achieved and a black hole is formed around that point in space.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3352536",
"title": "Exotic star",
"section": "Section::::Preon stars.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 338,
"text": "In general relativity, if a star collapses to a size smaller than its Schwarzschild radius, an event horizon will exist at that radius and the star will become a black hole. Thus, the size of a preon star may vary from around 1 metre with an absolute mass of 100 Earths to the size of a pea with a mass roughly equal to that of the Moon.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51629229",
"title": "N6946-BH1",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 474,
"text": "One hypothesis is that the core of the star collapsed to form a black hole. The collapsing matter formed a burst of neutrinos that lowered the total mass of the star by a fraction of a percent. This caused a shock wave that blasted out the star's envelope to make it brighter. After the idea that a black holes are usually formed after a supernova, N6946-BH1 has given evidence that, instead of following this process, the star may automatically collapse into a black hole.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "232953",
"title": "Electron degeneracy pressure",
"section": "Section::::Examples.:White dwarfs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 466,
"text": "Electron degeneracy pressure will halt the gravitational collapse of a star if its mass is below the Chandrasekhar limit (1.44 solar masses). This is the pressure that prevents a white dwarf star from collapsing. A star exceeding this limit and without significant thermally generated pressure will continue to collapse to form either a neutron star or black hole, because the degeneracy pressure provided by the electrons is weaker than the inward pull of gravity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6813",
"title": "Chandrasekhar limit",
"section": "Section::::Applications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 980,
"text": "If a main-sequence star is not too massive (less than approximately 8 solar masses), it eventually sheds enough mass to form a white dwarf having mass below the Chandrasekhar limit, which consists of the former core of the star. For more-massive stars, electron degeneracy pressure does not keep the iron core from collapsing to very great density, leading to formation of a neutron star, black hole, or, speculatively, a quark star. (For very massive, low-metallicity stars, it is also possible that instabilities destroy the star completely.) During the collapse, neutrons are formed by the capture of electrons by protons in the process of electron capture, leading to the emission of neutrinos. The decrease in gravitational potential energy of the collapsing core releases a large amount of energy on the order of 10 joules (100 foes). Most of this energy is carried away by the emitted neutrinos. This process is believed responsible for supernovae of types Ib, Ic, and II.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "207820",
"title": "Compact star",
"section": "Section::::Black holes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 584,
"text": "As more mass is accumulated, equilibrium against gravitational collapse reaches its breaking point. The star's pressure is insufficient to counterbalance gravity and a catastrophic gravitational collapse occurs in milliseconds. The escape velocity at the surface, already at least 1/3 light speed, quickly reaches the velocity of light. No energy nor matter can escape: a black hole has formed. All light will be trapped within an event horizon, and so a black hole appears truly black, except for the possibility of Hawking radiation. It is presumed that the collapse will continue.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4650",
"title": "Black hole",
"section": "Section::::Formation and evolution.:Gravitational collapse.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 63,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 63,
"end_character": 468,
"text": "If the mass of the remnant exceeds about (the Tolman–Oppenheimer–Volkoff limit), either because the original star was very heavy or because the remnant collected additional mass through accretion of matter, even the degeneracy pressure of neutrons is insufficient to stop the collapse. No known mechanism (except possibly quark degeneracy pressure, see quark star) is powerful enough to stop the implosion and the object will inevitably collapse to form a black hole.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
15o2rq
|
Was Gandhi actually a positive influence on the development of India as a country?
|
[
{
"answer": "This is one of the most hotly debated issues that I've ever encountered. A lot of people blame Ghandi for effectively bringing back the caste system. Honestly I'm not well read enough on the subject to go into much on the subject though. Hopefully a specialist will chime in on this one, as I'd like to hear what they have to say myself.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's complicated; if you're not already aware of it there's a three hour long three part [BBC Documentary on Gandhi](_URL_0_) that covers a lot of his life and legacy. while it doesn't attempt a final judgement it does show various sides to the man and his actions.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "9110459",
"title": "Gandhian economics",
"section": "Section::::Gandhi's economic ideas.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 829,
"text": "Gandhi's thinking on what we would consider socia-secular issues (he himself saw little distinction between the sacred and its expression in the social world) was influenced by John Ruskin and the American writer Henry David Thoreau. Throughout his life, Gandhi sought to develop ways to fight India's extreme poverty, backwardness, and socio-economic challenges as a part of his wider involvement in the Indian independence movement. Gandhi's championing of \"Swadeshi\" and non-cooperation were centred on the principles of economic self-sufficiency. Gandhi sought to target European-made clothing and other products as not only a symbol of British colonialism but also the source of mass unemployment and poverty, as European industrial goods had left many millions of India's workers, craftsmen and women without a livelihood.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19379",
"title": "Mahatma Gandhi",
"section": "Section::::Legacy and depictions in popular culture.:Current impact within India.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 249,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 249,
"end_character": 624,
"text": "India, with its rapid economic modernisation and urbanisation, has rejected Gandhi's economics but accepted much of his politics and continues to revere his memory. Reporter Jim Yardley notes that, \"modern India is hardly a Gandhian nation, if it ever was one. His vision of a village-dominated economy was shunted aside during his lifetime as rural romanticism, and his call for a national ethos of personal austerity and nonviolence has proved antithetical to the goals of an aspiring economic and military power.\" By contrast Gandhi is \"given full credit for India's political identity as a tolerant, secular democracy.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2113007",
"title": "The Story of My Experiments with Truth",
"section": "Section::::Contents.:Part IV.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 544,
"text": "During the months that followed, Gandhi continued to advocate for peace and caution, however, since Britain and Turkey were still negotiating their peace terms. Unlike more nationalistic politicians, he also supported the Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms for India, as they laid the foundation for constitutional self-government. Eventually, other politicians who thought the reforms did not go far enough had to agree with Gandhi simply because his popularity and influence had become so great that the Congress could accomplish little without him.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15179",
"title": "Indira Gandhi",
"section": "Section::::Foreign relations.:The Non-aligned Movement.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 76,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 76,
"end_character": 734,
"text": "In the early 1980s under Gandhi, India attempted to reassert its prominent role in the Non-Aligned Movement by focusing on the relationship between disarmament and economic development. By appealing to the economic grievances of developing countries, Gandhi and her successors exercised a moderating influence on the Non-aligned movement, diverting it from some of the Cold War issues that marred the controversial 1979 Havana meeting where Cuban leader Fidel Castro attempted to steer the movement towards the Soviet Union. Although hosting the 1983 summit at Delhi boosted Indian prestige within the movement, its close relations with the Soviet Union and its pro-Soviet positions on Afghanistan and Cambodia limited its influence.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15179",
"title": "Indira Gandhi",
"section": "Section::::Foreign relations.:Africa.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 72,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 72,
"end_character": 930,
"text": "Foreign and domestic policy successes in the 1970s enabled Gandhi to rebuild India's image in the eyes of African states. Victory over Pakistan and India's possession of nuclear weapons showed the degree of India's progress. Furthermore, the conclusion of the Indo-Soviet treaty in 1971 and threatening gestures by the major western power, the United States, to send its nuclear armed Task Force 74 into the Bay of Bengal at the height of the East Pakistan crisis had enabled India to regain its anti-imperialist image. Gandhi firmly tied Indian anti-imperialist interests in Africa to those of the Soviet Union. Unlike Nehru, she openly and enthusiastically supported liberation struggles in Africa. At the same time, Chinese influence in Africa had declined owing to its incessant quarrels with the Soviet Union. These developments permanently halted India's decline in Africa and helped reestablish its geo-strategic presence.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2602536",
"title": "Gandhism",
"section": "Section::::Economics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 323,
"text": "Gandhi espoused an economic theory of simple living and self-sufficiency/import substitution, rather than generating exports like Japan and South Korea did. He envisioned a more agrarian India upon independence that would focus on meeting the material needs of its citizenry prior to generating wealth and industrialising.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "161022",
"title": "Indian independence movement",
"section": "Section::::Gandhi arrives in India.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 1059,
"text": "Gandhi returned to India on 9 January 1915, and initially entered the political fray not with calls for a nation-state, but in support of the unified commerce-oriented territory that the Congress Party had been asking for. Gandhi believed that the industrial development and educational development that the Europeans had brought were long required to alleviate many of India's chronic problems. Gopal Krishna Gokhale, a veteran Congressman and Indian leader, became Gandhi's mentor. Gandhi's ideas and strategies of non-violent civil disobedience initially appeared impractical to some Indians and their Congress leaders. In the Mahatma's own words, \"civil disobedience is civil breach of immoral statutory enactments.\" It had to be carried out non-violently by withdrawing co-operation with the corrupt state. Gandhi had great respect for Lokmanya Tilak. His programmes were all inspired by Tilak's \"Chatusutri\" programme. It was at this point he met the prophet Ryan Chart, where he founded some of his most spiritual messages with his British colleague. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
mizm8
|
what generates the messages in computer errors?
|
[
{
"answer": "I'm not sure what you mean by this. Each individual program has the ability to throw an error message. The operating system can throw them, as well. Can you be more specific with your question?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Error messages are usually for the programmer, not the user. This means they use jargon and probably only make sense in the context of the code.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Computer programmers write the error message into their software. \nSometimes they do so for their eyes only as a way of fixing their code.\n\nIt's like walking in a forest and making a mark on each tree.\nIf everything goes right, you will not ever see the mark again.\nBut if you are lost, you can look for the mark that you made to see where\nyou went wrong.\n\nComputer programmers make lots of marks in their code, so they can \nfix/debug their code later.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'm not sure what you mean by this. Each individual program has the ability to throw an error message. The operating system can throw them, as well. Can you be more specific with your question?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Error messages are usually for the programmer, not the user. This means they use jargon and probably only make sense in the context of the code.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Computer programmers write the error message into their software. \nSometimes they do so for their eyes only as a way of fixing their code.\n\nIt's like walking in a forest and making a mark on each tree.\nIf everything goes right, you will not ever see the mark again.\nBut if you are lost, you can look for the mark that you made to see where\nyou went wrong.\n\nComputer programmers make lots of marks in their code, so they can \nfix/debug their code later.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3388502",
"title": "Error message",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 700,
"text": "An error message is information displayed when an unexpected condition occurs, usually on a computer or other device. On modern operating systems with graphical user interfaces, error messages are often displayed using dialog boxes. Error messages are used when user intervention is required, to indicate that a desired operation has failed, or to relay important warnings (such as warning a computer user that they are almost out of hard disk space). Error messages are seen widely throughout computing, and are part of every operating system or computer hardware device. Proper design of error messages is an important topic in usability and other fields of human–computer interaction. Jan 30 2019\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3388502",
"title": "Error message",
"section": "Section::::Message format.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 456,
"text": "On computers, error messages may take the form of text printed to a console, or they may be presented as part of a graphical user interface. Error messages are often presented as a dialog box, which makes them cause a following mode error in the user interaction. In many cases the original error can be avoided by error prevention techniques. Instead of raising an error message the system design should have avoided the conditions that caused the error.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1889449",
"title": "Abort, Retry, Fail?",
"section": "Section::::Description.:Usability.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 305,
"text": "The error messages has been described as being an example of poor user interface design. For most users, if the message appeared, the only choice was to hit 'R'—which repeated the message—or hit another letter, which caused the program to crash and all work to be lost. One scholar described it this way:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3388502",
"title": "Error message",
"section": "Section::::Message format.:Security.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 742,
"text": "When designing error messages, software designers should take care to avoid creating security vulnerabilities. The designer should give the user enough information to make an intelligent decision, but not so much information that the user is overwhelmed or confused. Extraneous information may be hidden by default or placed in a separate location. Error message should not expose information that can be exploited by a cracker to obtain information that is otherwise difficult to obtain. Examples are systems which may show either \"invalid user\" or \"invalid password\" depending on which is incorrect, and the error page in the web server IIS 5.0 which provides a complete technical description of the error including a source code fragment.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5272519",
"title": "Error hiding",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:Hiding complexity from users.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 510,
"text": "When showing errors to users, it's important to turn cryptic technical errors into messages that explain what happened and what actions the user can take, if any, to fix the problem. While performing this translation of technical errors into meaningful user messages, specific errors are often grouped into more generic errors, and this process can lead to user messages becoming so useless that the user doesn't know what went wrong or how to fix it. As far as the user is concerned, the error got swallowed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "163805",
"title": "Family Computer Disk System",
"section": "Section::::Technology.:Reliability.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 956,
"text": "Error messages produced during disk read operations are unusually simple, to the point where it is difficult to know what the exact problem is. Most in-game error messages during loading are often displayed as \"Err. ##\", with \"##\" being the designated number for the type of error message; the most common ones are Err. 02 (the Disk System's batteries being low on power or with no batteries put in altogether), Err. 07 (Side A and B reversed when trying to load the disk), and Err. 27 (\"Disk trouble\", usually involving the disk surface itself, but can also be due to a belt replacement from an inexperienced technician, resulting in the disk drive's head being inaccurately aligned). However, the error messages themselves consist of little explanation (Err. 27, for example, only gives the accompanying message \"Disk trouble\") and in most cases within gameplay itself, such as \"\", the error message is not given at all, with only the number code shown.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "310005",
"title": "Glitch",
"section": "Section::::Computer glitch.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 598,
"text": "It frequently refers to an error which is not detected at the time it occurs but shows up later in data errors or incorrect human decisions. Situations which are frequently called computer glitches are incorrectly written software (software bugs), incorrect instructions given by the operator (operator errors, and a failure to account for this possibility might also be considered a software bug), undetected invalid input data (this might also be considered a software bug), undetected communications errors, computer viruses, Trojan attacks and computer exploiting (sometimes called \"hacking\").\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
48yb5a
|
how did scientists first hypothesise that an meteor killed the dinosaurs?
|
[
{
"answer": "It was proposed by [Luis Walter Alvarez](_URL_0_) after he noticed a thin layer of clay in the geologic record between the Cretaceous and Tertiary (now called the Paleogene) periods. After further investigation of the composition of the clay (in particular, the high-levels of iridium), Alvarez and his team proposed it may have originated from an impact from space.\n\nLater, finding evidence of an impact crater in Mexico along with the relatively quick demise of many species (including the dinosaurs) led credibility to the theory.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The fossil record tells the story. Rock layers deposited before the iridium layer contained fossils from many large dinosaurs. But the layers of rock above (the younger layer) contained none. His conclusion was to associate the dinosaur extinction event to the iridium. \n\nThe theory wasn't popular until a crater from an asteroid impact was found in the Yucatan by oil companies drilling in the Gulf. The impact event coincided with the iridium and the abrupt change in the fossil record. In addition, there were some serious volcanic events from that time period that may have exacerbated the situation. The extinction event wasn't simply an overnight affair - it actually may have taken more than a million years (relatively short for geology but a little long if you were looking for a knock-out punch). \n\nThe theory of an asteroid the size of Manhattan crashing into the sea off the coast of Mexico 65 million years ago remains the best explanation we have to date of what happened to Mister Rex and Miss Triceratops. Twas ever thus.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The start of it all was the discovery and study of the [Cretaceous–Tertiary](_URL_0_) (K–T) line. It's a visible layer between the cretaceous and the tertiary earth layer. Every dinosaur fossil ever found was under this layer. The exceptions are fossils that get found because of the constant moving underground layers piling up which brings those fossils back to the surface or close to it. \n\nThe scientists then asked themselves what happened. What caused this relatively abrupt end to the dinosaurs? Why do we find every dinosaur under this visible line? They studied the layers before and after the event and came up with the first theories.\n\nThat said, it's still a mystery how it exactly went down. If it was for example caused by the meteorite impact itself or more the aftermath of the impact.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "37249621",
"title": "Tarzan (2013 film)",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 620,
"text": "65,000,000 years ago, a mountain-sized meteor crashed into the Earth in what is now the Yucatán Peninsula in Mexico, with a major chunk of the object landing in Uganda. The impact and resulting ecological catastrophe causes the extinction of the dinosaurs. In present day, wealthy industrialist John Greystoke has been funding an expedition into the jungles of East Africa to locate the meteor, now a legend, and harness its unique energy. Despite the best efforts by scientist and adventurer James Porter, the expedition is a failure, and John is preparing to leave Africa with his wife, Alice, and their son, John Jr.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36238645",
"title": "Asturian Americans",
"section": "Section::::Notable people.:Scientists.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 325,
"text": "BULLET::::- Walter Alvarez (b. October 3, 1940), professor in the Earth and Planetary Science department at the University of California, Berkeley. He is most widely known for the theory that dinosaurs were killed by an asteroid impact, developed in collaboration with his father, Nobel Prize–winning physicist Luis Alvarez.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "435045",
"title": "Walter Alvarez",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 319,
"text": "Walter Alvarez (born October 3, 1940) is a professor in the Earth and Planetary Science department at the University of California, Berkeley. He is most widely known for the theory that dinosaurs were killed by an asteroid impact, developed in collaboration with his father, Nobel Prize winning physicist Luis Alvarez.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "174609",
"title": "Chicxulub crater",
"section": "Section::::Impact specifics.:Chicxulub and mass extinction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 523,
"text": "The theory is now widely accepted by the scientific community. Some critics, including paleontologist Robert Bakker, argue that such an impact would have killed frogs as well as dinosaurs, yet the frogs survived the extinction event. Gerta Keller of Princeton University argues that recent core samples from Chicxulub prove the impact occurred about 300,000 years \"before\" the mass extinction, and thus could not have been the causal factor. However, this conclusion is unsupported by radioactive dating and sedimentology.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45249020",
"title": "Timeline of Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event research",
"section": "Section::::20th century.:1970s.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 103,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 103,
"end_character": 232,
"text": "BULLET::::- Russel reviewed various proposed hypotheses for the extinction of the non-avian dinosaurs. He concluded that the only viable proposal was that the dinosaurs had been wiped out by radiation emitted by a nearby supernova.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "603388",
"title": "1980 in science",
"section": "Section::::Geophysics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 264,
"text": "BULLET::::- June 6 – Luis and Walter Alvarez with Frank Asaro and Helen Michels propose the Alvarez hypothesis, that the mass extinction of the dinosaurs was caused by the impact of a large asteroid 66 million years ago, the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2536187",
"title": "Alvarez hypothesis",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 416,
"text": "Previously, in a 1953 publication, geologists Allan O. Kelly and Frank Dachille analyzed global geological evidence suggesting that one or more giant asteroids impacted the Earth, causing an angular shift in its axis, global floods, fire, atmospheric occlusion, and the extinction of the dinosaurs. There were other earlier speculations on the possibility of an impact event, but without strong confirming evidence.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2yowba
|
what is going on in your brain when you stare? why are you so focused on one thing you can't look away?
|
[
{
"answer": "I am not a psychologist, but generally it is because you are seeing something your brain considers valuable or possibly dangerous. If a man stares at a woman with large breasts, then it is because his brain considers it something valuable and wants it. You will focus more easily on something or someone that you find inherently valuable compared to something you consider important like math. Your brain wants the large breasted woman so it will encourage you to focus on that object and retrieve it.\n\nNow if you see something out of the ordinary like a kid wearing some crazy braces with a head set for their jacked up teeth, then you brain is assessing it for possible danger. You inherently won't trust it even if you consciously know that the 12 year old with extreme dental issues is not a threat to you. \n\nEither way you are assessing whatever you stare at and your brain considers it too important to just glance at and look away.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4958509",
"title": "Attentional shift",
"section": "Section::::Overt vs. covert attention.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 1026,
"text": "Changes in spatial attention can occur with the eyes moving, overtly, or with the eyes remaining fixated, covertly. Within the human eye only a small part, the fovea, is able to bring objects into sharp focus. However, it is this high visual acuity that is needed to perform actions such as reading words or recognizing facial features, for example. Therefore, the eyes must continually move in order to direct the fovea to the desired goal. Prior to an overt eye movement, where the eyes move to a target location, covert attention shifts to this location. However, it is important to keep in mind that attention is also able to shift covertly to objects, locations, or even thoughts while the eyes remain fixated. For example, when a person is driving and keeping their eyes on the road, but then, even though their eyes do not move, their attention shifts from the road to thinking about what they need to get at the grocery store. The eyes may remain focused on the previous object attended to, yet attention has shifted.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3407720",
"title": "Exotropia",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 555,
"text": "The brain's ability to see three-dimensional objects depends on proper alignment of the eyes. When both eyes are properly aligned and aimed at the same target, the visual portion of the brain fuses the forms into a single image. When one eye turns inward, outward, upward, or downward, two different pictures are sent to the brain. This causes loss of depth perception and binocular vision. There have also been some reports of people that can \"control\" their afflicted eye. The term is from Greek \"exo\" meaning \"outward\" and \"trope\" meaning \"a turning\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33932515",
"title": "Social cue",
"section": "Section::::Brain regions involved in processing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 882,
"text": "When it comes to visual cues, individuals follow the gaze of others to find out what they are looking at. It has been found that this response is evolutionarily adaptive due to the fact that it can alert others to happenings in the environment. Almost 50% of the time, peripheral cues have a hard time finding the location of a target. Studies have shown that directed gaze impacts attentional orienting in a seemingly automatic manner. Part of the brain that is involved when another person averts their gaze is also a part of attentional orienting. Past researchers have found that arrow cues are linked to the fronto-parietal areas, whereas arrow and gaze cues were linked to occipito-temporal areas. Therefore, gaze cues may indeed rely on automatic processes more than arrow cues. The importance of eye gaze has increased in importance throughout the evolutionary time period.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2094955",
"title": "Salience (language)",
"section": "Section::::Communication studies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 629,
"text": "Our minds and bodies are bombarded by relevant and irrelevant knowledge and experiences every day. We will tune into salient ones (crane the ears to more fully hear enjoyable music) and tune-out non-salient ones (cover our ears from jackhammer noise). There is difference between seeing something and looking at it. In seeing, the capacity of our retina to take in the light energy is engaged and the brain processes that information into an image. When one looks at an object, not only are visual perceptive capacities engaged, but other mental processes for evaluation and ordering of the object are activated (Skinner, 1974).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "531432",
"title": "Autostereogram",
"section": "Section::::Mechanisms for viewing.:Simulated 3D perception.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 603,
"text": "The eyes normally focus and converge at the same distance in a process known as accommodative convergence. That is, when looking at a faraway object, the brain automatically flattens the lenses and rotates the two eyeballs for wall-eyed viewing. It is possible to train the brain to decouple these two operations. This decoupling has no useful purpose in everyday life, because it prevents the brain from interpreting objects in a coherent manner. To see a man-made picture such as an autostereogram where patterns are repeated horizontally, however, decoupling of focusing from convergence is crucial.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1070221",
"title": "Human eye",
"section": "Section::::Vision.:Eye movement.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 630,
"text": "The visual system in the human brain is too slow to process information if images are slipping across the retina at more than a few degrees per second. Thus, to be able to see while moving, the brain must compensate for the motion of the head by turning the eyes. Frontal-eyed animals have a small area of the retina with very high visual acuity, the fovea centralis. It covers about 2 degrees of visual angle in people. To get a clear view of the world, the brain must turn the eyes so that the image of the object of regard falls on the fovea. Any failure to make eye movements correctly can lead to serious visual degradation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1894873",
"title": "Eye movement",
"section": "Section::::Physiology.:Saccades.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 526,
"text": "The eyes are never completely at rest. They make fast random jittering movements even when we are fixated on one point. The reason for this random movement is related to the photoreceptors and the ganglion cells. It appears that a constant visual stimulus can make the photoreceptors or the ganglion cells become unresponsive; on the other hand a changing stimulus will not. Therefore, the random eye movement constantly changes the stimuli that fall on the photoreceptors and the ganglion cells, making the image more clear.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3dgjiy
|
Who made the bombs for the IRA?
|
[
{
"answer": "Early on the bombs were mostly homemade using Ammonium Nitrate fertiliser. While the process is simple it does take skill to get it right and there were several people who specialised in it. The explosives were often made in ordinary houses or sheds.\n\nThe provision of Semtex from Libya in the 1980s gave the IRA a lot of flexibility as it is more powerful and useful.\n\nRichard English, *Armed Struggle* is probably the best history of the IRA. You could also look at James Bowyer Bell or Tim Pat Coogan. Coogan is a journalist with good sources but his historical analysis is very poor so be warned.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "226403",
"title": "Gelignite",
"section": "Section::::Frangex.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 337,
"text": "The 1970s saw Irish Industrial Explosives Limited producing annually 6,000 tonnes of Frangex, a commercial gelignite intended for use in mines and quarries. It was produced at Ireland's largest explosives factory in Enfield, County Meath. The Gardaí and the Irish Army patrolled the area, preventing the IRA from gaining direct access. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57257091",
"title": "Baltic Exchange bombing",
"section": "Section::::Bombing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 395,
"text": "The homemade explosive was inside a white Ford Transit van parked in St Mary Axe. The components were developed in South Armagh, shipped from Ireland, and assembled in England. The attack was planned for months and marked a dangerous advance to the British of the IRA's explosives manufacture. The bomb was described as the most powerful to hit London since the Luftwaffe raids of World War II.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51058204",
"title": "Battle of Lenadoon",
"section": "Section::::Background.:11 July.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 317,
"text": "The IRA attempted to blow up a British Army observation post in Lenadoon Avenue, using a mechanical digger loaded with a massive bomb in its bucket. A Volunteer drove the machine into the billet and his comrades surrounded the billet and fired thousands of shots to cover him but the bomb failed to explode properly.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54844916",
"title": "1974 Oxford Street bombing",
"section": "Section::::Bombing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 389,
"text": "On Thursday the 19 December 1974 the IRA unit loaded a light blue Ford Cortina with of gelignite explosive into the boot of the car, the bomb was fitted with a pocket watch timing device and then primed. This was the largest IRA bomb used in England up to that point. The IRA Volunteers drove the bomb car into Oxford Street and parked the stolen car at the side of Selfridge's building. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4261414",
"title": "Provisional Irish Republican Army arms importation",
"section": "Section::::Libyan arms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 242,
"text": "By 1996, \"Jane's Intelligence Review\" reported that \"it is believed that the bulk of the material presently in IRA arsenals was shipped from Libya in the mid-1980s with the aid of a skipper, Adrian Hopkins, hired for the purpose by the IRA.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1354475",
"title": "Post box",
"section": "Section::::Terrorism and political vandalism.:The Troubles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 305,
"text": "During 1939 a number of bombs were put in post boxes by the IRA as part of their S-Plan campaign. When the Provisional IRA blew up the Arndale shopping centre in the 1996 Manchester bombing, one of the few things to survive unscathed was a Victorian pillar box dating from 1887 (a type A Jubilee pillar).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14370867",
"title": "South Armagh Sniper (1990–1997)",
"section": "Section::::Sniper teams in South Armagh.:The rifles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 480,
"text": "During the 1980s, the IRA relied mostly on weaponry smuggled from Libya. The regular shipments from the United States, once the main source of arms for the republicans through the gunrunning operations of George Harrison, were disrupted after he was arrested by the Federal Bureau of Investigation in 1981. The smuggling scheme suffered a further blow when the Fenit-based trawler \"Marita Ann\", with a huge arms cache from Boston, was captured by the Irish Naval Service in 1985.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
s8w2p
|
What can you tell me about pirates?
|
[
{
"answer": "Apparently they helped [prevent global warming](_URL_0_). That's a cool fact.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Pierre Le Grand (_URL_0_ Legendary Pirate who captured a Spanish treasure galleon with 28 men and a leaky boat.\n\nL'Olonnais(_URL_6_) - Allegedly ate a man's beating heart out of his chest to intimidate prisoners.\n\nDu Pointis - _URL_2_ captured 20 million Livres and defeated one of the greatest forts in the Carribean.\n\nGrace O'Malley (_URL_1_) - Irish queen and pirate.\n\nJean Bart (_URL_5_) Born a fisherman's son, died an admiral.\n\nBlack Bart (_URL_3_) captured 470 ships.\n\nWoods Rodgers (_URL_4_) started off as a legitimate businessman, became a pirate, and later broke the back of the Golden Age Pirates as governor of the Bahamas.\n\n\nThese are some of the lesser known among most people pirates who were actually pretty bad ass and more successful than the likes of Blackbeard and Kidd. I'm a bit tired, so I may come back later and add some more here.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "That's a pretty broad question, especially considering the scope of piracy. If you're looking for a good comprehensive book, I (and my prof who studies pirates for a living) recommend Peter Earle's *Pirate Wars*. \n\nOther than that, feel free to ask me anything and I will do my best to answer. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's interesting to look into the East India Company, there's a lot of articles arguing that were just licensed pirates of the English government.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "21413988",
"title": "Lego Battles",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 256,
"text": "The Pirates story focuses on the struggle between Captain Brickbeard's crew trying to find a massive amount of treasure & the Imperial Navy led by Governor Broadside with assistance from the Ninja Master & his clan of ninjas, trying to thwart their plans.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32463703",
"title": "The Pirates!",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 333,
"text": "The Pirates! is a series of five comedy books following a group of pirates on their adventures. It is written by British author Gideon Defoe and was published starting in 2004 by Weidenfeld & Nicolson. The fifth book \"The Pirates! in an Adventure with the Romantics\" was released in 2012, and was published by Bloomsbury Publishing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55215004",
"title": "List of Mighty Magiswords characters",
"section": "Section::::Villains.:Pirates.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 146,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 146,
"end_character": 742,
"text": "The pirates are notorious bandits that reside in Keelhaul Cove. Their reason for piracy is due to lack of education and high unemployment. They often cross paths with the Warriors whenever they arrive in Keelhaul Cove. Their main hangout is the Wobblin Gobblin, a boot-shaped bar where they enjoy root beers and performances by their friend Sailor Sidney. The most recurring pirates are Plunderbite (voiced by Kyle Carrozza), Punchica (voiced by Hal Lublin), Kickica (voiced by Lindsay Smith-Carrozza), Crunch Dislikus (voiced by Lublin), Scritchies O'Stitches (originally voiced by Grey Griffin, later voiced by Smith-Carrozza), Dwight (voiced by Eric Bauza), Numbuh 9 (voiced by Luke Ski) and an unnamed fish pirate (voiced by Dana Gould).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14439630",
"title": "List of One Piece characters",
"section": "Section::::Other groups and organizations.:Arlong Pirates.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 314,
"text": "The are a pirate crew consisting mostly of fishmen led by the sawshark fishman Arlong and several officers: a manta ray fishman who uses \"Fishman Karate\", a Japanese whiting fishman who spits water as if firing bullets, as well as Hatchan and Nami, who left the crew following its defeat by the Straw Hat Pirates.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7137592",
"title": "The Pirate (novel)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 330,
"text": "The Pirate is a novel by Walter Scott, based roughly on the life of John Gow who features as Captain Cleveland. The setting is the southern tip of the main island of Shetland (which Scott visited in 1814), around 1700. It was published in 1822, the year after it was finished and the lighthouse at Sumburgh Head began to operate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25111986",
"title": "Roman command structure during First Mithridatic War",
"section": "Section::::Statue of an envoy to the Romans at Rhodes.:Commanders mentioned in the inscription.:Varro.:Pirates, bandits, privateers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 100,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 100,
"end_character": 1012,
"text": "Appian presents perhaps the clearest view of the phenomenon of the pirates, or at least a view that is consistent with the other history of the times. The pirates were neither Cilician nor plunderers. They were the naval branch of Mithridates’ armed forces, which sometimes operated quasi-autonomously as Privateers, but less frequently as individuals. They did not consider themselves illegal. They claimed to be collecting the spoils of war. Under a blanket franchise (Letter of marque) they attacked in squadrons, each consisting of a certain number of ships from an allied nation. They played elaborate charades to conceal their true identity from their victims, hence the quasi-banditry, the ostentatious show of wealth (gilded ship parts, embroidered sails), and the mock respect for Roman citizens, a status to which the victims would ultimately appeal, but this appeal would identify them as the target. The pirates would “release” them (in mid-ocean). “Cilician” was a ready-made disguise. Appian says:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "167963",
"title": "Treasure Island",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 225,
"text": "Its influence is enormous on popular perceptions of pirates, including such elements as treasure maps marked with an “X,” schooners, the Black Spot, tropical islands, and one-legged seamen bearing parrots on their shoulders.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5lb3ld
|
why do humans need to be taught about sex while other animals just know what to do?
|
[
{
"answer": "This is a very vague and not conclusive answer, but: Humans instinctively know more about sex than you think, and animals instinctively know less about sex than you think.\n\nHave you seen those videos where dogs or cows or turtles or whatever are just humping away at random inanimate objects and also even other species of animals? ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Humans don't *need* to be taught about sex. In fact, sex education is hardly *at all* about the mechanics of sex. It's about safe sex, and other bodily functions that are peripheral to the actual act. \n\nSome of it is stuff that people *would* figure out on their own, but why not take a short cut and learn about it *before* it's an issue? ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's a recent development. For nearly all of human history, humans learned about sex the way rabbits or any animal would: Seeing it happen. Plenty of mammals mate out in the open, allowing anyone to figure out how it works. Even after humans moved indoors, the one-room dwelling was standard, and parents weren't likely to stop having sex for fear of offending the kids. It's only with modern social customs that sex was hidden from the view of young people, requiring them to learn about it some other way.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Humans don't need to be taught about sex any more than a rabbit does...if you want humans to have sex like rabbits. The rabbit, however, is not going to be concerned about things like consent, contraceptives, STDs, and pregnancy, while humans are. Humans need to be educated about those things more than about how to just make sex happen.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "My understanding is that hiding sex behind closed doors and teaching it is recent. Centuries ago (decades? - someone correct me) people were having sex when they hit puberty. \n\n14 for Juliet in Romeo and Juliet, for example.\n\nAnd did Romans not have their own boys and girl prostitutes. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "We *are* naturally competent at sex. We just want to do it in a way that is more civilized and controlled than animals do. Animals don't use consent and birth control, they use estrus cycles and genital arms races and other such evolutionary tactics. Many animals are pretty much forcing themselves on each other, and the female just has to have some biological filter of sorts. (Keep in mind humans are one of the few species to be able to get it on anytime, anywhere. Most animals go into heat or lay eggs or some such.) Even the animals who dance or otherwise impress a mate into sex often don't care past having babies. \n\nWe have a sense that we can't just try to take a mate; we have to obtain permission for it to be moral, and so on. We are curious creatures as well and want to know not just how sex works, but why. What we teach isn't how to have sex, like how to put the penis in the vagina -- we can figure that out just fine -- but rather why it feels good, what the biological parts are doing, how to know proper consent, how to control when you have a baby, etc.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "14529239",
"title": "Zoophilia",
"section": "Section::::Debate over zoophilia or zoophilic relations.:Arguments for bestiality.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 88,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 88,
"end_character": 372,
"text": "Research has proven that non-human animals can and do have sex for non-reproductive purposes (and for pleasure). In 2006, a Danish Animal Ethics Council report concluded that ethically performed zoosexual activity is capable of providing a positive experience for all participants, and that some non-human animals are sexually attracted to humans (for example, dolphins).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14337",
"title": "Human sexual activity",
"section": "Section::::Psychological aspects.:Motivations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 355,
"text": "People engage in sexual activity for any of a multitude of possible reasons. Although the primary evolutionary purpose of sexual activity is reproduction, research on college students suggested that people have sex for four general reasons: \"physical attraction\", as a \"means to an end\", to increase \"emotional connection\", and to \"alleviate insecurity\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35334391",
"title": "Sexual arousal",
"section": "Section::::Other animals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 72,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 72,
"end_character": 1083,
"text": "While human sexuality is well understood, scientists do not completely grasp how other animals relate sexually. However, current research studies suggest that many animals, like humans, enjoy sexual relations that are not limited to reproduction. Dolphins and bonobos, for example, are both well known to use sex as a \"social tool to strengthen and maintain bonds.\" Ethologists have long documented the exchanges of sex to promote group cohesion in social animals. Cementing social bondage is one of the most prominent theorized selective advantages of group selection theory. Experts in the evolution of sex such as John Maynard Smith advocate for the idea that the exchange of sexual favors helps congeal and localize the assortment of alleles in isolated population and therefore is potentially a very strong force in evolution. Maynard Smith has also written extensively on the \"seminal fluid swapping theory\" logistic application of the assortment of alleles as a more accurate synthetic depiction of the Hardy–Weinberg principle in cases of severely interbreeding populations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "232495",
"title": "Motivation",
"section": "Section::::Psychological theories.:Content theories.:Sex, Hedonism, and Evolution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 117,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 117,
"end_character": 520,
"text": "There are multiple theories for why sex is a strong motivation, and many fall under the Theory of Evolution. On an evolutionary level, the motivation for sex likely has to do with a species’ ability to reproduce. Species that reproduce more, survive and pass on their genes. Therefore, species have sexual desire that leads to sexual intercourse as a means to create more offspring. Without this innate motivation, a species may determine that attaining intercourse is too costly in terms of effort, energy, and danger.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17010691",
"title": "The Red Queen: Sex and the Evolution of Human Nature",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 218,
"text": "Ridley argues that few, if any, aspects of human nature can be understood apart from sex, since human nature is a product of evolution, driven by sexual reproduction in the case of sexual selection in human evolution.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1787105",
"title": "Animal sexual behaviour",
"section": "Section::::Motivation.:Pleasure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 58,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 58,
"end_character": 771,
"text": "It is often assumed that animals do not have sex for pleasure, or alternatively that humans, pigs, bonobos (and perhaps dolphins and one or two more species of primates) are the only species that do. This is sometimes stated as \"animals mate only for reproduction\". This view is considered a misconception by some scholars. Jonathan Balcombe argues that the prevalence of non-reproductive sexual behaviour in certain species suggests that sexual stimulation is pleasurable. He also points to the presence of the clitoris in some female mammals, and evidence for female orgasm in primates. On the other hand, it is impossible to know the subjective feelings of animals, and the notion that non-human animals experience emotions similar to humans is a contentious subject.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "79863",
"title": "John Willie",
"section": "Section::::Quotations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 386,
"text": "\"As for sex, ignorance is abysmal, because for centuries those who could not satisfy themselves, except by denying pleasure to others, have taught generation after generation that \"sex is taboo.\" Thou shalt not think about it or discuss it. In fact, it's a dreadful thing, but it's all right as long as you don't enjoy it. If you have any other ideas on the subject, you are a pervert.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3b4qln
|
Why don't salamanders bleed to death when they lose limbs?
|
[
{
"answer": "If you chop off a person's limb they don't just fountain blood out of the open wound. At least not initially. The blood vessels constrict during trauma which buys valuable time for treatment. For salamanders I think the process is similar only the surface area of the wound is much smaller and it has time to clot before they would bleed out.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "621",
"title": "Amphibian",
"section": "Section::::Anatomy and physiology.:Skeletal system and locomotion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 464,
"text": "Salamanders use their tails in defence and some are prepared to jettison them to save their lives in a process known as autotomy. Certain species in the Plethodontidae have a weak zone at the base of the tail and use this strategy readily. The tail often continues to twitch after separation which may distract the attacker and allow the salamander to escape. Both tails and limbs can be regenerated. Adult frogs are unable to regrow limbs but tadpoles can do so.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29657",
"title": "Salamander",
"section": "Section::::Defense.:Autotomy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 477,
"text": "Some salamander species use tail autotomy to escape predators. The tail drops off and wriggles around for a while after an attack, and the salamander either runs away or stays still enough not to be noticed while the predator is distracted. The tail regrows with time, and salamanders routinely regenerate other complex tissues, including the lens or retina of the eye. Within only a few weeks of losing a piece of a limb, a salamander perfectly reforms the missing structure.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1238294",
"title": "Baylisascaris",
"section": "Section::::Disease progression.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 752,
"text": "A great deal of damage occurs wherever the larva try to make a home. In response to the attack, the body attempts to destroy it by walling it off or killing it. The larva moves rapidly to escape, seeking out the liver, eyes, spinal cord or brain. Occasionally they can be found in the heart, lungs, and other organs. Eventually the larva dies and is reabsorbed by the body. In very small species such as mice, it might take only one or two larvae in the brain to be fatal. If the larva does not cause significant damage in vital organs, then the victim will show no signs of disease. On the other hand, if it causes behavioral changes by destroying parts of the brain, the host becomes easier prey, bringing the larva into the intestine of a new host.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "241383",
"title": "Colubridae",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 300,
"text": "While most colubrids are not venomous (or have venom that is not known to be harmful to humans) and are mostly harmless, a few groups, such as genus \"Boiga\", can produce medically significant bites, while the boomslang, the twig snakes, and the Asian genus \"Rhabdophis\" have caused human fatalities.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14628814",
"title": "Races and creatures in His Dark Materials",
"section": "Section::::Gallivespians.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 67,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 67,
"end_character": 403,
"text": "Gallivespians are a humanoid species from another universe that appear in the third volume of the trilogy. They are no taller than the width of a man's hand, so, to make up for their small size, they have poisonous spurs on the backs of their heels. These spurs can kill or cause intense pain and temporary paralysis. Their poison needs time to build up to full potency so it cannot be used frequently.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "330382",
"title": "Sicariidae",
"section": "Section::::Venom.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 502,
"text": "The venom of many Sicariidae species is highly hemolytic and dermonecrotic, capable of destroying red blood cells and causing lesions as large as in diameter that take a long time to heal. Some require skin grafts and if the open wound gets infected, there can be even more serious consequences. Rarely, the venom is carried by the blood stream into internal organs causing systemic effects. Unlike spiders that use neurotoxins, many of the venoms used by these spiders do not have a known anti-venom.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "235589",
"title": "Axolotl",
"section": "Section::::Use as a model organism.:Regeneration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 854,
"text": "The feature of the salamander that attracts most attention is its healing ability: the axolotl does not heal by scarring and is capable of the regeneration of entire lost appendages in a period of months, and, in certain cases, more vital structures. Some have indeed been found restoring the less vital parts of their brains. They can also readily accept transplants from other individuals, including eyes and parts of the brain—restoring these alien organs to full functionality. In some cases, axolotls have been known to repair a damaged limb, as well as regenerating an additional one, ending up with an extra appendage that makes them attractive to pet owners as a novelty. In metamorphosed individuals, however, the ability to regenerate is greatly diminished. The axolotl is therefore used as a model for the development of limbs in vertebrates.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
12nizu
|
When energy is converted into heat and then dissipates, how is energy conserved?
|
[
{
"answer": "When heat dissipates, it doesn't disappear; it just spreads out.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "67088",
"title": "Conservation of energy",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 890,
"text": "In physics and chemistry, the law of conservation of energy states that the total energy of an isolated system remains constant; it is said to be \"conserved\" over time. This law means that energy can neither be created nor destroyed; rather, it can only be transformed or transferred from one form to another. For instance, chemical energy is converted to kinetic energy when a stick of dynamite explodes. If one adds up all the forms of energy that were released in the explosion, such as the kinetic energy and potential energy of the pieces, as well as heat and sound, one will get the exact decrease of chemical energy in the combustion of the dynamite. Classically, conservation of energy was distinct from conservation of mass; however, special relativity showed that mass is related to energy and vice versa by \"E = mc\", and science now takes the view that mass–energy is conserved.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9649",
"title": "Energy",
"section": "Section::::Transformation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 369,
"text": "Energy is also transferred from potential energy (formula_8) to kinetic energy (formula_9) and then back to potential energy constantly. This is referred to as conservation of energy. In this closed system, energy cannot be created or destroyed; therefore, the initial energy and the final energy will be equal to each other. This can be demonstrated by the following:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23613099",
"title": "Energy homeostasis",
"section": "Section::::Definition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 492,
"text": "The first law of thermodynamics states that energy can be neither created nor destroyed. But energy can be converted from one form of energy to another. So, when a calorie of food energy is consumed, one of three particular effects occur within the body: a portion of that calorie may be stored as body fat, triglycerides, or glycogen, transferred to cells and converted to chemical energy in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP – a coenzyme) or related compounds, or dissipated as heat.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9649",
"title": "Energy",
"section": "Section::::Conservation of energy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 65,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 65,
"end_character": 616,
"text": "While heat can always be fully converted into work in a reversible isothermal expansion of an ideal gas, for cyclic processes of practical interest in heat engines the second law of thermodynamics states that the system doing work always loses some energy as waste heat. This creates a limit to the amount of heat energy that can do work in a cyclic process, a limit called the available energy. Mechanical and other forms of energy can be transformed in the other direction into thermal energy without such limitations. The total energy of a system can be calculated by adding up all forms of energy in the system.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1228320",
"title": "Energy returned on energy invested",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 303,
"text": "In energy economics and ecological energetics, energy returned on energy invested (EROEI or ERoEI), or energy return on investment (EROI), is the ratio of the amount of usable energy (the \"exergy\") delivered from a particular energy resource to the amount of exergy used to obtain that energy resource.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9127632",
"title": "Biology",
"section": "Section::::Foundations of modern biology.:Energy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 379,
"text": "Some of the energy thus captured produces biomass and energy that is available for growth and development of other life forms. The majority of the rest of this biomass and energy are lost as waste molecules and heat. The most important processes for converting the energy trapped in chemical substances into energy useful to sustain life are metabolism and cellular respiration.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1579998",
"title": "Temperature control",
"section": "Section::::Energy balance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 241,
"text": "If, in a place or thing, more energy is received than is lost, its temperature increases. If the amount of energy coming in and going out are exactly the same, the temperature stays constant—there is thermal balance, or thermal equilibrium.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4ccfgg
|
what is ethereum, and how does it have a monetary value?
|
[
{
"answer": "I can't speak about Ethereum specifically, but I can give you a generalized explanation of bitcoin and hope the information is useful to you. The processing power used to generate a new coin is not *useful* or *practical* to someone in the same way as Folding@Home. The processing requirement to creating new coins is a means of creating and regulating scarcity. If each coin requires a certain amount of work to be produced, and there is a finite amount of work available, then the amount of new currency entering the market is restrained, which is extremely important for a currency. Cryptocurrencies do not have inherent value. Their valuation is merely what other people are willing to value it at, similar to other FIAT currencies used by nations around the world.\n\nThe American dollar's availability is controlled by the FED and the willingness of the public to purchase US bonds, and its value stabilized by the petrodollar. Bitcoins' availability is controlled by inherent restraints in software, and their value is somewhat intentionally not stabilized to encourage the development of a commodity trading economy. I reiterate that I don't know much about Ethereum, but I imagine it's quite similar.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "51159152",
"title": "Ethereum Classic",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 815,
"text": "Ethereum Classic is an open-source, public, blockchain-based distributed computing platform featuring smart contract (scripting) functionality. It provides a decentralized Turing-complete virtual machine, the Ethereum Virtual Machine (EVM), which can execute scripts using an international network of public nodes. Ethereum Classic and Ethereum have a value token called \"ether\", which can be transferred between participants, stored in a cryptocurrency wallet and is used to compensate participant nodes for computations performed in the Ethereum Platform. The classic ether token is traded on cryptocurrency exchanges under the ticker symbol ETC. Gas, an internal transaction pricing mechanism, is used to prevent spam on the network and allocate resources proportionally to the incentive offered by the request.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41754003",
"title": "Ethereum",
"section": "Section::::Platform.:Applications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 57,
"end_character": 366,
"text": "Many uses have been proposed for Ethereum platform, including ones that are impossible or unfeasible. Use case proposals have included finance, the internet-of-things, farm-to-table produce, electricity sourcing and pricing, and sports betting. Ethereum is (as of 2017) the leading blockchain platform for initial coin offering projects, with over 50% market share.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41754003",
"title": "Ethereum",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 345,
"text": "Ethereum was proposed in late 2013 by Vitalik Buterin, a cryptocurrency researcher and programmer. Development was funded by an online crowdsale that took place between July and August 2014. The system then went live on 30 July 2015, with 72 million coins \"premined\". This accounts for about 68 percent of the total circulating supply in 2019. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41754003",
"title": "Ethereum",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 251,
"text": "Ethereum is an open source, public, blockchain-based distributed computing platform and operating system featuring smart contract (scripting) functionality. It supports a modified version of Nakamoto consensus via transaction-based state transitions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41754003",
"title": "Ethereum",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 378,
"text": "Ethereum was initially described in a white paper by Vitalik Buterin, a programmer involved with Bitcoin Magazine, in late 2013 with a goal of building decentralized applications. Buterin had argued that Bitcoin needed a scripting language for application development. Failing to gain agreement, he proposed development of a new platform with a more general scripting language.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41754003",
"title": "Ethereum",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics.:Ether.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 287,
"text": "\"Ether\" is a fundamental token for operation of Ethereum, which thereby provides a public distributed ledger for transactions. It is used to pay for gas, a unit of computation used in transactions and other state transitions. Mistakenly, this currency is also referred to as \"Ethereum\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41754003",
"title": "Ethereum",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics.:Comparison to bitcoin.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 225,
"text": "BULLET::::- Ethereum uses an account system where values in Wei are debited from accounts and credited to another, as opposed to Bitcoin's UTXO system, which is more analogous to spending cash and receiving change in return.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
92mh31
|
How far is it between solar systems in a galaxy? What is there in this space between solar systems and planets?
|
[
{
"answer": "In the disc of the Milky Way (ie where we are) the average seperation between two stars is about a parsec, although this will vary drastically depending on the region (ie the stellar density near the galactic centre will be much higher than this).\n\nBetween stars/planets you have the Interstellar Medium (ISM). The ISM consists of diffuse gas with a typical density of a couple of atoms per cubic centimeter. However you also get higher density regions such as Giant Molecular Clouds (GMCs) and HII regions (such as the Orion Nebula), which have densities of a few million atoms per cubic centimeter. However, even these relatively 'high-density' regions are still extremely diffuse relative to Earth atmosphere, which has a typical density of 10^19 atoms/molecules per cubic centimeter - that number is 10 followed by 18 zeros!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There's also a huge number of rogue planets, comets and asteroids out there that get ejected from their orbits around their host stars and wander the galaxy, [100 billion freely wandering Jupiter-mass planets](_URL_3_) in our galaxy according to a recent study, but your chances of running into one are incredibly slim since space is so vast and we [only recently observed our first interstellar visitor](_URL_7_) as it passed through the solar system. There's also [cosmic dust](_URL_9_), which has the interesting property of being able to [spin at microwave frequencies of 10-60GHz](_URL_0_) due to the tiny size of the dust grains, emitting microwaves at it's rotational frequency, plus there's [all manner of molecules](_URL_5_) out there and various exotic ions that aren't stable on Earth and free protons and electrons and bare atomic nuclei, which are a radiation hazard to astronauts and behave like subatomic bullets that whizz through their bodies and rip electrons from atoms, damaging their DNA and cellular machinery. But by far the vast majority of the stuff out there is plain old hydrogen and helium in various forms of ionisation. Altogether, this mix of stuff makes up the [interstellar medium](_URL_1_), and it's from this gas and dust that stars and planets form when the conditions are right for clouds of it to gravitationally collapse and form compact objects, as happens in [molecular clouds](_URL_8_).\n\nWhen an article says that a probe has left the Solar system, it also depends on your definition of Solar system. Sort of like how we discover water on Mars every other week, because to one person, uncovering a patch of ice under the soil is discovering water, and to another person you've only discovered water when it's liquid water and ice, dew, transient dark streaks on crater rims and patches of frost don't count, so you get a new 'discovery' for each one. \n\nNo probe has even passed through the [Kuiper belt](_URL_4_) yet, and it'll be thousands of years before our probes reach the [Oort cloud](_URL_6_), the cloud of comets that surrounds the Sun and extends as far as 1 light year away, but [Voyager 1](_URL_2_) has passed through the Heliopause where the solar wind slows down and merges with the interstellar medium, so in the interest of attracting readers and getting advertising dollars, you'll have seen articles saying that Voyager left the solar system when it passed through the termination shock and articles saying it left the solar system a few years later when it passed through the heliosheath and more articles saying the same thing a few years after that when it passed through the heliopause, because such is journalism.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "9235239",
"title": "GRO J1655-40",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 464,
"text": "The distance from the Solar System is probably about 11,000 light years, or approximately half-way from the Sun to the Galactic Center, but a closer distance of ~2800 ly is not ruled out. GRO J1655-40 and its companion are moving through the Milky Way at around 112 km/s (250,000 miles per hour), in a galactic orbit that depends on its exact distance, but is mostly interior to the \"Solar circle\", \"d\"~8,500 pc, and within 150 pc (~500 ly) of the galactic plane.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26780222",
"title": "Earth analog",
"section": "Section::::Extrasolar Earth analog.:Estimated frequency.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 564,
"text": "In 2011 NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) and based on observations from the Kepler Mission is that about 1.4% to 2.7% of all Sun-like stars are expected to have Earth-size planets within the habitable zones of their stars. This means there could be two billion of them in the Milky Way galaxy alone, and assuming that all galaxies have a similar number as the Milky Way, in the 50 billion galaxies in the observable universe, there may be as many as a hundred quintillion. This would correspond to around 20 earth analogs per square centimeter of the Earth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29389753",
"title": "UDF 2457",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 356,
"text": "The Milky Way galaxy is about 100,000 light-years in diameter, and the Sun is about 25,000 light-years from the galactic center. The small common star UDF 2457 may be one of the farthest known stars inside the main body of the Milky Way. Globular clusters (such as Messier 54 and NGC 2419) and stellar streams are located further out in the galactic halo.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9588",
"title": "Extraterrestrial life",
"section": "Section::::The Drake equation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 74,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 74,
"end_character": 490,
"text": "Based on observations from the \"Hubble Space Telescope\", there are between 125 and 250 billion galaxies in the observable universe. It is estimated that at least ten percent of all Sun-like stars have a system of planets, i.e. there are stars with planets orbiting them in the observable universe. Even if it is assumed that only one out of a billion of these stars has planets supporting life, there would be some 6.25 billion life-supporting planetary systems in the observable universe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10877467",
"title": "Gliese 581c",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 298,
"text": "In astronomical terms, the Gliese 581 system is relatively close to Earth, at 20.37 light-years (192 trillion km or 119 trillion miles) in the direction of the constellation of Libra. This distance, along with the declination and right ascension coordinates, give its exact location in our galaxy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "252372",
"title": "Planetary system",
"section": "Section::::Galactic distribution of planets.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 96,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 96,
"end_character": 650,
"text": "The Milky Way is 100,000 light-years across, but 90% of planets with known distances lie within about 2000 light years of Earth, as of July 2014. One method that can detect planets much further away is microlensing. The WFIRST spacecraft could use microlensing to measure the relative frequency of planets in the galactic bulge vs. galactic disk. So far, the indications are that planets are more common in the disk than the bulge. Estimates of the distance of microlensing events is difficult: the first planet considered with high probability of being in the bulge is MOA-2011-BLG-293Lb at a distance of 7.7 kiloparsecs (about 25,000 light years).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26068514",
"title": "Leo V (dwarf galaxy)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 257,
"text": "The galaxy is located only 3 degrees away from another Milky Way satellite, Leo IV. The latter is also closer to the Sun by 20 kpc. These two galaxies may be physically associated with each other. There is evidence that they are connected by a star bridge.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5gwy15
|
Would Genghis Khan be considered a "bad guy" of history?
|
[
{
"answer": "Potentially better follow up: Do historians actually view anyone as villains? I had got the impression that the more general sociocultural factors were being considered instead of individuals in good historical work. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "17414699",
"title": "Genghis Khan",
"section": "Section::::Uniting the Mongol confederations.:Sole ruler of the Mongol plains (1206).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 825,
"text": "Accounts of Genghis Khan's life are marked by claims of a series of betrayals and conspiracies. These include rifts with his early allies such as Jamukha (who also wanted to be a ruler of Mongol tribes) and Wang Khan (his and his father's ally), his son Jochi, and problems with the most important shaman, who allegedly tried to drive a wedge between him and his loyal brother Khasar. His military strategies showed a deep interest in gathering intelligence and understanding the motivations of his rivals, exemplified by his extensive spy network and Yam route systems. He seemed to be a quick student, adopting new technologies and ideas that he encountered, such as siege warfare from the Chinese. He was also ruthless, demonstrated by his tactic of measuring against the linchpin, used against the tribes led by Jamukha.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3835549",
"title": "Genghis Khan and the Making of the Modern World",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 446,
"text": "Genghis Khan and the Making of the Modern World (2004) is a history book written by Jack Weatherford, Dewitt Wallace Professor of Anthropology at Macalester College. It is a narrative of the rise and influence of Genghis Khan and his successors, and their influence on European civilization. Weatherford provides a different slant on Genghis Khan than has been typical in most Western accounts, attributing positive cultural effects to his rule.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17414699",
"title": "Genghis Khan",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 390,
"text": "Genghis Khan was known for the brutality of his campaigns, and is considered by many to have been a genocidal ruler. However, he is also credited with bringing the Silk Road under one cohesive political environment. This brought relatively easy communication and trade between Northeast Asia, Muslim Southwest Asia, and Christian Europe, expanding the cultural horizons of all three areas.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17414699",
"title": "Genghis Khan",
"section": "Section::::Perceptions.:Positive.:In Mongolia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 116,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 116,
"end_character": 1266,
"text": "Genghis Khan is regarded as one of the prominent leaders in Mongolia's history. He is responsible for the emergence of the Mongols as a political and ethnic identity because there was no unified identity between the tribes that had cultural similarity. He reinforced many Mongol traditions and provided stability and unity during a time of almost endemic warfare between tribes. He is also credited for introducing the traditional Mongolian script and creating the first written Mongolian code of law, the Ikh Zasag (\"Great Administration\"). Mongolian President Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj has noted that the Ikh Zasag heavily punished corruption and bribery, and he considers Genghis Khan a teacher for anti-corruption efforts who sought equal protection under the law for all citizens regardless of status or wealth. On the 850th anniversary of Genghis's birth, the President stated \"Chinggis ... was a man who deeply realized that the justice begins and consolidates with the equality of law, and not with the distinctions between people. He was a man who knew that the good laws and rules lived longer than fancy palaces.\" In summary, Mongolians see him as the fundamental figure in the founding of the Mongol Empire and therefore the basis for Mongolia as a country.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17414699",
"title": "Genghis Khan",
"section": "Section::::Perceptions.:Positive.:In Mongolia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 112,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 112,
"end_character": 359,
"text": "Genghis Khan had been revered for centuries by Mongols and certain other ethnic groups such as Turks, largely because of his association with Mongol statehood, political and military organization, and his victories in war. He eventually evolved into a larger-than-life figure chiefly among the Mongols and is still considered the symbol of Mongolian culture.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3835549",
"title": "Genghis Khan and the Making of the Modern World",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 421,
"text": "In the last section, he reviews the historiography of Genghis Khan in the West and argues that the leader's early portrayal in writings as an \"excellent, noble king\" changed to that of a brutal pagan during the Age of Enlightenment. Weatherford made use of three major non-Western sources: \"The Secret History of the Mongols,\" the \"Ta' rīkh-i jahān-gushā\" of Juvayni and the \"Jami al-Tawarikh\" of Rashid-al-Din Hamadani.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17414699",
"title": "Genghis Khan",
"section": "Section::::Perceptions.:Positive.:In Mongolia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 114,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 114,
"end_character": 790,
"text": "In the early 1990s, the memory of Genghis Khan underwent a powerful revival, partly in reaction to its suppression during the Mongolian People's Republic period. Genghis Khan became one of the central figures of the national identity. He is considered positively by Mongolians for his role in uniting warring tribes. For example, Mongolians often refer to their country as \"Genghis Khan's Mongolia\", to themselves as \"Genghis Khan's children\", and to Genghis Khan as the \"father of the Mongols\" especially among the younger generation. However, there is a chasm in the perception of his brutality. Mongolians maintain that the historical records written by non-Mongolians are unfairly biased against Genghis Khan and that his butchery is exaggerated, while his positive role is underrated.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
cczzqn
|
Why does a small amount of antenna extension in devices such as portable radios and satellite cellphones make such a big impact on quality of reception?
|
[
{
"answer": "Old ‘brick’ cell phones used a frequency around 800mhz. The wavelength, ~14 inches, would make a full wave antenna cumbersome. However, a half wave length antenna (that is normally stowed inside the phone) does work pretty well while being compact. \n\nNewer phones use higher frequencies, which combined with lower power signal and better signal processing, leads to an antenna that fits inside the phone (or IS the phone, in the iphone’s case).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Mostly because it gets the antenna away from your head. Your head, being made of mostly water, absorbs all the RF energy going in one direction. Extending the antenna gets it further away from your head, and thus allows more of it to radiate out into the atmosphere, and hopefully towards the base station (or satellite).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "25165197",
"title": "CDMA spectral efficiency",
"section": "Section::::Antenna diversity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 357,
"text": "Antenna diversity is especially effective at mitigating these multipath propagation situations. This is because multiple antennas afford a receiver several observations of the same signal. Each antenna will experience a different interference environment. Thus, if one antenna is experiencing a deep fade, it is likely that another has a sufficient signal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41643",
"title": "Reflective array antenna",
"section": "Section::::Basic concepts.:Radio signals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 502,
"text": "This means that an antenna designed to receive a particular wavelength has a natural size. To improve reception, one cannot simply make the antenna larger; this will improve the amount of signal intercepted by the antenna, which is largely a function of area, but will lower the efficiency of the reception (at a given wavelength). Thus, in order to improve reception, antenna designers often use multiple elements, combining them together so their signals add up. These are known as \"antenna arrays\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2420922",
"title": "Antenna diversity",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 501,
"text": "Inherently an antenna diversity scheme requires additional hardware and integration versus a single antenna system but due to the commonality of the signal paths a fair amount of circuitry can be shared. Also with the multiple signals there is a greater processing demand placed on the receiver, which can lead to tighter design requirements. Typically, however, signal reliability is paramount and using multiple antennas is an effective way to decrease the number of drop-outs and lost connections.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1256051",
"title": "Grimeton Radio Station",
"section": "Section::::Antenna system.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 233,
"text": "The antenna system, consisting of high voltage power lines-like antenna towers with antenna wires, has a very low efficiency due to the fact that the length of the antenna is still relatively small compared to the output wavelength.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "271195",
"title": "Radio propagation",
"section": "Section::::Practical effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 665,
"text": "Non-broadcast signals are also affected. Mobile phone signals are in the UHF band, ranging from 700 to over 2600 Megahertz, a range which makes them even more prone to weather-induced propagation changes. In urban (and to some extent suburban) areas with a high population density, this is partly offset by the use of smaller cells, which use lower effective radiated power and beam tilt to reduce interference, and therefore increase frequency reuse and user capacity. However, since this would not be very cost-effective in more rural areas, these cells are larger and so more likely to cause interference over longer distances when propagation conditions allow.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "342371",
"title": "Directional antenna",
"section": "Section::::Antenna gain.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 516,
"text": "Other factors may also affect gain such as aperture (the area the antenna collects signal from, almost entirely related to the size of the antenna but for small antennas can be increased by adding a ferrite rod), and efficiency (again, affected by size, but also resistivity of the materials used and impedance matching). These factors are easy to improve without adjusting other features of the antennas or coincidentally improved by the same factors that increase directivity, and so are typically not emphasized.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1761176",
"title": "80-meter band",
"section": "Section::::Summary.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 472,
"text": "Mobile operation is possible, although the relatively short length of practical mobile antennas – usually less than 10 feet (3 meters) – compared to a quarter-wave antenna results in the need for significant inductive loading to achieve resonance. Since short antennas have very low radiation resistance, their efficiency is typically below 10%. Additionally, the large inductance of the loading coil creates an antenna system with an extremely narrow bandwidth (high Q).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2brt23
|
What can you tell me about this Roman stone my neighbours dug up?
|
[
{
"answer": "\"AVG SACR\" is short for \"AUGusto SACRum\"; \"SILVANO\" was a woodland deity. Basically it's dedicated/sacred to Silvanus and Augustus.\n\nSource: Silvanus in Salona p161 _URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4129287",
"title": "Alchester Roman Town",
"section": "Section::::Archaeology.:The Town.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 206,
"text": "Excavations in 2003 of the town wall near the west gate showed this had been robbed of building stone in post-Roman times, except for two stones that were found \"in situ\" and the wall's rubble foundations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "827367",
"title": "Clare, Suffolk",
"section": "Section::::History.:Roman.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 273,
"text": "A Roman boundary ditch and posthole has been found just off Nethergate Street; a strap fitting, coins, sepulchral urns and a bronze figurine of Mercury or a dancing boy have been unearthed in various locations. Some Roman brick seems to have ended up in the Parish Church.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55829119",
"title": "Seabegs Wood",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 313,
"text": "In in the 1890s, the Antonine Wall Committee of Glasgow Archaeological Society's cut several trenches across the Roman rampart. These uncovered its stone base. Subsequent excavations in 1977 found a Roman fortlet attached to the south of the Rampart. In 1981, a mound was examined but little has been discovered.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27418034",
"title": "Milecastle 19",
"section": "Section::::Excavations and investigations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 805,
"text": "BULLET::::- 1999 – An excavation is undertaken by English Heritage consisting of two trenches, one through the eastern wall and interior and one through the southern wall. The eastern wall was noticeably robbed but found to be of stone, bonded by clay, with a rubble core. The excavation discovered that the floor was made of sandy clay or else this formed the basis for a later earthen floor, and that it was cobbled in the western portion of the interior. Finds recovered included some ironwork, modern glass, an animal bone, one Roman Sestertius of Emperor Hadrian dating from AD 125–138 and pottery (some pre-Roman, but mostly 2nd/3rd century AD). The archaeologists were able to confirm that the milecastle was of narrow wall construction. The milecastle was noted to have been damaged by ploughing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18648242",
"title": "Chilmark, Wiltshire",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 206,
"text": "Roman artefacts have been found in the nearby quarries, and Purbeck limestone, possibly from Chilmark, was used in the construction of Roman mansions at the villages of West Grimstead and Rockbourne Villa.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39703093",
"title": "Buckland Anglo-Saxon cemetery",
"section": "Section::::Location.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 292,
"text": "A late prehistoric barrow ditch was located in the highest part of the Anglo-Saxon cemetery, on a false crest of the hill. There was also evidence for Romano-British activity on the site, with a small circular pit 2 feet deep cut into the chalk, containing a few sherds of Roman-era pottery.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11793190",
"title": "Duivenvoorde Castle",
"section": "Section::::The Roman plaques.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 400,
"text": "Legend holds that both stones come from Brittenburg, the presumed Roman ruins that resurfaced above water off the coast of Katwijk in 1520. However, this cannot be true of the larger stone, because a military chronicle discovered in 1517 was indisputably taken from the text inscribed on it, implying that the stone was one found in 1502 while plowing a piece of land near the Monastery of Roomburg.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
32dj02
|
If visible light and radio waves are all forms of electromagnetic waves, can we emit visible light by emitting radio at a different wave length?
|
[
{
"answer": "No. The definitions of visible light and radio waves depend on their wavelengths. Visible light have a wavelength typically in the 100s of nanometer range, radio waves typically defined as larger than about a millimeter or so.\n\nLight can be [Doppler shifted](_URL_0_), which will change the wavelengths, but when you take into account the [relativistic version](_URL_1_), you have to be going very, very close to the speed of light to get between such large shifts in wavelength.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As you said, light and radio waves are both electromagnetic waves. They are simply at different frequencies/wavelengths, so are kinda different things. Human eyes can perceive only a small fraction of the different wavelengths that are out there. \nRadio waves have a longer wavelength (or lower frequency) than visible light. There are also infrared, ultraviolet, gamma rays, x-rays, etc. which cant be seen, like radio waves. \nEM wavelengths range from the size hugely, while we can only see roughly 380 nm (violet) to 750 nm (red) wavelengths, I think it is.\nSo by changing the wave length of a radio wave to make light like you said, would have to change the wave length drastically! \nIt would no longer be a radio wave you're emitting at that point :) \n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "50650",
"title": "Astronomy",
"section": "Section::::Observational astronomy.:Radio astronomy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 396,
"text": "Although some radio waves are emitted directly by astronomical objects, a product of thermal emission, most of the radio emission that is observed is the result of synchrotron radiation, which is produced when electrons orbit magnetic fields. Additionally, a number of spectral lines produced by interstellar gas, notably the hydrogen spectral line at 21 cm, are observable at radio wavelengths.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "98132",
"title": "Radio wave",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 562,
"text": "Radio waves are a type of electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths in the electromagnetic spectrum longer than infrared light. Radio waves have frequencies as high as 300 gigahertz (GHz) to as low as 30 hertz (Hz). At 300 GHz, the corresponding wavelength is 1 mm, and at 30 Hz is 10,000 km. Like all other electromagnetic waves, radio waves travel at the speed of light. They are generated by electric charges undergoing acceleration, such as time varying electric currents. Naturally occurring radio waves are emitted by lightning and astronomical objects. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25856",
"title": "Radiation",
"section": "Section::::Non-ionizing radiation.:Radio waves.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 1064,
"text": "Radio waves are a type of electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths in the electromagnetic spectrum longer than infrared light. Like all other electromagnetic waves, they travel at the speed of light. Naturally occurring radio waves are made by lightning, or by certain astronomical objects. Artificially generated radio waves are used for fixed and mobile radio communication, broadcasting, radar and other navigation systems, satellite communication, computer networks and innumerable other applications. In addition, almost any wire carrying alternating current will radiate some of the energy away as radio waves; these are mostly termed interference. Different frequencies of radio waves have different propagation characteristics in the Earth's atmosphere; long waves may bend at the rate of the curvature of the Earth and may cover a part of the Earth very consistently, shorter waves travel around the world by multiple reflections off the ionosphere and the Earth. Much shorter wavelengths bend or reflect very little and travel along the line of sight.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7622892",
"title": "Point source",
"section": "Section::::Electromagnetic radiation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 437,
"text": "Radio wave sources which are smaller than one radio wavelength are also generally treated as point sources. Radio emissions generated by a fixed electrical circuit are usually polarized, producing anisotropic radiation. If the propagating medium is lossless, however, the radiant power in the radio waves at a given distance will still vary as the inverse square of the distance if the angle remains constant to the source polarization.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15368428",
"title": "Radio",
"section": "Section::::Radio technology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 247,
"text": "Radio waves travel through a vacuum at the speed of light, and in air at very close to the speed of light, so the wavelength of a radio wave, the distance in meters between adjacent crests of the wave, is inversely proportional to its frequency. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30872182",
"title": "Non-ionizing radiation",
"section": "Section::::Types of non-ionizing electromagnetic radiation.:Radio waves.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 829,
"text": "Radio waves are a type of electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths in the electromagnetic spectrum longer than infrared light. Like all other electromagnetic waves, they travel at the speed of light. Naturally occurring radio waves are made by lightning, or by astronomical objects. Artificially generated radio waves are used for fixed and mobile radio communication, broadcasting, radar and other navigation systems, satellite communication, computer networks and innumerable other applications. Different frequencies of radio waves have different propagation characteristics in the Earth's atmosphere; long waves may cover a part of the Earth very consistently, shorter waves can reflect off the ionosphere and travel around the world, and much shorter wavelengths bend or reflect very little and travel on a line of sight.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9426",
"title": "Electromagnetic radiation",
"section": "Section::::History of discovery.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 812,
"text": "In 1862-4 James Clerk Maxwell developed equations for the electromagnetic field which suggested that waves in the field would travel with a speed that was very close to the known speed of light. Maxwell therefore suggested that visible light (as well as invisible infrared and ultraviolet rays by inference) all consisted of propagating disturbances (or radiation) in the electromagnetic field. Radio waves were first produced deliberately by Heinrich Hertz in 1887, using electrical circuits calculated to produce oscillations at a much lower frequency than that of visible light, following recipes for producing oscillating charges and currents suggested by Maxwell's equations. Hertz also developed ways to detect these waves, and produced and characterized what were later termed radio waves and microwaves.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
18r17t
|
Why do you get shocked when you lick a 9 volt but not when you lay your finger across both leads?
|
[
{
"answer": "Different resistance values between your tongue and your fingers. Electrons can travel easily through your wet tongue from negative to positive but your fingers have a higher resistance hindering the passage of electrons.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2855906",
"title": "Nine-volt battery",
"section": "Section::::Testing and charging.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 679,
"text": "Most battery voltage testers and chargers that can also test nine-volt need another snap clip to hold the battery, while cylindrical batteries often share a holder that may be adjustable in size. Because of the proximity of the positive and negative terminals at the top of the battery and relatively low current of most common batteries, one informal method of testing voltage is to place the two terminals across a tongue. A strong tingle would indicate a battery with a strong charge, the absence, a discharged battery. While there have been stories circulating of unfortunate outcomes, the process is rarely dangerous under normal circumstances, though it may be unpleasant.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26668156",
"title": "Telephone exchange",
"section": "Section::::Technologies.:Early automatic exchanges.:Electromechanical signaling.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 285,
"text": "These voltage changes on the trunk circuit would cause pops or clicks that were audible to the subscriber as the electrical handshaking stepped through its protocol. Another handshake, to start timing for billing purposes, caused a second set of clunks when the called party answered.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39113",
"title": "Tesla coil",
"section": "Section::::Health hazards.:Skin effect myth.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 97,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 97,
"end_character": 299,
"text": "An erroneous explanation for the absence of electric shock that has persisted among Tesla coil hobbyists is that the high frequency currents travel through the body close to the surface, and thus do not penetrate to vital organs or nerves, due to an electromagnetic phenomenon called \"skin effect\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41215",
"title": "Ground (electricity)",
"section": "Section::::Isolation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 547,
"text": "For an isolated device, touching a single powered conductor does not cause a severe shock, because there is no path back to the other conductor through the ground. However, shocks and electrocution may still occur if both poles of the transformer are contacted by bare skin. Previously it was suggested that repairmen \"work with one hand behind their back\" to avoid touching two parts of the device under test at the same time, thereby preventing a circuit from crossing through the chest and interrupting cardiac rhythms/ causing cardiac arrest.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "225268",
"title": "Electric eel",
"section": "Section::::Physiology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 427,
"text": "In the electric eel, some 5,000 to 6,000 stacked electroplaques can make a shock up to 600 volts and up to 1 ampere of current. This level of current is reportedly enough to produce a brief and painful numbing shock likened to a stun gun discharge, which due to the voltage can be felt for some distance from the fish; this is a common risk for aquarium caretakers and biologists attempting to handle or examine electric eels.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39113",
"title": "Tesla coil",
"section": "Section::::Health hazards.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 93,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 93,
"end_character": 414,
"text": "If the arcs from the high voltage terminal strike the bare skin, they can cause deep-seated burns called \"RF burns\". This is often avoided by allowing the arcs to strike a piece of metal held in the hand, or a thimble on a finger, instead. The current passes from the metal into the person's hand through a wide enough surface area to avoid causing burns. Often no sensation is felt, or just a warmth or tingling.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11513302",
"title": "Stray voltage",
"section": "Section::::Origins.:Capacitive leakage through insulation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 428,
"text": "In power transmission systems, one side of the circuit, known as the neutral, is grounded to dissipate static electricity and to reduce hazardous voltages caused by insulation failure and other electrical faults. It is possible to get a shock by only touching the \"hot\" wire, due to the person's body being capacitively coupled to the ground upon which the person stands, even if the person is standing on an insulated surface.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6ptsku
|
How is the Dead Sea the lowest point on Earth ( 400m) if the Grand Canyon has a depth of 1800m?
|
[
{
"answer": "You are comparing depth with altitude - they are not the same thing.\n\nThe Dead sea is the lowest point on Earth at an altitude of -400 m **relative to sea-level**.\n\nThe maximum depth of the Grand Canyon is measured from the surface, in the middle of the continent. The actual altitude relative to sea-level of that point is about +730 meters.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "6910096",
"title": "Pit cave",
"section": "Section::::Notable pit caves and underground pitches.:Europe.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 223,
"text": "BULLET::::- Hranice Abyss, Moravia, Czech Republic, is the deepest underwater cave in the world, the lowest confirmed depth (as of 27 September 2016) is 473 m (404 m under the water level), the expected depth is 700–800 m.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20973546",
"title": "Marianas Trench Marine National Monument",
"section": "Section::::Scope.:Mariana Trench National Wildlife Refuge (Trench Unit).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 391,
"text": "The Challenger Deep, located just outside the Trench Unit, is the deepest point in the Earth's oceans, deeper than the height of Mount Everest above sea level. It is five times longer than the Grand Canyon and includes some of virtually unexplored underwater terrain. The Sirena Deep, about 6.6 miles beneath the surface, is the deepest point of the Mariana Trench Marine National Monument.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15716",
"title": "Geography of Jordan",
"section": "Section::::Topography.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 495,
"text": "The Dead Sea occupies the deepest depression on the land surface of the earth. The depth of the depression is accentuated by the surrounding mountains and highlands that rise to elevations of 800 to 1,200 meters above sea level. The sea's greatest depth is about 430 meters, and it thus reaches a point more than 825 meters below sea level. A drop in the level of the sea has caused the former Lisan Peninsula to become a land bridge dividing the sea into separate northern and southern basins.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33989492",
"title": "Hranice Abyss",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 404,
"text": "The Hranice Abyss (), the English name adopted by the local tourist authorities, is the deepest flooded pit cave in the world. It is a karst sinkhole located near the town of Hranice (Přerov District). The greatest confirmed depth (as of 27 September 2016) is 473 m (404 m under the water level), which makes it the deepest known underwater cave in the world. Moreover, the expected depth is 800–1200 m.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2001335",
"title": "Philippine Trench",
"section": "Section::::Depth.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 218,
"text": "The trench reaches one of the greatest depths in the ocean, third only to the Mariana trench and the Tonga trench. Its deepest point is known as Galathea Depth and reaches 10,540 meters (34,580 ft) or (5,760 fathoms).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46797",
"title": "Death Valley",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 503,
"text": "Death Valley's Badwater Basin is the point of the lowest elevation in North America, at below sea level. This point is east-southeast of Mount Whitney, the highest point in the contiguous United States, with an elevation of 14,505 feet (4,421 m). On the afternoon of July 10, 1913, the United States Weather Bureau recorded a high temperature of 134 °F (56.7 °C) at Furnace Creek in Death Valley. This temperature stands as the highest ambient air temperature ever recorded at the surface of the Earth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17951",
"title": "Lake Superior",
"section": "Section::::Hydrography.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 679,
"text": "American limnologist J. Val Klump was the first person to reach the lowest depth of Lake Superior on July 30, 1985, as part of a scientific expedition, which at 122 fathoms 1 foot () below sea level is the second-lowest spot in the continental interior of the United States and the third-lowest spot in the interior of the North American continent after Iliamna Lake in Alaska (942 feet [287 m] below sea level) and Great Slave Lake in the Northwest Territories of Canada at ( below sea level). (Though Crater Lake is the deepest lake in the United States and deeper than Lake Superior, Crater Lake's elevation is higher and consequently its deepest point is \"above\" sea level.)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
8z4fs1
|
Does split brain lead to split consciousness?
|
[
{
"answer": "A “split brain” is not really 100% split: we use the term to describe patients who, for one reason or another (usually surgery), have lost the functionality of the Corpus Callosum. The Corpus Callisum is a dense bundle of neurons in the middle of the brain that is the primary structure responsible for coordinating and spreading activity between the left and right hemispheres, which is why we remove it in epileptic patients: it prevents seizure activity from taking over the entire brain. \n\nThe brain has a few other auxiliary connections between the hemispheres, however, called the Commissures. In the absence of the CC, these structures are apparently able to keep some semblance of hemispherical coordination intact. There are a few other phenomenon that can influence things, since, as you can imagine, neuroscience has exceptions to every rule, but in general it’s safe to say that split-brain patients still have some communication between their hemispheres.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[This](_URL_0_) is a fantastic video on the “split brain” condition. Its a bit sensationalist toward the end, but a very interesting topic and does use a lot of studies. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "10177813",
"title": "Splitting (psychology)",
"section": "Section::::Janet, Bleuler and Freud.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 857,
"text": "Splits in consciousness (\"normal self\" vs. \"secondary self\") was first described by Pierre Janet in \"De l'Automatisme Psychologique\" (1889). His ideas were extended by Bleuler (who in 1908 coined the word schizofrenia from the Ancient Greek \"skhízō\" and \"phrḗn\" ) and Freud to explain the splitting () of consciousness, not (with Janet) as the product of innate weakness, but as the result of inner conflict. With the development of the idea of repression, splitting moved to the background of Freud's thought for some years, being largely reserved for cases of double personality. However, his late work saw a renewed interest in how it was \"possible for the ego to avoid a rupture... by effecting a cleavage or division of itself\", a theme which was extended in his \"Outline of Psycho-Analysis\" (1940a [1938]) beyond fetishism to the neurotic in general.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42371992",
"title": "Dual consciousness",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 546,
"text": "Dual consciousness is a theoretical concept in neuroscience. It is proposed that it is possible that a person may develop two separate conscious entities within their one brain after undergoing a corpus callosotomy. The idea first began circulating in the neuroscience community after some split-brain patients exhibited the alien hand syndrome, which led some scientists to believe that there must be two separate consciousnesses within the brain's left and right hemispheres in competition with one another once the corpus callosum is severed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42371992",
"title": "Dual consciousness",
"section": "Section::::Alien hand syndrome.:Relationship to dual consciousness.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 334,
"text": "When scientists first started observing the alien hand syndrome in split-brain patients, they began to question the nature of consciousness and began to theorize that perhaps when the corpus callosum is cut, consciousness also is split into two separate entities. This development added to the general appeal of split-brain research.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42371992",
"title": "Dual consciousness",
"section": "Section::::Controversy and alternative explanations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 396,
"text": "Proponents of the dual consciousness theory have caused a great amount of controversy and debate within the neuroscience community. The magnitude of such a claim: that consciousness can be split into two entities within the one brain are considered by some scientists to be audacious. There is no concrete evidence to validate the theory and the current evidence provided is, at best, anecdotal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "490258",
"title": "Split-brain",
"section": "Section::::Hemispheric specialization.:Control.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 390,
"text": "Often, split-brained patients are indistinguishable from normal adults. This is due to the compensatory phenomena; split-brained patients progressively acquire a variety of strategies to get around their interhemispheric transfer deficits. One issue that can happen with their body control is that one side of the body is doing the opposite of the other side called the intermanual effect.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20651606",
"title": "Divided consciousness",
"section": "Section::::Origin(s).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 690,
"text": "The theory of a division of consciousness was touched upon by Carl Jung in 1935 when he stated, \"The so-called unity of consciousness is an illusion... we like to think that we are one but we are not.\" Ernest Hilgard believed that hypnosis causes a split in awareness and a vivid form of everyday mind splits. Drawing themes from Pierre Janet, Hilgard viewed hypnosis from this perspective as a willingness to divide the main systems of consciousness into different sectors. He argued that this split in consciousness can not only help define the state of mind reached during hypnosis, but can also help to define a vast range of psychological issues such as multiple personality disorder.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28796066",
"title": "Split-brain (computing)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 440,
"text": "Split-brain is a computer term, based on an analogy with the medical Split-brain syndrome. It indicates data or availability inconsistencies originating from the maintenance of two separate data sets with overlap in scope, either because of servers in a network design, or a failure condition based on servers not communicating and synchronizing their data to each other. This last case is also commonly referred to as a network partition.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
20fgk6
|
What was the scientific and cultural legacy of Achaemenid Persia?
|
[
{
"answer": " > First, I am going to assume that \"our culture\" refers to western culture. But this is a dangerous assumption to make, so please be sure to avoid such generalizations in the future. This is an important distinction to make because the reception of the Persians in the West is much, much different from the reception of the Persians in, for example, modern Iran. These are just two extremes in a the wide spectrum of modern societies that have studied and analyzed materials and documents from Achaemenid Persia.\n\n > All that being said, I want to point out just one major document that has impacted Western culture: the Cyrus Cylinder. Since its discovery in the 19th century in Babylon, the Cyrus Cylinder has often been heralded as a document of peace, magnanimity, and the universal tolerance of mankind. It has been argued that in the document, King Cyrus the Great guaranteed the freedoms and liberties of all citizens of the Persian Empire.\n\n > Of course, reality is much different (and less exciting). The document was merely a dedication to the gods of the rebuilding of a sacred temple in the city of Babylon. In the text, Cyrus stated numerous platitudes about being destined to be king, and to protect these gods of Babylon, and to do the bidding of the gods, etc. But there is no \"universal charter of mankind\" in this document.\nNonetheless, scholarship in the early 20th century focused heavily on this early interpretation of the text, and Cyrus was aggrandized into an ancient guardian of liberty and freedom. The modern state of Iran has also developed and furthered this legend, even placing an image of the Cyrus Cylinder on some official documents and currency. Of course, there are also the biblical connections, with Cyrus being tied to the return of the Jews to Israel. Of course, the Cyrus Cylinder itself is silent on the Israelites, but his supposed magnanimity and his mention in the book of Isaiah 45 tied the Cyrus Cylinder to this growing legend of Cyrus 'the Great.'\n\n > For further reading, I recommend Irving Finkel's The Cyrus Cylinder, which has compiled all of the most recent research and thinking on the document and its history and reception. \n\nThis is from [my previous comment on the topic](_URL_0_).",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "14097",
"title": "History of Asia",
"section": "Section::::Ancient.:Iron Age.:Middle East.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 1350,
"text": "The Achaemenid dynasty of the Persian Empire, founded by Cyrus the Great, ruled an area from Greece and Turkey to the Indus River and Central Asia during the 6th to 4th centuries BCE. Persian politics included a tolerance for other cultures, a highly centralized government, and significant infrastructure developments. Later, in Darius the Great's rule, the territories were integrated, a bureaucracy was developed, nobility were assigned military positions, tax collection was carefully organized, and spies were used to ensure the loyalty of regional officials. The primary religion of Persia at this time was Zoroastrianism, developed by the philosopher Zoroaster. It introduced an early form of monotheism to the area. The religion banned animal sacrifice and the use of intoxicants in rituals; and introduced the concept of spiritual salvation through personal moral action, an end time, and both general and Particular judgment with a heaven or hell. These concepts would heavily influence later emperors and the masses. More importantly, Zoroastrianism would be an important precursor for the Abrahamic religions such as Christianity, Islam, or Judaism. The Persian Empire was successful in establishing peace and stability throughout the Middle East and were a major influence in art, politics (affecting Hellenistic leaders), and religion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8595696",
"title": "Persepolis Administrative Archives",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 411,
"text": "Persepolis administrative archives are the single most important extant primary source for understanding the internal workings of the Persian Achaemenid Empire. But while these archives have the potential for offering the study of the Achaemenid history based on the sole surviving and substantial records from the heartland of the empire, they are still not fully utilized as such by a majority of historians.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1398017",
"title": "Pillars of Ashoka",
"section": "Section::::Construction.:Origin.:Western origin.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 440,
"text": "There has been much discussion of the extent of influence from Achaemenid Persia, where the column capitals supporting the roofs at Persepolis have similarities, and the \"rather cold, hieratic style\" of the Sarnath Lion Capital of Ashoka especially shows \"obvious Achaemenid and Sargonid influence\". India and the Achaemenid Empire had been in close contact since the Achaemenid conquest of the Indus Valley, from circa 500 BCE to 330 BCE.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30927438",
"title": "Achaemenid Empire",
"section": "Section::::Culture.:Art and architecture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 127,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 127,
"end_character": 691,
"text": "\"Achaemenid art\" includes frieze reliefs, Metalwork such as the Oxus Treasure, decoration of palaces, glazed brick masonry, fine craftsmanship (masonry, carpentry, etc.), and gardening. Although the Persians took artists, with their styles and techniques, from all corners of their empire, they produced not simply a combination of styles, but a synthesis of a new unique Persian style. Cyrus the Great in fact had an extensive ancient Iranian heritage behind him; the rich Achaemenid gold work, which inscriptions suggest may have been a speciality of the Medes, was for instance in the tradition of the delicate metalwork found in Iron Age II times at Hasanlu and still earlier at Marlik.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6595558",
"title": "Kaveh Farrokh",
"section": "Section::::Military history of Persia and Iran.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 276,
"text": "Farrokh has been interviewed on Voice of America's Persian service about the legacy of the Achaemenid founder, Cyrus the Great. The History Channel has also interviewed him on the topic of technology in ancient Persia for the series Engineering an Empire which aired in 2006.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25595604",
"title": "Military history",
"section": "Section::::Periods of military history.:Ancient warfare.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 118,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 118,
"end_character": 540,
"text": "The Achaemenid Persian Empire was founded by Cyrus the Great after conquering the Median Empire, Neo-Babylonian Empire, Lydia and Asia Minor. His successor Cambyses went on to conquer the Egyptian Empire, much of Central Asia, and parts of Greece, India and Libya. The empire later fell to Alexander the Great after defeating Darius III. After being ruled by the Seleucid dynasty, the Persian Empire was subsequently ruled by the Parthian and Sassanid dynasties, which were the Roman Empire's greatest rivals during the Roman-Persian Wars.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6202686",
"title": "Alireza Shapour Shahbazi",
"section": "Section::::Works.:Articles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 350,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 350,
"end_character": 213,
"text": "176.Piere Briant, History of the Persian Empire: From Cyrus to Alexander, New York, 2002: “A New Picture of the Achaemenid World”, Journal of Ancient Persian History III/2, Autumn and Winter 2003–2004, pp. 69–80.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
15rmxd
|
Different Base Numbers?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's really not that hard to go about using other base systems, it just means that you go to the next place value at whatever your base is. For example, in hexadecimal, or base-16, you count up to 15 then roll over to the next place; obviously, that doesn't work perfectly with our normal notation of numbers, so we use the first six letters of the alphabet A=10, B=11, and so on, so 27 in base-16 is 1B. If you wanted to go into greater detail on your alien system, you should create your own symbols, in my opinion, to reduce clutter on the page. Lower bases (less than ten in this case) are easier to work with for us because, they don't need new characters, but the theory is the same, just roll over one before your base, 27 in base 6 is 43.\nI really can't make any judgement as to what base system is better or worse because it depends on a couple of factors:\n1. We use a base ten system partly because we have ten fingers, if your alien's form is radically different, then they would most likely have a system that they can count on their body.\n2. While some higher bases can be useful, I don't think it's realistic to see base-72 because you would have to remember 71 unique numerals, which is stupid, even though it would use much less space. So ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Numberphile did a vid resently\n\n_URL_0_\n\nAlso this guy set a challenge where astrobiologists and mathmatitians had to decode a totally alien message. The guy used a new concept of number based on radians rather than a linear scale.",
"provenance": null
},
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"answer": "_URL_0_\n\nYou may enjoy this. Balanced ternary has many computational benefits over binary.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "21690",
"title": "Number",
"section": "Section::::Main classification.:Natural numbers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 62,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 62,
"end_character": 542,
"text": "In the base 10 numeral system, in almost universal use today for mathematical operations, the symbols for natural numbers are written using ten digits: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9. The radix or base is the number of unique numerical digits, including zero, that a numeral system uses to represent numbers (for the decimal system, the radix is 10). In this base 10 system, the rightmost digit of a natural number has a place value of 1, and every other digit has a place value ten times that of the place value of the digit to its right.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33776298",
"title": "Integer literal",
"section": "Section::::Digit separators.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 465,
"text": "Typically decimal numbers (base-10) are grouped in three digit groups (representing one of 1000 possible values), binary numbers (base-2) in four digit groups (one nibble, representing one of 16 possible values), and hexadecimal numbers (base-16) in two digit groups (each digit is one nibble, so two digits are one byte, representing one of 256 possible values). Numbers from other systems (such as id numbers) are grouped following whatever convention is in use.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "280582",
"title": "Numerical digit",
"section": "Section::::Overview.:Digital values.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 325,
"text": "Each digit in a number system represents an integer. For example, in decimal the digit \"1\" represents the integer one, and in the hexadecimal system, the letter \"A\" represents the number ten. A positional number system has one unique digit for each integer from zero up to, but not including, the radix of the number system.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13263",
"title": "Hexadecimal",
"section": "Section::::Real numbers.:Rational numbers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 100,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 100,
"end_character": 936,
"text": "For any base, 0.1 (or \"1/10\") is always equivalent to one divided by the representation of that base value in its own number system. Thus, whether dividing one by two for binary or dividing one by sixteen for hexadecimal, both of these fractions are written as codice_49. Because the radix 16 is a perfect square (4), fractions expressed in hexadecimal have an odd period much more often than decimal ones, and there are no cyclic numbers (other than trivial single digits). Recurring digits are exhibited when the denominator in lowest terms has a prime factor not found in the radix; thus, when using hexadecimal notation, all fractions with denominators that are not a power of two result in an infinite string of recurring digits (such as thirds and fifths). This makes hexadecimal (and binary) less convenient than decimal for representing rational numbers since a larger proportion lie outside its range of finite representation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6832938",
"title": "Non-integer representation",
"section": "Section::::Properties.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 363,
"text": "In no positional number system can every number be expressed uniquely. For example, in base ten, the number 1 has two representations: 1.000... and 0.999.... The set of numbers with two different representations is dense in the reals , but the question of classifying real numbers with unique β-expansions is considerably more subtle than that of integer bases .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40749925",
"title": "Unit designations of the United States Army Air Force and United States Air Force",
"section": "Section::::Base units.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 259,
"text": "In the base unit numbering, the number of digits and the leading numerials had structural significance. Thus a two digit number reflected certain types of organizations; and similarly, three and four digit numbers represented other organizational structures.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "701207",
"title": "Radix",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 450,
"text": "In any standard positional numeral system, a number is conventionally written as with \"x\" as the string of digits and \"y\" as its base, although for base ten the subscript is usually assumed (and omitted, together with the pair of parentheses), as it is the most common way to express value. For example, (100) = 100 (in the decimal system) represents the number one hundred, while (100) (in the binary system with base 2) represents the number four.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
729yma
|
- what makes peanut butter stick to the roof of your mouth, and throat?
|
[
{
"answer": "Peanutbutter is viscous. The viscosity of peanutbutter means that it will take longer to flow than other fluids. Aside from that, peanutbutter is not only viscous, but is able to squish between nooks and crannies in a surface, allowing it to act like a glue. It's a good adhesive.\nOn top of that, peanutbutter is made mostly of fats, so it's not very soluble in water, and water doesn't want to interact with the fats in peanutbutter, so it takes time to go down with the help of friction from your tongue and esophagus.\n\nAlso, peanutbutter should be one word. It's one thing, and it's easier to type it that way. I vote 'yes' on *peanutbutter*.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "55602",
"title": "Peanut",
"section": "Section::::Food.:Peanut butter.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 567,
"text": "Peanut butter is a food paste or spread made from ground dry roasted peanuts. It often contains additional ingredients that modify the taste or texture, such as salt, sweeteners or emulsifiers. Peanut butter is served as a spread on bread, toast or crackers, and used to make sandwiches (notably the peanut butter and jelly sandwich). It is also used in a number of confections, such as peanut-flavored granola bars or croissants and other pastries. The United States is a leading exporter of peanut butter and itself consumes $800 million of peanut butter annually.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "289786",
"title": "Peanut butter",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 366,
"text": "Peanut butter is served as a spread on bread, toast, or crackers, and used to make sandwiches (notably the peanut butter and jelly sandwich). It is also used in a number of breakfast dishes and desserts, such as peanut-flavored granola, smoothies, crepes, cookies, brownies, or croissants. It is similar to other nut butters such as cashew butter and almond butter.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "289786",
"title": "Peanut butter",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 356,
"text": "Peanut butter is a food paste or spread made from ground dry-roasted peanuts. It often contains additional ingredients that modify the taste or texture, such as salt, sweeteners, or emulsifiers. Peanut butter is popular in many countries. The United States is a leading exporter of peanut butter and itself consumes $800 million of peanut butter annually.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "289786",
"title": "Peanut butter",
"section": "Section::::Health.:Nutritional profile.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 252,
"text": "Both crunchy/chunky and smooth peanut butter are sources of saturated (primarily palmitic acid, 21% of total fat) and monounsaturated fats, mainly oleic acid as 47% of total fat, and polyunsaturated fat (28% of total fat), primarily as linoleic acid).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5921129",
"title": "Peanut paste",
"section": "Section::::Distinction from peanut butter.:As ingredient of peanut butter.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 442,
"text": "Peanut butter may be made from peanut paste mixed with a stabilizing agent, a sweetening agent, salt, and optionally, an emulsifying agent. In such formulas, peanut paste acts as the main ingredient in peanut butter, from 75% to as much as 99% of the recipe. Peanut butter is mainly known for being sold as a spread, and peanut paste is regularly sold to be used as an ingredient in cookies, cakes and a number of other retail food products.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "289786",
"title": "Peanut butter",
"section": "Section::::Other uses.:As an ingredient.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 303,
"text": "Peanut butter is included as an ingredient in many recipes: peanut butter and jelly sandwiches, peanut butter cookies, and candies where peanut is the main flavor, such as Reese's Pieces, or various peanut butter and chocolate treats, such as Reese's Peanut Butter Cups and the Crispy Crunch candy bar.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6935974",
"title": "Peanut butter cookie",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 298,
"text": "A peanut butter cookie is a type of cookie that is distinguished for having peanut butter as a principal ingredient. The cookie generally originated in the United States, its development dating back to the 1910s. If crunchy peanut butter is used, the resulting cookie may contain peanut fragments.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
h8etm
|
Is there any evidence that "sugar rushes" actually occur?
|
[
{
"answer": "There is some evidence that food dyes can cause hyperactivity in children which you can read about [here](_URL_0_).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Why are sugar rushes so popular, then, if there's no scientific evidence backing it up?\n\nIt seems pretty simple to me. Caffeine is a stimulant and gets you wired...sugar is not a stimulant and exhibits no stimulant effects.\n\nWho got confused and invented 'sugar rushes'? I'd love to know.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "if you're mostly asking with regards to little kids, you also have to remember that children are suggestible, so all their parents saying \"don't eat too much candy, you'll get hyper!!\" can MAKE them be hyper when they do eat the candy. i agree about the dyes and all that, plus kids are just mental and parents want to have explanations for that. parents pass on \"info\" to parents and so on and so forth. i think we as Western society (can't speak much for the other side of the globe) tend to serve sweets at gatherings where there are a lot of people, which would get kids runnin' around and playin' and such. just my thoughts here.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Yes. The thing about hyper kids is probably over-exaggeration but the carbohydrates will give you a temporary energy boost followed by an insulin spike and subsequent crash. Kids may have little tolerance to this cycle and could be more sensitive to it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "What about blood sugar?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In social psychology they taught us much of the supposed \"sugar rushes\" children have are actually due to the environment. For example, a child at a birthday party in a new environment surrounded by other children and activities will naturally be more stimulated, though parents usually fall back on the old \"the cake is making Johnny hyper\" excuse.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "21119732",
"title": "Sugar Rush (British TV series)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 296,
"text": "Sugar Rush is a British television comedy drama series developed by Shine Limited and broadcast by Channel 4, based on the Julie Burchill novel of the same name. It is centred on the life of a 15-year-old lesbian, Kim Daniels, who has moved from London to Brighton on the south coast of England.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18496165",
"title": "Sugar Rush (video game)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 227,
"text": "Sugar Rush is a cancelled massively multiplayer online game from Klei Entertainment. It was the first game to be developed in North America to be released by Nexon, before it was announced that it would no longer be published.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "247836",
"title": "List of mass hysteria cases",
"section": "Section::::2000s.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 738,
"text": "BULLET::::- \"\"Strawberries with Sugar\" virus\" (2006) - In May 2006, an outbreak of the so-dubbed Morangos com Açúcar Virus (Strawberries with Sugar virus) was reported in Portuguese schools, named after the popular teen girl's show \"Morangos com Açúcar\" (\"Strawberries With Sugar\"). 300 or more students at 14 schools reported similar symptoms to those experienced by the characters in a then recent episode where a life-threatening virus affected the school depicted in the show. Symptoms included rashes, difficulty breathing, and dizziness. The belief that there was a medical outbreak forced some schools to temporarily close. The Portuguese National Institute for Medical Emergency eventually dismissed the illness as mass hysteria.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31562207",
"title": "Sugar (2013 film)",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 843,
"text": "Based on true events experienced by Rotimi Rainwater, \"Sugar\" is the story of a young girl named Sugar with a troubled past trying to survive on the streets of Venice Beach. Sugar suffers from PTSD after losing her entire family in a horrific car crash. She survives with her group of outcast friends on the streets of Venice Beach, trying to find their own place in the world. Like so many homeless youth, Sugar is running from the pain of her past and will do anything to escape it. However, with the help of Bishop, her counselor in the youth shelter, she is able to reconnect with her uncle who has been searching for her. Sugar's new world starts to crumble when forced to confront the demons she's run from for the last two years. \"Sugar\" is an all too common story of a troubled youth learning how to stop hiding, and to start healing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4810421",
"title": "Sugar (2004 film)",
"section": "Section::::Release.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 311,
"text": "\"Sugar\" premiered at the Inside Out Film and Video Festival in Toronto on May 22, 2004. It subsequently screened in San Francisco, California on June 24, 2004. Approximately a month following the film's U.S. release, star Andre Noble died of accidental poisoning after ingesting aconitum during a camping trip.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57934927",
"title": "Sugar Rush (2018 TV series)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 270,
"text": "Sugar Rush is an American cooking reality web television series, released on Netflix on July 13, 2018. The series features four professional teams of two competing in a baking competition for a prize of $10,000. Teams compete in baking cakes, cupcakes, and confections.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27712",
"title": "Sugar",
"section": "Section::::History.:Ancient world to Renaissance.:Europe.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 1199,
"text": "Nearchus, admiral of Alexander of Macedonia, knew of sugar during the year 325 B.C., because of his participation in the campaign of India led by Alexander (\"Arrian, Anabasis\"). The Greek physician Pedanius Dioscorides in the 1st century CE described sugar in his medical treatise De Materia Medica, and Pliny the Elder, a 1st-century CE Roman, described sugar in his Natural History: \"Sugar is made in Arabia as well, but Indian sugar is better. It is a kind of honey found in cane, white as gum, and it crunches between the teeth. It comes in lumps the size of a hazelnut. Sugar is used only for medical purposes.\" Crusaders brought sugar back to Europe after their campaigns in the Holy Land, where they encountered caravans carrying \"sweet salt\". Early in the 12th century, Venice acquired some villages near Tyre and set up estates to produce sugar for export to Europe. It supplemented the use of honey, which had previously been the only available sweetener. Crusade chronicler William of Tyre, writing in the late 12th century, described sugar as \"very necessary for the use and health of mankind\". In the 15th century, Venice was the chief sugar refining and distribution center in Europe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3ojels
|
does location determine skin color?
|
[
{
"answer": "Dark skin protects against ultraviolet radiation from the sun. But solar radiation is also necessary to stimulate production of vitamin D. In the higher latitudes, where there is less solar radiation, there is both less need for protection and more need for the radiation. Accordingly, there is a natural selection pressure (meaning people are healthier and more likely to have children) toward darker skin near the equator and light skin further to the north or south. This is also the reason that you get tanned after lying in the sun.\n\nHowever, this takes tends of thousands of years to have any real effect on the genes of a population. Light-skinned people living in South Africa today are descendants of people from Europe. Maybe if they and their children live in South Africa another 10,000 years, they'll get darker skin.\n\nSo you're both right, in a sense. In the short term, where you live doesn't really matter. But in the very, very long term, it does.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The camp counselor is closer. The color of your skin is determined by the amount of melanin it contains. The more melanin, the darker the skin. Melanin protects you from UV rays emitted by the sun. However, some of those rays also need to get through to aid in vitamin D synthesis. So in sunny regions darker skinned people are selected for because they need to block out most sunlight to shield against harmful UV rays emitted by the sun. In darker regions pale skin is selected for because there's much less sunlight, so you need to let it through in order to synthesize vitamin D.\n\nIf you gave it enough time, and if that white colony in Africa was significantly reproductively disadvantaged by sun exposure, they would eventually have darker skinned offspring. And vice versa. Of course, they may not be reproductively disadvantaged because we can correct many problems today using things like vitamin D supplements or sunblock, in which case there'd be no advantage to gaining or losing dark skin color. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You're right, if white people in South Africa only ever interbreed with other white people, they'll almost all still have white skin after any number of generations.\n\nBut that's not how natural selection works, though. Dark skin helps protect against harmful UV radiation, which is helpful in very sunny places (like the tropics). Light skin does the opposite, it absorbs as much UV radiation as possible in order to synthesize vitamin D, which is necessary in places that don't get much sun (like northern Europe).\n\nSo even though white people might live in South Africa, they won't be well-adapted to its climate. We humans are smart and have invented things like clothes and umbrellas and sunscreen to counter those effects, but absent those factors, over the long run all the white people in South Africa will die off from skin cancer or severe sunburn, and only dark-skinned people will be left. As it happens, some of those dark-skinned people might actually be ancestors of the white South Africans who have developed genetic mutations to produce more skin pigment. Because they're better adapted to the African climate, they've survived, so in that sense in the long run location will determine skin color.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "38079914",
"title": "Dark skin",
"section": "Section::::Biochemistry and genetics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 358,
"text": "Skin colour is a polygenic trait, which means that several different genes are involved in determining a specific phenotype. Many genes work together in complex, additive, and non-additive combinations to determine the skin colour of an individual. The skin colour variations are normally distributed from light to dark, as it is usual for polygenic traits.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38041",
"title": "Human skin color",
"section": "Section::::Melanin and genes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 787,
"text": "The genetic mechanism behind human skin color is mainly regulated by the enzyme tyrosinase, which creates the color of the skin, eyes, and hair shades. Differences in skin color are also attributed to differences in size and distribution of melanosomes in the skin. Melanocytes produce two types of melanin. The most common form of biological melanin is eumelanin, a brown-black polymer of dihydroxyindole carboxylic acids, and their reduced forms. Most are derived from the amino acid tyrosine. Eumelanin is found in hair, areola, and skin, and the hair colors gray, black, blond, and brown. In humans, it is more abundant in people with dark skin. Pheomelanin, a pink to red hue is found in particularly large quantities in red hair, the lips, nipples, glans of the penis, and vagina.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9040547",
"title": "Human skin",
"section": "Section::::Development.:Skin color.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 687,
"text": "The actual skin color of different humans is affected by many substances, although the single most important substance determining human skin color is the pigment melanin. Melanin is produced within the skin in cells called melanocytes and it is the main determinant of the skin color of darker-skinned humans. The skin color of people with light skin is determined mainly by the bluish-white connective tissue under the dermis and by the hemoglobin circulating in the veins of the dermis. The red color underlying the skin becomes more visible, especially in the face, when, as consequence of physical exercise or the stimulation of the nervous system (anger, fear), arterioles dilate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18885237",
"title": "Sexual selection in humans",
"section": "Section::::Phenotype.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 1884,
"text": "Research seems to contradict Manning's explanation about skin color. In 1978, NASA launched the Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer, which was able to measure the ultraviolet radiation reaching Earth's surface. Jablonski and Chaplin took the spectrometer's global ultraviolet measurements and compared them with published data on skin color in indigenous populations from more than 50 countries. There was an unmistakable correlation: The weaker the ultraviolet light, the fairer the skin. Rogers \"et al.\" (2004) performed an examination of the variation in MC1R nucleotide sequences for people of different ancestry and compared the sequences of chimpanzees and humans from various regions of the Earth. Rogers concluded that, at the time of the evolutionary separation of chimpanzees and humans, the common ancestors of all humans had light skin that was covered by dark hair. Additionally, our closest extant relative, the chimpanzee, has light skin covered by thick body hair. Over time human hair disappeared to allow better heat dissipation through sweating and the skin tone grew darker to increase the epidermal permeability barrier and protect from folate depletion due to the increased exposure to sunlight. When humans started to migrate away from the tropics, there was less-intense sunlight, partly due to clothing to protect against cold weather. Under these conditions there was less photodestruction of folate, and so the evolutionary pressure stopping lighter-skinned gene variants from surviving was reduced. In addition, lighter skin is able to generate more vitamin D (cholecalciferol) than darker skin, so it would have represented a health benefit in reduced sunlight if there were limited sources of vitamin D. The genetic mutations leading to light skin may have experienced selective pressure due to the adoption of farming and settlement in northern latitudes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9040547",
"title": "Human skin",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 239,
"text": "In humans, skin pigmentation varies among populations, and skin type can range from dry to oily. Such skin variety provides a rich and diverse habitat for bacteria that number roughly 1000 species from 19 phyla, present on the human skin.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38041",
"title": "Human skin color",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 857,
"text": "The actual skin color of different humans is affected by many substances, although the single most important substance is the pigment melanin. Melanin is produced within the skin in cells called melanocytes and it is the main determinant of the skin color of darker-skinned humans. The skin color of people with light skin is determined mainly by the bluish-white connective tissue under the dermis and by the hemoglobin circulating in the veins of the dermis. The red color underlying the skin becomes more visible, especially in the face, when, as consequence of physical exercise or the stimulation of the nervous system (anger, fear), arterioles dilate. Color is not entirely uniform across an individual's skin; for example, the skin of the palm and the sole is lighter than most other skin, and this is especially noticeable in darker-skinned people.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38041",
"title": "Human skin color",
"section": "Section::::Genetics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 819,
"text": "The understanding of the genetic mechanisms underlying human skin color variation is still incomplete, however genetic studies have discovered a number of genes that affect human skin color in specific populations, and have shown that this happens independently of other physical features such as eye and hair color. Different populations have different allele frequencies of these genes, and it is the combination of these allele variations that bring about the complex, continuous variation in skin coloration we can observe today in modern humans. Population and admixture studies suggest a 3-way model for the evolution of human skin color, with dark skin evolving in early hominids in sub-Saharan Africa and light skin evolving independently in Europe and East Asia after modern humans had expanded out of Africa.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
16hlln
|
What drives the molecular change in catalytic enzymes?
|
[
{
"answer": " > tight conformation the ADP & Pi \n\nThat's pretty much the idea. The ADP and Pi are pushed so close together (in just the right conformation) that they can't help but react. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3043886",
"title": "Enzyme kinetics",
"section": "Section::::Single-substrate reactions.:Michaelis–Menten kinetics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 621,
"text": "Majority of the enzymes are proteins and they speeds up the rate of biochemical reactions by decreasing the activation energy. During the process enzymes combines with the substrate and convert it into product. Enzymes may have single or multiple substrate binding sites (catalytic site). As substrate concentration goes on increasing, catalytic sites may get filled progressively. In the initial period velocity of the enzyme catalyzed reaction is directly proportional to substrate concentration. Michaelis and Menten specifically focused on the initial period of the reaction (initial velocity) to develop this model.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9257",
"title": "Enzyme",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 974,
"text": "Like all catalysts, enzymes increase the reaction rate by lowering its activation energy. Some enzymes can make their conversion of substrate to product occur many millions of times faster. An extreme example is orotidine 5'-phosphate decarboxylase, which allows a reaction that would otherwise take millions of years to occur in milliseconds. Chemically, enzymes are like any catalyst and are not consumed in chemical reactions, nor do they alter the equilibrium of a reaction. Enzymes differ from most other catalysts by being much more specific. Enzyme activity can be affected by other molecules: inhibitors are molecules that decrease enzyme activity, and activators are molecules that increase activity. Many therapeutic drugs and poisons are enzyme inhibitors. An enzyme's activity decreases markedly outside its optimal temperature and pH, and many enzymes are (permanently) denatured when exposed to excessive heat, losing their structure and catalytic properties.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60487733",
"title": "Nikolay Kobozev (scientist)",
"section": "Section::::Scientific accomplishments.:Theories.:Catalysis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 338,
"text": "Catalyst's activity can be significantly increased by including larger and thermadynamically unstable masses, which he named \"aggravation\" (1946) when increase of catalyst's activity is factored by complication of its molecule (increase of molecular mass). So he and his co-workers tried to explain superactivity of enzymes in catalysis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20374",
"title": "Metabolism",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 662,
"text": "The chemical reactions of metabolism are organized into metabolic pathways, in which one chemical is transformed through a series of steps into another chemical, each step being facilitated by a specific enzyme. Enzymes are crucial to metabolism because they allow organisms to drive desirable reactions that require energy that will not occur by themselves, by coupling them to spontaneous reactions that release energy. Enzymes act as catalysts - they allow a reaction to proceed more rapidly - and they also allow the regulation of the rate of a metabolic reaction, for example in response to changes in the cell's environment or to signals from other cells.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "359135",
"title": "Chemical kinetics",
"section": "Section::::Factors affecting reaction rate.:Catalysts.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 633,
"text": "A catalyst is a substance that alters the rate of a chemical reaction but remains chemically unchanged afterwards. The catalyst increases the rate of the reaction by providing a different reaction mechanism to occur with a lower activation energy. In autocatalysis a reaction product is itself a catalyst for that reaction leading to positive feedback. Proteins that act as catalysts in biochemical reactions are called enzymes. Michaelis–Menten kinetics describe the rate of enzyme mediated reactions. A catalyst does not affect the position of the equilibrium, as the catalyst speeds up the backward and forward reactions equally.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24608545",
"title": "Plateau principle",
"section": "Section::::The plateau principle in biochemistry.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 705,
"text": "Each cell produces thousands of different kinds of protein and enzymes. One of the key methods of cellular regulation is to change the rate of transcription of messenger RNA, which gives rise to a change in the rate of synthesis for the protein that the messenger RNA encodes. The plateau principle explains why the concentration of different enzymes increases at unique rates in response to a single hormone. Because each enzyme is degraded with at a unique rate (each has a different half-life), the rate of change differs even when the same stimulus is applied. This principle has been demonstrated for the response of liver enzymes that degrade amino acids to cortisone, which is a catabolic hormone.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2160013",
"title": "Regulatory enzyme",
"section": "Section::::Covalently modulated enzymes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 537,
"text": "Here, the active and inactive form of the enzymes are altered due to covalent modification of their structures which is catalysed by other enzymes. This type of regulation consists of the addition or elimination of some molecules which can be attached to the enzyme protein. The most important groups that work as modifiers are phosphate, methyl, uridine, adenine and adenosine diphosphate ribosyl. These groups are joined to or eliminated from the protein by other enzymes. The most remarkable covalent modification is phosphorylation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
t709s
|
Watching Cosmos...questions about light...brain hurts!
|
[
{
"answer": "1) All light moves at the same speed in space. Period. The redshift is the change of *wavelength* of light. In the electromagnetic spectrum, light has different frequencies/wavelengths, but not speeds. Maybe someone can elaborate.\n\n2) [Inverse square law](_URL_0_). A certain amount of light is emitted from a star. As that light gets further and further the same amount of light is covering much more area in space (like the surface of a sphere). So when it hits us it is effectively diluted. The sun is close so it hasn't spread its light out and is still bright.\n\n3) On a microscopic level everything is bumpy so light hits it and is spread out, but on flat surfaces you can get most the light to reflect one way because more of the area the light hits (even on a microscopic level) is facing the same way. But light does bounce off in a straight line with a specific angle that you can measure.\n ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "39761773",
"title": "Central nervous system effects from radiation exposure during spaceflight",
"section": "Section::::Evidence.:Review of space flight issues.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 475,
"text": "The observation of light flashes by the astronauts brought attention to the possible effects of HZE nuclei on brain function. The microlesion concept, which considered the effects of the column of damaged cells surrounding the path of an HZE nucleus traversing critical regions of the brain, originated at this time. An important task that still remains is to determine whether and to what extent such particle traversals contribute to functional degradation within the CNS.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1364633",
"title": "Cosmic ray visual phenomena",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 440,
"text": "Cosmic ray visual phenomena, or \"light flashes\" (LF), are spontaneous flashes of light visually perceived by some astronauts outside the magnetosphere of the Earth, such as during the Apollo program. While LF may be the result of actual photons of visible light being sensed by the retina, the LF discussed here could also pertain to phosphenes, which are sensations of light produced by the activation of neurons along the visual pathway.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "569444",
"title": "Transduction (physiology)",
"section": "Section::::Transduction and the senses.:The visual system.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 1004,
"text": "In the visual system, sensory cells called rod and cone cells in the retina convert the physical energy of light signals into electrical impulses that travel to the brain. The light causes a conformational change in a protein called rhodopsin. This conformational change sets in motion a series of molecular events that result in a reduction of the electrochemical gradient of the photoreceptor. The decrease in the electrochemical gradient causes a reduction in the electrical signals going to the brain. Thus, in this example, more light hitting the photoreceptor results in the transduction of a signal into fewer electrical impulses, effectively communicating that stimulus to the brain. A change in neurotransmitter release is mediated through a second messenger system. Note that the change in neurotransmitter release is by rods. Because of the change, a change in light intensity causes the response of the rods to be much slower than expected (for a process associated with the nervous system).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16280520",
"title": "Sinister Barrier",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 597,
"text": "Professor Bjornsen had discovered a means of extending human vision into the far infrared and he discovered that the world is occupied by meter-wide spheres that appear pale blue in his new vision. The spheres, which he called Vitons, are sentient and mildly telepathic (they can read people’s minds if they get close enough); they also feed on the electrochemical energy of human emotions. If a Viton sucks too hard on a human nervous system, it causes a fatal heart attack, which is how the Vitons have been killing the scientists, in order to prevent Humanity from learning of their existence.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1364633",
"title": "Cosmic ray visual phenomena",
"section": "Section::::Experiments.:Ground experiments in the 1970s.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 833,
"text": "Considering the experiments conducted, at least in some cases the LF observed appear to be caused by activation of neurons along the visual pathway, resulting in phosphenes. However, because the researchers cannot definitively rule out the Cherenkov radiation effects as a probable cause of the LF experienced by astronauts, it seems likely that some LF may be the result of Cherenkov radiation effects in the eye itself, instead. The Cherenkov effect can cause Cherenkov light to be emitted in the vitreous body of the eye and thus allow the person to perceive the LF. Hence, it appears that the LF perceived by astronauts in space have different causes. Some may be the result of actual light stimulating the retina, while others may be the result of activity that occurs in neurons along the visual pathway, producing phosphenes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10134",
"title": "Electromagnetic spectrum",
"section": "Section::::Types of radiation.:Visible radiation (light).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 409,
"text": "If radiation having a frequency in the visible region of the EM spectrum reflects off an object, say, a bowl of fruit, and then strikes the eyes, this results in visual perception of the scene. The brain's visual system processes the multitude of reflected frequencies into different shades and hues, and through this insufficiently-understood psychophysical phenomenon, most people perceive a bowl of fruit.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1364633",
"title": "Cosmic ray visual phenomena",
"section": "Section::::Possible causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 526,
"text": "Researchers believe that the LF perceived specifically by astronauts in space are due to cosmic rays (high-energy charged particles from beyond the Earth's atmosphere), though the exact mechanism is unknown. Hypotheses include Cherenkov radiation created as the cosmic ray particles pass through the vitreous humour of the astronauts' eyes, direct interaction with the optic nerve, direct interaction with visual centres in the brain, retinal receptor stimulation, and a more general interaction of the retina with radiation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
289lv3
|
If you flash freeze water, will it still expand in the same way as 'normal', gradual freezing?
|
[
{
"answer": "Water will expand regardless of how it is frozen; however, what changes is the size of the average ice crystal. When you slow freeze water it tends to build one giant crystal over time since water can slowly collect and arrange itself to form a unified solid. When you flash freeze each water molecule basically has to grab the nearest neighbor and as a result the average ice crystal tends to be significantly smaller since they don't have enough time to diffuse and order itself. \n\nNow as far as the biological side of this I remember hearing about it a long time ago because my sister did her master's work on this topic, but I sorta tuned it out since I lean towards the physics side of the science spectrum instead of the bio side. Not enough math for my interest. :)\n\nIt could have something to do with the formation of large ice crystal can also cause sharp ice to form which can tear tissues. But this is just conjecture so I'll defer to someone who is a little more knowledgeable on the subject. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "15188954",
"title": "Natural convection",
"section": "Section::::Water Convection at Freezing Temperatures.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 634,
"text": "Another case of this phenomenon is the event of super-cooling, where the water is cooled to below freezing temperatures but does not immediately begin to freeze. Under the same conditions as before, the flow is developed. Afterward, the temperature of the right wall is decreased to −10 °C. This causes the water at that wall to become supercooled, create a counter-clockwise flow, and initially overpower the warm current. This plume is caused by a delay in the nucleation of the ice. Once ice begins to form, the flow returns to a similar pattern as before and the solidification propagates gradually until the flow is redeveloped.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2281741",
"title": "Wegener–Bergeron–Findeisen process",
"section": "Section::::Required conditions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 604,
"text": "The larger supersaturation with respect to ice, once present, causes it to grow fast thus scavenging water from the vapor phase. If the vapor pressure formula_1 drops below the saturation pressure with respect to liquid water formula_2, the droplets will cease to grow. This may not occur if formula_2 itself is dropping rapidly, depending on the slope of the saturation curve, the lapse rate, and the speed of the updraft, or if the drop of formula_1 is slow, depending on the number and size of the ice crystals. If the updraft is too fast, all the droplets would finally freeze rather than evaporate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13205506",
"title": "Grease ice",
"section": "Section::::Formation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 377,
"text": "When the water surface begins to lose heat rapidly, the water becomes supercooled. Turbulence, caused by strong winds or flow from a river, will mix the supercooled water throughout its entire depth. The supercooled water will already be encouraging the formation of small ice crystals (frazil ice) and the crystals will be mixed into the upper layer and form a surface layer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "690861",
"title": "Flash freezing",
"section": "Section::::How water freezes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 799,
"text": "There are phenomena like supercooling, in which the water is cooled below its freezing point, but the water remains liquid, if there are too few defects to seed crystallization. One can therefore observe a delay until the water adjusts to the new, below-freezing temperature. Supercooled liquid water must become ice at minus 48 C (minus 55 F) not just because of the extreme cold, but because the molecular structure of water changes physically to form tetrahedron shapes, with each water molecule loosely bonded to four others. This suggests the structural change from liquid to \"intermediate ice\". The crystallization of ice from supercooled water is generally initiated by a process called nucleation. Because of the speed and size of nucleation, which occurs within nanoseconds and nanometers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "690861",
"title": "Flash freezing",
"section": "Section::::Introduction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 298,
"text": "When water is in a conventional freezer, a dynamic phase transition is triggered. The resulting ice depends on how quickly the system is cooled: If the water is cooled below its freezing point slowly, an ice crystal will result, rather than the poly-crystalline solid that flash freezing produces.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14946",
"title": "Ice",
"section": "Section::::Physical properties.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 406,
"text": "When water freezes, it increases in volume (about 9% for fresh water). The effect of expansion during freezing can be dramatic, and ice expansion is a basic cause of freeze-thaw weathering of rock in nature and damage to building foundations and roadways from frost heaving. It is also a common cause of the flooding of houses when water pipes burst due to the pressure of expanding water when it freezes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1195115",
"title": "Frazil ice",
"section": "Section::::Formation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 521,
"text": "When the water surface begins to lose heat rapidly, the water becomes supercooled. Turbulence, caused by strong winds or flow from a river, will mix the supercooled water throughout its entire depth. The supercooled water will already be encouraging the formation of small ice crystals (frazil ice) and the crystals get taken to the bottom of the water body. Ice generally floats, but due to frazil ice's small size relative to current speeds, it has an ineffective buoyancy and can be carried to the bottom very easily.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2selxp
|
why is it better to eat actual sources of protein (eggs, fish, meat etc.) than consume protein powder?
|
[
{
"answer": "It isn't the protein itself that is bad. It is the other stuff that comes with it. You aren't consuming pure protein when using that powder, and a lot of that is things like instant milk which contains oxidized cholesterol, which is very very very bad. And there are many more issues, such as your body requiring certain balances of things in order to absorb the protein properly. When you eat things like meat, the meat itself comes with things like specific minerals and vitamins and amino acids that your body needs so that the protein can be used properly. They always say that animal meat is 'complete' protein.\n\nGenerally speaking, it is always better to eat natural things over artificial things. Protein powder is a good supplement, not a replacement.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "6531493",
"title": "Protein (nutrient)",
"section": "Section::::Sources.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 408,
"text": "Whole grains and cereals are another source of proteins. However, these tend to be limiting in the amino acid lysine or threonine, which are available in other vegetarian sources and meats. Examples of food staples and cereal sources of protein, each with a concentration greater than 7.0%, are (in no particular order) buckwheat, oats, rye, millet, maize (corn), rice, wheat, sorghum, amaranth, and quinoa.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6531493",
"title": "Protein (nutrient)",
"section": "Section::::Sources.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 748,
"text": "Protein can be found in a wide range of food. The best combination of protein sources depends on the region of the world, access, cost, amino acid types and nutrition balance, as well as acquired tastes. Some foods are high in certain amino acids, but their digestibility and the anti-nutritional factors present in these foods make them of limited value in human nutrition. Therefore, one must consider digestibility and secondary nutrition profile such as calories, cholesterol, vitamins and essential mineral density of the protein source. On a worldwide basis, plant protein foods contribute over 60 percent of the per capita supply of protein, on average. In North America, animal-derived foods contribute about 70 percent of protein sources.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7888444",
"title": "Food chemistry",
"section": "Section::::Food proteins.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 394,
"text": "In food, proteins are essential for growth and survival, and requirements vary depending upon a person's age and physiology (e.g., pregnancy). Protein is commonly obtained from animal sources: eggs, milk, and meat. Nuts, grains and legumes provide vegetable sources of protein, and protein combining of vegetable sources is used to achieve complete protein nutritional quotas from vegetables. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6531493",
"title": "Protein (nutrient)",
"section": "Section::::Sources.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 536,
"text": "Food staples that are poor sources of protein include roots and tubers such as yams, cassava and sweet potato. Plantains, another major staple, are also a poor source of essential amino acids. Fruits, while rich in other essential nutrients, are another poor source of amino acids. The protein content in roots, tubers and fruits is between 0 and 2 percent. Food staples with low protein content must be complemented with foods with complete, quality protein content for a healthy life, particularly in children for proper development.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2052597",
"title": "Whole grain",
"section": "Section::::Health effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 832,
"text": "Cereals proteins have low quality, due to deficiencies in essential amino acids, mainly lysine. Supplementation of cereals with proteins from other food sources (mainly legumes) is commonly used to compensate for this deficiency, since the limitation of a single essential amino acid causes the others to break down and become excreted, which is especially important during the period of growth. In contrast, the proteins of the pseudocereals have a high nutritional value, close to those of casein (the main protein in milk). Quinoa and amaranth are the most nutritious grains due to their high content and quality of proteins, with high levels of lysine and other essential amino acids. Minor cereals and pseudocereals are a good alternative to replace gluten-containing cereals, for people who need to follow a gluten-free diet.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2052597",
"title": "Whole grain",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 370,
"text": "As part of a general healthy diet, consumption of whole grains is associated with lower risk of several diseases. Whole grains are a source of carbohydrates, multiple nutrients and dietary fiber. Cereals proteins have low quality, due to deficiencies in essential amino acids, mainly lysine. In contrast, the proteins of the pseudocereals have a high nutritional value.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "102213",
"title": "Essential amino acid",
"section": "Section::::Recommended daily intake.:Protein per calorie.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 1058,
"text": "Protein content in foods is often measured in protein per serving rather than protein per calorie. For instance, the USDA lists 6 grams of protein per large whole egg (a 50-gram serving) rather than 84 mg of protein per calorie (71 calories total). For comparison, there are 3 grams of protein in a serving of raw broccoli (91 grams) or 96 mg of protein per calorie (31 calories total). An egg contains twice as much protein per serving, but 12 mg less protein per calorie. The ratio of essential amino acids (the quality of protein) is not taken into account. It can be shown that common vegetable sources contain adequate protein, often more protein per calorie than the standard reference, whole raw egg, while other plant sources, particularly fruits contain less. It is recommended that adult humans obtain 10–35% of their calories as protein, or roughly 11–39 mg of protein per cal per day (22–78 g for 2000 cal). A carrot has 23 mg protein per cal or twice the minimum recommendation, a banana meets the minimum, and an apple is below recommendation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
36m2kz
|
how long does it take to be a professor?
|
[
{
"answer": "Depends largely on the school, faculty, and discipline.\n\nThe typical route is:\n\n- Undergraduate (bachelor's).\n\n- Postgrad (Master's).\n\n- PhD.\n\n- Lecturing and getting published.\n\n- Getting tenure.\n\n- Associate Professor.\n\n- Professor.\n\nTimescales vary - a bachelors and a masters can take anywhere between 5 and 10 years to do, depending on whether it's done full time, and by thesis or coursework. A lot of places also count first class honours in a bachelor's as part credit towards a masters.\n\nPhD is typically 3-7 years, again depending on how you do it and what the research and publishing is based on.\n\nTenure usually takes about ten years to get between lecturing and getting published. As academics get more senior, their role usually shifts to less teaching, and more getting publications and grants for their faculty.\n\nAssociate professorship to full professorship largely depends on the school and the discipline. I'd say 5-10 years on average between one and the other.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There is a lot of variation across fields. I can only speak for science.\n \nBachelor degree: 4 years\n\nMaster's degree: 2-5 years\n\nPhD: 4-10 years. Some schools let you start a PhD program without having a master's degree, like mine did. I spent 6.5 years in graduate school getting mine, but I never got a master's. The average time to get a PhD in science is about 7 years. \n\nPost doc: the average time people spend doing post docs is about 10 years these days. A classmate of mine got a tenure track position after only two years of post docs, but he had over 30 publications before he finished grad school, so he was an anomaly. I know another guy who spent 15 years as a post doc before getting a tenure track position. \n\nHere is where your question gets a little bit vague. When you begin a tenure- track position, your title is \"assistant professor.\" Given this, you are a professor at this point. Sometimes post docs are given the title \"research professor\" or some variant of that. I spent a couple of years as an \"adjunct research assistant professor.\" After you get tenure (which is usually 7 years) you are an \"associate professor.\" To become a full professor, where your title is just \"professor\" takes many years after tenure. Some people go their entire careers without making full professor. \n\nThis time line assumes that you make it through each step. At my school, about 10-20% of people who start a PhD program do not finish - maybe they weren't smart enough, maybe they didn't work hard enough, maybe they couldn't handle the stress, maybe they got sick of it or life got in the way. Lots of people don't make it through the post doc stage. Only a few percent of people with a PhD in a science ever get a tenure track position - there are just way more people who want the jobs than there are jobs. The percent who eventually get tenure is even lower. I know of at least one school that hires more assistant professors than it has tenure spots for. The lucky few get those spots and the rest probably never get tenure anywhere. Even if you are smart enough and creative enough, you have about the same chance of making it big in Hollywood as you do becoming a full professor. \n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "39370697",
"title": "Uttaranchal Dental & Medical Research Institute",
"section": "Section::::Course.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 368,
"text": "Total duration of the course is 4 years + one year compulsory internship during this period the professional examinations that is one at the end of each academic year, are conducted by the university. After passing the final professional examination it is compulsory to undergo one-year rotatory internship, Degree will be awarded only after completion of internship.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "363323",
"title": "Habilitation",
"section": "Section::::Process.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 777,
"text": "Although disciplines and countries vary in the typical number of years for obtaining habilitation after getting a doctorate, it usually takes longer than for the American tenure. For example, in Poland, the statutory time for getting a habilitation (traditionally, although not obligatorily, relying on a book publication) is eight years. Theoretically, if an assistant professor does not succeed in obtaining habilitation in this time, he should be moved to a position of a lecturer, with a much higher teaching load and no research obligations, or even be dismissed. In practice, however, on many occasions schools extend the deadlines for habilitation for most scholars if they do not make it in time, and there is evidence that they are able to finish it in a near future.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "233885",
"title": "List of academic ranks",
"section": "Section::::Pakistan.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 589,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 589,
"end_character": 418,
"text": "A professor requires ten years post-PhD teaching/research experience in an HEC recognized university or a post-graduate institution or professional experience in the relevant field in a national or international organization. It requires a minimum of 8/12/15 research publications (with at least 2/3/5 publications in the last 5 years) by the calendar years 2007/2008/2012 respectively, in HEC/PEC recognized journals\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17535342",
"title": "Professors in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Tenure-track faculty ranks.:Assistant professor.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 368,
"text": "The rank of assistant professor generally is held for a probationary period of five to seven years, after which the individual will either be promoted to associate professor and granted tenure (i.e., cannot be fired without cause and a formal hearing process) or will be terminated from employment. As of 2007, 23.1% of academics held the rank of assistant professor.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44282466",
"title": "Academic ranks in Spain",
"section": "Section::::Faculty.:Retirement.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 373,
"text": "The retiring age for university professors in Spain is 65, just like all other workers. However, a university professor can work until he or she is 70, if he so wishes. Even then, they can apply for a Professor Emérito position. It is a non-tenured position and it has a limited duration (4 additional years). Also, there are specific rules established by each university.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1978155",
"title": "Diplom",
"section": "Section::::Germany.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 300,
"text": "The thesis which followed an independent (although supervised) research project had officially to be completed in not more than 3 to 9 months (depending on subject and university). However, the actual time students worked on these projects could again exceed the official duration by several months.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44282070",
"title": "Academic ranks in Canada",
"section": "Section::::Faculty.:Tenured and tenure-track positions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 255,
"text": "BULLET::::- (): An introductory-level professor. A position generally taken after receiving a PhD and completing one, or often more, post-doctoral fellowships. After 4–8 years, assistant professors will be either tenured or dismissed from the university.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
297rkb
|
when a mosquito is sucking blood from my arm, where does its proboscis go after i kill it?
|
[
{
"answer": "you probably pull it out when you brush the body away. otherwise it's still in there. not a big deal, though. the things are as thin as hair and your body has ways of dealing with stuff like that. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "544177",
"title": "Plasmodium falciparum",
"section": "Section::::Life cycle.:In humans.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 631,
"text": "The infective stage called sporozoites released from the salivary glands through the proboscis of the mosquito enter the bloodstream during feeding. The mosquito saliva contains antihemostatic and anti-inflammatory enzymes that disrupt blood clotting and inhibit the pain reaction. Typically, each infected bite contains 20-200 sporozoites. The immune system clears the sporozoites from the circulation within 30 minutes. But a few escape and quickly invade liver cells (hepatocytes). The sporozoites move in the blood stream by gliding, which is driven by motor made up of proteins actin and myosin beneath their plasma membrane.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37789",
"title": "Mosquito",
"section": "Section::::Feeding by adults.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 96,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 96,
"end_character": 480,
"text": "Prior to and during blood feeding, blood-sucking mosquitoes inject saliva into the bodies of their source(s) of blood. This saliva serves as an anticoagulant; without it the female mosquito's proboscis might become clogged with blood clots. The saliva also is the main route by which mosquito physiology offers passenger pathogens access to the hosts' bloodstream. The salivary glands are a major target to most pathogens, whence they find their way into the host via the saliva.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "368736",
"title": "Misconceptions about HIV/AIDS",
"section": "Section::::HIV infection.:HIV is transmitted by mosquitoes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 624,
"text": "When mosquitoes bite a person, they do not inject the blood of a previous victim into the person they bite next. Mosquitoes do, however, inject their saliva into their victims, which may carry diseases such as dengue fever, malaria, yellow fever, or West Nile virus and can infect a bitten person with these diseases. HIV is not transmitted in this manner. On the other hand, a mosquito may have HIV-infected blood in its gut, and if swatted on the skin of a human who then scratches it, transmission is hypothetically possible, though this risk is extremely small, and no cases have yet been identified through this route.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37789",
"title": "Mosquito",
"section": "Section::::Feeding by adults.:Mouthparts.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 106,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 106,
"end_character": 352,
"text": "The female mosquito does not insert its labium into the skin; it bends back into a bow when the mosquito begins to bite. The tip of the labium remains in contact with the skin of the victim, acting as a guide for the other mouthparts. In total, there are six mouthparts besides the labium: two mandibles, two maxillae, the hypopharynx, and the labrum.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2190069",
"title": "Plasmodium vivax",
"section": "Section::::Biology.:Life cycle.:Human infection.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 524,
"text": "\"P. vivax\" human infection occurs when an infected mosquito feeds on a human. During feeding, the mosquito injects saliva to prevent blood clotting (along with sporozoites), thousands of sporozoites are inoculated into human blood; within a half-hour the sporozoites reach the liver. There they enter hepatic cells, transform into the trophozoite form and feed on hepatic cells, and reproduce asexually. This process gives rise to thousands of merozoites (plasmodium daughter cells) in the circulatory system and the liver.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2449105",
"title": "Plasmodium knowlesi",
"section": "Section::::Life cycle.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 302,
"text": "In man: exoerythrocytic stage (in the liver): The sporozoites are injected into humans when the mosquito bites and they travel to the liver through blood stream and undergo asexual reproduction to become merozoites through schizonts in the liver cell. Hypnozoites in the liver have not yet been found.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14610284",
"title": "Insect mouthparts",
"section": "Section::::Piercing and sucking insects.:Stylet.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 506,
"text": "In female mosquitoes, all mouthparts are elongated. The labium encloses all other mouthparts like a sheath. The labrum forms the main feeding tube, through which blood is sucked. Paired mandibles and maxillae are present, together forming the stylet, which is used to pierce an animal's skin. During piercing, the labium remains outside the food item's skin, folding away from the stylet. Saliva containing anticoagulants, is injected into the food item and blood sucked out, each through different tubes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1fk7rh
|
Why do nuclear armed countries need such massive investment in conventional military?
|
[
{
"answer": "I dabbled in nuclear strategy, tactics, and the general science of nuclear warfare a few years back, so let me try to answer.\n\nI'm going to assume based on your comments and questions that you're exclusively asking about the United States, but this probably applies to most nuclear weapons states with significant conventional forces.\n\nNuclear weapons are tremendously powerful, but lack granularity and staying power. They are fine as strategic deterrents and powerful battlefield weapons, but their utility largely ends there. Modern conventional militaries allow nations to engage in (comparatively) more subtle military actions such as invasion and occupation of non-nuclear states, anti-piracy efforts, gunboat diplomacy and showing the flag, and as aid during disasters. Many nuclear powers are also major conventional powers because they have an interest in these missions, and generally in possessing more subtle forms of power projection than a nuclear strike.\n\nAnother major reason is probably a political one - not only is a professional army seen as mandatory for a nation-state by the general public, but disbanding a large military would be unpopular among unemployed bureaucrats and soldiers. When you examine how many citizens are employed by the PLA or DoD, it becomes clear that the elimination of those agencies would be controversial to say the least.\n\nBut you have realized something important - the nuclear weapon is a potentially liberating tool from the need to support a massive defensive establishment due to the unacceptable political cost (not to mention damage) of being struck by one. States like North Korea and Israel clearly agree, as shown by their actions.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In the years immediately after World War II, it was imagined that the United States would be able to slash its conventional military budget considerably and rely on nukes alone as a means of deterring Soviet aggression. The idea was that the US would more or less go back to a \"peaceful\" footing as it did before WWII.\n\nThis was politically popular until the detonation of the first Soviet bomb. At this point it became fairly clear that nukes alone did not present the flexibility required for a modern military force, even in strict deterrence situations like that between the USA and the USSR. That is, if your only option is \"start a full-flung nuclear war,\" then you appreciate having some intermediary steps, because otherwise it becomes a game of \"how much does it take before you decide to lose a major city?\" Yes, a full-flung Soviet invasion or preemptive attack, but what about a Berlin blockade? What about a rigged election? What about a small incursion through proxy forces? \n\nIt quickly became clear to American policymakers — though this was not necessarily obvious from the beginning — that nukes _couldn't_ be used. This is the case even without the fear of retaliation. If the USA had used nukes in Korea, for example, there would have been little likelihood of the Soviet Union nuking the USA. But the political costs would have been immense: the USA would have lost its UN sanction, it would have lost its allies, and the Soviets would have gained from that arrangement. Furthermore, if the nukes didn't provide victory — and it wasn't at all clear that they could — then all of that would have been for very little in the end. \n\nFrom the 1960s onwards the US military sought to make a variety of nuclear options that would still increase variability without necessarily leading to all-out nuclear war (tactical nuclear weapons, for example), but the opinion has always been mixed about whether such conflicts would escalate, and whether such weapons would actually be worth the political penalties that would come from their use.\n\nLastly, the United States is a heavily interventionist state. It attempts to establish spheres of influence and regional hegemonies. It invades other nations on a regular basis. You cannot do these things with nukes; you need \"feet on the ground\" to project real force.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "242883",
"title": "History of nuclear weapons",
"section": "Section::::Cost.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 122,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 122,
"end_character": 353,
"text": "The designing, testing, producing, deploying, and defending against nuclear weapons is one of the largest expenditures for the nations which possess nuclear weapons. In the United States during the Cold War years, between \"one quarter to one third of all military spending since World War II [was] devoted to nuclear weapons and their infrastructure.\" \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3238121",
"title": "Industrial warfare",
"section": "Section::::Modern warfare.:The Cold War.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 87,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 87,
"end_character": 489,
"text": "Since the end of WWII, no industrial nations have fought such a large, decisive war, due to the availability of weapons that are so destructive that their use would offset the advantages of victory. The fighting of a total war where nuclear weapons are used is something that instead of taking years and the full mobilisation of a country's resources such as in WWII, would take tens of minutes. Such weapons are developed and maintained with relatively modest peace time defence budgets.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29974",
"title": "Total war",
"section": "Section::::20th century.:Postwar era.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 70,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 70,
"end_character": 418,
"text": "Since the end of World War II, no industrial nation has fought such a large, decisive war. This is likely due to the availability of nuclear weapons, whose destructive power and quick deployment render a full mobilization of a country's resources such as in World War II logistically impractical and strategically irrelevant. Such weapons are developed and maintained with relatively modest peacetime defense budgets.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9317",
"title": "European Union",
"section": "Section::::Foreign relations.:Defence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 125,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 125,
"end_character": 479,
"text": "According to the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI), the United Kingdom spent $61 billion on defence in 2014, placing it fifth in the world, while France spent $53 billion, the sixth largest. Together, the UK and France account for approximately 40 per cent of European countries' defence budget and 50 per cent of their military capacity. Both are officially recognised nuclear weapon states holding permanent seats on the United Nations Security Council.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2459254",
"title": "Nuclear energy policy",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 233,
"text": "Since nuclear energy and nuclear weapons technologies are closely related, military aspirations can act as a factor in energy policy decisions. The fear of nuclear proliferation influences some international nuclear energy policies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46002",
"title": "Pax Americana",
"section": "Section::::Modern period.:Contemporary power.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 429,
"text": "Besides the military foundation, there are significant non-military international institutions backed by American financing and diplomacy (like the United Nations and WTO). The United States invested heavily in programs such as the Marshall Plan and in the reconstruction of Japan, economically cementing defense ties that owed increasingly to the establishment of the Iron Curtain/Eastern Bloc and the widening of the Cold War.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3970530",
"title": "Permanent war economy",
"section": "Section::::Benefits.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 336,
"text": "Military advances provide spin-off benefits for civilian technologies. Additionally, military spending may represent an overhead charge for an economy, allowing a nation to function without fear of invasion. Essentially, military spending ensures the property rights of a nation's citizens: an essential element of a capitalist system.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
21smmf
|
Chicago Footnote Help
|
[
{
"answer": "Yikes, those are the tricky ones.\n\nOkay gov't documents, you sort of cite it like any other books, but you usually include the volumes. Let's look at the gov't docs I used for my own research from the Pennsylvania Archives\n\nPennsylvanian, Commonwealth of. *Minutes of the Provincial Council of Pennsylvania, from the Organization to the Termination of the Proprietary Government. Colonial Records of Pennsylvania.* 10 vols. Philadelphia and Harrisburg: Theophilius Fenn & Co., 1852.\n\nThe author here is the state (since there isn't a given author), according the latest edition of Chicago. Include the title and series name. Volume number. Publisher, etc.\n\nNow, the other ones. If I understand you correctly, if you're using a quoted source within another source, then you need to state that you're using an indirect quote. \n\nName, of Author, \"Their Letter,\" in *Encyclopedia* and then give the rest of the citation for the encyclopedia. Repeat as needed. I think [this](_URL_0_) page might be of some service to you.\n\nI think you can do that for the last one too, but I'm wary of suggesting that as I'm pretty sure it's kind of frowned upon to quote three different sources. Is this for an exercise?\n\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "41521339",
"title": "Bibliography of Chicago history",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 331,
"text": "This is a bibliography of selected publications on the history of Chicago. For most topics, the easiest place to start is Janice L. Reiff, et al. eds. \"The Encyclopedia of Chicago\" (2004), which has thorough coverage by leading scholars in 1120pp of text and many illustrations. It does not include biographies. It is online free.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1265126",
"title": "Roads and expressways in Chicago",
"section": "Section::::Street layout.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 297,
"text": "A book was published in 1909 by The Chicago Directory Company indexing the old and new street numbers for most of Chicago. This volume is available online in PDF format indexed by initial letter, Plan of Re-Numbering, City of Chicago, August 1909. The opening text of the book says: \"EXPLANATORY\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23535126",
"title": "Eppie Lederer",
"section": "Section::::Death and legacy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 510,
"text": "In 2002, the Chicago City Council passed a two-page resolution to honor Lederer for epitomizing Chicago \"with her strong opinion, her sage advice, her impeccable manners, and quick wit\", and announced that a street sign, \"Ann 'Eppie' Landers Way\", would be installed at the corner of North Michigan Avenue and East Illinois Street, in front of the Chicago Tribune Tower, the headquarters of her home paper since 1987. The nicknaming of the street was celebrated with a parade and sparklers—a favorite of hers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24454141",
"title": "Encyclopedia of Chicago",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 665,
"text": "The Encyclopedia of Chicago is an historical reference work covering Chicago and the entire Chicago metropolitan area published by the University of Chicago Press. Released in October 2004, the work is the result of a ten-year collaboration between the Newberry Library and the Chicago Historical Society. It exists in both a hardcover print edition and an online format, known as the Electronic Encyclopedia of Chicago. The print edition is 1117 pages and includes 1400 entries, 2000 biographical sketches, 250 significant business enterprise descriptions, and hundreds of maps. Initially, the internet edition included 1766 entries, 1000 more images and sources.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40288",
"title": "John Wentworth (Illinois)",
"section": "Section::::Political career.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 256,
"text": "When an author left a manuscript of a history of Chicago with Wentworth for his suggestions, he reportedly removed what did not refer to him and returned the manuscript to its author with the note, \"Here is your expurgated and correct history of Chicago.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53035773",
"title": "George Armour",
"section": "Section::::Legacy.:Commercial and cultural.:Integrity and modesty.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 130,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 130,
"end_character": 351,
"text": "Andreas' \"History of Chicago\", the MLTC's \"Fifty Years of Banking in Chicago\", Taylor's \"History of the Board of Trade of the City of Chicago\", the \"Encyclopaedia of Biography of Illinois\" provide biographies for hundreds of Chicago individuals, but none of these works - even when they mention him many times - include a biography for George Armour.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20022028",
"title": "Forgotten Chicago",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 207,
"text": "Forgotten Chicago is an organization that seeks to discover and document little known elements of Chicago's infrastructure, architecture, neighborhoods and general cityscape, whether existing or historical.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
p1u97
|
the drug enforcement administration (dea)
|
[
{
"answer": "The DEA is a federal law enforcement agency under the Department of Justice tasked with enforcing federal laws (primarily the Controlled Substances Act) on the use, manufacture, and smuggling of drugs in the United States. In some ways like the FBI, the DEA has \"special agents\" who they employ and who must pass a rigorous background check—if an applicant has *ever* used drugs, they are excluded from employment by the DEA. These special agents investigate, arrest, and detain drugs and those suspected of selling drugs.\n\nIn states where medical marijuana dispensaries are legal under state law, the DEA has been enforcing federal drug laws to shut them down. In the past, the federal government has been reluctant to enforce federal drug laws in states which chose to legalize medical marijuana. Pro-MMJ advocates say that the federal government has no authority to regulate the use and sale of medical marijuana that is fully within the state's borders. More broadly, the argument is that federal drug policy towards marijuana is shutting down legitimate businesses that help sick people, and that treating users and sellers of medical marijuana in states where it is legal like they are criminals is enormously bad policy.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "146720",
"title": "Drug Enforcement Administration",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 663,
"text": "The Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) () is a United States federal law enforcement agency under the United States Department of Justice, tasked with combating drug trafficking and distribution within the United States. The DEA is the lead agency for domestic enforcement of the Controlled Substances Act, sharing concurrent jurisdiction with the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), Immigration and Customs Enforcement’s Homeland Security Investigations (HSI), U.S. Customs and Border Protection (CBP), and the Department of Homeland Security (DHS). It has sole responsibility for coordinating and pursuing US drug investigations both domestic and abroad.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7727",
"title": "Controlled Substances Act",
"section": "Section::::Enforcement authority.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 652,
"text": "The Drug Enforcement Administration was established in 1973, combining the Bureau of Narcotics and Dangerous Drugs (BNDD) and Customs' drug agents. Proceedings to add, delete, or change the schedule of a drug or other substance may be initiated by the DEA, the Department of Health and Human Services (HHS), or by petition from any interested party, including the manufacturer of a drug, a medical society or association, a pharmacy association, a public interest group concerned with drug abuse, a state or local government agency, or an individual citizen. When a petition is received by the DEA, the agency begins its own investigation of the drug.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "169938",
"title": "Drug Enforcement Agency (Liberia)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 850,
"text": "The Drug Enforcement Agency (DEA) is an agency within the Liberian government charged with fighting drug-related crimes. Before its creation, fighting drug crimes was a responsibility of the Ministry of Defense. The agency began as the National Drug Committee of the Interim Government of National Unity; it was created in 1993 during the presidency of Amos Sawyer. Five years later, the committee was converted into its present form: President Taylor signed a bill passed by the National Legislature that created the DEA and patterned it after the Drug Enforcement Administration in the United States. The DEA is charged with fighting drug trafficking at the country's borders, arresting traffickers and dealers, and destroying illegal drugs. According to DEA boss Anthony Souh, the agency nevertheless suffers from substantial internal corruption.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21577378",
"title": "Office of Drug Abuse Law Enforcement",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 445,
"text": "The Office of Drug Abuse Law Enforcement (ODALE) was a Justice Department agency that Richard Nixon established in January 1972, headed by Myles Ambrose. The office was chiefly a tool for the federal government to assist local government in enforcing drug laws and oblige drug addicts to undergo rehabilitation. In July 1973, ODALE was consolidated, along with several other agencies, into the newly established Drug Enforcement Administration.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "146720",
"title": "Drug Enforcement Administration",
"section": "Section::::Organization.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 1201,
"text": "The DEA is headed by an \"Administrator of Drug Enforcement\" appointed by the President of the United States and confirmed by the U.S. Senate. The Administrator reports to the Attorney General through the Deputy Attorney General. The Administrator is assisted by a Deputy Administrator, the Chief of Operations, the Chief Inspector, and three Assistant Administrators (for the Operations Support, Intelligence, and Human Resources Divisions). Other senior staff include the chief financial officer and the Chief Counsel. The Administrator and Deputy Administrator are the only presidentially-appointed personnel in the DEA; all other DEA officials are career government employees. DEA's headquarters is located in Arlington, Virginia across from the Pentagon. It maintains its own DEA Academy located on the Marine Corps Base Quantico at Quantico, Virginia along with the FBI Academy. It maintains 23 domestic field divisions with 222 field offices and 92 foreign offices in 70 countries. With a budget exceeding $3 billion, DEA employs 10,169 people, including 4,924 Special Agents and 800 Intelligence Analysts. Becoming a Special Agent or Intelligence Analyst with the DEA is a competitive process.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2912632",
"title": "Comprehensive Drug Abuse Prevention and Control Act of 1970",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 219,
"text": "The DEA also may begin an investigation of a drug at any time based upon information received from law enforcement laboratories, state and local law enforcement and regulatory agencies, or other sources of information.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "146720",
"title": "Drug Enforcement Administration",
"section": "Section::::History and mandate.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 663,
"text": "The Drug Enforcement Administration was established on July 1, 1973, by Reorganization Plan No. 2 of 1973, signed by President Richard Nixon on July 28. It proposed the creation of a single federal agency to enforce the federal drug laws as well as consolidate and coordinate the government's drug control activities. Congress accepted the proposal, as they were concerned with the growing availability of drugs. As a result, the Bureau of Narcotics and Dangerous Drugs (BNDD), the Office of Drug Abuse Law Enforcement (ODALE); approximately 600 Special Agents of the Bureau of Customs, Customs Agency Service, and other federal offices merged to create the DEA.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
b9dx6q
|
How did Taffy 3 actually pull off the defense of the Lette landing force in WWII?
|
[
{
"answer": "Expanded from [an earlier answer of mine](_URL_3_)\n\nThe actions of Kurita at Samar are still somewhat controversial among naval historians. Kurita in theory should have acted with daring given that the *Sho* plan called for a fight to the death, but he vacillated throughout the engagement. On a more tactical level, there is the question of why did *Yamato* and *Nagato* turn northwards at ca. 0755 which pulled the ship away from Taffy 3 and the carriers when the two battleships were relatively undamaged. Second, there is the Kurita's overall withdrawal for the IJN forces at 0920 away from the American escort carriers and transports. Both decisions by Kurita earned him a degree of opprobrium at the time and in the postwar period with one common metaphor employed casting Kurita as Hamlet unable to make a decision until after the die had been cast. \n\nOf the two decisions, the *Yamato* turn is the more explicable. Lookouts had sighted torpedoes from an earlier torpedo attack and Kurita's battleships faced two choices to \"fan the torpedoes\", a turn to port (north) or starboard (south). The starboard turn would have kept the fleet into contact with Taffy 3 but posed two disadvantages. Firstly, it would have been steaming into the torpedo line, risking a hit. Second, it meant that both battleships were in serious danger of colliding with the battleship *Haruna*, which had been steaming in a line parallel to Kurita's division. This particular aspect of the division's decision is one that only very recently become apparent. Older historiography on Samar such as Morrison tended to place *Haruna* in a different location than more recent work like Robert Lundgren or John Prados which triangulates the battleline more closely using surviving Japanese and American accounts (and note, this still is reasonable conjecture, but still a hypothesis). The officers in charge of the ships' maneuvering instinctively chose the course that minimized damage, with the result that the two most powerful surface units at Samar were now seven miles out of position and its commander lacked even more situational awareness. \n\nThis uncertainty shines some light onto Kurita's second turn away from battle. When the US Strategic Bombing Survey (USSBS) interviewed some of the surviving Japanese naval officers, they gave some inkling that they knew after the battle that the opposing naval force was much smaller than they first thought at the start of the engagement. [*USSBS NO. 170 The Battle off Samar*'s interrogation of Commander Otani Tonosuke](_URL_2_), Operations Officer on the Staff of CinC Second Fleet has a very instructive portion on this very issue and how Japan's lack of air cover contributed to the fog of war:\n\n > Q. What type of carriers did you believe they were?\n\n > A. We gave that question much consideration, but never fully made up our minds. We found ourselves perplexed by your carriers because they did not correspond to their photographs, and first we thought that they were regular carriers; but after the battle, we decided that they were auxiliary or converted carriers. Also we received word from the tops that there was another formation, and at that time we wondered if we were not confronted by 12 or 13 carriers in all; but this was not ascertained on the bridge.\n\n > Q. Was there any attempt to engage in battle with the second group?\n\n > A. First, we would encounter the first group, and then take on the second.\n\n > Q. What damage did you inflict upon the first group you engaged?\n\n > A. One carrier sunk, one light cruiser, one heavy cruiser and one destroyer. There was some confusion between the high gunnery control platform and the bridge. There may have been a repeat report which was understood as two carriers sunk; the bridge concluded that one carrier was sunk. Again from later reports which may have contained duplication, we concluded that we had sunk four carriers, two or three cruisers and two or three destroyers. That was the total result of the day. I now think this is rather accurate, and from a report of search planes at about 1100, we received information that one battleship was severely damaged and dead in the water.\n\nAs Commander Otani's interrogation made clear, the IJN's attempt to ascertain the reality of the combat situation was made difficult by the reliance upon visual sightings from surface ships and the constant Allied air attacks on Kurita's fleet. [Kurita's USSBS interview](_URL_0_) likewise suggested that visual surface sightings were inadequate to give the IJN admiral a proper estimate of the situation:\n\n > Q. What type of aircraft carriers were the American carriers present? Were they the ESSEX or ENTERPRISE class? Did you recognize them?\n\n > A. I don't remember. Starboard bridge structure was all I could tell. There wasn't enough visibility nor adequate reports from the scouting planes.\n\nAlthough he was not available for a USSBS interview because of his foolhardy Kamikaze mission. Admiral Ugaki Matome's diary entries for the Leyte battles also notes that Allied air attacks and poor Japanese reconnaissance doomed Japan's efforts to throw back the Leyte invasion. Although Ukagi's diary took Kurita to task for confusing orders, he placed a good deal of blame for Japan's defeat on the inability of the Philippine's airbases to provide the surface fleet any form of cover or information. His 24 October entry noted that:\n\n > Unless we get enough cooperation from our base air forces, we can do nothing about [concentrated American air attacks], and all of our fighting strength will be reduced to nothing at the end. In such case we should perish by fighting an air battle, hoping it to be a decisive one. \n\nOnce the gravity of the defeat off of Samar sank in, Ugaki's 25 October entry pinned responsibility for failure \"in some respect to [the operation's] planning, [but] mostly to the extreme inactivity of the base air forces. Probably hindered by bad weather.\" One of the themes of Ugaki's remaining entries for October and November was lambasting Japan's lackluster efforts to produce as many aircraft as possible to turn back the Allied tide. \n\nAlthough Kurita asserted in his interview that he did not expect air cover from land-based aircraft, Ugaki's diary entry indicates that at least some IJN officers expected an effort to be made by land-based planes. Otani placed a great deal of onus on the *Sho* operation's failure to poor coordination between Kurita and Japanese air assets:\n\n > Q. Where do you think this whole operation broke down? Why did it fail?\n\n > A. I feel that from the very beginning that the cooperation between the Task Force (OZAWA) and the Surface Force (KURITA) and the land-based Air Force was bad from the beginning.\n\n > Q. What do you feel caused this poor coordination?\n\n > A. Coordination between the Surface Force and the (carrier) Task Force was almost impossible due to the restrictions on communication and the need for radio silence; therefore, the plans for cooperation were not carried out. This lack of information from OZAWA was one of the main factors in the failure of the operation, but perhaps the biggest factor was the lack of protection from our land-based air against your (carrier) Task Force. I feel also that the original plan was too complex and inflexible to work properly. \n\nIn this context, Japanese commanders focused much less on the small size of Sprague's CVEs and instead more on the number of failures of Japanese planning and execution as the reasons for defeat. The effectiveness of the CVE's air attacks, which Otani observed were some of the most effective air strikes despite their small size, further underscored the disadvantages of surface ships operating in an environment where the enemy held complete air superiority. Combined Fleet CinC Admiral Toyoda Soemu's [USSBS interview](_URL_1_) defended Kurita's actions to retire because of this material disparity:\n\n > Q. Under the circumstances as they are now known, in your opinion what that decision of KURITA to turn back a correct one?\n\n > A. Looking back on it now, I think that withdrawal was not a mistake. At the time I did not have and Combined Fleet Headquarters did not have information regarding the details of the engagement. Later, when we learned that Admiral HALSEY's Task Force was further south than we thought it was, I believe that Admiral KURITA then would have been within the range of air attack from your Task Force, so that it was not unwise for him to have turned back at that time.\n\n > Q. You would not criticize his action now in turning back?\n\n > A. I would not criticize. \n\nWhile some zealots like Ugaki saw defeat as an urgent reminder for Japan to redouble her war efforts to achieve victory (upon hearing of Hiroshima his 7 August entry expressed a wish that Japan should develop an atomic bomb of her own), other IJN officers adapted a more fatalistic attitude towards the war. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "9353280",
"title": "John S. McCain Sr.",
"section": "Section::::World War II.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 598,
"text": "Taffy 3 came under attack from a much heavier Japanese force under Vice Admiral Takeo Kurita, provoking the Battle off Samar. Sprague promptly pleaded for assistance from Halsey, who was responsible for protecting the northern approach to the landing site. Halsey had contemplated detaching a battle group, Task Force 34 (TF 34), but chose to bring all available battle groups north to pursue the Japanese carrier force. Hearing Sprague's pleas (including messages in plain language, not even bothering to encrypt them as the situation grew desperate), Admiral Nimitz sent Halsey a terse message, \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24898353",
"title": "Battle of Porton Plantation",
"section": "Section::::Battle.:Initial landing and fighting around the beachhead.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 993,
"text": "Lacking organic indirect fire support as all the mortars had been in the landing craft that were in the second wave, Downs established communications with the artillery, and a barrage was brought down on suspected Japanese positions by the artillery forward observation officer, Lieutenant David Spark, with the assistance of a Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) Boomerang that was on station overhead to provide aerial observation. By dawn, Downs' company was taking sporadic fire from Japanese pill boxes, and they began patrolling forward of their perimeter to locate these positions. These patrols were unable to progress very far before they were forced back by Japanese fire, which confirmed how bad the company's position was. They determined that they had landed about north of where they had been supposed to land, and inside what the official historian Gavin Long described as an \"arc of enemy trenches and pill-boxes with a radius of about 400 yards\" that effectively boxed them in.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24056172",
"title": "USS LSM(R)-190",
"section": "Section::::Design History (Friedman).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 381,
"text": "In 1944 with the US Navy BuOrd's mounting of a 5-inch/38 gun and state of the art rocket launchers on the LSM its mission changed and the LSM(R) became the \"ultimate\" landing troop fire support out to 4,000 yards beyond the beach, designed for interdiction, harassment, destruction, illumination and high trajectory fire to destroy reverse slope targets for the invasion of Japan.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1408655",
"title": "Operation Hailstone",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 302,
"text": "Operation \"Hailstone\" (), lit. \"the airstrike on Truk Island\"), 17–18 February 1944, was a massive United States Navy air and surface attack on Truk Lagoon conducted as part of the American offensive drive against the Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN) through the Central Pacific Ocean during World War II.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11090842",
"title": "Landings at Cape Torokina",
"section": "Section::::Battle.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 998,
"text": "In response to the landing, a large force of Japanese aircraft (44 fighters and nine dive bombers) was scrambled from Rabaul, arriving over Empress Augusta Bay at 07:35 hours. These were intercepted by New Zealand and US Marine fighter aircraft from Munda and Vella Lavella. They also met with heavy anti-aircraft fire from the escorting US destroyers. The overall result was 26 Japanese machines shot down. During the attack, unloading was halted and the transports began defensive maneuvers for two hours. After this first effort was repulsed, unloading on the beaches resumed. A second attack of 100 aircraft was launched from New Britain in the early afternoon. These were met by 34 AirSols fighters under direction from the destroyer . Only 12 Japanese aircraft managed to penetrate the AirSols fighter screen. Arriving over the transport area, their attack proved largely ineffective, though they did manage to inflict a near miss on the destroyer , resulting in two killed and five wounded.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11090842",
"title": "Landings at Cape Torokina",
"section": "Section::::Prelude.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 640,
"text": "In the month prior to the landings, Allied aircraft assigned to AirSols launched over 3,200 sorties against Japanese airfields surrounding the proposed landing site, and the wider Bougainville area in an effort to reduce the ability of the Japanese to interfere with the landings from the air. On the day of the landing, a naval task force, Task Force 39 under Rear Admiral Aaron S. Merrill, including several cruisers and destroyers, bombarded the airfields around Buka and the Bonis Peninsula. Proceeding south, a fire mission on the Shortlands followed, as part of a diversionary plan to take Japanese attention away from Cape Torokina.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1033063",
"title": "Operation Krohcol",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 638,
"text": "Operation Krohcol, or the Battle for The Ledge, was a British operation in December 1941 to invade southern Thailand following the Japanese invasion of Malaya and of Thailand during World War II. It was authorised by Lieutenant-General Arthur Percival as a \"mini Matador\" after Operation Matador, a pre-emptive strike into Thailand which had been opposed by the British government and was not carried out. Due to delays in authorisation by Percival and in the forwarding of his order, the need to reorganise the troops for Krohcol instead of Matador, and resistance from Thai policemen the Krohcol column did not reach the Ledge in time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3pif4o
|
What lies behind the military success of the Ottoman Empire in the period from the 1400s to the 1600s, and would they have fared equally well against western European powers?
|
[
{
"answer": "A search brought up [this](_URL_0_) post, which mentions the importance of gunpowder and speaks of \"superiority of Ottoman weaponry\". Could someone elaborate on that? How advanced were the Ottomans in the field of weaponry, how big of a role did that play and why did it not matter at later lost battles like Vienna?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2081846",
"title": "Ottoman Caliphate",
"section": "Section::::History.:1362–1875.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 393,
"text": "Strengthened by the Peace of Westphalia and the Industrial Revolution, European powers regrouped and challenged Ottoman dominance. Owing largely to poor leadership, archaic political norms, and an inability to keep pace with technological progress in Europe, the Ottoman Empire could not respond effectively to Europe's resurgence and gradually lost its position as a pre-eminent great power.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11918688",
"title": "Morean War",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 827,
"text": "During the 17th century, the Ottomans remained the premier political and military power in Europe, but signs of decline were evident: the Ottoman economy suffered from the influx of gold and silver from the Americas, an increasingly unbalanced budget and repeated devaluations of the currency, while the traditional timariot cavalry system and the Janissaries, who formed the core of the Ottoman armies, declined in quality and were increasingly replaced by irregular forces that were inferior to the regular European armies. The reform efforts of Sultan Murad IV (), and the able administration of the Köprülü dynasty of Grand Viziers, whose members governed the Empire from 1656 to 1683, managed to sustain Ottoman power and even enabled it to conquer Crete, but the long and drawn-out war there exhausted Ottoman resources.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "865346",
"title": "Ottoman wars in Europe",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 720,
"text": "In the late seventeenth century, European powers began to consolidate against the Ottomans and formed the Holy League, reversing a number of Ottoman land gains during the Great Turkish War of 1683–99. Nevertheless, Ottoman armies were able to hold their own against their European rivals until the second half of the eighteenth century. In the nineteenth century the Ottomans were confronted with insurrection from their Serbian (1804–1817) and Greek (1821–1832) subjects. This occurred in tandem with the Russo-Turkish wars, which further destabilized the empire. The final retreat of Ottoman rule came with the First Balkan War (1912–1913), followed by the signing of the Treaty of Sèvres at the close of World War I.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2834542",
"title": "Ottoman Old Regime",
"section": "Section::::Military.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 1033,
"text": "The Ottoman military was capable of matching those of its European rivals during the first half of the eighteenth century, and there was no significant technological gap between them. However, following the 1739 Treaty of Belgrade, the Ottomans remained at peace in Europe for nearly thirty years, missing out on the rapid improvements in military technology and organization associated with the Seven Years' War (1756-63), particularly the development of highly trained and disciplined regimental forces, innovations in the tactical deployment of small-caliber cannons, and the widespread use of socket bayonets as a counter to cavalry. Extended peace also resulted in a lack of practical experience among Ottoman commanders, in contrast with Russian generals such as Rumiantsev and Suvarov, whose abilities were honed during the Seven Years' War. Thus when war finally broke out with Russia in 1768 the Ottomans suffered devastating defeats, resulting in the loss of Crimea and the signing of the Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca in 1774.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47555277",
"title": "List of modern great powers",
"section": "Section::::Early modern powers.:Ottoman Empire.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 327,
"text": "The effective military and bureaucratic structures of the previous century also came under strain during a protracted period of misrule by weak Sultans. But in spite of these difficulties, the Empire remained a major expansionist power until the Battle of Vienna in 1683, which marked the end of Ottoman expansion into Europe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1012887",
"title": "Early modern warfare",
"section": "Section::::Europe.:Cavalry.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 61,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 61,
"end_character": 408,
"text": "The one exception to this was the Ottoman Empire, which had been founded by Turkish horsemen. The Ottomans were some of the first to embrace gunpowder artillery and firearms and integrated them into their already formidable fighting abilities. As European infantry became better armed and disciplined, by about 1700, the Ottoman forces began to be regularly defeated by the troops of the Austria and Russia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15012",
"title": "Islamism",
"section": "Section::::History.:Early history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 80,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 80,
"end_character": 327,
"text": "The end of the 19th century saw the dismemberment of most of the Muslim Ottoman Empire by non-Muslim European colonial powers. The empire spent massive sums on Western civilian and military technology to try to modernize and compete with the encroaching European powers, and in the process went deep into debt to these powers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
31luty
|
How did tyrannosaurus drink water?
|
[
{
"answer": "T. rex probably drank like most birds, by bending down and taking a mouthful of water, then tilting its head back to allow the water to run down its throat. Tyrannosaurus also has a ling and heavy tail that can be used as counter weight when it leans forward.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Anyone know how much they would drink on average a day?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4549814",
"title": "Jurassic Park: The Ride",
"section": "Section::::Universal Studios Hollywood.:Ride.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 596,
"text": "The Tyrannosaurus rex then emerged from a waterfall coming from broken pipes in front of the raft, and lunged down to grab the raft, which escaped by plunging down an drop into a tropical lagoon outside the Environmental Systems Building. A Dilophosaurus made a final attempt to squirt \"venom\" (water) at the passengers. A can of Barbasol was seen in the planter just before the ride ended, a reference to the can Dennis Nedry uses in the first film to steal dinosaur embryos. The raft then made its way to the unloading dock where guests disembarked through the \"Jurassic Outfitters\" gift shop.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5492915",
"title": "Mesosaurus",
"section": "Section::::Palaeobiology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 510,
"text": "\"Mesosaurus\" was one of the first reptiles known to have returned to the water after early tetrapods came to land in the Late Devonian or later in the Paleozoic. It was around in length, with webbed feet, a streamlined body, and a long tail that may have supported a fin. It probably propelled itself through the water with its long hind legs and flexible tail. Its body was also flexible and could easily move sideways, but it had heavily thickened ribs, which would have prevented it from twisting its body.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16783518",
"title": "Hydrus (legendary creature)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 515,
"text": "There is considerable confusion in applying the name hydrus and its variations to beasts. The root of the word itself refers to water, and this led to several beasts, mostly serpents, being so labeled. Isidore of Seville lists the hydros, a water snake that causes those bitten to swell up, the cure for which is the dung of an ox. The hydrus was also confused with the Hydra of the Hercules legend, some texts saying that it was a many-headed water dragon, living in the swamp of Lerna, that could grow new heads.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9438266",
"title": "List of creatures in Primeval",
"section": "Section::::M.:Mesosaurus.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 180,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 180,
"end_character": 754,
"text": "Mesosaurus (meaning \"middle lizard\") is an extinct genus of reptile from the Early Permian of southern Africa and South America. Mesosaurus was one of the first reptiles to return to the water after early tetrapods came to land in the Late Devonian or later in the Paleozoic. It was around in length, with webbed feet, a streamlined body, and a long tail that may have supported a fin. It probably propelled itself through the water with its long hind legs and flexible tail. Its body was also flexible and could easily move sideways, but it had heavily thickened ribs, which would have prevented it from twisting its body. A picture of Mesosaurus is on the wall of Nick Cutter's lab at the Central Metropolitan University as Stephen walks into the lab.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4123934",
"title": "Val Plumwood",
"section": "Section::::Views.:Crocodile attack.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 382,
"text": "Crocodiles do not often attack canoes, but this one started lashing at it with his tail. Plumwood grabbed some overhanging branches, but before she could pull herself up, the crocodile seized her between the legs and dragged her under the water, a \"centrifuge of whirling, boiling blackness, which seemed about to tear my limbs from my body, driving waters into my bursting lungs.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5659359",
"title": "Mastodonsaurus",
"section": "Section::::Biology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 628,
"text": "The marked reduction of the limbs and grooves on the head called sensory sulci show that \"Mastodonsaurus\" was an aquatic animal that rarely left water. \"Mastodonsaurus\" may have been completely unable to leave the water, as large quantities of bones have been found that suggest individuals died en masse when pools dried up during times of drought. It inhabited swampy pools and lived mainly on fish, whose remains have been found in its fossilized coprolites. It probably also ate land-living animals, such as small archosaurs. The fossils of some smaller temnospondyls bear tooth marks made by \"Mastodonsaurus\"-like animals.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1585380",
"title": "Edmontosaurus",
"section": "Section::::Paleobiology.:Locomotion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 541,
"text": "While long thought to have been aquatic or semiaquatic, hadrosaurids were not as well-suited for swimming as other dinosaurs (particularly theropods, who were once thought to have been unable to pursue hadrosaurids into water). Hadrosaurids had slim hands with short fingers, making their forelimbs ineffective for propulsion, and the tail was also not useful for propulsion because of the ossified tendons that increased its rigidity, and the poorly developed attachment points for muscles that would have moved the tail from side to side.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
gzkn9
|
Does negative mass repel objects?
|
[
{
"answer": "Negative mass is *completely* hypothetical. Your question is like asking \"do unicorns like to eat carrots?\". If unicorns existed there's a chance that they would like carrots, but, unicorns don't exist, so it's not a useful thing to think about. If negative mass existed, then yes it might have the property of repelling other objects. But the question doesn't contain any physics at all.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The closest thing, conceptually, to \"negative mass\" that exists is simply pressure. And pressure gravitates in the same manner than mass does.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "342127",
"title": "Anti-gravity",
"section": "Section::::Hypothetical solutions.:General relativity research in the 1950s.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 870,
"text": "Bondi pointed out that a negative mass will fall toward (and not away from) \"normal\" matter, since although the gravitational force is repulsive, the negative mass (according to Newton's law, F=ma) responds by accelerating in the opposite of the direction of the force. Normal mass, on the other hand, will fall away from the negative matter. He noted that two identical masses, one positive and one negative, placed near each other will therefore self-accelerate in the direction of the line between them, with the negative mass chasing after the positive mass. Notice that because the negative mass acquires negative kinetic energy, the total energy of the accelerating masses remains at zero. Forward pointed out that the self-acceleration effect is due to the negative inertial mass, and could be seen induced without the gravitational forces between the particles.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "71478",
"title": "Exotic matter",
"section": "Section::::Negative mass.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 566,
"text": "Negative mass would possess some strange properties, such as accelerating in the direction opposite of applied force. Despite being inconsistent with the expected behavior of \"normal\" matter, negative mass is mathematically consistent and introduces no violation of conservation of momentum or energy. It is used in certain speculative theories, such as on the construction of artificial wormholes and the Alcubierre drive. The closest known real representative of such exotic matter is the region of pseudo-negative-pressure density produced by the Casimir effect.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "262606",
"title": "Negative mass",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 614,
"text": "In theoretical physics, negative mass is matter whose mass is of opposite sign to the mass of normal matter, e.g. −1 kg. Such matter would violate one or more energy conditions and show some strange properties, stemming from the ambiguity as to whether attraction should refer to force or the oppositely oriented acceleration for negative mass. It is used in certain speculative hypotheses, such as on the construction of traversable wormholes and the Alcubierre drive. Initially, the closest known real representative of such exotic matter is a region of negative pressure density produced by the Casimir effect.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19048",
"title": "Mass",
"section": "Section::::In quantum physics.:Exotic matter and negative mass.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 100,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 100,
"end_character": 283,
"text": "The negative mass exists in the model to describe dark energy (phantom energy) and radiation in negative-index metamaterial in a unified way. In this way, the negative mass is associated with negative momentum, negative pressure, negative kinetic energy and FTL (faster-than-light).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "262606",
"title": "Negative mass",
"section": "Section::::In general relativity.:Inertial versus gravitational mass.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 519,
"text": "In 1957, following Luttinger's idea, Hermann Bondi suggested in a paper in \"Reviews of Modern Physics\" that mass might be negative as well as positive. He pointed out that this does not entail a logical contradiction, as long as all three forms of mass are negative, but that the assumption of negative mass involves some counter-intuitive form of motion. For example, an object with negative inertial mass would be expected to accelerate in the opposite direction to that in which it was pushed (non-gravitationally).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "262606",
"title": "Negative mass",
"section": "Section::::In general relativity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 511,
"text": "Negative mass is any region of space in which for some observers the mass density is measured to be negative. This could occur due to a region of space in which the stress component of the Einstein stress–energy tensor is larger in magnitude than the mass density. All of these are violations of one or another variant of the positive energy condition of Einstein's general theory of relativity; however, the positive energy condition is not a required condition for the mathematical consistency of the theory.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "262606",
"title": "Negative mass",
"section": "Section::::In special relativity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 63,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 63,
"end_character": 375,
"text": "The negative momentum is applied to explain negative refraction, the inverse Doppler effect and the reverse Cherenkov effect observed in a negative index metamaterial. The radiation pressure in the metamaterial is also negative because the force is defined as . Negative pressure exists in dark energy too. Using these above equations, the energy–momentum relation should be\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1hwxvo
|
What makes salt flat so flat?
|
[
{
"answer": "Lakes are very low energy environments. So while the hole in the topography they filled will have been irregular, over the long periods (thousands, perhaps even up to millions of years) that the lake is present, fine sediment gets settled out relatively evenly across the basin. The builds up a flat bottom. Once the water is evaporated, you're then left with a salt flat.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "9980356",
"title": "Salar de Atacama",
"section": "Section::::Features.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 488,
"text": "The salt flat encompasses , is about long and wide, which makes it the third largest in the world, after Salar de Uyuni in Bolivia (). and Salinas Grandes in Argentina (). Its average elevation is about 2,300 m above sea level. The topography of the core portion of the \"salar\" exhibits a high level of roughness, the result of evaporation and ephemeral surface water, unlike the most other salt flats, as for example the Salar de Uyuni, which is periodically covered with shallow water.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35748864",
"title": "Salar del Huasco",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 336,
"text": "The salt flat is probably bordered by a fault on its western side, and a river delta forms much of its northern edge; it is now crisscrossed by stream channels. In the Pleistocene the salt flat was covered by a lake that was identified through its clay and diatomite sediments and which has left well preserved shorelines and terraces.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44071480",
"title": "Salt surface structures",
"section": "Section::::Salt.:Characteristics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 648,
"text": "Salt has two key characteristics that make it unique in a tectonic setting, and important economically. The first is that salt (and other evaporites) deform plastically over geologic time, and thus behaves as a fluid rather than a rigid structure. This allows structures with salt components to deform more easily and have a slightly different appearance. Take, for example the Appalachians, which contain some salt deposits, and the Rocky Mountains, which is an accretionary terrain with little to no salt. This also allows for the creation of structural traps for oil and gas, as well as metals which makes them sought after targets in industry.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "395186",
"title": "Dry lake",
"section": "Section::::Terminology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 227,
"text": "In Arabic, an alkali flat is called a \"sabkha\" (also spelled \"sabkhah\", \"subkha\" or \"sebkha\") or \"shott\" (\"chott\"). In Central Asia, a similar \"cracked mud\" salt flat is known as a takyr. In Iran salt flats are called \"kavir\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24081610",
"title": "Great Salt Plains State Park",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 411,
"text": "The Great Salt Plains cover an area of . It was so named because it is covered with a layer of salt deposited long ago by an inland sea. A saline aquifer still flows beneath the surface and replenishes the salt whenever the water table rises. The salt is left behind when the water evaporates. The first white men to visit this area were members of the Sibley expedition in 1811, who named it the Grand Saline.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15680063",
"title": "Salar de Talar",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 444,
"text": "The salty flat is bordered on the west by Caichinque and on the east by Cerro Medano. This latter is a mountain with striking shades of grey and brown, which contrast nicely with the sparkling white of the salt flat's surface. On top of that, colorful ponds fringe its shores. An important lava flow from the Caichinque volcanic complex formed two lobes which advanced into Salar de Talar. Salt deposits in the salt flat have polygonal shapes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58423715",
"title": "Salt deformation",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 484,
"text": "Due to the unique physical and chemical properties of rock salt such as its low density, high thermal conductivity and high solubility in water, it deforms distinctively in underground and surface environments compared with other rocks. Instability of rock salt is also given by its low viscosity, which allows rock salt to flow as a fluid. As the rock salt flows, a variety of salt structures are formed. Therefore, basins containing salt deform more easily than those lacking salt.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2hio8g
|
How is Gavrilo Princip viewed in Serbia today?
|
[
{
"answer": "Although this question is likely violating the 20 year, the WWI centennial has caused some focus on the expressions of commemorations and historical memory. NPR had a good report, [*The Shifting Legacy Of The Man Who Shot Franz Ferdinand*](_URL_1_) and *Smithsonian* magazine had an article in 2000 [\"Searching for Gavrilo Princip](_URL_0_) that takes a long view of Princip's legacy. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4187089",
"title": "Zvezdan Jovanović",
"section": "Section::::Assassination of Zoran Đinđić.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 238,
"text": "In May 2008, then ICTY-imprisoned Serbian Radical Party leader Vojislav Šešelj compared Jovanović with the assassin of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, saying “he would enjoy the same fame and glory that Gavrilo Princip has in Serbian history”.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37957531",
"title": "Beli Orlovi (supporter group)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 712,
"text": "Under the Beli Orlovi gather not only the ordinary Serbian fans, but also members of all Serbian organized supporter groups such as the Delije, Grobari, Firmaši, Meraklije, Crveni Đavoli, Marinci, Plava Unija and others, as one supporter group where counts only the support of Serbia in Sport. Besides Serbia, the Beli Orlovi has also members in Montenegro, Bosnia and Herzegovina, especially in the Bosnian Serb entity Republika Srpska, and Croatia. They also have many supporters in all other former Yugoslavian republics like Macedonia and Slovenia and in the Serbian diaspora, especially in Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Sweden, the United States, Canada and Australia, as well as in the Yugoslav diaspora.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "195237",
"title": "Zoran Đinđić",
"section": "Section::::Legacy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 556,
"text": "His state procession and funeral, held on 15 March 2003, was attended by hundreds of thousands of citizens and by foreign delegations. Đinđić's death represented a political and moral tragedy to many Serbs who saw in him a statesman of hope who offered peaceful coexistence with neighboring nations, integration to Europe and the rest of the world, economic prosperity and a brighter future. He appealed to people in Serbia whose goal is for their country to join the West, to join the European Union, and to become \"normal Europeans\" with \"normal lives\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13010",
"title": "Gavrilo Princip",
"section": "Section::::Legacy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 540,
"text": "In socialist Yugoslavia, Gavrilo Princip was venerated as a national hero and a freedom fighter who fought to liberate all the peoples of Yugoslavia from Austrian rule; however in the modern day, many Croats and Bosniaks have now expressed viewpoints characterizing Princip as a murderer. Asim Sarajlic, a senior MP of the Bosniak nationalist Party of Democratic Action, stated that Princip brought an end to \"a golden era of history under Austrian rule\" and that \"we are strongly against the mythology of Princip as a fighter of freedom.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51650915",
"title": "Nikola Pašić's House",
"section": "Section::::Importance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 591,
"text": "It importance stems from a fact that it was a home of a highly important person in the Serbian history. Apart from being Prime Minister and head of the People's Radical Party, Pašić was also Minister of the interior, Minister of the foreign affairs, acting Minister for construction and Minister for finance, President of the National Assembly, Mayor of Belgrade and Serbia's diplomatic envoy to Russia. Because of all that, the house was open for foreign statesmen, diplomats, reporters, in a word, famous local and foreign persons from the political and social life of Serbia and Europe. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13010",
"title": "Gavrilo Princip",
"section": "Section::::Legacy.:Memorials and commemoration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 428,
"text": "A statue of Princip was erected in Belgrade on the symbolic Vidovdan, 28 June 2015, unveiled by the President of Serbia Tomislav Nikolić and the President of Republika Srpska Milorad Dodik, as a gift from Republika Srpska to Serbia. At the unveiling Nikolić gave a speech, saying in part: \"Princip was a hero, a symbol of liberation ideas, tyrant-murderer, idea-holder of liberation from slavery, which spanned through Europe.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20958127",
"title": "Stojan Novaković",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 580,
"text": "Stojan Novaković (; 1 November 1842 – 18 February 1915) was a Serbian historian, scholar, writer, bibliographer, literary critic, translator, politician, and diplomat, holding the post of Prime Minister of the Kingdom of Serbia on two occasions, post of minister of education on three occasions, minister of interior on one occasion and leading the foremost liberal political party of that time in Serbia, the Progressive Party. He was also one of the most successful and skilled Serbian diplomats, holding the post of envoy to Constantinople, Paris, Vienna and Saint Petersburg.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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}
] | null |
1v6y6h
|
how would brass instruments be different if they were made from different metals such as steel?
|
[
{
"answer": "The timbre would be slightly different, and they would be much harder and more expensive to manufacture.\n\nWe already have some instruments that are made in different metals - one example that comes to my mind is the flute. Leaving aside wooden types and thinking only of modern flutes with keys and all that, it's very classy and good-sounding to make a flute out of solid silver. It's also expensive as hell. A less expensive and less good-sounding option is a silver-plated brass flute, and the budget option is made from (I think) nickel-plated brass.\n\nBut the flute is straight, and the brass instruments are all bendy. One of the reasons brass instruments are made from brass is that it's soft enough to bend the tubes reasonably easily. I saw an episode of \"How It's Made\" about brass instruments, and it was pretty fascinating. If the tubes were made of steel, it would be harder to bend them, and the bells and such would be harder to spin (although it could be done).\n\nAnd I have seen (and even played for about five minutes) a silver cornet - it sounded beautiful.\n\nAnother thing to think about is that any kind of steel which is ductile enough to bend well is also going to be prone to rust - and playing brass puts a LOT of moisture into the tubes.\n\nLong story short, brass is easy to work with, comparatively inexpensive, resistant to corrosion, and traditional. There are other options, but they are much more expensive, although they do sound lovely.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "We already have silver (usually plated, as far as I'm aware) instruments... which many think have a warmer tone. Mostly just tone / timbre would change, for better or worse.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A flutist named Georges Barrère had a platinum flute made in the 1930s. He asked Edgard Varèse to write a solo piece of music for the first performance.\n\nVarèse called the piece \"Density 21.5\", since platinum has a density of 21.5 grammes per cubic centimetre.\n\nI think it's fair to assume that the platinum flute has a good sound.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "My band teacher had a collection of war time instruments that were made out of tin or other common metals because brass wasn't available at the time. They all sounded terrible and were very hard to play. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I don't see it mentioned yet, but the brass composition and plating affect the sound tremendously. High copper content \"rose brass\" is reported to produce a much warmer sound as opposed to silver plating and is often seen on flugelhorns and such. Not that I've ever played one, but gold plated instruments are also available. See Canadian Brass, who use gold plated instruments exclusively. \n\n[_URL_0_]",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "One thing that people are missing is that brass vibrates very easily and produces a very musical sound and can quickly change between frequencies.\n\nI have seen (and played) \"brass\" instruments made from different things; plastic, wood, glass, steel, have all been tried. Most of the \"alternative\" materials don't have a good balance between resonance and tone. The amount of air required to get the glass trombone I saw to resonate is ridiculous.\n\nBrass is just a nice balance for all the criteria. Within Brass though you can have different types of brass that offer different tones. (Rose brass, yellow brass, gold brass, silver plated brass, gold plated brass, etc.)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "your band is going to have bigger arms than the football team.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4940",
"title": "Brass instrument",
"section": "Section::::Manufacture.:Metal.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 90,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 90,
"end_character": 371,
"text": "Alternatives to brass include other alloys containing significant amounts of copper or silver. These alloys are biostatic due to the oligodynamic effect, and thus suppress growth of molds, fungi or bacteria. Brass instruments constructed from stainless steel or aluminium have good sound quality but are rapidly colonized by microorganisms and become unpleasant to play.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "3292",
"title": "Brass",
"section": "Section::::Use in musical instruments.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 1735,
"text": "The high malleability and workability, relatively good resistance to corrosion, and traditionally attributed acoustic properties of brass, have made it the usual metal of choice for construction of musical instruments whose acoustic resonators consist of long, relatively narrow tubing, often folded or coiled for compactness; silver and its alloys, and even gold, have been used for the same reasons, but brass is the most economical choice. Collectively known as brass instruments, these include the trombone, tuba, trumpet, cornet, baritone horn, euphonium, tenor horn, and French horn, and many other \"horns\", many in variously-sized families, such as the saxhorns. Other wind instruments may be constructed of brass or other metals, and indeed most modern student-model flutes and piccolos are made of some variety of brass, usually a cupronickel alloy similar to nickel silver/German silver. Clarinets, especially low clarinets such as the contrabass and subcontrabass, are sometimes made of metal because of limited supplies of the dense, fine-grained tropical hardwoods traditionally preferred for smaller woodwinds. For the same reason, some low clarinets, bassoons and contrabassoons feature a hybrid construction, with long, straight sections of wood, and curved joints, neck, and/or bell of metal. The use of metal also avoids the risks of exposing wooden instruments to changes in temperature or humidity, which can cause sudden cracking. Even though the saxophones and sarrusaphones are classified as woodwind instruments, they are normally made of brass for similar reasons, and because their wide, conical bores and thin-walled bodies are more easily and efficiently made by forming sheet metal than by machining wood.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "4940",
"title": "Brass instrument",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "The view of most scholars (see organology) is that the term \"brass instrument\" should be defined by the way the sound is made, as above, and not by whether the instrument is actually made of brass. Thus one finds brass instruments made of wood, like the alphorn, the cornett, the serpent and the didgeridoo, while some woodwind instruments are made of brass, like the saxophone.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23442958",
"title": "Wind instrument",
"section": "Section::::Types.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 243,
"text": "Although brass instruments were originally made of brass and woodwind instruments have traditionally been made of wood, the names refer to the method by which a player produces sound rather than the material of the instrument, which may vary.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3292",
"title": "Brass",
"section": "Section::::Properties.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 344,
"text": "Brass has higher malleability than bronze or zinc. The relatively low melting point of brass (, depending on composition) and its flow characteristics make it a relatively easy material to cast. By varying the proportions of copper and zinc, the properties of the brass can be changed, allowing hard and soft brasses. The density of brass is .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4940",
"title": "Brass instrument",
"section": "Section::::Sound production in brass instruments.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 86,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 86,
"end_character": 544,
"text": "One interesting difference between a woodwind instrument and a brass instrument is that woodwind instruments are non-directional. This means that the sound produced propagates in all directions with approximately equal volume. Brass instruments, on the other hand, are highly directional, with most of the sound produced traveling straight outward from the bell. This difference makes it significantly more difficult to record a brass instrument accurately. It also plays a major role in some performance situations, such as in marching bands.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3292",
"title": "Brass",
"section": "Section::::Use in musical instruments.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 287,
"text": "Next to the brass instruments, the most notable use of brass in music is in various percussion instruments, most notably cymbals, gongs, and orchestral (tubular) bells (large \"church\" bells are normally made of bronze). Small handbells and \"jingle bell\" are also commonly made of brass.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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] | null |
3nrw9i
|
what is the point of unmarked police cars if they are still very easily spotted?
|
[
{
"answer": "This is a form of confirmation bias sometimes known as the toupée fallacy. Take the following sentence:\n\n > All toupées look fake; I've never seen one that I couldn't tell was fake.\n\nSuch a phrase can only be said about bad toupées — ones that look fake — and not actually all toupées. Put simply, if you saw a convincing one you wouldn't have noticed it, because you think it isn't one.\n\n",
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},
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"answer": "What you're thinking of as \"unmarked\" police cars are the ones driven by plainclothes detectives and such. They're not actually making any attempt to conceal that it's a police car, they're just not *marked* like a patrol cruiser. If nothing else, the car is identifiable by having a government license plate.\n\nThe *real* undercover cops drive cars that are indistinguishable from civilian cars, they may drive beat-up old vans, juiced-up pimpmobiles, whatever the assignment calls for. They have ordinary license plates, and if the assignment is critical enough, the plates are not traceable back to the cops.\n\n\n",
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},
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"answer": "I did a community patrolling class a couple of years ago, and here is how the chief explained it. \n\nThe cops have three types of cars. Undercover, unmarked, and marked cars. The marked cars have wrap and light bars put on them so you can clearly see they are cops. It makes the public feel better when the public calls for a cop, and lights and sirens are going when a car arrives and you see the wrap on the car telling you what department the cop is with. You can even get the car number and call in and comment about the cop.\n\nThen you got unmarked cars. These may be used by patrol supervisors, detectives, police sergeants, etc. These are the guys that usually don't do traffic patrols or are the first responders. They don't need the markings and wraps because busting speeders isn't their primary purpose. They show up to your house if you are making an insurance claim or need a damage report. No need for lights or sirens then.\n\nFinally, there are undercover cars. They may be cars from the impound lot or seized vehicles and are used for a specific purpose. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Think of it as higher managers or an undercover store cop. By wearing the employee uniform, they would always be asked about where the toy section is or if they sell X stuff and by refusing to help, they would give the store a bad image.\n\nUnmarked cars don't have the letters so the cops can focus on other tasks than showing police presence. They can focus on violations that are harder to catch like cellphones, or other offences that need more discretion while not being hailed or approached for by distracting people. \n\n\nComplete undercover cars that aren't botched usually are not the usual cop car and is fitted with radios and lights that are hidden so even while walking by, you should not recognise them. \n\nOf course some PDs are cheap and will be having the lights at the base of the windshield and back glass as discreet enough.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "23627",
"title": "Police",
"section": "Section::::Equipment.:Vehicles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 123,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 123,
"end_character": 570,
"text": "Unmarked vehicles are used primarily for sting operations or apprehending criminals without alerting them to their presence. Some police forces use unmarked or minimally marked cars for traffic law enforcement, since drivers slow down at the sight of marked police vehicles and unmarked vehicles make it easier for officers to catch speeders and traffic violators. This practice is controversial, with for example, New York State banning this practice in 1996 on the grounds that it endangered motorists who might be pulled over by people impersonating police officers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1297380",
"title": "Police car",
"section": "Section::::Functional types.:Unmarked car.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 698,
"text": "Many forces also operate unmarked cars, in any of the roles shown above, but most frequently for the use of traffic enforcement or detectives. They have the advantage of not being immediately recognizable, and are a valuable tool in catching criminals while the crime is still taking place. In the United States, unmarked cars are also used by federal law enforcement agencies such as the FBI and the Secret Service, but can be recognized by their U.S. government plates. However, not all unmarked police cars have government license plates. Many U.S. jurisdictions use regular civilian issued license plates on unmarked cars, especially gang suppression and vice prevention units. Also see Q-car.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11206871",
"title": "Cyprus Police",
"section": "Section::::Equipment.:Vehicles.:Markings.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 93,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 93,
"end_character": 408,
"text": "The Cyprus Police also uses unmarked vehicles. Unmarked vehicles are not necessarily covert to be used for undercover work. Most unmarked cars are the same models as the patrol cars and they are mostly used by plain clothed officers such as crime investigators, crime prevention squads, technicians etc. Most of these cars are fitted with sirens and can be seen in the streets with detachable strobe lights.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21551129",
"title": "Organization of the New York City Police Department",
"section": "Section::::Other units.:Anti-Crime Unit.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 255,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 255,
"end_character": 662,
"text": "To find street criminals it is important for Anti-Crime officers to not be easily spotted. Anti-Crime officers therefore typically wear plainclothes that match the clothing common to the area. They will always patrol in unmarked vehicles, that cannot be identified at first glance. Some vehicles are simply street appearance editions of standard police vehicles such as the Ford Crown Victoria, Chevrolet Impala, and Ford Taurus. However, they can also use vehicles that are not typically vehicles used by law enforcement, including Honda Accords, Jeep Cherokees, and others. These officers sometimes work in uniform depending on the nature of their assignment.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1297380",
"title": "Police car",
"section": "Section::::Functional types.:Surveillance car.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 674,
"text": "Forces may operate surveillance cars. These cars can be marked or unmarked, and are there to gather evidence of any criminal offence. Overt marked cars may have CCTV cameras mounted on the roof to discourage wrongdoing, whereas unmarked cars would have them hidden inside. This type of vehicle is particularly common in the United Kingdom. In the United States, some police departments' vice, narcotics, and gang suppression units utilize vehicles that contain no identifiable police equipment (such as lights, sirens or radios) to conduct covert surveillance. Some police vehicles equipped with surveillance are Bait cars which are deployed in high volume car theft areas.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1297380",
"title": "Police car",
"section": "Section::::Equipment.:Audible and visual warnings.:Passive visual warnings.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 429,
"text": "Police vehicle marking schemes usually include the word \"Police\" or similar phrase (such as \"State Trooper\" or \"Highway Patrol\") or the force's crest. Some police forces use unmarked vehicles, which do not have any passive visual warnings at all, and others (called stealth cars) have markings that are visible only at certain angles, such as from the rear or sides, making these cars appear unmarked when viewed from the front.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27898266",
"title": "Police vehicles in Hong Kong",
"section": "Section::::Current vehicles.:Unmarked vehicles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 545,
"text": "The Hong Kong Police Force have unmarked police vehicles in order to catch and arrest criminals in the act, such vehicles include the discreet high performance BMW 5 Series 535i Touring car and Infiniti Q70S. Also, the Force operate unmarked police vehicles for surveillance to gather evidence of any criminal offence. In addition, for security purposes, armoured cars specially designed for the Very Important Person Protection Unit and bulletproof tactical police vehicles specially designed for the Special Duties Unit have no markings also.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3exkem
|
how come man made light (leds, etc) can't really replicate the way the sun or fire lights up stuff?
|
[
{
"answer": "Sunlight contains all colours of the spectrum, and artificial lights don't. There are actually light bulbs that radiate the full spectrum that are available on the market, but the main reason why you don't see this type of bulb everywhere is because they're expensive to make. It takes different materials in the bulb to produce different parts of the spectrum, and the cost and feasibility of building a single bulb that can produce the entire spectrum would be costly and impractical since most people only want the visual part of the spectrum :)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "We can do this. There are full spectrum fixtures of nearly all bulb types available. The most common is fluorescent but I have seen metal halide bulbs in particular that can do \"full spectrum\" lighting At that point it's about adding enough bulbs to replicate the intensity. As I understand it, LED bulbs just require an array/combination of different colored bulbs to mimic full spectrum lighting. \n\nI've had experience with both metal halide and fluorescent bulbs in saltwater aquaria/reef keeping. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The Sun and an incandescent bulb both produce light based on the same principle of [thermal radiation](_URL_2_) - the spectrum of thermal radiation depends on the temperature of the object generating it - see for example [here](_URL_0_). The surface of the Sun is at around 5800K, while the tungsten filament in an incandescent bulb heats up to around 3000K.\n\nThey both produce a full spectrum of light, but with a different distribution across the wavelengths, which we perceive as a shift in the color of the light - an incandescent light will produce a warmer light than the Sun, due to its lower temperature. \n\nHowever using thermal radiation is not a very efficient way of generating light for illumination, as a lot of the energy is wasted generating light outside the visible part of the spectrum (between 400 and 700 nm on the graph above) - especially in the infrared (IR) part above 700nm which you can feel as the heat radiating from the incandescent bulb (or the Sun).\n\nThe alternatives like LEDs and fluorescent lights use different phenomena which generate light with much more narrow spectrum, often with one or several distinct narrow peaks around certain wavelengths (a typical fluorescent spectrum might look like [this](_URL_4_)) - but without much energy being wasted outside the visible spectrum.\n\nSo really the fact that energy efficient light is not full spectrum is a feature - it is what makes it energy efficient. We don't really currently have an energy efficient process that can generate only the full visible part of the spectrum. We cheat by combining different specific methods (gases, phosphors, etc.) that each produce a peak of light at one specific wavelength to fill in as much of the visible spectrum as we can (an example spectrum from such \"full spectrum\" fluorescent bulb looks like [this](_URL_1_))\n\nThe reason this works reasonably well is that human vision is not actually capable of sensing the full visible spectrum either - we have what is called tri-chromatic vision, with only 3 types of cells (cones) in the eye, each capable of [detecting light in a relatively narrow range of wavelengths](_URL_3_) - typically identified as red, green and blue. So if your source of light can generate some wavelengths in all 3 areas, it will appear as reasonably white to us - although there will be noticeable differences in certain colors illuminated by any light that is not full spectrum. You can see the 3 main peaks in the fluorescent spectrum I linked above around 440, 550 and 610 nm)",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4359417",
"title": "Light painting",
"section": "Section::::Equipment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 415,
"text": "Some light painters make their own dedicated devices to create light trails over the photo background; this can include computer-controlled devices like the Pixelstick. These devices are often Arduino-controlled LED arrays that can render images that could not be made by drawing in the air with a single light source alone. LED lights, luminescent materials, pyrotechnics, fireworks and flashlights are also used.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "10209776",
"title": "Energy applications of nanotechnology",
"section": "Section::::Consumer products.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 1169,
"text": "A New York-based company called Applied NanoWorks, Inc. has been developing a consumer product that utilizes LED technology to generate light. Light-emitting diodes or LEDs, use only about 10% of the energy that a typical incandescent or fluorescent light bulb uses and typically last much longer, which makes them a viable alternative to traditional light bulbs. While LEDs have been around for decades, this company and others like it have been developing a special variant of LED called the white LED. White LEDs consist of semi-conducting organic layers that are only about 100 nanometers in distance from each other and are placed between two electrodes, which create an anode, and a cathode. When voltage is applied to the system, light is generated when electricity passes through the two organic layers. This is called electroluminescence. The semiconductor properties of the organic layers are what allow for the minimal amount of energy necessary to generate light. In traditional light bulbs, a metal filament is used to generate light when electricity is run through the filament. Using metal generates a great deal of heat and therefore lowers efficiency.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2549933",
"title": "Membrane switch",
"section": "Section::::Construction.:Backlighting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 290,
"text": "The first option is using Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs) to back light. However, LEDs create bright spots and are not suitable for overall back lighting of a panel, but rather as indicator lights. LEDs can either be surface mounted to the circuit layer or be placed on a separate LED layer. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "376774",
"title": "Gas mantle",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 454,
"text": "For centuries, artificial light has been generated using open flames. Limelight was invented in the 1820s, but the temperature required to produce visible light through black-body radiation alone was too high to be practical for small lights. In the late 19th century several inventors tried to develop an effective alternative based on heating a material to a lower temperature but using the emission of discrete spectral lines to simulate white light.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26061516",
"title": "Sergey Lvovich Levitsky",
"section": "Section::::St. Petersburg studio.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 345,
"text": "It is Sergei Levitsky who first proposed the idea to artificially light subjects in a studio setting using electric lighting along with daylight saying of its use, \"as far as I know this application of electric light has never been tried; it is something new, which will be accepted by photographers because of its simplicity and practicality\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56591024",
"title": "Accelerated testing of adhesives",
"section": "Section::::Chemiluminescence (CL).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 495,
"text": "Production of artificial light can be done in two ways, incandescent light in which light is produced from an object “glowing” hot. Light can also be produced in “cold” manner by photons emitting from energizing electrons which are then grounded and release energy. The process of light emission followed by grounding of the electrons may be very fast. During certain chemical processes such as oxidation, electron excitation and grounding take place which result in production of luminescence.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21547160",
"title": "Light extraction in LEDs",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 204,
"text": "In December 2007, scientists at Glasgow University claimed to have found a way to make LEDs more energy efficient, imprinting billions of holes into LEDs using a process known as nanoimprint lithography.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1ml7ns
|
Why 1^∞ is undetermined? Why is it not 1?
|
[
{
"answer": "It needs to be reminded that infinity isn't directly a number but rather a concept of numbers going on forever, depending on the infinity, 1 can be affected in a different way compared to real numbers. It's like trying to do 2^Pineapple. It's just not going to work because we don't know directly what pineapple is and if it can actually be substituted as a number.\n\nAs for 0*Infinity, similar to the above statement, you can't multiply a number by a number that might not actually be a number, trying to multiply, add, subtract, divide, power, root etc. of anything that's not directly a number is complex stuff and even makes my brain hurt sometimes. Overall, infinity needs to be treated as a concept rather than a direct number because infinity can be multiple different types of numbers as there are many types of infinities.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "You are treating infinity as if it were a number. That is not the case. Infinity is a concept that only exists in the limit. As that is the case, you can only really express it as lim(n → ∞) 1^(n), which actually does have a limit of 1.\n\nSimilarly, 0 * ∞ is probably not what you're really thinking of. What you mean is two functions, one of which, say f(x), has a limit of 0 as x goes to infinity, and the other, g(x) having the limit of ∞. When they are multiplied by each other, it's not clear what the limit will be. Say f(x) is (x+1), and g(x) is 1/(x-1). Then the limit of the product is neither 0, nor infinity, but rather 1. You can construct scenarios in which it goes to any number or 0 or infinity. (I'm not sure if you can make it not have a limit at all.) So the form in the abstract sense is indeterminate without more information about the limit.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I believe the understanding of indeterminate forms is somewhat skewed. \n\nThe form 1^∞ does not mean \"multiply one by itself an infinite number of times\". \n\nGiven some functions of x, f and g, we can take the limit as x - > c of f^g. If lim x - > c (f) = 1 and lim x - > c (g) = ∞, then this limit (lim x - > c (f^g)) is considered an indeterminate form.\n\nNow consider what this really means. As x goes towards c, f goes towards 1, but never reaches it. That is the key idea. (It is the same for g; it never reaches a value of ∞ since that doesn't even make sense). 1^∞ might be equal to 1 if you define it as such, but 1.0 ... 01 or 0.99 ... 99 raised to a very large exponent is most certainly not equal to 1. \n\nf getting closer to one decreases the value of the expression f^g, while g getting 'closer' to 'infinity' increases the value of the expression f^g. The behaviours of f and g in the limit as x - > c imply different outcomes. This is why it is considered indeterminate. The question becomes, which of f and g approach their limit faster? The derivative of a function is the measure of how quickly it changes, so the derivative of a function near some value c is how quickly that function is changing near c. This is the reasoning/motivation behind L'Hôpital's rule.\n\nFor the 1^∞ case, if f approaches 1 faster than g approaches ∞, then f 'wins' and the limit is defined (usually 1, but also depends on how much faster f approaches 1 than g approaches ∞). Conversely, if g is increasing faster, then it 'wins' and f^g continues to grow and grow and never stops growing, so we call the limit ∞ (or more properly, we say the limit does not exist).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The symbol ∞ does not represent a number, so writing \"1^(∞)\" isn't any more meaningful than writing \"1^(Reddit)\".\n\nThat said, there *are* infinite numbers: in fact, there's a lot of them! These are the \"transfinite cardinals\", and they measure the sizes of infinite sets, the same way that the ordinary cardinals (like 3) measure the sizes of finite sets. For example, 3 is the number of things in this set: {A, B, C}. The smallest transfinite cardinal, ℵ0 (read \"aleph null\"), is the number of things in this set: {1, 2, 3, 4, …}. It's actually perfectly intelligible to write down 1^(ℵ0); it turns out that this is equal to the number of *functions* from the set {1, 2, 3, 4, …} to the set {1}, which is 1.\n\nedit: Hebrew characters in Unicode apparently force right-to-left rendering. Can't seem to fix it. Oh well.\n\nedit edit: Got it. Thanks, /u/WanderAndTheColossus!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I always try to be very careful when I talk about limits and indeterminate forms to my students. And I make it very clear that one should never write things like \"3*∞ = ∞\" or \"∞ +1 = ∞\" even when it could make sense.\n\nThe point is that we say \"1^∞ is undetermined\" when we talk about limits. So let's try to understand what it means to be undetermined for limits.\n\nYou have limits of functions, for example, you know that the limit of a function f at a certain point p is L. (This has a precise meaning, and this does mean that you can write f(p) = L) And you have another function g for which you know that the limit at p is L'. The question is :\n\n What can we say about the limit of the three new functions f+g , f\\*g , f^g at this same point p.\n\nFor some case, depending on what L and L' are, we know exactly what the new limits will be.\n\nFor example, if L and L' are both real positive numbers (so only finite numbers), then the limits of the the three functions will be L+L' , L\\*L' and L^(L') respectively. This is the baby case in some sense.\n\nSome cases where limits could be infinite are also easy to deal with. For example, if L is a real number and L'=+∞ then the limit of f+g is +∞. Another example is that when L=L' = +∞ then the limit of f^g is +∞.\n\nIn all previous cases, only the values of the limits are important. I don't need to know what the functions really are. These are the **determined**.\n\nNow, can I do this for any possibilities of L and L' ?? The answer is No. In some cases for L and L', the values of the limits alone will not suffice to be able to give the limit of f+g (or f*g or f^g).\n\nFor example if L=+∞ and L'=-∞ then I cannot tell you the limit of f+g without knowing f and g. Meaning that with f(x) = 1/x^2 and g(x) =-1/x^4 at the point p=0 we get that the limit of f+g is -∞. However, taking f(x) = (3+1/x^4 ) with the same g gives a limit of 3. And I could get any other limit with other functions (including no limit at all). So sometimes we say (with this awful abuse of notation) that \"+∞ - ∞ is an undetermined form\". \n\nThe same thing happens when L=1 and L'=+∞ when we try to find the limit of f^g . I cannot tell you the limit of f^g without knowing f and g more precisely. I could give you examples where the limit would be 1 and other examples where the limit will be 3 or whatever you like . That's why we use this awful abuse of notation \"1^∞ is undetermined\"\n\nI hope that was clear. The use of ∞ is limited to sentences talking about limits (or in other contexts, talking about cardinality)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A value exists and is known when three criteria are met, the limit as x approaches from the left equals the straight substitution of x equals the limit as x approaches from the right.\n\n\nIf you graph y=x^n, where n is a very large number and x is positive, you will see that y is a very small number when x < 1, 1 when x is one, and a very large number when x > 1. Using infinity, it is zero when x < 1, and infinity when x > 1. Since those two do not match, 1^infinity is undefined.\n\n\nLikewise for 0 times infinity. With y=x*n when n is a very large positive number, y is a very large negative number when x < 0, and a very large positive number when x > 0. Since the two do not match, it is undefined at x=0.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's because you can, using limits, you can actually get any answer you want. 1^x, as x goes to infinity, is infinity. That makes sense.\n\nBut something like (2-x)^(1/(1-x) as x goes to 1, (which is practically equal to 1^infinity) gives you e.\n\nIf you do it in different ways, you can get any answer. So we have to conclude that the real answer can't be determined, so we call it undetermined.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The form 0 * ∞ is considered in limits. We are not considering 0 itself but a function which tends towards zero. If we have something growing towards infinity and multiply it by something shrinking towards zero, the answer depends on which is shrinking or growing faster, indeterminate because we don't know which is the case. That's where L'Hopital's rule kicks in.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "51429",
"title": "Hyperreal number",
"section": "Section::::Use in analysis.:Calculus with algebraic functions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 256,
"text": "Similarly, the casual use of 1/0 = ∞ is invalid, since the transfer principle applies to the statement that division by zero is undefined. The rigorous counterpart of such a calculation would be that if ε is a non-zero infinitesimal, then 1/ε is infinite.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10377",
"title": "Euclidean algorithm",
"section": "Section::::Description.:Procedure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 373,
"text": "Since the remainders decrease with every step but can never be negative, a remainder \"r\" must eventually equal zero, at which point the algorithm stops. The final nonzero remainder \"r\" is the greatest common divisor of \"a\" and \"b\". The number \"N\" cannot be infinite because there are only a finite number of nonnegative integers between the initial remainder \"r\" and zero.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1849799",
"title": "0.999...",
"section": "Section::::In alternative number systems.:Infinitesimals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 105,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 105,
"end_character": 387,
"text": "Some proofs that 0.999... = 1 rely on the Archimedean property of the real numbers: that there are no nonzero infinitesimals. Specifically, the difference 1 − 0.999... must be smaller than any positive rational number, so it must be an infinitesimal; but since the reals do not contain nonzero infinitesimals, the difference is therefore zero, and therefore the two values are the same.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "99491",
"title": "Exponentiation",
"section": "Section::::Powers of complex numbers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 145,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 145,
"end_character": 416,
"text": "Any nonrational power of a complex number has an infinite number of possible values because of the multi-valued nature of the complex logarithm. The principal value is a single value chosen from these by a rule which, amongst its other properties, ensures powers of complex numbers with a positive real part and zero imaginary part give the same value as does the rule defined above for the corresponding real base.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11066851",
"title": "Sum and Product Puzzle",
"section": "Section::::Other solutions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 514,
"text": "On the other hand, when the limit is \"X\" + \"Y\" ≤ 1685 or higher, there appears a second solution \"X\" = 4, \"Y\" = 61. Thus, from then on, the problem is not solvable in the sense that there is no longer a unique solution. Similarly, if \"X\" + \"Y\" ≤ 1970 or higher a third solution appears (\"X\" = 16, \"Y\" = 73). All of these three solutions contain one prime number. The first solution with no prime number is the fourth which appears at \"X\" + \"Y\" ≤ 2522 or higher with values \"X\" = 16 = 2·2·2·2 and \"Y\" = 111 = 3·37.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "366723",
"title": "Indeterminate form",
"section": "Section::::Some examples and non-examples.:Expressions that are not indeterminate forms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 756,
"text": "The expression 1/0 is not commonly regarded as an indeterminate form because there is not an infinite range of values that \"f\"/\"g\" could approach. Specifically, if \"f\" approaches 1 and \"g\" approaches 0, then \"f\" and \"g\" may be chosen so that (1) \"f\"/\"g\" approaches +∞, (2) \"f\"/\"g\" approaches −∞, or (3) the limit fails to exist. In each case the absolute value |\"f\"/\"g\"| approaches +∞, and so the quotient \"f\"/\"g\" must diverge, in the sense of the extended real numbers. (In the framework of the projectively extended real line, the limit is the unsigned infinity ∞ in all three cases.) Similarly, any expression of the form \"a\"/0, with (including and ), is not an indeterminate form since a quotient giving rise to such an expression will always diverge.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51423",
"title": "P-adic number",
"section": "Section::::\"p\"-adic expansions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 253,
"text": "Multiplying this infinite sum by 3 in base 5 gives …0000001. As there are no negative powers of 5 in this expansion of 1/3 (i.e. no numbers to the right of the decimal point), we see that 1/3 satisfies the definition of being a -adic integer in base 5.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
weu2b
|
the us system of government
|
[
{
"answer": "The US Government is best viewed as 3 branches.\n\nThe executive branch is in charge of carrying out laws and running the government's operations. The President is the head of the executive branch. He is elected by the people.\n\nThe legislative branch is in charge of making laws. Congress (the Senate and the House of Representatives) is the legislative branch. Senators and Representatives are elected by the people.\n\nThe judicial branch is in charge of resolving disputes and challenges to laws or government actions. The Supreme Court is the head of the judicial branch. The Supreme Court is appointed by the President, subject to Congress's agreement.\n\nAll three branches have checks and balances that make it hard for another branch to sieze power. Each branch has a way to override another branch's powers.\n\nThe President can veto a law passed by Congress. The President also appoints Supreme Court justices. Congress can override a President's veto, with a 2/3 majority. Congress can override a Supreme Court decision, by passing a constitutional amendment (with help from the state governments). Congress can also impeach (kick out) the President or a Supreme Court justice. The Supreme Court can strike down a law passed by Congress, and can prohibit the President from doing certain things.\n\nThat's how it works!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In most democracies, the person in charge of the legislature (the group of people who pass laws, like a Parliament or Congress) is also the \"head of government,\" meaning that person is in charge of the details of how laws get enforced.\n\nIn the US those two rolls are separate. The Congress can pass laws, but does not have the power to enforce them. The **President** must follow the laws Congress passes but is in charge or filling in the details about how it is enforced. All the bureaucracy and government agencies report to the President, not congress.\n\nNow **Congress** is made up of two parts, the **House of Representatives** (made up of 1 Congressman/ ~720,000 people) and the **Senate** (2 from each state no matter the state's population). For a law to \"pass\" both the House and the Senate must pass the exact same law with the exact same language. Each chamber does that a little differently but it can not be \"passed\" unless every word is the same between both sides.\n\nThen, because the US is based on common law not civil law, there is a **judicial branch** made up of judges that can change laws and policies. If someone gets arrested for a law they think is unconstitutional, they can bring the case to a judge and they decide either yes the law/government action goes against the constitution or no the law/action is within the power of government. The only time judges can stop laws is if it violates the constitution or if there are two laws that violate each other. They can not pass laws and the can not enforce them, but they can clarify which ones are constitutional. The Supreme Court is 9 people and it is the final word on what is and is not constitutional, there is no way to appeal a Supreme Court decision to another judge.\n\nThese three parts (the President, the Congress and the judiciary) are known as the **three branches of government**. They each have their own kind of power, but they are set up so that no one branch can overpower the other two and take complete control of the government. Each has at least one way of overpowering the other, and each has at least one way of being overpowered by another.\n\nFor example; after Congress passes a bill, the president must either sign it (when it instantly becomes law) or veto it (where none of it becomes law). So if congress passes something the president doesn't like he can veto it, but he must veto the whole bill (that's why small projects sometimes get bundled into more popular bills). But, if Congress *really* likes the bill, they can vote again and if they get 2/3 to vote yes the veto is removed and the bill is law. There are dozens of ways like this that the branches interact but the important thing is that it is designed so that the different branches stop any one from becoming an all powerful branch.\n\n**States also have these three branches** at the state level (except they call their equivalent of a \"President\" Governor), each independent and accountable to their state's constitution. There are some small differences but mostly they are based on the same model as the federal government. There are some things states can not do because only the national government can do it (raise an army, print money, and others). But there are some things that *only* states can do, things the federal constitution say is up to the states (education and others).\n\nSo that's basically it. **President, two-part congress, and judiciary**. One enforces laws but can't pass them, one writes laws but can't enforce them and the other judges if the actions being taken in writing and enforcing the laws is constitutional. States have the same basic system and power between states and the federal government is split up so that one can't dominate the other in everything.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "15775275",
"title": "State governments of the United States",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 551,
"text": "State governments of the United States are institutional units in the United States exercising some of the functions of government at a level below that of the federal government. Each state's government holds legislative, executive, and judicial authority over a defined geographic territory. The United States comprises 50 states: 13 that were already part of the United States at the time the present Constitution took effect in 1789, plus 37 that have been admitted since by Congress as authorized under Article IV, Section 3 of the Constitution.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "489674",
"title": "Government agency",
"section": "Section::::United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 392,
"text": "The Congress and President of the United States delegate specific authority to government agencies to regulate the complex facets of the modern American federal state. Also, most of the 50 U.S. states have created similar government agencies. Each of the 50 states' governments is pretty similar to the national government with most having some form of a senate and house of representatives.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "195149",
"title": "Federal government of the United States",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 658,
"text": "The federal government of the United States (U.S. federal government) is the national government of the United States, a federal republic in North America, composed of 50 states, a federal district, five major self-governing territories and several island possessions. The federal government is composed of three distinct branches: legislative, executive and judicial, whose powers are vested by the U.S. Constitution in the Congress, the president and the federal courts, respectively. The powers and duties of these branches are further defined by acts of Congress, including the creation of executive departments and courts inferior to the Supreme Court.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24425155",
"title": "Comparison of U.S. state governments",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 491,
"text": "All state governments are modeled after the federal government and consist of three branches (although the three-branch structure is not Constitutionally required): executive, legislative, and judicial. All state governments are also organized as presidential systems where the governor is both head of government and head of state (even though this too is not required). The government of each of the five permanently inhabited U.S. territories is modeled and organized in a like fashion. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "497704",
"title": "List of U.S. states by date of admission to the Union",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 570,
"text": "States are the primary subdivisions of the United States. They possess all powers not granted to the federal government, nor prohibited to them by the United States Constitution. In general, state governments have the power to regulate issues of local concern, such as: regulating intrastate commerce, running elections, creating local governments, public school policy, and non-federal road construction and maintenance. Each state has its own constitution grounded in republican principles, and government consisting of executive, legislative, and judicial branches. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11563",
"title": "Federal jurisdiction (United States)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 339,
"text": "The United States is a federal republic, governed by the U.S. Constitution, containing fifty states and a federal district which elect the President and Vice President, and having other territories and possessions in its national jurisdiction. This government is variously known as the Union, the United States, or the federal government.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3191896",
"title": "Apportionment (politics)",
"section": "Section::::Apportionment by country.:United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 64,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 64,
"end_character": 1303,
"text": "Apportionment at the federal level of the United States government is guided by the rubrics of the U.S. Constitution. The writers of the Constitution designed the nation's bicameral Legislature to include, a Senate (the upper legislative chamber) to represent the states, and a House of Representatives (the lower legislative chamber) to represent the people rather than the states. Each state—in its entirety—is equally represented in the Senate by two senators, regardless of its population. The constitution guarantees each state at least one representative for its people in the House, while the size of a state's House delegation depends on its total population. Each state is apportioned a number of seats which approximately corresponds to its share of the aggregate population of the 50 states, as determined by the most recent decennial U.S. census. This governance plan came about as a result of the Connecticut Compromise reached during Constitutional Convention of 1787 between delegates from states with a large population and those from states with a small population. The Constitution also prescribes that the President and Vice President be elected by a group of people apportioned among the states in the same numbers as their representatives in Congress, called the Electoral College.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
330c7a
|
Does honey contain protease?
|
[
{
"answer": "\"Protease\" isn't just one substance - there are many enzymes that can cleave proteins. (They're proteins, too, but generally don't contain sequences that they're vulnerable to themselves!) Honey has very little protein in it, only about 0.5%. I haven't been able to find out if any of that protein is, in fact, any sort of protease enzyme, but I also wouldn't expect any enzymes in honey to be in any sort of properly folded state, since the water content is so low. So they'd be expected to be inactive, even if present.\n\nJust out of curiosity, why do you ask the question?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "6136647",
"title": "Mellified man",
"section": "Section::::Physical properties of honey.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 321,
"text": "Antibacterial properties of honey are the result of the low water activity causing osmosis, hydrogen peroxide effect, and high acidity. The combination of high acidity, hygroscopic, and antibacterial effects have led to honey's reputation as a plausible way to mummify a human cadaver, despite lack of concrete evidence.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20289740",
"title": "History of medicine in Cyprus",
"section": "Section::::Greeks (460–357 BC).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 270,
"text": "BULLET::::- Honey, which is antibacterial. It works because it is hypertonic, so it draws water from the bacteria. Honey contains inhibine which is involved in a reaction producing hydrogen peroxide (antiseptic), and contains propolis with known antibacterial activity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20610449",
"title": "Colony collapse disorder",
"section": "Section::::Possible causes.:Malnutrition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 119,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 119,
"end_character": 208,
"text": "A 2013 study found that \"p\"-Coumaric acid, which is normally present in honey, assists bees in detoxifying certain pesticides. Its absence in artificial nutrients fed to bees may therefore contribute to CCD.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50015256",
"title": "Insects in medicine",
"section": "Section::::Traditional and alternative uses.:Honey bee products.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 824,
"text": "Additionally, apitoxin, or honey bee venom, can be applied via direct stings to relieve arthritis, rheumatism, polyneuritis, and asthma. Propolis, a resinous, waxy mixture collected by honeybees and used as a hive insulator and sealant, is often consumed by menopausal women because of its high hormone content, and it is said to have antibiotic, anesthetic, and anti-inflammatory properties. Royal jelly is used to treat anemia, gastrointestinal ulcers, arteriosclerosis, hypo- and hypertension, and inhibition of sexual libido. Finally Bee bread, or bee pollen, is eaten as a generally health restorative, and is said to help treat both internal and external infections. All of these honey bee products are regularly produced and sold, especially online and in health food stores, though none are yet approved by the FDA.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "222937",
"title": "List of diseases of the honey bee",
"section": "Section::::Pests and parasites.:\"Varroa\" mites.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 311,
"text": "It is known that thymol, a compound produced by thyme, naturally occurring in thyme honey, is a treatment for \"Varroa\", though it may cause bee mortality at high concentrations. Provisioning active colonies with crops of thyme may provide the colony with a non-interventional chemical defense against \"Varroa\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22656751",
"title": "Proteases (medical and related uses)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 821,
"text": "Proteases (also sometimes referred to as \"proteolytic enzymes\" or \"peptidases\") are in use, or have been proposed or tried, for a number of purposes related to medicine or surgery. Some preparations involving protease have undergone successful clinical trials and have regulatory authorization; and some further ones have shown apparently useful effects in experimental medical studies. Proteases have also been used by proponents of alternative therapies, or identified in materials of traditional or folk medicine. A serine protease of human origin, activated protein C, was produced in recombinant form and marketed as Drotrecogin alfa (also known as Xigris (TM)) and licensed for intensive-care treatment of severe sepsis. It was voluntarily withdrawn by the manufacturer in 2011 after being shown to be ineffective.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39269550",
"title": "Alpha-lytic endopeptidase",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 426,
"text": "This protease was recently applied to proteome digestion for production of peptides for mass spectrometry-based proteomics, where it was found to cleave preferentially after several small amino acids, including alanine, serine, threonine, valine, and to a lesser extent, methionine. This specificity is very different than the most commonly-used protease for proteomics, trypsin, which cleaves only after arginine and lysine.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
30ru5r
|
when someone asks if i've seen a particular movie or not, most of the time i can answer yes or no with extreme accuracy, so why can i not accurately remember every movie i've ever seen when not prompted with a title?
|
[
{
"answer": "Psychological term called priming. When you hear something your brain activates or \"primes\" related topics. Hearing the title of a movie usually activates the memories associated with that movie.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "9404717",
"title": "The Lady Vanishes (1979 film)",
"section": "Section::::Production.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 374,
"text": "\"What we're competing with here is not the real picture but people's memory of it,\" said George Axelrod. \"Hitchcock's film had some brilliant things in it, but as a whole picture you'd have to admit it's pretty creaky. The four or five things people remember from the original receive a homage in our version - which raises the question of when a homage becomes a rip off.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2168729",
"title": "Blow Job (film)",
"section": "Section::::Commentary.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 705,
"text": "According to Peter Gidal, the film distances the viewer from the experience it purportedly depicts, \"Sometimes the young actor looks bored, sometimes as if he is thinking, sometimes as if he is aware of the camera, sometimes as if he is not.\" Douglas Crimp states that after a few minutes, \"it becomes clear that we will see nothing more than the repetition, with slight variations, of what we've already seen\". This frees the mind to look in a different way. Likewise, the sexual act has the effect of distracting the actor from the presence of the camera, creating a unique kind of unself-consciousness. The film becomes \"a lesson in how to produce a really beautiful portrait without saying 'cheese'!\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1204925",
"title": "The Opposite of Sex",
"section": "Section::::Reception.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 426,
"text": "When you've seen enough movies, alas, you can sense the gears laboriously turning, and you know with a sinking heart that there will be no surprises. The Dede character subverts those expectations; she shoots the legs out from under the movie with perfectly timed zingers. I hate people who talk during movies, but if she were sitting behind me in the theater, saying all of this stuff, I'd want her to keep right on talking.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2407423",
"title": "Practical aesthetics",
"section": "Section::::Technique.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 666,
"text": "Unlike other acting techniques, this step is NOT a memory device. In Practical Aesthetics actors are taught that using the memory of past experiences hinders the truth of the moment within a scene because you already know how that memory ends, there is a resolution inherently tied to that memory. Therefore if you choose to use memory to replicate an emotional response within the scene, you have to ignore the resolution or pretend as if it has not occurred, you are playing a 'double fiction'. Firstly you are playing the fiction of the scene and secondly, you are acting as if you don't know the outcome of the memory you are drawing an emotional response from.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2677249",
"title": "Pointing-out instruction",
"section": "Section::::Effectivity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 376,
"text": "Receiving pointing-out instructions is similar to watching a movie preview. Unless we see the preview, we have no idea what the movie will be about. So a preview is an excellent way to be introduced to what a particular movie might be like. We might see the preview and then decide to skip the filmthat is up to us. No one is going to force us to sit through the whole movie.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40623944",
"title": "Merry company",
"section": "Section::::Interpretation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 676,
"text": "...when we are unsure whether we are looking at a picture of a home or a tavern, or whether what seems to be a tavern is actually a brothel, it may not be because we lack hard-and-fast clues to the artist's unambiguous intention, but because he meant us to be unsure. ... It would be futile to attempt to distinguish between scenes of good homely fun and public-house dissipation, because the figurative and actual territories were themselves deliberately mixed up. Where goings-on take place in a household or, conversely, children run around with gleeful worldliness in a tavern, there is a good chance that the picture is about the conmingling of innocence and corruption.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20786",
"title": "Mulholland Drive (film)",
"section": "Section::::Themes and interpretations.:A \"poisonous valentine to Hollywood\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 74,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 74,
"end_character": 846,
"text": "Harring described her interpretation after seeing the film: \"When I saw it the first time, I thought it was the story of Hollywood dreams, illusion and obsession. It touches on the idea that nothing is quite as it seems, especially the idea of being a Hollywood movie star. The second and third times I saw it, I thought it dealt with identity. Do we know who we are? And then I kept seeing different things in it ... There's no right or wrong to what someone takes away from it or what they think the film is really about. It's a movie that makes you continuously ponder, makes you ask questions. I've heard over and over, 'This is a movie that I'll see again' or 'This is a movie you've got to see again.' It intrigues you. You want to get it, but I don't think it's a movie to be gotten. It's achieved its goal if it makes you ask questions.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2bq5zj
|
if women make up near equal percent of gamers, why are more games not being directed at female or neutral gender audience
|
[
{
"answer": "I'd like to see those statistics. I'm fairly confident that among FPS-style games, males outweight females fairly heavily. But, if you take into account a similar gender skew in favor of females and puzzle-style, browser, and mobile games, perhaps, then you can end up with a statistic that says it's a near even split.\n\nBut, I think you're imagining FPS-style console and PC games, and I'd really like to see some of those 50/50 statistics if you have a link to them.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "because these statistics count in people playing farmville, candy crush and the like.\n\nif you leave casual games out the audience is much more male dominated.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I dunno if I necessarily agree with the games being targetted to males. Cars, guns, violence, sports yes stereotypically very male but certainly not anti-woman. \n\nWomen like these types of things just like men do. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "182053",
"title": "Gamer",
"section": "Section::::Stereotypes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 470,
"text": "Although men and women play roughly the same number of games, there is a stereotype that women are not considered ¨True Gamers¨ because they tend to play more casual games which do not require much skill and dedication. This stereotype exists due to the fact that at a professional level, most of the teams competing are composed of men, thus, overshadowing the girl gamers who could compete at the same level but are not able to get the same amount of media attention.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2849654",
"title": "Women and video games",
"section": "Section::::Genre preferences.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 740,
"text": "There are differences between the video game genres preferred, on average, by women and men. A 2017 report by the video game analytics company Quantic Foundry, based on surveys of about 270,000 gamers, found varying proportions of male and female players within different game genres. The study didn't attribute the cause of differences in percentages to gender alone, stating a correlation between games less played by women and features that discourage women, such as a lack of female protagonists, required communication with strangers online, or tendency to cause motion sickness. The study also mentioned that, within the same genre, some specific games show a noticeably higher or lower percentage of women than other similar titles.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34903083",
"title": "Gender representation in video games",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 308,
"text": "Research indicates that how genders are portrayed in games can influence players' perception of gender roles, and that young girls prefer to play a character of their own gender much more than boys do. On average, female-led games sell fewer copies than male-led ones, but also have lower marketing budgets.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2849654",
"title": "Women and video games",
"section": "Section::::Genre preferences.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 298,
"text": "According to data collected by Quantic Foundry in 2016, the primary motivations why people play video games differ, on average, by gender. While men frequently want most to compete with others and destroy things, women often want most to complete challenges and immerse themselves in other worlds:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36161211",
"title": "Exploitation of women in mass media",
"section": "Section::::Criticisms of the media.:Video games.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 653,
"text": "According to a report done by the Entertainment Software Association in 2013, 55% of game players are male and 45% are female. Women's roles in many modern games usually are less important to the game and rely heavily on stereotypes. Video games' female characters also tend be lighter skinned individuals, as are their male counterparts. Furthermore, many of the female characters found in video games intentionally depict woman to be sultry and enhance the body form of females in an effort to appeal to men's desires Although not demonstrating blatantly racist stereotypes, many games practice racism through omission of racially diverse characters.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2849654",
"title": "Women and video games",
"section": "Section::::Gender disparity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 63,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 63,
"end_character": 911,
"text": "Although some of the population of male gamers have been the source of harassment towards female gamers and over-sexualization of the characters, there are many men in the gaming industry who agree that there is a problem with female over-sexualization in gaming. There are also male gamers who argue that some of the sexualization of women in video games also applies to men in video games and that portraying a man or woman in a video game in a sexual way can be acceptable if done in the right context. Perceptions about stereotypes concerning gamers themselves also vary among genders, as well as playing frequency of game genres. A study in the \"Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media\" said that women who play a lot of video games disagree more with stereotypes concerning gender in gaming and are more strongly drawn towards specific gaming genres than men, regardless of the men's gaming frequency.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42648401",
"title": "Media and gender",
"section": "Section::::Gender disparity in media careers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 425,
"text": "In the video game industry about half of the gamers are women but their presence is still limited in the production of games. Those who tried to publicly challenge this situation, such as A. Sarkeesian, have been subjected to harassment. In cinema there is concern about the low number of female directors and the difficulties of older actresses to find roles. They also earn 2.5 times less income than men in the same jobs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
bqr01c
|
if exercising makes your heart stronger why are amphetamines and anxiety bad for your hear?
|
[
{
"answer": "Increasing you heart rate is like a car going faster: through exercise is like using the gas pedal normally to control the acceleration of the car; amphetamines, anxiety, drugs like cocaine is like your car going off a cliff to go faster. You’re going faster, but you’re probably going to die in the end.\n\nCheers.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "When exercising, you’re not just increasing your heart rate. The blood vessels throughout your body also dilate to allow better blood flow to your heart muscles and other organs\n\nUsing cocaine and amphetamines, even though your heart is beating fast, the drugs causes arteries to constrict, restricting blood flows. So your heart is made to work harder without good blood flow. On top of that, the blood pressure exerted in your brain is vastly increased which can lead to a stroke.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "41120920",
"title": "Central nervous system fatigue",
"section": "Section::::Manipulation.:Dopamine reuptake and release agents.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 586,
"text": "Amphetamine is a stimulant that has been found to improve both physical and cognitive performance. Amphetamine blocks the reuptake of dopamine and norepinephrine, which delays the onset of fatigue by increasing the amount of dopamine, despite the concurrent increase in norepinephrine, in the central nervous system. Amphetamine is a widely used substance among collegiate athletes for its performance enhancing qualities, as it can improve muscle strength, reaction time, acceleration, anaerobic exercise performance, power output at fixed levels of perceived exertion, and endurance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2504",
"title": "Amphetamine",
"section": "Section::::Adverse effects.:Psychological.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 813,
"text": "At normal therapeutic doses, the most common psychological side effects of amphetamine include increased alertness, apprehension, concentration, initiative, self-confidence and sociability, mood swings (elated mood followed by mildly depressed mood), insomnia or wakefulness, and decreased sense of fatigue. Less common side effects include anxiety, change in libido, grandiosity, irritability, repetitive or obsessive behaviors, and restlessness; these effects depend on the user's personality and current mental state. Amphetamine psychosis (e.g., delusions and paranoia) can occur in heavy users. Although very rare, this psychosis can also occur at therapeutic doses during long-term therapy. According to the USFDA, \"there is no systematic evidence\" that stimulants produce aggressive behavior or hostility.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2504",
"title": "Amphetamine",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 791,
"text": "At therapeutic doses, amphetamine causes emotional and cognitive effects such as euphoria, change in desire for sex, increased wakefulness, and improved cognitive control. It induces physical effects such as improved reaction time, fatigue resistance, and increased muscle strength. Larger doses of amphetamine may impair cognitive function and induce rapid muscle breakdown. Addiction is a serious risk with heavy recreational amphetamine use, but is unlikely to occur from long-term medical use at therapeutic doses. Very high doses can result in psychosis (e.g., delusions and paranoia) which rarely occurs at therapeutic doses even during long-term use. Recreational doses are generally much larger than prescribed therapeutic doses and carry a far greater risk of serious side effects.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15682819",
"title": "Racing thoughts",
"section": "Section::::Associated conditions.:Amphetamines.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 322,
"text": "Amphetamines are used as a stimulant to trigger the central nervous system, increasing heart rate and blood pressure while decreasing appetite. Since amphetamines are a stimulant, use of these drugs result in a state that resembles the manic phase of bipolar disorder and also produces similar symptoms, as stated above. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6731253",
"title": "Hysterical strength",
"section": "Section::::Research.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 621,
"text": "Amphetamine and other stimulants are used by some athletes for their psychological and performance-enhancing effects. In competitive sports, this form of use is prohibited by anti-doping regulations. In healthy people at oral therapeutic doses, amphetamine has been shown to increase physical strength, acceleration, stamina, and endurance, while reducing reaction time. Amphetamine exerts its effects in humans primarily as a releasing agent of dopamine and norepinephrine in the central nervous system, and secondarily via inhibition of reuptake of noradrenaline and dopamine, similar to methylphenidate and bupropion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12752571",
"title": "Hyperosmia",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:Environmental.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 452,
"text": "In a study by Atianjoh et al., it has been found that amphetamines decrease levels of dopamine in the olfactory bulbs of rodents. On this basis, it has been hypothesized that amphetamine use may cause hyperosmia in rodents and humans, but further research is still needed. Anecdotal support for the belief that amphetamines may cause hyperosmia comes from Oliver Sacks's account of a patient with a heightened sense of smell after taking amphetamines.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2504",
"title": "Amphetamine",
"section": "Section::::Uses.:Medical.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 559,
"text": "Long-term amphetamine exposure at sufficiently high doses in some animal species is known to produce abnormal dopamine system development or nerve damage, but, in humans with ADHD, pharmaceutical amphetamines appear to improve brain development and nerve growth. Reviews of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) studies suggest that long-term treatment with amphetamine decreases abnormalities in brain structure and function found in subjects with ADHD, and improves function in several parts of the brain, such as the right caudate nucleus of the basal ganglia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
bhbpkn
|
Why don’t former Italian colonies, such as Libya and Somalia, speak Italian?
|
[
{
"answer": "I'm just going to respond regarding Somalia, since I'm not as well read regarding Libya and other Italian colonial territories.\n\nThe short answer to your question is that Italy's footprint in Somalia was light for most of its colonial history, and just as the Italians were ramping up assimilation efforts, WWII came along and stripped the colony from them.\n\nThe area became a protectorate of Italy in 1888 when Sultan Yusuf Ali Kenadid of the Majeerteen Sultanate signed a treaty with Italy. Kenadid's rival and neighbor, Sultan Boqor Osman Mahamuud of the Sultanate of Hobyo, signed a similar deal the next year, forming a continuous territory.\n\nIt was not, in some ways, a traditional colony at first in that the Italians had limited interest in most of the arid Somalian landscape - they were mostly interested in the strategically important ports on the shore, which gave them access to the Suez Canal and the Gulf of Aden.\n\nThe Italians provided arms and money to the sultans in return for this protectorate status, but they held little direct control beyond their coastal strip. Even here, the Italian population was mostly military officers and colonial officials, with few settlers.\n\nIt wasn't until the early 1930s that a two successive Italian Governors - Guido Corni and Maurizio Rava - started actively trying to assimilate the Somalis into Italian culture. The Italians began to build out hospitals and schools around the capital, Mogadishu, around this time, and more Italians began to arrive as permanent settlers. By 1930, there were 22,000 Italians living in Mogadishu and its immediate surrounding territory, but they were still a light footprint on the ground.\n\nBy 1935 that number had grown to 50,000 Italians settlers, 20,000 of who lived in Mogadishu, representing just under half of the city's population. Over the course of the colonial governance of the territory, the succession of sultans which controlled much of the inland territory occasionally proved disloyal, and over time the Italians started taking more and more direct control of the hinterlands of the territory as a way of ensuring better control. \n\nIf things had continued like this for a few more decades it's very likely that Italian language and culture would have become inculcated, at least around the coastal areas where Italian presence was heaviest, but Italy joined the Axis during WWII. They lost Somalia to a British attack in the spring of 1941. After the war the UN made the colony a trusteeship, and it was granted independence in the 1960s.\n\nWhen Siad Barre became president of Somalia in 1969, he enforced a policy of promoting the Somali language and enforcing it in government use. He adopted a new Latin alphabet for the language. Somali was the only language allowed to be taught in schools. His stated reason was to erase the gap between those who fluently spoke Italian and English and those who did not, as well as to help foster a thriving Somali culture.\n\nAs to the Italian colonists, some started leaving after WWII, but the exodus picked up after independence. There were several anti-Italian riots in Mogadishu around this time in which multiple Italians were killed. Many returned to Italy or migrated to the US, though there was still a small Italian population in the city through the 1990s.\n\n**Sources:**\n\n* Barrington, Lowell, After Independence: \"Making and Protecting the Nation in Postcolonial and Postcommunist States.\"\n* Baker, Bruce. \"Escape from Domination in Africa: Political Disengagement & Its Consequences.\"",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "25401",
"title": "Romance languages",
"section": "Section::::Modern status.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 58,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 58,
"end_character": 455,
"text": "Although Italy also had some colonial possessions before World War II, its language did not remain official after the end of the colonial domination. As a result, Italian outside of Italy and Switzerland is now spoken only as a minority language by immigrant communities in North and South America and Australia. In some former Italian colonies in Africa—namely Libya, Eritrea and Somalia—it is spoken by a few educated people in commerce and government.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14708",
"title": "Italian language",
"section": "Section::::Geographic distribution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 970,
"text": "Due to heavy Italian influence during the Italian colonial period, Italian is still understood by some in former colonies. Although it was the primary language in Libya since colonial rule, Italian greatly declined under the rule of Muammar Gaddafi, who expelled the Italian Libyan population and made Arabic the sole official language of the country. A few hundred Italian settlers returned to Libya in the 2000s; today Italian is the most spoken second language in the country and serves as a language of commerce and sometimes as a \"lingua franca\" between Libyans and foreigners. In Eritrea, Italian is at times used in commerce and the capital city Asmara still has one Italian-language school. Italian was also introduced to Somalia through colonialism and was the sole official language of administration and education during the colonial period but fell out of use after government, educational and economic infrastructure were destroyed in the Somali Civil War.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58998103",
"title": "Geographical distribution of Italian speakers",
"section": "Section::::Africa.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 242,
"text": "Due to heavy Italian influence during the Italian colonial period, Italian is still understood by some in former colonies. Outside former colonies, Italian is also understood and spoken in Tunisia and Egypt by a small part of the population.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16789227",
"title": "Languages of Zimbabwe",
"section": "Section::::Immigrant languages.:Italian.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 60,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 60,
"end_character": 780,
"text": "Italian is spoken by a small minority of white Zimbabweans. The language first arrived in Southern Rhodesia during World War II, when the British set up five camps in the colony to hold thousands of Axis prisoners of war and internees. Three of these camps, set up in 1941–42 in Gatooma, Umvuma, and Fort Victoria, accommodated roughly 5,000 Italians, mostly from Somaliland and Ethiopia. After Italy's surrender in September 1943, the British began repatriating Italian internees and POWs, sending them to Port Elizabeth, South Africa, where they were taken home by ship. Other Italians were not sent home, but were simply let out of the camps, and some of these chose to remain in Southern Rhodesia. By the early 2000s, there was still a sizable Italian population in Zimbabwe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17809904",
"title": "White Africans of European ancestry",
"section": "Section::::Languages.:Other languages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 241,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 241,
"end_character": 510,
"text": "Only a small white population in Libya, Tunisia, Ethiopia, Eritrea, and Somalia has the fluency of Italian, because it is no longer the official language there. Spanish is also spoken in some areas of Morocco, Western Sahara, Equatorial Guinea, as well as in those territories that still form part of Spain as the Canary Islands. Very few White Africans speak Bantu languages (languages spoken by Black people) at home, but still a small percentage of white Africans speak Bantu languages as second languages.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5211426",
"title": "Languages of Somalia",
"section": "Section::::European languages.:Italian.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 391,
"text": "Although it was the primary language since colonial rule, Italian continued to be used among the country's ruling elite even after 1960 independence when it continued to remain as an official language. It is estimated that more than 200,000 native Somalis (nearly 20% of the total population of former \"Somalia italiana\") were fluent speaking Italian when independence was declared in 1960.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12093980",
"title": "Italian language in Croatia",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 561,
"text": "The Italian language is an official minority language in Croatia, with many schools and public announcements published in both languages. Croatia's proximity and cultural connections to Italy have led to a relatively large presence of Italians in Croatia. Italians were recognized as a state minority in the Croatian Constitution in two sections: Istrian Italians and Dalmatian Italians. Although only 0.43% of the total population is legally Italian, many more are ethnically Italian and a large percentage of Croatians speak Italian, in addition to Croatian.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
16b7l9
|
what does alzheimers do to the brain? if a "cure" was invented would it help current sufferers remember?
|
[
{
"answer": "As I understand it, Alzheimer's causes proteins to take the wrong shape in the brain. To put this in context the majority of proteins need to be the right shape in order to work. \nFor instance, enzyme's are used to break down your food much more quickly. Biologists describe the process using either the lock and key model, where only one shape of key can fit into a lock, or the hand in glove, where the enzyme changes shape to fit the hand. If what is required to be broken down doesn't fit nothing happens. \n\nThe protein in question is required for brain repair, as you age every part of your body slowly gets damaged and without the ability to repair you quickly accumulate damage. \n\nThat's about as simple as I can get it, if anybody can improve upon that please do. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Well there's many theories, but one of them is that plaques form in the brain. These plaques are caused by the protein known as Beta Amyloid (hence why they are called *amyloid* plaques) and form the plaques by depositing tangled amyloid fibers into the brain. Thus causing the brain to start losing its ability to 'talk' to the other various parts of the brain, especially those involved with memory. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Alzheimers disease is a form of dementia. A dementia is a \"wasting\" illness of the brain. The brain is made of billions of special brain cells called neurons. The neurons connect to each other in many complex links to form pathways; this is a little bit like the connections between roads at a very complicated crossing. On a road when you come to where 2 roads cross, you have 2 or 3 choices of pathways to take. In the brain when neurones meet there be many pathways to take, and after each crossing there will be another crossing. Very complicated pathways can be formed. In the brain, pathways of connections and crossings are used to store information such as memories. \n\nIn Alzheimer's disease specific parts of the brain break down and waste away. As the brain breaks down, it can do less. Memory is one job of the brain that is particulalry affected. Memories are kept by the brain like a computer stores files, you can save a memory today and come back and see it again tomorrow. The brain stores memories by creating those specific pathways of brain cells. So if you eat ice cream in the park, the brain will create a special connection of neurons to form a pathyway which will be where the memory is stored.\n\nWhen a pathway breaksdown, the memory is also lost - so if you have that memory of eating ice cream in the park, you will \"forget\" that memory if the special brain pathway storing it goes; so if the brain cells in the area die or waste away the memory is lost. This is what happens in alzheimers - the memories are lost because the brain cells are wasting away and those complex pathways are being lost.\n\nThere is no cure for alzheimers at present. If a cure is found, it is unlikely to undo the damage and bring back all lost memories. A cure would stop the wasting disease. The brain may be able to repair itself a little, and some memories (where the damage to the pathway is not too bad) may come back, but other memories will be lost forever. The key to curing alzheimers is finding a way to find the disease very early on and stop the disease progressing. There is alot of research going into this now and it is hopeful a cure will be found in the future.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Ok I'll try to explain it as simply but not nessarly as accurately as I can manage:\n\nThinking and memory relies on flashes of electricicty traveling along highways called neurons. these are very small and thin. they need to be supported and usually they're suppored by the right substance. \n\nSometimes your body starts to malfunction and starts making the support for these highways out of Taffy rather than concrete ( a more appropriate support for highways). As these highways are so tightly packed all the taffy starts to stick together and create yucky sticky balls that the electrical signals struggle to drive through. That's why it's hard to remember things.\n\nCurrent treatment relies on making the signals stronger, but treatment cannot untagle these taffy-based sticky tangles of neurons that prevent signal transmission. So the treatment can slow the memory loss but not prevent it. \n\nHope my clumsy analogy helps!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[Here](_URL_0_) is a very accurate short video about Alzheimer's.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4402098",
"title": "Memory and aging",
"section": "Section::::Prevention and treatment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 532,
"text": "The treatment will depend on the cause of memory loss, but various drugs to treat Alzheimer’s disease have been suggested in recent years. There are four drugs currently approved by the FDA for the treatment of Alzheimer’s, and they all act on the cholinergic system: Donepezil, Galantamine, Rivastigmine, and Tacrine. Although these medications are not the cure for Alzheimer’s, symptoms may be reduced for up to eighteen months for mild or moderate dementia. These drugs do not forestall the ultimate decline to full Alzheimer's.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1717129",
"title": "Explicit memory",
"section": "Section::::Memory loss.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 69,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 69,
"end_character": 931,
"text": "Alzheimer's disease has a profound effect on explicit memory. Mild cognitive impairment is an early sign of Alzheimer's disease. People with memory conditions often receive cognitive training. When an fMRI was used to view brain activity after training, it found increased activation in various neural systems that are involved with explicit memory. People with Alzheimer's have problems learning new tasks. However, if the task is presented repeatedly they can learn and retain some new knowledge of the task. This effect is more apparent if the information is familiar. The person with Alzheimer's must also be guided through the task and prevented from making errors. Alzheimer's also has an effect on explicit spatial memory. This means that people with Alzheimer's have difficulty remembering where items are placed in unfamiliar environments. The hippocampus has been shown to become active in semantic and episodic memory. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "622271",
"title": "Choline acetyltransferase",
"section": "Section::::Clinical significance.:Alzheimer's disease.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 621,
"text": "The Alzheimer's disease (AD) involves difficulty in memory and cognition. The concentrations of acetylcholine and ChAT are remarkably reduced in the cerebral neocortex and hippocampus. Although the cellular loss and dysfunction of the cholinergic neurones is considered a contributor to Alzheimer disease, it is generally not considered as a primary factor in the development of this disease. It is proposed that the aggregation and deposition of the Beta amyloid protein, interferes with the metabolism of neurones and further damages the cholinergic axons in the cortex and cholinergic neurones in the basal forebrain.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46685051",
"title": "Epigenetics of neurodegenerative diseases",
"section": "Section::::Neurodegenerative diseases of the central nervous system.:Alzheimer’s Disease (AD).:Treatments.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 476,
"text": "Treatment for prevention or management of Alzheimer's disease has proven troublesome since the disease is chronic and progressive, and many epigenetic drugs act globally and not in a gene-specific manner. As with other potential treatments to prevent or ameliorate symptoms of AD, these therapies do not work to cure, but only ameliorate symptoms of the disease temporarily, underscoring the chronic, progressive nature of AD, and the variability of methylation in AD brains.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41421221",
"title": "Elderspeak",
"section": "Section::::Use of elderspeak.:Alzheimer's.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 742,
"text": "Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a progressive neurodegenerative condition that gradually destroys the abilities to remember, reason, and engage in meaningful social interaction. AD Caregivers report that most of their stress comes from unsuccessful attempts to communicate with their patients. In an effort to improve the communicative interaction between caregiver and patient, many clinicians advise caregivers to modify their speech when talking to the patient. “The main task for a person with Alzheimer’s is to maintain a sense of self or personhood,” Dr. Williams said. “If you know you’re losing your cognitive abilities and trying to maintain your personhood, and someone talks to you like a baby, it’s upsetting to you.” (Leland, 2008) \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14158261",
"title": "Temporoparietal junction",
"section": "Section::::Disorders.:Alzheimer's disease.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 621,
"text": "In terms of treatment options for managing the symptoms of Alzheimer's, current options include pharmaceuticals, psychosocial intervention, caregiving, and feeding tubes. Current pharmaceuticals are either acetylcholinesterase inhibitors or an NMDA receptor antagonist. Psychosocial interventions are used to supplement pharmaceutical usage as it can take some time to get used to. Since Alzheimer's disease does eventually lead to death with the condition worsening over time, all family members can really do is provide care for those afflicted and try to make their lives as easy as possible as the situation worsens.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56686479",
"title": "Destination memory",
"section": "Section::::Alzheimer's disease.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 1326,
"text": "Alzheimer's Disease is a progressive condition in which brain cells degenerate and die, leading to a steady destruction of one's memory and important mental functions. Because Alzheimer's disease has been shown to significantly affect episodic memory, researchers sought to understand how Alzheimer's disease affects destination memory, since it plays a critical role in our episodic memory. El Haj, Gandolphe, Allain, Fasotti, and Antoine found that those with Alzheimer's demonstrated poor performance in destination memory due to their inability to suppress appropriate versus inappropriate information during the memory retrieval process of their experiment. In addition to studying episodic memory, El Haj, Gély-Nargeot and Raffard sought to investigate the relationship between destination memory in Alzheimer patients and theory of mind because both processes are cognitive abilities that support effective communication and are linked to episodic memory function. They found that Alzheimer patients demonstrated a decline in destination memory as well as 2nd order cognitive theory of mind (Mary thinks that John thinks that...), but not for 1st order cognitive theory of mind (John thinks that...). Just as destination memory ability declines with normal aging, it is also negatively affected by Alzheimer's disease.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5c771z
|
how does a ship force a submarine to leave an area?
|
[
{
"answer": "The only thing a submarine has is stealth. It uses the depths, different thermal layers and silent operations to hide in the background ocean noise.\n\nGetting detected means the submarine is pretty much a sitting duck. It reflects either a mistake made by the submarine crew, or the skills of the surface fleet at anti submarine warfare. Attack submarines following or monitoring enemy fleets, even during peace time is common.\n\nWhen they get detected, enemy attack subs do things like blast their sonar, surface ships and aircraft drop sonar buoys over the location of the detected submarine. So the detected submarine gets chased away, and will most likely try to follow again without getting detected again.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Find it, ping the area, get in position where you could drop a depth-charge, and if they haven't freaked out and GTFO'd yet, you drop a depth-charge and send their souls to the depths. ...depther depths? \n\nThe sonar ping is not subtle. It's essentially shouting \"HEY\" on the surface and seeing if anything bounces back. The sub knows the boat is running active sonar pings, and knows exactly where the boat is. If they hear a ping, and then they hear a closer ping, they know the boat found them and could kill them all in short order. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3619680",
"title": "Ballast tank",
"section": "Section::::Submarines.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 743,
"text": "The crew submerges the vessel by opening vents in the top of the ballast tanks and opening valves in the bottom. This lets water flood into the tank as air escapes through the top vents. As air escapes from the tank, the vessel's buoyancy decreases, causing it to sink. For the submarine to surface, the crew shuts the vents in the top of the ballast tanks and releases compressed air into the tanks. The high-pressure air pocket pushes the water out through the bottom valves and increases the vessel's buoyancy, causing it to rise. A submarine may have several types of ballast tank: main ballast tanks for diving and surfacing, and trimming tanks for adjusting the submarine's attitude (its 'trim') both on the surface and when underwater.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28825",
"title": "Submarine",
"section": "Section::::Usage.:Civilian.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 411,
"text": "In a typical operation a surface vessel carries passengers to an offshore operating area and loads them into the submarine. The submarine then visits underwater points of interest such as natural or artificial reef structures. To surface safely without danger of collision the location of the submarine is marked with an air release and movement to the surface is coordinated by an observer in a support craft.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3081525",
"title": "Escape trunk",
"section": "Section::::DSRV rescue.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 482,
"text": "On the outside of the upper hatch of the escape trunk is often a shaft connected to the wheel that operates the locking mechanism. The crew of the DSRV can attach a wheel to the shaft and turn the shaft to unlock the hatch, thus providing access to the interior of the submarine. This is a risky operation, as when a submarine has been damaged enough to sink, it is possible there was an ingress of water into the pressure hull raising the internal pressure above the normal 1 bar.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14552094",
"title": "Submarine navigation",
"section": "Section::::Navigational technologies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 228,
"text": "Surfaced submarines entering and leaving port navigate similarly to traditional ships but with a few extra considerations because most of the ship rides below the waterline, making them hard for other ships to see and identify.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60976994",
"title": "Barotrauma (video game)",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 467,
"text": "In the event that the submarine's hull is damaged, water will begin to flood the vessel, which damages submarine structures and significantly impedes player movement; without appropriate equipment, a player trapped in a flooded segment of the sub is liable to suffocate, or in areas with high water pressure, be crushed via barotrauma. As the submarine effectively functions as a lifeline for its crew, an irreparably-damaged vessel often signals the end of a round.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3610306",
"title": "Diving plane",
"section": "Section::::Fairwater planes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 230,
"text": "When operating beneath polar ice, a submarine with planes on the sail must break them through the ice when surfacing. From the they were arranged to be able to be pointed vertically upwards, rather than being rigged or folded in.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1010319",
"title": "HMS Thetis (N25)",
"section": "Section::::HMS \"Thetis\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 546,
"text": "In order to effect an escape from the stricken vessel, the escaping crew were required to enter the submarine’s only escape chamber, which could only accommodate one person at a time. As the pressure outside the submarine was greater than the pressure inside, this had to be equalised before the outer door of the escape chamber was opened. The escape chamber was flooded with the occupant having to wait until the chamber was completely full of water. Only then would the pressure within the escape chamber be equal to the outside sea pressure.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1harxt
|
If East Asians invented movable type well before Gutenberg, why didn't it take off as well as it did in Europe? Was it because of the number of characters? Economics? What?
|
[
{
"answer": "I know there are some excellent 'asia-specialists' on here who can probably answer your question more completely, but I figured I'd just get things started. \n\nI believe the social structure in China prevented the widespread use of the printed word. In China there was a far bigger devision between poor workers/farmers and the governing elite. There was no 'middle class' which was developing in Europe at the time printing was on the rise there. \n\nThis means there were less people to produce books (middle class people produced books on fasion, etiquette, the best ways to trade, make clothing etc) and less people to produce books for. (simply not enough people who can read.\n\nI would also add the fact that right at the time when printing was coming up in Europe, the reformation happened, which was the biggest religious conflict the continent has ever seen. Both sides used print as a weapon, which made sure that a lot of texts were produced. \n\n(source: Europe, a cultural history by Peter Rietbergen.)\n\nEdit: As one of you correctly pointed out. I misrepresented my source. The source I mentioned describes in great detail the development of print in Europe. The comment about Chinese social structure is not from this work. My apologies for the inaccurateness.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "Ease of use, primarily. Remember the Latin alphabet only has about 26 characters. \n\nFrom the producer's point of view, the benefits of movable type are compounded when you can create any word using just 26 print shapes. \n\nFrom the consumer's point of view, the opportunity cost of learning how to read (as opposed to working to earn a living) is significantly lower if the system can be learned in a short amount of time and with little effort. This lower opportunity cost compounds the reduced cost of the product itself (i.e. the book) which is the result of mechanised printing.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "This thread seems a bit geared towards China when it comes to the printing press, but what would it be like in Korea with the creation of Hangul? I'd imagine as a true alphabet, Hangul would be a natural choice for a printing press. Does anyone have any thoughts about this?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "So, we are hung up a bit on the importance of movable type over the importance of any printing mechanism. Printing is the key here, and it took off tremendously in China, Korea, Vietnam and Japan. \nSo, let's deal with movable type - by the time it was invented, in the 11th century, the first major book culture revolution was already over 100 years old. It was based on the highly effective carved woodblock system. Movable type was indeed less useful than the woodblocks because the 1000's of individual characters required several skills to re-arrange, and for these other reasons: \n1. literacy and organization - whomever was managing the machine must have a pretty serious organization system to locate and properly place the words. In addition, this person must be literate. Woodblock cutters, by contrast, could be talented copyists without being literate. \n2. massive printing runs - the numbers were immense by the 11th century. Having ready made blocks for these printings runs was essential. The books could then be re-run without the hassle of re-arranging 1000's of characters. \nThat's pretty much it, there was no economic reason to switch to movable type, because the boom was already on, and woodblocks were extremely effective. \nThe ideas that literacy was lower, and that the middle class was smaller are demonstrably false. Literacy was ridiculously high in the 11th-12th centuries compared to everywhere else on earth (conservatively 20-30%) at the time. Additionally, the merchant class was absolutely booming, with a burgeoning middle class in all areas. Much of this was based on the mobility that literacy could provide. There are texts on all manner of quotidian things - local gazeteers for tourists, simplified law-books for pettitfoggers, simplified religious texts for lower level (not buddhist or daoist affiliate) practitioners. all sorts of DIY guidebooks for building boats, furniture, etc etc etc. \nSo, the answer is: printing took off just as much if not more than in europe 500 years later, but not movable type as the mechanism. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "47300",
"title": "Movable type",
"section": "Section::::History.:Metal movable type in Korea.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 459,
"text": "For example,authoritative historians Frances Gies and Joseph Gies claimed that \"The Asian priority of invention movable type is now firmly established, and that Chinese-Korean technique, or a report of it traveled westward is almost certain.\" However, Joseph P.McDermott claimed that \"No text indicates the presence or knowledge of any kind of Asian movable type or movable type imprint in Europe before 1450. The material evidence is even more conclusive.\" \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47300",
"title": "Movable type",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 527,
"text": "The diffusion of both movable-type systems was, to some degree, limited to primarily East Asia. The development of the printing press in Europe may have been influenced by various sporadic reports of movable type technology brought back to Europe by returning business people and missionaries to China. Some of these medieval European accounts are still preserved in the library archives of the Vatican and Oxford University among many others. However, none of these early European accounts before Gutenberg discuss printing. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21182020",
"title": "History of paper",
"section": "Section::::Paper in China.:Impact of paper.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 1257,
"text": "However, despite the initial advantage afforded to China by the paper medium, by the 9th century its spread and development in the middle east had closed the gap between the two regions. Between the 9th to early 12th centuries, libraries in Cairo, Baghdad, and Cordoba held collections larger than even the ones in China, and dwarfed those in Europe. From about 1500 the maturation of paper making and printing in Southern Europe also had an effect in closing the gap with the Chinese. The Venetian Domenico Grimani's collection numbered 15,000 volumes by the time of his death in 1523. After 1600, European collections completely overtook those in China. The Bibliotheca Augusta numbered 60,000 volumes in 1649 and surged to 120,000 in 1666. In the 1720s the Bibliothèque du Roi numbered 80,000 books and the Cambridge University 40,000 in 1715. After 1700, libraries in North America also began to overtake those of China, and toward the end of the century, Thomas Jefferson's private collection numbered 4,889 titles in 6,487 volumes. The European advantage only increased further into the 19th century as national collections in Europe and America exceeded a million volumes while a few private collections, such as that of Lord Action, reached 70,000.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1102000",
"title": "Shen Kuo",
"section": "Section::::Scholarly achievements.:Movable type printing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 66,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 66,
"end_character": 596,
"text": "Despite these advances, movable type printing never gained the amount of widespread use in East Asia that woodblock printing had achieved since the Chinese Tang Dynasty in the 9th century. With written Chinese, the vast amount of written morpheme characters impeded movable type's acceptance and practical use, and was therefore seen as largely unsatisfactory. Furthermore, the European printing press, first invented by Johannes Gutenberg (1398–1468), was eventually wholly adopted as the standard in China, yet the tradition of woodblock printing remains popular in East Asian countries still.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31641740",
"title": "Science and technology of the Tang dynasty",
"section": "Section::::Woodblock printing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 495,
"text": "Although Bi Sheng later invented the movable type system in the 11th century, Tang dynasty style woodblock printing would remain the dominant mode of printing in China until the more advanced printing press from Europe became widely accepted and used in East Asia. However it was not Gutenberg's letterpress that made the decisive breakthrough for Western methods in China as it is commonly believed, but lithography, a nineteenth century technological marvel almost wholly forgotten in Europe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7643744",
"title": "History of printing in East Asia",
"section": "Section::::Movable type.:Metal movable type in Korea.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 436,
"text": "A potential solution to the linguistic and cultural bottleneck that held back movable type in Korea for two hundred years appeared in the early 15th century—a generation before Gutenberg would begin working on his own movable type invention in Europe—when King Sejong devised a simplified alphabet of 24 characters called Hangul for use by the common people, which could have made the typecasting and compositing process more feasible.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44723",
"title": "Printing",
"section": "Section::::History.:Movable-type printing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 552,
"text": "Around 1040, the first known movable type system was created in China by Bi Sheng out of porcelain. Bi Sheng used clay type, which broke easily, but Wang Zhen by 1298 had carved a more durable type from wood. He also developed a complex system of revolving tables and number-association with written Chinese characters that made typesetting and printing more efficient. Still, the main method in use there remained woodblock printing (xylography), which \"proved to be cheaper and more efficient for printing Chinese, with its thousands of characters\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2ct2zo
|
how can a pc game be developed for years? don't the constantly emerging new hardware capabilities far outrun what the game (engine) started out with?
|
[
{
"answer": "Developers don't design for the cutting edge. The aim for the middle of the market. So they aren't worried if hardware changes (assuming its still compatible with their game/code) because the cutting edge doesn't matter.\n\nAll that matters is what the average or majority are using. ",
"provenance": null
},
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"answer": "Most game engines are fairly independent of hardware. That's why things like the Unreal engine are still in use today. As hardware improves, you can just keep telling them to render at higher resolutions, giving them models with more detailed polygons, giving them higher quality textures, etc.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There is a lot to a game besides it's interaction with hardware, essentially everything about game design is independent of hardware, save for things like user interface or graphics.\n\nBut you can write an entire game which outputs with blocky models and low resolution textures in a boring 3D world, but then relatively easily replace all those with better models/textures/lighting later in development without a huge cost. Add to that the fact that most development machines are very powerful and you have a situation where it's not hard to develop with the expectation that hardware will be able to do more in 2-3 years.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Generally speaking its much harder and takes longer to make the actual game than it is to spice up the graphics such that the graphics are cutting edge. Any PC upgrades other than graphics will make the game faster but these days PCs are fast enough already that video games don't max out the CPU or anything anyway. Those that do max out the CPU could be optimized to be faster, but since the hardware is so good the devs don't bother. Basically, they make the game first and then see where the hardware is and adjust accordingly. Also note that big companies can afford to have all the latest gadgets on a single test computer whereas most consumers won't have the newest stuff until years after it comes out. Most gamers probably have a gaming PC that is 2 to 5 years old and can still run new games that come out today. Until we see the next generation of gaming (I'm talking about you Oculus Rift) we've kind of peaked in terms of video games in that computers have more power than devs know what to do with (without being wasteful).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Short answer: you are only thinking the short-term.\n\nLong answer: you have to factor in (in no particular order):\n\n* Planning\n* Base Sketching\n* Pre-development\n* Casting and Acting (these two if voice actors)\n* Architecture/Hardware available\n* The actual development of the game\n* Funding\n* Marketing \n* Several other things that may be mentioned by other users\n\nMuch of the planning in there may take 2 years, or even 3+ in the worst of cases. The first three cases can be the longest if gone unchecked.\n\nOften, companies will work with the stuff they already have, and may build up from there. In prominent cases, like the Crysis series, they may get extreme-end PCs to work on so they can see how the engine will work, and then go the end-user. I do not think it is a matter of whether or not the market will catch up and pass them quickly; I believe that is an exercise in futility.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "New hardware capabilities\" aren't as \"constantly emerging\" as you think. Compare, say, the most common consumer processors for gaming this year to the one from last year: they're all Ivy Bridge quad-core Intel x86-64 processors in the i5 or, less commonly, the i7 range.\n\nBefore the Ivy Bridge products, the market was dominated by Intel processors with the Sandy Bridge architecture, which from a casual standpoint is almost identical.\n\nOn the AMD side of the processor market, the story is the same: every few months we get a brand-new AMD offering that's almost a carbon copy of the one before it and the one that will come after it.\n\nThis is because improvements in spaces like the PC hardware market are incremental. Anecdotally, I often hear persons unfamiliar with technology opine about how brilliant engineers are breaking new ground on a daily basis, advancing computing at a breakneck pace. Obviously that isn't the case, or else your one-year-old laptop would bear no resemblance to the one you just bought.\n\nShort version: Hardware doesn't move as quickly as you might have been lead to believe, and the hardware from a few years ago pretty much does all the same stuff the new gear does.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Ever wonder what madman would buy 3 $2500 video cards for SLI?\n\nA game engine developer, getting ready for what will be in a single $250 card/console in 3-5 years.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Graphics are usually one of the last things nailed down for a game in development. Case in point, it is not at all unusual for alpha footage of Blizzard games to end up on the box art for their games. The Warcraft 3 box featured catapults being pushed by peons and a highly polygonal human tower which would never make it into the actual game. \n\n\n\nFurthermore, very few games represent a coherent *cutting edge* of graphics. In any given year you might see three titles that become *the* benchmarking title because they typically don't represent the kind of financial success a game like World of Warcraft, Starcraft, Farmville, Pokemon, ect, represent. Take a look at the 20 most profitable games ever made and most simply did not feature graphical fidelity as a selling point. Games like Starcraft and WoW intentionally chose graphical styles that were inferior in terms of hardware usage but looked *good.*\n\n\n\nBut yes, the constant evolution of hardware and engines do put games in early graves. Blizzard's Starcraft: Ghost title was canned, even though Blizzard acquired Swinging Ape Studios just to develop the game, because by the time it was getting close to that end phase the GameCube / PS2 / Xbox era was drawing to a close. Unwilling to commit new resources to translate the games into stronger hardware, and partially because the game was just, \"meh\", the game got postponed indefinitely. \n\n\n\nGames *do* tend to look their best near the end of the life cycle of a particular piece of hardware for a reason though. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Everquest 2 used to have a pop up when you set it to the top two graphics levels warning you that even todays best gaming rigs would have trouble running at those settings.\n\nThey planned for the future.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I make 3D models, and I can tell you that it takes for EVER to make a realistic model like the one in videogames, and I make single, non animated object, I can nearly imagine how hard and time taking It is to make hundreds of thousands of single animated objects and converting them into an enjoyable environment. The only thing that limits our creating a better and realistic models is the size and how powerful a computer is, if you make a game that is too big the computer might not be able to render it or make your computer lag, which is not a very enjoyable problem to have while playing a game that you've put so much work into.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "700265",
"title": "Video game development",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 261,
"text": "Most modern PC or console games take from one to three years to complete., where as a mobile game can be developed in a few months. The length of development is influenced by a number of factors, such as genre, scale, development platform and number of assets.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1144327",
"title": "Graftgold",
"section": "Section::::History.:The MicroProse/Activision era.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 557,
"text": "The dawn of the 1990s saw a fundamental shift in the way computer games were developed. Whereas the games of the 8-bit era were typically developed by a single individual within a matter of months (sometimes even a few weeks), the more demanding 16-bit titles required larger teams, longer development times and considerably larger budgets. Royalties from their impressive back catalogue of titles allowed Graftgold to make this transition with ease, hiring in excess of 30 additional people to work on a large number of products within a team environment.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3105104",
"title": "Facial motion capture",
"section": "Section::::Facial expression capture.:Usage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 266,
"text": "It is expected that this will become a major input device for computer games once the software is available in an affordable format, but the hardware and software do not yet exist, despite the research for the last 15 years producing results that are almost usable.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "773853",
"title": "Game programming",
"section": "Section::::Development process.:Duration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 228,
"text": "Most modern games take from one to three years to complete. The length of development depends on a number of factors, but programming is required throughout all phases of development except the very early stages of game design.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "638457",
"title": "X-COM: Terror from the Deep",
"section": "Section::::Development and release.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 566,
"text": "MicroProse artist Terry Greer recalled: \"A decision was made to use the original engine, reskin the graphics and create a whole new story. By keeping changes to the absolute minimum a sequel could be created in just a few months. Also, by not inventing any new game features or game technology it would make the scheduling one largely led purely by asset creation – which makes it whole lot easier when it comes to estimating task durations and scheduling.\" Simultaneously with making the console port of \"Terror\", MicroProse UK also began work on their \"\" project.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "700265",
"title": "Video game development",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 1158,
"text": "\"Compute!'s Gazette\" in 1986 stated that although individuals developed most early video games, \"It's impossible for one person to have the multiple talents necessary to create a good game\". By 1987 a video game required 12 months to develop and another six to plan marketing. Projects remained usually solo efforts, with single developers delivering finished games to their publishers. With the ever-increasing processing and graphical capabilities of arcade, console and computer products, along with an increase in user expectations, game design moved beyond the scope of a single developer to produce a marketable game. The \"Gazette\" stated, \"The process of writing a game involves coming up with an original, entertaining concept, having the skill to bring it to fruition through good, efficient programming, and also being a fairly respectable artist\". This sparked the beginning of team-based development. In broad terms, during the 1980s, pre-production involved sketches and test routines of the only developer. In the 1990s, pre-production consisted mostly of game art previews. In the early 2000s, pre-production usually produced a playable demo.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3851595",
"title": "Video game conversion",
"section": "Section::::Types of conversions.:Remakes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 226,
"text": "Developers have remade older video games with modern technology. This was a particular phenomenon during the late 1990s with numerous 3D updates of games such as \"Frogger\", \"Missile Command\", \"Asteroids\" and \"Space Invaders\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
ca0qxb
|
what is it that causes cysts/spots to rupture with such force?
|
[
{
"answer": "The spot is visible because of pressure build up so when you pop the skin the small amount of pressure that there is, forces the gunk out. With toothpaste the only pressure comes from your fingers so it will come out as hard as you squeeze",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "7807",
"title": "Cavitation",
"section": "Section::::Cavitation damage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 385,
"text": "After a surface is initially affected by cavitation, it tends to erode at an accelerating pace. The cavitation pits increase the turbulence of the fluid flow and create crevices that act as nucleation sites for additional cavitation bubbles. The pits also increase the components' surface area and leave behind residual stresses. This makes the surface more prone to stress corrosion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "838449",
"title": "Atheroma",
"section": "Section::::Mechanism.:Stenosis and closure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 313,
"text": "The rupture results in both (a) a shower of debris occluding smaller downstream vessels (debris larger than 5 microns are too large to pass through capillaries)) combined with (b) platelet and clot accumulation over the rupture (an injury/repair response) resulting in narrowing, sometimes closure, of the lumen.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7807",
"title": "Cavitation",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 471,
"text": "Since the shock waves formed by collapse of the voids are strong enough to cause significant damage to moving parts, cavitation is usually an undesirable phenomenon. It is very often specifically avoided in the design of machines such as turbines or propellers, and eliminating cavitation is a major field in the study of fluid dynamics. However, it is sometimes useful and does not cause damage when the bubbles collapse away from machinery, such as in supercavitation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1339615",
"title": "Stopping power",
"section": "Section::::Wounding effects.:Physical.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 647,
"text": "The effects of temporary cavitation are less well understood, due to a lack of a test material identical to living tissue. Studies on the effects of bullets typically are based on experiments using ballistic gelatin, in which temporary cavitation causes radial tears where the gelatin was stretched. Although such tears are visually engaging, some animal tissues (other than bone or liver) are more elastic than gelatin. In most cases, temporary cavitation is unlikely to cause anything more than a bruise. Some speculation states that nerve bundles can be damaged by temporary cavitation, creating a stun effect, but this has not been confirmed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "303690",
"title": "Spall",
"section": "Section::::Corrosion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 410,
"text": "In corrosion, spalling occurs when a substance (metal or concrete) sheds tiny particles of corrosion products as the corrosion reaction progresses. Although they are not soluble or permeable, these corrosion products do not adhere to the parent material's surface to form a barrier to further corrosion, as happens in passivation. Spallation happens as the result of a large volume change during the reaction.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20368779",
"title": "Tingible body macrophage",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 307,
"text": "Macrophages that contain debris from ingested lymphocytes are characteristic of a reactive follicular center in benign reactive lymphadenitis. Other accompanying signs of a benign follicular hyperplasia are well developed germinal centers with dark and light zones, in addition to numerous mitotic figures.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "82342",
"title": "Lymph node",
"section": "Section::::Clinical significance.:Swelling.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 476,
"text": "Lymphedema is another and fairly widespread condition that results in fluid retention and tissue swelling. It can be congenital as a result usually of undeveloped or absent lymph nodes, and is known as primary lymphedema. Secondary lymphedema usually results from the removal of lymph nodes during breast cancer surgery or from other damaging treatments such as radiation. It can also be caused by some parasitic infections. Affected tissues are at a great risk of infection.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
34gj3t
|
Good sources for an essay on Pompey?
|
[
{
"answer": "So this period is the most documented in Roman history. The primary sources are vast. Plutarch's Life of Pompey's already been mentioned, but Pompey comes up in several Lives. Cicero discusses Pompey in numerous letters, and gave several speeches specifically addressing Pompey (De Imperio, for instance). Caesar wrote a history of his war against Pompey. After that, the imperial historians chime in - Appian's *Civil Wars*, Cassius Dio, the fragments of Diodorus Siculus. All of these are free in English on the internet if you look for them. You could make a career of studying the primary sources for Pompey.\n\nAnd then there's the legacy. His son Sextus was a pain in the ass for Octavian for quite a while. He gets a good reception in Virgil, and I'm sure there's more out there. Depending how far you want to take it you might get as far as Shakespeare.\n\nGood luck!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "24517",
"title": "Plutarch",
"section": "Section::::Influence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 67,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 67,
"end_character": 255,
"text": "Montaigne's \"Essays\" draw extensively on Plutarch's \"Moralia\" and are consciously modelled on the Greek's easygoing and discursive inquiries into science, manners, customs and beliefs. \"Essays\" contains more than 400 references to Plutarch and his works.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47643",
"title": "Michel Foucault",
"section": "Section::::Influence and reception.:Critiques and engagements.:Genealogy as historical method.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 76,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 76,
"end_character": 1317,
"text": "Foucault has frequently been criticized by historians for what they consider to be a lack of rigor in his analyses. For example, Hans-Ulrich Wehler harshly criticized Foucault in 1998. Wehler regards Foucault as a bad philosopher who wrongfully received a good response by the humanities and by social sciences. According to Wehler, Foucault's works are not only insufficient in their empiric historical aspects, but also often contradictory and lacking in clarity. For example, Foucault's concept of power is \"desperatingly undifferentiated\", and Foucault's thesis of a \"disciplinary society\" is, according to Wehler, only possible because Foucault does not properly differentiate between authority, force, power, violence and legitimacy. In addition, his thesis is based on a one-sided choice of sources (prisons and psychiatric institutions) and neglects other types of organizations as e.g. factories. Also, Wehler criticizes Foucault's \"francocentrism\" because he did not take into consideration major German-speaking theorists of social sciences like Max Weber and Norbert Elias. In all, Wehler concludes that Foucault is \"because of the endless series of flaws in his so-called empirical studies ... an intellectually dishonest, empirically absolutely unreliable, crypto-normativist seducer of Postmodernism\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24517",
"title": "Plutarch",
"section": "Section::::Works.:\"Parallel Lives\".:Criticism of \"Parallel Lives\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 386,
"text": "In his \"Life of Pompey\", Plutarch praises Pompey's trustworthy character and tactful behaviour in order to conjure a moral judgement that opposes most historical accounts. Plutarch delivers anecdotes with moral points, rather than in-depth comparative analyses of the causes of the fall of the Achaemenid Empire and the Roman Republic, and tends on occasion to fit facts to hypotheses.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60649178",
"title": "Political Essays",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 549,
"text": "Political Essays, with Sketches of Public Characters is a collection of essays by William Hazlitt, an English political journalist and cultural critic. Published in 1819, two days before the Peterloo Massacre, the work spans the final years of the Napoleonic Wars and the social and economic strife that followed. Included are attacks on monarchy, defences of Napoleon, and critical essays on Samuel Taylor Coleridge, Robert Southey, and Edmund Burke. The collection compiles Hazlitt's political writings, drawn largely from his newspaper articles.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38025189",
"title": "Foucault (Merquior book)",
"section": "Section::::Summary.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 264,
"text": "Merquior does offer other scattered praise for Foucault's work, describing his early efforts at literary criticism as \"brilliant\" and \"insightful\", and applauding his use of obscure historical sources and documents to shed new light on neglected areas of inquiry.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18248442",
"title": "Pamphilus the Theologian",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 304,
"text": "The work includes a number of quotations from standard authors such as the Cappadocians, John Chrysostom and Cyril of Alexandria, and also Pseudo-Dionysius, but also from a number of authors condemned at various councils (e.g. Apollinarius, Eunomius, Eutyches, Nestorius, Paul of Samosata, Valentinian).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7144608",
"title": "Fortune's Favourites",
"section": "Section::::Plot summary.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 410,
"text": "The novel also depicts the entrances onto the political and military scene of Pompey the Great, Marcus Licinius Crassus, and Gaius Julius Caesar. They interact with Sulla and each other against the backdrop of Sulla's dictatorship, the Senate's war against Quintus Sertorius in Spain, and the slave revolt of Spartacus. The book concludes just after the first joint consulship of Pompey and Crassus in 70 BCE.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
24app5
|
why are people scared by and fascinated with seemingly supernatural occurences?
|
[
{
"answer": "Basically? Evolution. Back in the day (the era of evolutionary adaptation) our ancestors that heard noises in the dark and assumed the worst (that must be a predator!) outlived the ones that just went back to bed. Long story short, we confuse correlation for causation, and draw connections where there are none. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The evolutionary response by /u/thesnack is the most direct answer. But abstractly, as far as the fear is concerned, people fear what they don't understand. Fascination is a positive, constructive, response. Supernatural conclusions are illogical and out of ignorance.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "43611402",
"title": "Alone in the Dark: Illumination",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 471,
"text": "The cause of the accident is still a mystery and, years later, nobody dares to step a foot in the town for fear of what lies there. There have been numerous reports of strange creatures and a dark, brooding fog within the town. Some locals who believe in the supernatural say that there lurks an ever-present force known as The Darkness. The Darkness is said to envelop everything in its path, and can reveal itself in many ways, such as fog, apparitions, and creatures.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22191402",
"title": "Mystical psychosis",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 286,
"text": "A first episode of mystical psychosis is often very frightening, confusing and distressing, particularly because it is an unfamiliar experience. For example, researchers have found that people experiencing paranormal and mystical phenomena report many of the symptoms of panic attacks.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7051491",
"title": "Poltergeist (1982 film)",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 549,
"text": "Bizarre events occur the following day: a drinking glass of milk spontaneously breaks, silverware bends, and furniture moves of its own accord. The phenomena seem benign at first, but quickly begin to intensify. That night, a gnarled backyard tree comes alive and grabs Robbie through the bedroom window. While Steven rescues Robbie, Carol Anne is sucked into a portal that appears in her closet. The Freelings realize something supernatural has occurred when they hear her voice emanating from the television set that is tuned to an empty channel.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5632844",
"title": "List of Boogiepop media",
"section": "Section::::Anime.:Boogiepop Phantom.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 331,
"text": "A month ago, an unknown pillar of light pierced the sky over the city. Now, strange events begin to take place. Some people are disappearing, others are beginning to show signs of highly evolved powers, while others are seeing apparitions of people who should be dead. Rumors circulate about urban legend Boogiepop being involved.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18707006",
"title": "Wot a Night",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 469,
"text": "They come to a room where a skeleton is cleaning itself. After this point, they are sure paranormal things are happening. Odd things that happen include: ghosts standing behind them, finding a skeleton playing a piano while another skeleton dances to the music, a glove dancing, and a blackface quartette of skeletons singing a song, which includes a few lines from versions of \"Golden Slippers\", such as a \"long white robe\" and a \"starry crown\", and to stop gambling.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37926294",
"title": "The Rift (2012 film)",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 380,
"text": "Many years later, budding physics student \"Dean Hollister\" and his discredited physics teacher have become obsessed with the same mystery. What had been a rare phenomenon is suddenly happening all over the world. The day it happens is a regular night shift for Dean at his mother’s diner. Black rifts appear in the sky. Behind those rifts, something is moving. It is watching us.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1964153",
"title": "The Haunting of Hill House",
"section": "Section::::Summary.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 897,
"text": "All four of the inhabitants begin to experience strange events while in the house, including unseen noises and ghosts roaming the halls at night, strange writing on the walls and other unexplained events. Eleanor tends to experience phenomena to which the others are oblivious. At the same time, Eleanor may be losing touch with reality, and the narrative implies that at least some of what Eleanor witnesses may be products of her imagination. Another implied possibility is that Eleanor possesses a subconscious telekinetic ability that is itself the cause of many of the disturbances experienced by her and other members of the investigative team (which might indicate there is no ghost in the house at all). This possibility is suggested especially by references early in the novel to Eleanor's childhood memories about episodes of a poltergeist-like entity that seemed to involve mainly her.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2w9aqa
|
why does cheating in a sport, i.e. the biogenesis scandal, deserve a 4 year prison sentence?
|
[
{
"answer": "It doesn't necessarily. However, falsely posing as a doctor and distributing a controlled substance, in this case testosterone, is a crime. Similarly, winning a game by murdering the entire other team would also likely give you a lengthy prison sentence, but not on account of cheating to win.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1328050",
"title": "Sports betting",
"section": "Section::::Famous betting scandals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 115,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 115,
"end_character": 612,
"text": "Corruption in tennis has been long considered as issue. In 2011, the former world No. 55 Austrian tennis player, Daniel Koellerer, became the first tennis player to be banned for life for attempting to fix matches. The violations were outstanding between October 2009 and July 2010 after The Tennis Integrity Units had launched an investigation on behalf of the International Tennis Federation and the ATP and WTA tours. In 2004 and 2006, Koellerer was banned for six months due to his bad behavior. In addition, on August 2010, he facilitated betting by placing odds for matches and had links for placing bets.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25778403",
"title": "Sport",
"section": "Section::::Fair play.:Cheating.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 368,
"text": "Participants may cheat in order to unfairly increase their chance of winning, or in order to achieve other advantages such as financial gains. The widespread existence of gambling on the results of sports fixtures creates a motivation for match fixing, where a participant or participants deliberately work to ensure a given outcome rather than simply playing to win.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1328050",
"title": "Sports betting",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 864,
"text": "Sports betting has resulted in a number of scandals in sport, affecting the integrity of sports events through various acts including point shaving (players affecting the score by missing shots), spot-fixing (a player action is fixed), bad calls from officials at key moments, and overall match fixing (the overall result of the event is fixed). Examples include the 1919 World Series, the alleged (and later admitted) illegal gambling of former MLB player Pete Rose, and former NBA referee Tim Donaghy. One of the biggest scandals of all involves the 2002 NBA Championship games. Tim Donaghy was allegedly gambling on the spreads for the games that he refereed. After his trial, Tim Donaghy went on to release a statement to the public saying how one of the most controversial games in NBA history, Game six of the 2002 NBA Western Conference finals, was rigged.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34008028",
"title": "Match-fixing in professional sumo",
"section": "Section::::2011 investigation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 798,
"text": "In the end, 23 wrestlers in total were judged guilty of match-fixing and all were expelled. The JSA's investigative panel stated in May 2011 that match-fixing appears to have been widespread. The panel stated that it would be difficult to discover, however, the full extent of the problem. Uncovering the problem is made even more difficult by the presence of a separate form of collusion (koi ni yatta mukiryoku-zumo) which refers to a wrestler going lightly on an opponent without the exchange of money. In sumo culture especially, individual gain must be subordinated to the rights of the group, meaning that certain wrestlers have appeared duty-bound by their organization's style to help popular or senior wrestlers in need. Such a situation appears readily accepted by more traditional fans.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12825004",
"title": "Etienne de Villiers",
"section": "Section::::Tenure at the ATP.:Controversies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "Separately, in 2007 several players reported being approached by illegal gambling rings offering money to fix matches. The ATP's subsequent investigation found some players had gambled in contravention of the ATP's rules. Although none had bet on their own matches, five players were fined and suspended. The much-publicised Davydenko-Argüello match in Sopot, where Betfair suspended betting after a series of highly unusual bets, prompted a rethink in the sport. De Villiers initiated an independent review to investigate whether corruption was systemic within the game. The report called for the establishment of a tennis-wide anti corruption unit, a recommendation that led to the Tennis Integrity Unit, a joint initiative by the ATP, ITF, WTA and the Grand Slam committee. In a 2007 interview with the \"New York Times\", De Villiers said: “\"We can’t possibly stop our athletes being approached [by illegal gambling rings]. We can’t have all of our 700 or 800 athletes with bodyguards, but what we can do is educate them on their responsibilities when they are approached and the consequences of not behaving appropriately.\"”\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "678924",
"title": "Match fixing",
"section": "Section::::Motivations and causes.:Match fixing by referees.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "In addition to the match fixing that is committed by players, coaches and/or team officials, it is not unheard of to have results manipulated by corrupt referees. Since 2004, separate scandals have erupted in prominent sports leagues in Portugal, Germany (Bundesliga scandal), Brazil (Brazilian football match-fixing scandal) and the United States (see Tim Donaghy scandal), all of which concerned referees who fixed matches for gamblers. Many sports writers have speculated that in leagues with high player salaries, it is far more likely for a referee to become corrupt since their pay in such competitions is usually much less than that of the players.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "897134",
"title": "Cheating",
"section": "Section::::Sport, games and gambling.:Sports.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 363,
"text": "Athletic cheating is a widespread problem. For example, in professional bodybuilding, cheating is now estimated to be so universal that it is now considered impossible to engage in professional competition without cheating and the use of supposedly banned substances; bodybuilders who refuse to take banned substances now compete in natural bodybuilding leagues.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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]
}
] | null |
6w8490
|
how do aircraft stabilizers actually "stabilize" the aircraft?
|
[
{
"answer": "Aircraft wings create a force perpendicular to the chord of the wing, called Lift. They also create a nose down torque. Both of these change with airspeed. \n \nTo keep the wings from rotating forward you can either:\n \n1) apply an upward force ahead of the wings by using a small set of wings called a canard. This was the configuration of the Wright Flyer, and is more efficient, but is also difficult to design because the aircraft will tend to be dynamically unstable in pitch. \n \n2) sweep the wings/ delta configuration\n\n3) apply a downward force behind the main plane by using an tailplane. This is less efficient because the aerodynamic force is downwards, meaning that the main plane has to lift the weight of the aircraft + the downward force from the tailplane. However, this is inherently dynamically stable. \n \nMost aircraft are of the latter design; modern airliners reduce the inefficiency, which ultimately equates to higher fuel burn, by pumping fuel into the tail so that the downward force required is kept to a minimum. \n\nTailplanes also help to damp out short term pitch oscillations, and provide a convenient way for the pilot to change the angle of attack of the wings in order to manoeuvre the aircraft. ",
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"answer": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "2676138",
"title": "Stabilizer (aeronautics)",
"section": "Section::::Horizontal stabilizers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "Another role of a horizontal stabilizer is to provide longitudinal static stability. Stability can be defined only when the vehicle is in trim; it refers to the tendency of the aircraft to return to the trimmed condition if it is disturbed. This maintains a constant aircraft attitude, with unchanging pitch angle relative to the airstream, without active input from the pilot. Ensuring static stability of an aircraft with a conventional wing requires that the aircraft center of gravity be ahead of the center of pressure, so a stabilizer positioned at the rear of the aircraft will produce lift in the downwards direction.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "2676138",
"title": "Stabilizer (aeronautics)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
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"text": "An aircraft stabilizer is an aerodynamic surface, typically including one or more movable control surfaces, that provides longitudinal (pitch) and/or directional (yaw) stability and control. A stabilizer can feature a fixed or adjustable structure on which any movable control surfaces are hinged, or it can itself be a fully movable surface such as a stabilator. Depending on the context, \"stabilizer\" may sometimes describe only the front part of the overall surface.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "1941545",
"title": "Vertical stabilizer",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 792,
"text": "On aircraft, vertical stabilizers generally point upwards. These are also known as the vertical tail, and are part of an aircraft's empennage. This upright mounting position has two major benefits: The drag of the stabilizer increases at speed, which creates a nose-up moment that helps to slow down the aircraft that prevent dangerous overspeed, and when the aircraft banks, the stabilizer produces lift which counters the banking moment and keeps the aircraft upright at the absence of control input. If the vertical stabilizer was mounted on the underside, it would produce a positive feedback whenever the aircraft dove or banked, which is inherently unstable. The trailing end of the stabilizer is typically movable, and called the rudder; this allows the aircraft pilot to control yaw.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2676138",
"title": "Stabilizer (aeronautics)",
"section": "Section::::Horizontal stabilizers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 731,
"text": "A horizontal stabilizer is used to maintain the aircraft in longitudinal balance, or \"trim\": it exerts a vertical force at a distance so the summation of pitch moments about the center of gravity is zero. The vertical force exerted by the stabilizer varies with flight conditions, in particular according to the aircraft lift coefficient and wing flaps deflection which both affect the position of the center of pressure, and with the position of the aircraft center of gravity (which changes with aircraft loading and fuel consumption). Transonic flight makes special demands on horizontal stabilizers; when the local speed of the air over the wing reaches the speed of sound there is a sudden move aft of the center of pressure.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "1941545",
"title": "Vertical stabilizer",
"section": "",
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"text": "The vertical stabilizers, vertical stabilisers, or fins, of aircraft, missiles or bombs are typically found on the aft end of the fuselage or body, and are intended to reduce aerodynamic side slip and provide direction stability. It is analogous to a skeg on boats and ships.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "977206",
"title": "Stabilator",
"section": "Section::::Airliners.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "Most modern airliners adjust the horizontal stabilizer to keep the pitch axis in trim during flight as fuel is burned and the center of gravity moves. The pilots also use their horizontal stabilizer trim switches, when flying in manual mode, to keep the pitch axis of the plane \"in trim,\" as the speed and configuration changes. These adjustments are commanded by the autopilot when it is engaged, or by the human pilot if the plane is being flown manually. However, such adjustable stabilizers are not the same as stabilators; a stabilator is controlled by the pilot's control yoke (or stick), whereas an adjustable stabilizer is controlled by the trim system. One example of an airliner with a genuine stabilator used for flight control is the Lockheed L-1011.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "2678619",
"title": "Stabilizer (ship)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
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"text": "Ship stabilizers (or stabilisers) are fins or rotors mounted beneath the waterline and emerging laterally from the hull to reduce a ship's roll due to wind or waves. \"Active fins\" are controlled by a gyroscopic control system. When the gyroscope senses the ship roll, it changes the fins' angle of attack to exert force to counteract the roll. \"Fixed fins\" and bilge keels do not move; they reduce roll by hydrodynamic drag exerted when the ship rolls. Stabilizers are mostly used on ocean-going ships.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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] | null |
15lw49
|
Historians, what do you think the North Korean people were told about WWII?
|
[
{
"answer": "We actually don't have to speculate too much about it. While we don't have access to everything that's been written or published within North Korea, South Korea has a ministry that collects North Korean publications and media, and both Korean and Western scholars have been able to establish what the dominant narrative in North Korean culture has become. While it's frustrating not to have every detail, it's fairly obvious how and why that narrative has come to exist.\n\n**What the North Koreans are told:** Kim il-Sung and his band of freedom fighters bravely forced the Japanese to relinquish the Korean peninsula, conducting brilliant attacks from a secret base on the sacred Mount Paektu. During the struggle, the future Dear Leader, Kim Jong-Il was born, and he fired at retreating Japanese as early as age three. Sometime in the middle of all this, the freedom fighters also found the time to carve predictions of Kim il-Sung and Kim Jong-Il's eventual greatness into 13,000 trees in the forest surrounding Paektu. The secret base, chairs, cups, and trenches used by Kim il-Sung were miraculously preserved and are available for tour by appointment. When he had time off from slaughtering the Japanese, Kim also wrote several revolutionary operas that are performed in North Korean theaters to this day.\n\nForeign visitors tend to have problems keeping a straight face on the rare occasions when they're taken to these sites. Some of the more obvious \"slogan trees\" referenced above were also quietly removed in the late 1990s when a visiting Japanese arborist asked how it was possible for 60-year old carvings to exist on 30-year old trees.\n\n**What actually happened:** This narrative is really only accurate in the sense that Kim il-Sung fought against the Japanese, but I have yet to find any historian -- Korean, Russian, Chinese, or otherwise -- who's argued that he was anything other than a fairly minor figure in a widespread anti-colonial struggle. In fact, he didn't fight in Korea at all, but rather Jiandao province in Manchuria (the northeast portion of China that has a sizable Korean-speaking minority), leading companies and battalions of the Second Corps in what became known as the Northeast Anti-Japanese United Army. While not the highest-ranked officer in the Corps, he seems to have been competent, and by 1935 the Japanese had put a price on this head. At that point he'd been harassing them for about 4-5 years, and he lasted another 4-5 before things got too hot and he had to run for it. He sat out World War II and the rest of the fight against the Japanese occupation in a Red Army camp in Siberia. Kim Jong-Il was actually born there in 1942, and not in Korea at all.\n\n**Small interjection:** Most of what we know of this period has been constructed from old Soviet, Chinese, and Japanese records, and Kim wasn't sufficiently important to merit mention at every turn. By necessity, there's some guesswork involved, and we don't have as much information as we'd like about Kim's actual record in (X) battle, or when Kim left Manchuria, etc.\n\nBy the time Kim returned to Korea with the Red Army in 1945, he'd been out of the country for something like 20 years and spoke Chinese much better than Korean. He was tasked with giving a speech in Pyongyang -- the Soviets were on the lookout for someone they could install in local government to help control the peninsula, and he seemed like a good prospect because he took orders well and had credibility as an anti-Japanese fighter -- and Soviet Koreans not only wrote the speech for him but had to coach him on pronunciation. This was only the first of many speeches he gave, and both these and the initial run of propaganda (again, largely written by other Soviet Koreans) were heavy on gratitude to the Soviets for their assistance in driving the Japanese off the peninsula and the Chinese for having supported the anti-colonial movement.\n\n**How and when this changed (i.e., we have always been at war with Eurasia):** Now, the most interesting thing about North Korean propaganda is tracing how and when it changes (subtly or otherwise) to reflect contemporary political needs. As far as the NK government is concerned, their history is flexible and can be made to serve whatever ideology they need to push at a given time. This has even extended to archaeologists going on the hunt for ancient tombs in central Pyongyang in order to prove the city's classical importance. But that's not really what you're asking about.\n\nAnyway:\n\n - **During the early 1960s and Khrushchev's tenure in Moscow, references to Soviet aid before and during World War II start to vanish from both North Korean history books and records of Kim's speeches.** Why? Because Khrushchev was trying to reform both the Soviet Union and its client states away from the Stalinist model (something to which North Korea was heavily wedded), and he also ridiculed both Mao and Kim's personality cults. While Kim had always been the figure of primary importance in the North Korean narrative concerning World War II, he changed from being the beneficiary of Soviet generosity who used resources wisely to being someone who struggled without any serious help from other nations.\n - **References to Chinese aid wax and wane too.** To the best of my knowledge, they, too, have largely vanished from the North Korean narrative of World War II, and they are definitely not acknowledged as the people who were really running the army in which Kim was an officer.\n - **Nothing is said of American or Allied involvement in the fight against Japan in the Pacific.** Unfortunately, I don't know what, if anything, is said about the European theater.\n - **References to the *juche* doctrine start appearing in Kim il-Sung's speeches about 15-20 years after they were actually given.** IIRC, Kim's actual mention of the doctrine dates to 1961 at the earliest, but *juche* starts showing up everywhere in the mid-1960s to early 1970s. Why? Because Kim Jong-Il was starting to build a power base for himself in the government, and needed a concrete contribution with which to be identified; they couldn't really pass him off as a major freedom fighter when he'd been all of 3 as the war ended. So *juche* was it. The actual architect of the policy was Hwang Jang-Yop, who defected to South Korea in 1997, but Kim Jong-Il expanded on it, wrote papers, essays, and books (or, just as likely, had someone write them for him), and *juche* mysteriously started being peppered in speeches Kim il-Sung had given two decades earlier in order to establish an unbroken line of thought concerning North Korea's need for economic self-reliance. *Juche* is not the only idea to have been given this treatment; in fact, scholars \"mined\" Kim il-Sung's speeches for pro-capitalist sentiments when the government needed a way to justify its tolerance of private markets in the 1990s and 2000s.\n\nI'm trying and failing to remember if there's anything else that jumps out about North Korean education on World War II, but I think that addresses the most important stuff. \n\n**As a TL:DR,** North Koreans are told that Kim il-Sung conducted a brilliant guerrilla campaign from a secret base on a sacred Korean mountain and that he sent the Japanese packing off the peninsula. They aren't told that he wasn't really a significant figure in the anti-colonial resistance, they aren't told that he never fought in Korea itself, they aren't told that he sat out World War II in Siberia, and whatever they do know about Soviet or Chinese (much less Allied) involvement is severely underplayed where it exists at all. Overall, the North Korean narrative of its own history is whatever the government wants it to be in order to serve a contemporary political need.",
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"answer": "From what I've read on the propaganda available, much attention is focused on the anti-Japanese partisan struggle led by Kim Il Sung, so much so that you would think the whole war depended on it. Japanese rule over Korea is demonized as one of the greatest atrocities of human history aside from the American invasion of North Korea. Kim Il Sung is the main focus and he is portrayed as the great leader always brave, tireless, and paternal to his soldiers. What we would consider minor skirmeshes such as at Pochonbo are descibed as epic great battles with Kim leading the fore although many of them do take place along the border with northwest China. There are some mention of Chinese help but there is no mention of Soviet intervention at all, the Soviet Union is mentioned as destroying Hitlerlite fascism at Stalingrad and America's fight against Japan is immediatley glossed over with the mention of the atomic bombings. At the end of the war, the occupying Japanese villians are just replaced with Americans ruling over South Korea.",
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"answer": "This thread got bestofed and as a consequence is attracting many new readers. I would like to take this opportunity to direct all new users to our [rules](_URL_0_). Please have a look at them before posting.\n\nContentless comments are being and will continue to be removed. ",
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"answer": "great question. this and more is covered in the book \"history lessons\", which takes other nations' history books and covers the major events in US history from their perspective. fascinating reading. the NorK view of WW2 is just one example.\n\n_URL_0_\n\nhighly worthwhile reading. ",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "23202451",
"title": "Korean War POWs detained in North Korea",
"section": "Section::::Number of POWs held in North Korea.:American and other UN POWs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 675,
"text": "On September 17, 1996, the \"New York Times\" reported the possible presence of American POWs in North Korea, citing recently declassified documents. The documents showed that the U.S. Defense Department knew in December 1953 that \"more than 900 American troops were alive at the end of the war but were never released by the North Koreans\". The Pentagon did not confirm the report, saying they had no clear evidence that any Americans were being held against their will in North Korea but pledged to continue to investigate accounts of defectors and others who said they had seen American prisoners there. The North Korean government has said it is not holding any Americans.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "30610891",
"title": "Americans in North Korea",
"section": "Section::::Prisoners of war.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 664,
"text": "On September 17, 1996, The \"New York Times\" reported the possible presence of American POWs in North Korea, citing declassified documents. The documents showed that the U.S. Defense Department knew in December 1953 that \"more than 900 American troops were alive at the end of the war but were never released by the North Koreans\". The Pentagon did not confirm the report, saying it had no clear evidence that any Americans were being held against their will in North Korea but pledged to continue to investigate accounts of defectors and others who said they had seen American prisoners there. The North Korean government has said it is not holding any Americans.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "39858008",
"title": "North Korean studies",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 974,
"text": "North Korean studies suffers from the lack of primary sources from the country, although the situation varies by decade. Sources from the 1940s are mostly Soviet documents available from archives. Documents from the 1950s are harder to come by. Some were smuggled out of the country, but the bulk of scholarship is done on reports of Eastern Bloc embassies in North Korea. , Soviet documents from the 1960s are in the process of being declassified, but sources from Eastern European countries are already available. The availability of documents from the 1950s and especially the 1960s is contrasted with the fact that most of that which happened in North Korea took place outside of diplomatic circles, and foreign diplomats were given less and less information as time passed. Sources from the 1970s and 1980s are especially scarce outside of a selection of official publications. Beginning with the 1990s, scholarship has relied on testimonies of North Korean defectors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "16340",
"title": "Jean-Paul Sartre",
"section": "Section::::Biography.:Cold War politics and anticolonialism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 316,
"text": "About the Korean War, Sartre wrote: \"I have no doubt that the South Korean feudalists and the American imperialists have promoted this war. But I do not doubt either that it was begun by the North Koreans\". In July 1950, Sartre wrote in \"Les Temps Modernes\" about his and de Beauvoir's attitude to the Soviet Union:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7467820",
"title": "Ukishima Maru",
"section": "Section::::The \"Ukishima Maru\" incident.:The Korean view.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 273,
"text": "Koreans, both the South and the North, view this incident as a deliberate Japanese war crime committed by the Japanese government of the time to conceal information about the Japanese military base. This view was illustrated in the 2001 North Korean film \"Souls Protest\". \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "23202451",
"title": "Korean War POWs detained in North Korea",
"section": "Section::::Number of POWs held in North Korea.:South Korean POWs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 1254,
"text": "The exact number of South Korean POWs who were detained in North Korea after the war is unknown, as is the number who still survive in North Korea. In its report to the legislature in October 2007, the South Korean Ministry of Defense reported that \"a total of 41,971 South Korean soldiers were missing during the Korean War. 8,726 were repatriated through POW exchanges after the Armistice of 1953. Some 13,836 have been determined to have been killed based on other information. To date, the status of 19,409 soldiers has not been confirmed.\" Most of these unconfirmed were believed to have been unrepatriated POWs. Other estimates of South Korean POWs held by the North Koreans at the Armistice have been higher. Yi Hang-gu, a writer and North Korea expert currently in South Korea who had served as a Sergeant in the Korean People's Army, has testified that he commanded former South Korean POWs who had been enlisted into the Korean People's Army during the Korean War. Yi's unit, the 22nd Brigade, was composed mostly of former South Korean captives led by North Korean officers and non-commissioned officers. Yi has said the number of South Korean POWs who survived in North Korea at the end of the fighting \"could have been about 50,000-60,000.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "10548751",
"title": "United States biological weapons program",
"section": "Section::::Alleged uses.:Korean War.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 971,
"text": "In 1998, Stephen Endicott and Edward Hagermann claimed that the accusations were true in their book, \"The United States and Biological Warfare: Secrets from the Early Cold War and Korea\" The book received mixed reviews, some calling it \"bad history\" and \"appalling\", while others praised the authors' case. In the same year Endicott's book was published, Kathryn Weathersby and Milton Leitenberg of the Cold War International History Project at the Woodrow Wilson Center in Washington released a cache of Soviet and Chinese documents that revealed the North Korean claim to have been an elaborate disinformation campaign. In addition, a Japanese journalist claims to have seen similar evidence of a Soviet disinformation campaign and that the evidence supporting its occurrence was faked. In 2001, KGB historian Herbert Romerstein supported Weathersby and Leitenberg, observing that Endicott's researches were purely based on accounts provided by the Chinese government.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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] | null |
252v3t
|
When the astronauts looked at the earth from the moon, could they see the stars as well?
|
[
{
"answer": "Considering that the Moon's atmosphere is so tenuous that it might as well not exist (as far as this question is concerned), they actually would have been able to see the stars a lot better than we can here on Earth. Most photos from the Moon (well, from anywhere, really) tend to lack stars because the cameras' exposure times aren't anywhere near long enough to detect objects so faint.\n\nBasically, a longer exposure equals a brighter image - this would reveal the stars if it was long enough, but also completely wash out the Lunar surface. And keep in mind that the human eye is sensitive to a MUCH wider range of luminosities, so stars look brighter to us than they do to cameras.",
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"answer": "Armstrong reported that he did not see any stars, but Gene Cernan (Apollo 17) said:\n\n\"It was also generally true that, when you were on the surface in the LM's shadow, there were too many bright things in your field-of-view for the stars to be visible. But I remember that I wanted to see whether I could see stars, and there were times out on the surface when I found that, if you allowed yourself to just focus and maybe even just shielded your eyes to some degree, even outside the LM shadow you could see stars in the sky.\"\n\nSo while the glare from the sunlit landscape makes it difficult, it's just possible to see the brighter stars from the Moon's surface during the day. At night you could see them easily.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "321956",
"title": "List of common misconceptions",
"section": "Section::::Science and technology.:Astronomy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 116,
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"text": "BULLET::::- The Great Wall of China is not, as is claimed, the only human-made object visible from space or from the Moon. None of the Apollo astronauts reported seeing \"any\" specific human-made object from the Moon, and even Earth-orbiting astronauts can see it only with magnification. City lights, however, are easily visible on the night side of Earth from orbit.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "50346",
"title": "Museum of Science and Industry (Chicago)",
"section": "Section::::Exhibits.:Lower Level.:Henry Crown Space Center.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 548,
"text": "MSI's Henry Crown Space Center includes the Apollo 8 spacecraft, which flew the first mission beyond low earth orbit to the Moon, enabling its crew, Frank Borman, James Lovell and William Anders, to become the first human beings to see the Earth as a whole, as well as becoming the first to view the Moon up close (as well as the first to view its far side). Other exhibits include Scott Carpenter's Mercury-Atlas 7 spacecraft, a Mars Rover (which you can actually control), a lunar module trainer and a life-size mockup of Space Shuttle Atlantis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "80740",
"title": "Moon landing conspiracy theories",
"section": "Section::::Hoax claims and rebuttals.:Photographic and film oddities.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "4. There are no stars in any of the photos; the Apollo 11 astronauts also stated in post-mission press conferences that they did not remember seeing any stars during EVA. Conspiracists contend that NASA chose not to put the stars into the photos because astronomers would have been able to use them to determine whether the photos were taken from the Earth or the Moon, by means of identifying them and comparing their celestial position and parallax to what would be expected for either observation site.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "27358495",
"title": "U.S. space exploration history on U.S. stamps",
"section": "Section::::Apollo 8 Issue of 1969.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "Up until the time of the Apollo 8 mission all manned ventures into space were confined to brief flights into space or to orbiting the Earth. Apollo 8 was the first human spaceflight mission to leave Earth orbit; the first to be captured by and escape from the gravitational field of another celestial body; and the first crew to voyage and then return to planet Earth from another celestial body – Earth's Moon. The three-man crew of mission Commander Frank Borman, Command Module Pilot James Lovell, and Lunar Module Pilot William Anders became the first humans to see the far side of the Moon with their own eyes, as well as the first humans to see planet Earth from beyond low Earth orbit.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "54885912",
"title": "December 1968",
"section": "Section::::December 24, 1968 (Tuesday).\n",
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"end_paragraph_id": 117,
"end_character": 1608,
"text": "BULLET::::- At 09:59 UTC (4:59 a.m. EST), after Apollo 8 astronauts Borman, Lovell and Anders flew past the Moon, became the first people to see its far side, and made minor course corrections, they fired the engines of the craft to begin mankind's first lunar orbit. Over the remainder of the day, the men circled the Moon ten times, each trip around taking about two hours, took photos of potential landing sites, and made two television transmissions to earth. Anders photographed \"Earthrise\", the view of Earth being viewed from the Moon. At the time of the photo, the Earth was seen at half phase, while the view from Earth was of a waxing Moon between quarter moon and a half moon. The second televised transmission from lunar orbit was set for evening in the United States (9:34 pm Eastern time, 6:34 pm Pacific, 02:34 UTC Christmas); at 9:57 p.m. Eastern, and with the greatest number of people up to that time listening, the three men took turns to read the first 10 verses of the Book of Genesis with Anders starting out, \"We are now approaching lunar sunrise, and for all the people back on Earth, the crew of Apollo 8 has a message that we would like to send to you. In the beginning God created the heaven and the earth...\", followed by Lovell, and concluded by Borman, who finished the reading (\"And God called the dry land Earth; and the gathering together of the waters called he Seas: and God saw that it was good.\") then told viewers worldwide \"And from the crew of Apollo 8, we close with good night, good luck, a Merry Christmas – and God bless all of you, all of you on the good Earth.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24809896",
"title": "1968 in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Events.:December.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 122,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 122,
"end_character": 276,
"text": "BULLET::::- December 24 – Apollo Program: U.S. spacecraft \"Apollo 8\" enters orbit around the Moon. Astronauts Frank Borman, Jim Lovell and William A. Anders become the first humans to see the far side of the Moon and planet Earth as a whole. The crew also reads from Genesis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "61182504",
"title": "Earth phase",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 214,
"text": "To be aware, although genuine photographs of the Earth viewed from the Moon exist, many from NASA, some photographs shared on social media, that are purported to be the Earth viewed from the Moon, may not be real.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
ofs7w
|
Does a photon have to be absorbed in order for it to have been created in the first place?
|
[
{
"answer": "A little bit about quantum mechanics that's important to understand:\n\nThe real physical object is the wave function. A particle is only the manifestation of the wave function when it gets collapsed (when you observe it).\n\nTherefore, the wave function of the photon exists regardless of wheter it is observed or not ( being absorbed is being observed ). The photon itself only exists when the wave function is collapsed, hence when it gets absorbed.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Photons don't decide whether they are emitted or not, the field equations of QED do. And from any observer's point of view, there will be a greater than zero time between absorption and emission.\n\nWhat you are probably thinking of is that a photon doesn't experience any proper time passing between emission and absorption. This just means that a reference frame moving together with the photon is ill-defined and you can't do any physics there.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "23535",
"title": "Photon",
"section": "Section::::Photons in matter.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 85,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 85,
"end_character": 559,
"text": "Photons can also be absorbed by nuclei, atoms or molecules, provoking transitions between their energy levels. A classic example is the molecular transition of retinal (CHO), which is responsible for vision, as discovered in 1958 by Nobel laureate biochemist George Wald and co-workers. The absorption provokes a cis-trans isomerization that, in combination with other such transitions, is transduced into nerve impulses. The absorption of photons can even break chemical bonds, as in the photodissociation of chlorine; this is the subject of photochemistry.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1551135",
"title": "Absorption band",
"section": "Section::::Electromagnetic transitions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 556,
"text": "When a photon is absorbed, the electromagnetic field of the photon disappears as it initiates a change in the state of the system that absorbs the photon. Energy, momentum, angular momentum, magnetic dipole moment and electric dipole moment are transported from the photon to the system. Because there are conservation laws, that have to be satisfied, the transition has to meet a series of constraints. This results in a series of selection rules. It is not possible to make any transition that lies within the energy or frequency range that is observed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "396320",
"title": "Matrix mechanics",
"section": "Section::::Mathematical development.:Conservation of energy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 89,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 89,
"end_character": 856,
"text": "The process of emission and absorption of photons seemed to demand that the conservation of energy will hold at best on average. If a wave containing exactly one photon passes over some atoms, and one of them absorbs it, that atom needs to tell the others that they can't absorb the photon anymore. But if the atoms are far apart, any signal cannot reach the other atoms in time, and they might end up absorbing the same photon anyway and dissipating the energy to the environment. When the signal reached them, the other atoms would have to somehow recall that energy. This paradox led Bohr, Kramers and Slater to abandon exact conservation of energy. Heisenberg's formalism, when extended to include the electromagnetic field, was obviously going to sidestep this problem, a hint that the interpretation of the theory will involve wavefunction collapse.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4336836",
"title": "Magneto-optical trap",
"section": "Section::::Doppler cooling.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 639,
"text": "Photons have a momentum given by formula_1 (where formula_2 is the reduced Planck constant and formula_3 the photon wavenumber), which is conserved in all atom-photon interactions. Thus, when an atom absorbs a photon, it is given a momentum kick in the direction of the photon before absorption. By detuning a laser beam to a frequency less than the resonant frequency (also known as red detuning), laser light is only absorbed if the light is frequency up-shifted by the Doppler effect, which occurs whenever the atom is moving towards the laser source. This applies a friction force to the atom whenever it moves towards a laser source.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23579",
"title": "Photoelectric effect",
"section": "Section::::Emission mechanism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 422,
"text": "Electrons can absorb energy from photons when irradiated, but they usually follow an \"all or nothing\" principle. All of the energy from one photon must be absorbed and used to liberate one electron from atomic binding, or else the energy is re-emitted. If the photon energy is absorbed, some of the energy liberates the electron from the atom, and the rest contributes to the electron's kinetic energy as a free particle.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16133434",
"title": "Optically active additive",
"section": "Section::::Physics of optically active technology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 1111,
"text": "If a single photon approaches an atom which is receptive to it, the photon can be absorbed by the atom in a manner very similar to a radio wave being picked up by an aerial. At the moment of absorption the photon ceases to exist and the total energy contained within the atom increases. This increase in energy is usually described symbolically by saying that one of the outermost electrons \"jumps\" to a \"higher orbit\". This new atomic configuration is unstable and the tendency is for the electron to fall back to its lower orbit or energy level, emitting a new photon as it goes. The entire process may take no more than 1 x 10 seconds. The result is much the same as with reflective colour, but because of the process of absorption and emission, the substance emits a glow. According to Planck, the energy of each photon is given by multiplying its frequency in cycles per second by a constant (Planck’s constant, 6.626 x 10 erg seconds). It follows that the wavelength of a photon emitted from a luminescent system is directly related to the difference between the energy of the two atomic levels involved.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53622964",
"title": "Resonance ionization",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 384,
"text": "An initial photon from this beam is absorbed by one of the sample atoms, exciting one of the atom's electrons to an intermediate excited state. A second photon then ionizes the same atom from the intermediate state such that its high energy level causes it to be ejected from its orbital; the result is a packet of positively charged ions which are then delivered to a mass analyzer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4rrcvw
|
Did ladies really faint all the time in the past?
|
[
{
"answer": "Well, first of all, we must wave away fiction (as we sadly often have to do...) when it comes to history. The idea of women fainting at the sight of terrible things or even their mention is not as old as history. We have no suggestions (to my knowledge) of medieval French women, ancient Egypt women or Mayan Mesoamerican women fainting at the sight of blood, spiders or hearing that the priest has seduced a local teenager. \n\nIndeed, this occurrence took place mainly in the Victorian area and was a combination of several different things. For it is true, women did feint at regular and irregular occasions during these years but the reasons aren't simply as vague as \"the female mind\".\n\nLet us start with corsets.\n\nIn the nineteenth century (and other time periods) the corset was extremely popular among women who could afford choking and being immobile to look pretty. As such, this was primarily something for bourgeois women and upwards, as female farmers, factory-workers, nurses and what not would find it impossible to work in the corsets of the 19:th century.\n\nWorn around the chest (and thus the lungs and the intestines) corsets were often made out of wool or leather, tightly woven and supported to so called \"boning\", which were vertically placed \"ribs\" of a sort made out of whale-bone, ivory or in the cheaper kind, wood. The purpose of the corset has varied, sometimes it's produce a curvier look, sometimes it's to suppress said curvier look. During the Victorian era it was definitely the former.\n\nGirls did not start wearing corsets as they became women (which might seem logical, because that's when you start getting curves) but rather girls started wearing them at a -very- young age. As in, pre-teen age. Take a look at this [nifty commercial](_URL_0_) from the time-period.\n\nSo, what happens if you wear something that presses on your chest in general and your ribs in particular for a great part of your life, including growing up when you form said rib-cage? Well, they get permanently displaced, that's what happens. As a result, lungs get compressed, intestines get shoved around, hearts struggle to function properly as the body struggles to function properly.\n\nEating disorders followed, as there simply wasn't enough room to eat anything but the mere minimal.\n\n------------------------------\n\nWith that said, it's highly likely that a lot of the swooning and fainting was put on display. It was simply a fad, it was lady-like, it was proper and it was considered nice. A lady that did not feint and swoon was no lady at all. Finer houses all included a so called 'feint-room', which was a pretty neatly set up room in some distant, silent corner of the big house. It had a feinting couch, soothing light, probably a bit to drink and so on and so forth. It was a social retreat where you could bring one or two friends with you while excusing yourself for a moment.\n\nAdditionally, -some- of the wealthier houses could afford a midwife or a doctor to help treat 'hysteria' which was a very common diagnosis at the time. In 1859, physician George Taylor for instance made the claim that 25% of all women suffered from hysteria. Hysteria had several treatments, including high pressure cold showers and other shock-therapies... But the most commonly accepted one was that it stemmed from sexual desire. As such, midwives or doctors could be working around the clock in these \"fainting-rooms\", offering pelvic massages to women who needed to take a break. As such, there was a pretty decent incentive to suddenly feel a need to feint and withdraw to hang out with your two best friends, have a cup of wine and get some... massage. There are reports of doctors filing complaints of pained wrists and fingers due to having to work with as many patients as they did (once again to underline here, this really was NOT a problem for poor people, who could not afford fainting rooms or doctors to staff them). \n\nThe sexual treatment of hysteria lead up to the development and invention of the vibrator who at first required medical personnel to handle but sooner rather than later (to the doctor's great lament!) became hand-held and easy to use on their own. The fad eventually grew out of fashion and the corsets of today are quite comfortable and women seldom feel the need to feint when watching the SAW movies. A more commonly accepted behavior is to gasp or simply avert your eyes when you encounter something shocking.\n\nSources: *Tystnadens historia* (History of Silence) - Peter Englund (2005) \n\nEDIT: Before we go bananas on corsets, I'd like to underline that 21:th century corsets are fine, even comfortable at times.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "20967043",
"title": "Vapours (disease)",
"section": "Section::::Victorian era.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 280,
"text": "In the Victorian era, a variety of conditions which affected women were referred to as \"a case of the vapours\". Ladies' tight corsets could squeeze their internal organs, including the lungs, and could restrict breathing causing the wearer to feel faint and suffer \"the vapours\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42345688",
"title": "2014 Nigeria Immigration Recruitment Tragedy",
"section": "Section::::Locations with injuries or fatalities.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 284,
"text": "The following does not include numerous episodes of fainting, most of which were heat-related, and all of which were treated successfully on the scene. At one location, Dan Anyiam Stadium in Owerri, ten people fainted while waiting to enter the venue, including three pregnant women.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23696410",
"title": "Expo 86",
"section": "Section::::Accidents.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 118,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 118,
"end_character": 535,
"text": "While opening the World's Fair, Diana, Princess of Wales briefly fainted onto her husband in a crowded hall in the California Pavilion. She recovered quickly in the washroom, and left half an hour later. Prince Charles later said that her fainting spell was a result of heat and exhaustion. However, the Princess confessed several years later that it was actually caused by not having kept down any food for several days, the result of her eating disorder. She was chastised by her husband for not \"fainting gracefully behind a door.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6950931",
"title": "Mary Anderson (actress, born 1859)",
"section": "Section::::Stage career.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 803,
"text": "In 1887 in London she appeared in \"The Winter's Tale\" in the double role of Perdita and Hermione (the first actress to include this innovation). This production ran to 160 performances, and was taken back to the United States. She invited writer William Black to appear in the production, but, even in a non-speaking role, he froze up and interrupted the performance. In 1889, however, she collapsed on stage due to severe nervous exhaustion during a performance at Albaugh's Theatre in Washington. Disbanding her company, she announced her retirement at the age of 30. Some commentators, particularly in the British press, ascribed this turn of events to hostile press reviews on her return to the U.S. The author Willa Cather went further and blamed a specifically hurtful review from a close friend.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13810041",
"title": "Bals des victimes",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 1403,
"text": "Those who attended the orgiastic balls reportedly wore mourning clothes or elaborate costumes with crepe armbands signifying mourning. Some accounts have both men and women wearing plain but scanty dress in the wake of the impoverishment of the Revolution, at least until the return of their fortunes at which time ball dress became highly elaborate. Others describe women, in the fashion of Merveilleuses, dressing scandalously in Greco-Roman attire, with their feet bare, in sandals, or adorned only by ribbons, a possible allusion to the fact that women often went barefoot to the guillotine. The style of dress at such a ball was known by some as the \"\"costume à la victime\".\" Women, and by some accounts men too, wore a red ribbon or string around their necks at the point of a guillotine blade's impact. Both men and women attending the balls were said to have worn or cut their hair in a fashion that bared their necks in a manner reflecting the haircut given the victim by the executioner, women often using a comb known as a cadenette to achieve this fashion. According to some, this was the origin of the feminine hairstyle known as the \"\"coiffure à la victime\"\" or more popularly the \"\"coiffure à la Titus\"\", or (in England) \"\"a la guillotine\"\". Some sources state that a woman sporting this hairstyle sometimes wore a red shawl or throat ribbon even when not attending a \"bal des victimes\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18560909",
"title": "March across Samar",
"section": "Section::::The march begins.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 264,
"text": "The men, realizing that all was over and that they were safe and once more near home, gave up. Some quietly wept; others laughed hysterically. ... Most of them had no shoes. Cut, torn, bruised and dilapidated, they had marched without murmur for twenty-nine days.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10771916",
"title": "Schreierstoren",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 515,
"text": "Schreierstoren is known mainly for the fact that women wept there for their husbands, who would leave from that port, to go to war, or to fish. (Most of the weeping that was done was for the fishermen who left from that port.) While many in history have called this (the weeping, that is) a myth, there is one thing that may prove this a fact: there is a “memory tablet” in the tower, dating back to 1566, which “commemorates” a woman who was so “heart-grieved” at the depart of her husband, that she went insane. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
gx76z
|
The higgs boson doesn't actually constitute most of the mass to our bodies, right?
|
[
{
"answer": "You are partially correct. The electron does owe all of it's mass to the Higg's mechanism. However, protons and neutrons are a little bit different as they are composite objects (they are made of quarks). Quarks also have mass, given to them by the higgs mechanism.\n\nBut there is a caveat. The up and down quark have (approximately) the same mass...somewhere around 3 MeV/c^2 (I think that's near the upper limit of the u/d quark mass...). Each proton has three \"on-shell\" quarks, and so we would predict our proton to have a maximum mass of somewhere in the neighbourhood of 9 MeV/c^2. If you look up the actual mass of the proton, you find that the proton weighs ~900 MeV/c^2. So the mass given to the quarks by the Higgs mechanism only adds up to about 10% of the overall proton mass!\n\nIt turns out that in general, only 10% (or so) of our mass comes from the Higgs mechanism. The other bit of our mass (and the rest of the proton's mass) comes from what is called quark confinement. The strong nuclear force that holds together the quarks into things like protons and neutrons is incredibly strong (duh!), and some of the energy of that force actually goes into increasing the mass of an object.\n\nSo yes and no, the Higgs mechanism **is** responsible for giving us mass, but most of our mass comes from quark confinement in the strong nuclear force. \n\nEDIT: okay, I got off my lazy ass and actually checked out the quark masses. Up quark is around 1-3 MeV/c^2 and down quark mass is 4-6 MeV/c^2. So our proton (two up, one down), would be around 12 MeV/c^2 maximum...still much much less than the actual proton mass...",
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"answer": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "20556903",
"title": "Higgs boson",
"section": "Section::::Theoretical properties.:Properties of the Higgs boson.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 102,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 102,
"end_character": 664,
"text": "The Standard Model does not predict the mass of the Higgs boson. If that mass is between 115 and (consistent with empirical observations of ), then the Standard Model can be valid at energy scales all the way up to the Planck scale (10 GeV). Many theorists expect new physics beyond the Standard Model to emerge at the TeV-scale, based on unsatisfactory properties of the Standard Model. The highest possible mass scale allowed for the Higgs boson (or some other electroweak symmetry breaking mechanism) is 1.4 TeV; beyond this point, the Standard Model becomes inconsistent without such a mechanism, because unitarity is violated in certain scattering processes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20556903",
"title": "Higgs boson",
"section": "Section::::Theoretical properties.:Further theoretical issues and hierarchy problem.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 121,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 121,
"end_character": 1801,
"text": "The Standard Model leaves the mass of the Higgs boson as a parameter to be measured, rather than a value to be calculated. This is seen as theoretically unsatisfactory, particularly as quantum corrections (related to interactions with virtual particles) should apparently cause the Higgs particle to have a mass immensely higher than that observed, but at the same time the Standard Model requires a mass of the order of 100 to 1000 GeV to ensure unitarity (in this case, to unitarise longitudinal vector boson scattering). Reconciling these points appears to require explaining why there is an almost-perfect cancellation resulting in the visible mass of ~ 125 GeV, and it is not clear how to do this. Because the weak force is about 10 times stronger than gravity, and (linked to this) the Higgs boson's mass is so much less than the Planck mass or the grand unification energy, it appears that either there is some underlying connection or reason for these observations which is unknown and not described by the Standard Model, or some unexplained and extremely precise fine-tuning of parameters however at present neither of these explanations is proven. This is known as a hierarchy problem. More broadly, the hierarchy problem amounts to the worry that a future theory of fundamental particles and interactions should not have excessive fine-tunings or unduly delicate cancellations, and should allow masses of particles such as the Higgs boson to be calculable. The problem is in some ways unique to spin-0 particles (such as the Higgs boson), which can give rise to issues related to quantum corrections that do not affect particles with spin. A number of solutions have been proposed, including supersymmetry, conformal solutions and solutions via extra dimensions such as braneworld models.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20556903",
"title": "Higgs boson",
"section": "Section::::Theoretical properties.:Properties of the Higgs boson.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 103,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 103,
"end_character": 928,
"text": "It is also possible, although experimentally difficult, to estimate the mass of the Higgs boson indirectly. In the Standard Model, the Higgs boson has a number of indirect effects; most notably, Higgs loops result in tiny corrections to masses of W and Z bosons. Precision measurements of electroweak parameters, such as the Fermi constant and masses of W/Z bosons, can be used to calculate constraints on the mass of the Higgs. As of July 2011, the precision electroweak measurements tell us that the mass of the Higgs boson is likely to be less than about at 95% confidence level (this upper limit would increase to if the lower bound of from the LEP-2 direct search is allowed for). These indirect constraints rely on the assumption that the Standard Model is correct. It may still be possible to discover a Higgs boson above these masses if it is accompanied by other particles beyond those predicted by the Standard Model.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "224636",
"title": "Supersymmetry",
"section": "Section::::Current status.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 87,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 87,
"end_character": 404,
"text": "In 2011–12, the LHC discovered a Higgs boson with a mass of about 125 GeV, and with couplings to fermions and bosons which are consistent with the Standard Model. The MSSM predicts that the mass of the lightest Higgs boson should not be much higher than the mass of the Z boson, and, in the absence of fine tuning (with the supersymmetry breaking scale on the order of 1 TeV), should not exceed 135 GeV.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33268859",
"title": "Superfluid vacuum theory",
"section": "Section::::Relation to other concepts and theories.:Mass generation and Higgs boson.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 763,
"text": "The Higgs boson is the spin-0 particle that has been introduced in electroweak theory to give mass to the weak bosons. The origin of mass of the Higgs boson itself is not explained by electroweak theory. Instead, this mass is introduced as a free parameter by means of the Higgs potential, which thus makes it yet another free parameter of the Standard Model. Within the framework of the Standard Model (or its extensions) the theoretical estimates of this parameter's value are possible only indirectly and results differ from each other significantly. Thus, the usage of the Higgs boson (or any other elementary particle with predefined mass) alone is not the most fundamental solution of the mass generation problem but only its reformulation \"ad infinitum\". \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44182725",
"title": "Composite Higgs models",
"section": "Section::::Models.:Higgs as Goldstone boson.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 1023,
"text": "In this scenario the existence of the Higgs boson follows from the symmetries of the theory. This allows to explain why this particle is lighter than the rest of the composite particles whose mass is expected from direct and indirect tests to be around a TeV or higher. It is assumed that the composite sector has a global symmetry G spontaneously broken to a subgroup H where G and H are compact Lie groups. Contrary to technicolor models the unbroken symmetry must contain the SM electro-weak group SU(2)xU(1). According to Goldstone's theorem the spontaneous breaking of a global symmetry produces massless scalar particles known as Goldstone bosons. By appropriately choosing the global symmetries it is possible to have Goldstone bosons that correspond to the Higgs doublet in the SM. This can be done in a variety of ways and is completely determined by the symmetries. In particular group theory determines the quantum numbers of the Goldstone bosons. From the decomposition of the adjoint representation one finds,\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36772327",
"title": "Search for the Higgs boson",
"section": "Section::::Timeline of experimental evidence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 62,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 62,
"end_character": 593,
"text": "BULLET::::- 13 December 2011 – experimental results were announced from the ATLAS and CMS experiments, indicating that if the Higgs boson exists, its mass is limited to the range 116–130 GeV (ATLAS) or 115–127 GeV (CMS), with other masses excluded at 95% CL. Observed excesses of events at around 124 GeV (CMS) and 125–126 GeV (ATLAS) are consistent with the presence of a Higgs boson signal, but also consistent with fluctuations in the background. The global statistical significances of the excesses are 1.9 sigma (CMS) and 2.6 sigma (ATLAS) after correction for the look elsewhere effect.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6a95xy
|
why does the usa seem so obsessed with race more then other countries?
|
[
{
"answer": "Because of (1) yes slavery and (2) the USA has a more mixed population, with more immigrants from more countries and backgrounds, than nearly any other country.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Many countries don't have multiracial populations nor did they have the kind of legalized discrimination that the US did. I see you slinking away, South Africa....",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because, back in the 1600's, when North America began to have a large population of indentured servants (white) and slaves (black) these people noticed that neither group was being treated very well. \n\nThey banded together in what's been Bacon's Rebellion (after their leader Nathaniel Bacon) If Nathaniel had not died of an intestinal disorder, they might have captured much of the eastern seaboard.\n\nAfter the rebellion was put down, the rich landholders had a meeting, and decided to set the indentured servants against the slaves. Over time, they made the lives of slaves harder, and made laws that prevented Blacks from rising in society. They also made an effort to elevate the White servants, by reminding them constantly that they were \"better\" than the Blacks, their former allies.\n\nSo, now the lower classes of Whites put all their effort into putting down people of African heritage, rather than try to elevate themselves. (Look at statistics. The most racist states are also the poorest.) \n\nIf you want to learn more, read the book White Cargo. Bacon's rebellion is near the end. It will turn your world around. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's not as bad as you might think. The media is horrible and makes more of than what is really going on. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There are many reasons for this listed already, but allow me to add my two cents in.\n\nThere are people who benefit from having high tensions between people of various races and groups. \n\nThe media is one of them. They get viewers by covering every single potentially racially charged situation. A black man is shot by the police? Wall to wall coverage. Some blind girl accidentally leaves dog poop on the steps of a Black Cultural center in a college? Instant scandal and around the clock coverage. More people watching means more ad revenue for networks, and sensational race-related stories get people to tune in. \n\nThen there are individual activists who thrive on racial animosity. The likes of Al Sharpton and Jesse Jackson have made themselves filthy rich by hyping up every real and perceived injustice faced by blacks in America. If blacks no longer saw themselves as victims of white oppression, they would have to actually get real jobs and earn their money.\n\nAnd then there are Democrat politicians who continue to enjoy 90% of the black vote and a majority of the Hispanic (and other minorities) vote. They have convinced blacks and other minorities that white people are all racist and that the only ones who are going to protect them from being put back in chains are the Democrats. \"Vote for us because we'll protect you from the racist Republicans\" is their mantra. Former VP Joe Biden even told a group of black voters, \"Republicans will put y'all back in chains.\" \n\nIf a magic wand was waved and racial tensions went away in America tomorrow, there would be a significant portion of people in positions of power who would find themselves without a job or at least have a harder time making money. When people gain from promoting unrest between racial groups, they have every incentive to continue to stoke the fire of racial tension, and unfortunately this message is well received by groups who want to see their collective failures as caused by external evil instead of any self-destructive behaviors within their own community.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "29378099",
"title": "Race and ethnicity in Latin America",
"section": "Section::::Concepts of race and ethnicity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 261,
"text": "The construction of race in Latin America is different from, for example, the model found in the United States, possibly because race mixing has been a common practice since the early colonial period, whereas in the United States it has generally been avoided.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1849214",
"title": "Achieved status",
"section": "Section::::Cultural capital.:Employment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 544,
"text": "According to sociologist Rodney Stark, few Americans believe coming from a wealthy family or having political connections is necessary to get ahead. In contrast, many people in other industrialized nations think these factors are necessary for advancement. Americans are more likely than the people in these nations to rate “hard work” as very important for getting ahead. While most nations value hard work, the Italians, for example, are hardly more likely to rate it as very important than they are to think one needs political connections.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "243749",
"title": "Multiracial",
"section": "Section::::Regions with significant multiracial populations.:North America.:United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 89,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 89,
"end_character": 552,
"text": "The United States is one of the most racially diverse countries in the world. The American people are mostly multi-ethnic descendants of various immigrant nationalities culturally distinct in their former countries. Assimilation and integration took place, unevenly at different periods of history, depending on the American region. The \"Americanization\" of foreign ethnic groups and the inter-racial diversity of millions of Americans has been a fundamental part of its history, especially on frontiers where different groups of people came together.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33477111",
"title": "Winner-Take-All Politics",
"section": "Section::::Themes.:Debunking the \"educational cause\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 527,
"text": "America's more extreme stratification has not come with any benefit of faster economic growth or more social mobility than its peer countries. Economic growth per capita was essentially the same in the US as that of the 15 core nations of Europe through 2006. America's self-image as the land of the American Dream and rags-to-riches success notwithstanding, the share of those brought up poor or middle class who succeeded in becoming rich (i.e. the social mobility), is now less than in almost all other developed countries.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42056023",
"title": "The Triple Package",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 474,
"text": "According to the preface, the authors find that \"certain groups do much better in America than others—as measured by various socioeconomic indicators such as income, occupational status, job prestige, test scores, and so on— [which] is difficult to talk about. In large part this is because the topic feels racially charged.\" Nevertheless, the book attempts to debunk racial stereotypes by focusing on three \"cultural traits\" that attribute to success in the United States.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52916015",
"title": "History of the United States (2008–present)",
"section": "Section::::Race.:\"A Post-Racial Nation\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 86,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 86,
"end_character": 543,
"text": "However, public opinion on whether the United States is post-racial is itself divided starkly by race. In a Washington Post/ABC News poll conducted in December 2014, about 50% of white respondents said they believed that the justice system treats Americans of all races equally, but only 10% of African-Americans said the same. In the spring of 2015, according to a Gallup poll, 13 percent of black Americans surveyed identified race relations as the most important problem the United States faces, compared with 4 percent of white Americans.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27620742",
"title": "Post-racial America",
"section": "Section::::2008 Presidential election.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 543,
"text": "However, public opinion on whether the United States is post-racial is itself divided starkly by race. In a Washington Post/ABC News poll conducted in December 2014, about 50% of white respondents said they believed that the justice system treats Americans of all races equally, but only 10% of African-Americans said the same. In the spring of 2015, according to a Gallup poll, 13 percent of black Americans surveyed identified race relations as the most important problem the United States faces, compared with 4 percent of white Americans.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6xgjzi
|
why is it that every lighting bolt is shaped differently?
|
[
{
"answer": "A lightning strike is basically an electrical charge in the air trying to reach the ground. Electricity always tries to find what's called the *path of least resistance*, or the easiest way down. That's going to vary based on lots of different factors - air pressure, humidity, finding a nice tree or an unwitting golfer to zap... the charge is always [searching for the best path to take](_URL_0_) until it can find the best one and hit ground.\n\nAnd since there are millions of tiny variations that can affect that path, every lightning bolt will be a little different.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4226525",
"title": "Grid cell",
"section": "Section::::Properties.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 629,
"text": "Grid cell activity does not require visual input, since grid patterns remain unchanged when all the lights in an environment are turned off. When visual cues are present, however, they exert strong control over the alignment of the grids: Rotating a cue card on the wall of a cylinder causes grid patterns to rotate by the same amount. Grid patterns appear on the first entrance of an animal into a novel environment, and usually remain stable thereafter. When an animal is moved into a completely different environment, grid cells maintain their grid spacing, and the grids of neighboring cells maintain their relative offsets.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7021",
"title": "Crookes radiometer",
"section": "Section::::All-black light mill.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 902,
"text": "To rotate, a light mill does not have to be coated with different colors across each vane. In 2009, researchers at the University of Texas, Austin created a monocolored light mill which has four curved vanes; each vane forms a convex and a concave surface. The light mill is uniformly coated by gold nanocrystals, which are a strong light absorber. Upon exposure, due to geometric effect, the convex side of the vane receives more photon energy than the concave side does, and subsequently the gas molecules receive more heat from the convex side than from the concave side. At rough vacuum, this asymmetric heating effect generates a net gas movement across each vane, from the concave side to the convex side, as shown by the researchers' Direct Simulation Monte Carlo (DSMC) modeling. The gas movement causes the light mill to rotate with the concave side moving forward, due to Newton's Third Law.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5855507",
"title": "Eye bolt",
"section": "Section::::Forged vs. bent eye construction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 308,
"text": "Eye bolts made by bending a rod or wire into a loop are only suitable for light duty applications, as heavy loads can cause the eye to open. For high loads, eye bolts with forged or welded loops should be chosen, as they can withstand loads up to the tensile strength of the material of which they are made.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1555757",
"title": "Multiplane camera",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 302,
"text": "An interesting variation is to have the background and foreground move in \"opposite\" directions. This creates an effect of rotation. An early example is the scene in Walt Disney's \"Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs\" where the Evil Queen drinks her potion, and the surroundings appear to spin around her.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1252144",
"title": "Breechblock",
"section": "Section::::Variants.:Rotating bolt.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 1010,
"text": "Usually referred to as a bolt rather than a breechblock, a rotating bolt is perhaps the most common variant. It is so called, because its operation is similar to a pad bolt or barrel bolt. The bolt slides in the receiver along the axis of the barrel and is rotated in the same axis to lock or unlock it against a closed breech. It is the basis for the bolt action, in which the bolt is rotated and retracted by an handle attached to the bolt. In some designs, the handle (sometimes called a cocking handle) rotates to lock against a shoulder in the receiver or body of the firearm. This type of locking is usually reserved for low-pressure applications such as the .22 cal rimfire series. More often, the bolt locks closed with two or more lugs that operate like a bayonet mount. Multiple lugs permit a smaller degree of rotation to lock and unlock the breech. Most types are front-locking and have the lugs mounted near the breech face. A notable exception is the rear-locking system used in the Lee–Enfield.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8991506",
"title": "Track lighting",
"section": "Section::::Variations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 950,
"text": "Another variation is called flex track or monorail track lighting in which the fixtures are hung from a single line monorail track attached to the ceiling using stems. There are several different types of track. Some are very flexible and can be curved in any shape or form and some are more rigid and can be curved very slightly. Some patterns that can be made are \"S curves\" or \"spirals\". Various adapters are available for combining features of track and other lighting. There are \"L\" and \"T\" adapters for rigid track, as well as flexible ones for unusual angles, or to change the vertical angle where a ceiling changes slope. Adapter plates allow single fixtures to be attached directly to a junction box, by providing an extremely small section of track embedded into the plate. There are also arms which have the same feature, allowing fixtures to be mounted onto the same wall they shine onto, and having an attached power cord and wall plug.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32009281",
"title": "BBC One pre-1969 idents",
"section": "Section::::Idents.:The Bat's Wings.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 336,
"text": "\"The abstract pattern consists of two intersecting eyes which scan the globe from north to south and east to west, symbolising vision and the power of vision. Flashes of lightning on either side represent electrical forces and the whole form takes the shape of wings which suggest the creative possibilities of television broadcasting\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
bv23rd
|
how does decriminalization of drugs reduce drug abuse and crime in the countries that have done it?
|
[
{
"answer": "Decriminalization or legalisation allows drug sales to be more controlled, meaning you know what is going into the drugs and people are more informed about safe drug use. It also means that drug supply can be more easily controlled, and you can more easily limit how much people get. It makes people more likely to seek help if they have drug issues and makes help easier to get. Addiction levels fall, which makes drug related crime fall. \n\nDecriminalization also allows police to focus on more pertinent issues, while also removing the violent crime that goes with illegal drug supply. It also reduces organised crime which is largely funded by drug supply.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "if you’re looking purely at statistics, think of any crime that is done by many people legal all of the sudden. that would obviously instantly bring the number of people doing something illegal down because now the people that used to be doing something illegal are only doing something legal.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Instead of giving people jail time, therapy is offered to drug abusers. This gives a more open environment in a populace to accept that drug abuse is a disease that can be cured and not a crime that can easily be solved by jailing all drug abusers. When offered jail time, drug abusers would just go underground and the state will exert more effort in rounding them up. However, once you treat it as a disease, people can voluntarily submit themselves to therapy for cure.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Jailing addicts doesn't actually do anything for them. Being in prison doesn't make them want to use less, and usually they will go back to using once they get out. Except now they have no community, money, and likely cant find a job.\n\nBy decriminalizing you can bring the market out of the shadow and into the light, where it can be monitored and controlled. You can do things like set up clean needle dispensaries and places they can get their drugs checked for impurities. This essentially gives addicts a safe place to get high around medical staff instead of ODing in a bathroom somewhere. You can then take all that money that you spend on funding drug policing and put it into state sponsored rehab programs and mental health therapy instead.\n\nAddicts have problems outside of being an addict, and as long as those problems persist they are going to keep on using. Throwing them into jail just adds more problems and results in them being fearful of looking for help when they actually want it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "13803076",
"title": "Drug liberalization",
"section": "Section::::Economics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 809,
"text": "There are numerous economic and social impacts of the criminalization of drugs. Prohibition increases crime (theft, violence, corruption) and drug price and increases potency. In many developing countries the production of drugs offers a way to escape poverty. Milton Friedman estimated that over 10,000 deaths a year in the US are caused by the criminalization of drugs, and if drugs were to be made legal innocent victims such as those shot down in drive by shootings, would cease or decrease. The economic inefficiency and ineffectiveness of such government intervention in preventing drug trade has been fiercely criticised by drug-liberty advocates. The War on Drugs of the United States, that provoked legislation within several other Western governments, has also garnered criticism for these reasons.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2751670",
"title": "Drug policy reform",
"section": "Section::::Proposed alternatives.:Decriminalization.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 433,
"text": "Drug decriminalization calls for reduced control and penalties compared to existing laws. Proponents of drug decriminalization generally support the use of fines or other punishments to replace prison terms, and often propose systems whereby illegal drug users who are caught would be fined, but would not receive a permanent criminal record as a result. A central feature of drug decriminalization is the concept of harm reduction.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13803076",
"title": "Drug liberalization",
"section": "Section::::Policies.:Drug decriminalization.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 433,
"text": "Drug decriminalization calls for reduced control and penalties compared to existing laws. Proponents of drug decriminalization generally support the use of fines or other punishments to replace prison terms, and often propose systems whereby illegal drug users who are caught would be fined, but would not receive a permanent criminal record as a result. A central feature of drug decriminalization is the concept of harm reduction.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13803076",
"title": "Drug liberalization",
"section": "Section::::Policies.:Drug decriminalization.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 772,
"text": "Drug decriminalization is in some ways an intermediate between prohibition and legalization, and has been criticized as being \"the worst of both worlds\", in that drug sales would still be illegal, thus perpetuating the problems associated with leaving production and distribution of drugs to the criminal underworld, while also failing to discourage illegal drug use by removing the criminal penalties that might otherwise cause some people to choose not to use drugs. However, there are many that argue that the decriminalization of possession of drugs would redirect focus of the law enforcement system of any country to put more effort into arresting dealers and big time criminals, instead of arresting minor criminals for mere possession, and thus be more effective.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2751670",
"title": "Drug policy reform",
"section": "Section::::Proposed alternatives.:Decriminalization.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 1201,
"text": "Drug decriminalization is in some ways an intermediate between prohibition and legalization, and has been criticized as being \"the worst of both worlds\", in that drug sales would still be illegal, thus perpetuating the problems associated with leaving production and distribution of drugs to the criminal underworld, while also failing to discourage illegal drug use by removing the criminal penalties that might otherwise cause some people to choose not to use drugs. Portugal was the first country in the world that has decriminalized the use of all drugs. This generally means anyone caught with any type of drug, if it classifies as being for personal consumption rather than sale, will not be imprisoned. However, Mexico City has decriminalized certain drugs and Greece has just announced that it is going to do so. Spain has also followed the Portugal model. Italy after waiting 10 years to see the result of the Portugal model, which Portugal deemed a success, has since recently followed suit. In May 2014, the Criminal Chamber of the Italian Supreme Court upheld a previous decision in 2013 by Italy's Constitutional Court, to reduce the penalties for the convictions for sale of soft drugs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33632441",
"title": "Psychoactive drug",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 463,
"text": "In some countries, there has been a move toward harm reduction by health services, where the use of illicit drugs is neither condoned nor promoted, but services and support are provided to ensure users have adequate factual information readily available, and that the negative effects of their use be minimized. Such is the case of Portuguese drug policy of decriminalization, which achieved its primary goal of reducing the adverse health effects of drug abuse.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13803076",
"title": "Drug liberalization",
"section": "Section::::Policies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 918,
"text": "The European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA) defines decriminalization as the removal of a conduct or activity from the sphere of criminal law; depenalisation signifying merely a relaxation of the penal sanction exacted by law. Decriminalization usually applies to offences related to drug consumption and may include either the imposition of sanctions of a different kind (administrative) or the abolition of all sanctions; other (noncriminal) laws then regulate the conduct or activity that has been decriminalized. Depenalisation usually consists of personal consumption as well as small-scale trading and generally signifies the elimination or reduction of custodial penalties, while the conduct or activity still remains a criminal offence. The term legalization refers to the removal of all drug-related offences from criminal law: use, possession, cultivation, production, trading, etc.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
9mnuma
|
why do you continue to try and vomit/dry retch when you have drank to much, even after your stomach contents have completely vacated your body?
|
[
{
"answer": "The vomiting is your body’s response to an excessive amount of alcohol in your system, not just your digestive tract ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's not just when you've drunk too much but when you're sick as well you also dry heave after vomiting that's because the nerves that cause you to vomit are still coated in what cause you to vomit in the first place.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "11576502",
"title": "Retching",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 592,
"text": "Retching (also known as dry heaving) is the reverse movement (retroperistalsis) of the stomach and esophagus without vomiting. It can be caused by bad smell or choking, or by withdrawal from some medications after vomiting stops. Retching can also occur as a result of an emotional response or from stress, which produces the same physical reaction. The function is thought to be mixing gastric contents with intestinal refluxate in order to buffer the former and give it momentum in preparation of vomiting. Treatments include medication and correction of the fluid and electrolyte balance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3657336",
"title": "Rumination syndrome",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 225,
"text": "Unlike typical vomiting, the regurgitation is typically described as effortless and unforced. There is seldom nausea preceding the expulsion, and the undigested food lacks the bitter taste and odour of stomach acid and bile.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8507183",
"title": "Vomiting",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 300,
"text": "Vomiting is different from regurgitation, though the terms are often used interchangeably. Regurgitation is the return of undigested food back up the esophagus to the mouth, without the force and displeasure associated with vomiting. The causes of vomiting and regurgitation are generally different.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23772937",
"title": "Dhruggi Rajgan",
"section": "Section::::Initial history of Dharuggi and vicinity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 369,
"text": "After drinking it, the person will get cramps and loose motion are caused which ultimately will clean the bowels. This was a primitive method for purging and treating intestinal cleansing as well as worms. Now this practice is almost given up owing to access to health facility of allopathic medicines and lethargy of people for going to this so-called far-flung area.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35781181",
"title": "Management of dehydration",
"section": "Section::::Medical uses.:Medium dehydration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 447,
"text": "WHO recommends that if there is vomiting, don’t stop, but do pause for 5–10 minutes and then restart at a slower pace. (Vomiting seldom prevents successful rehydration since most of the fluid is still absorbed. Plus, vomiting usually stops after the first one to four hours of rehydration.) With the older WHO solution, also give some clean water during rehydration. With the newer reduced-osmolarity, more dilute solution, this is not necessary.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36896310",
"title": "Banana Sprite challenge",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 506,
"text": "While the vomit response is commonly assumed to be a chemical reaction between the two foods, the reaction may also occur due simply to the large amount of food and drink ingested within a short period. Dietitian Heather Boline observes that the human stomach can only hold around two cups, saying \"Too much food or liquid in your stomach if your stomach doesn’t have that capability can make you vomit.\" Thus, the vomiting response is likely due to an inability for the stomach to contain the substances.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3657336",
"title": "Rumination syndrome",
"section": "Section::::Diagnosis.:Differential diagnosis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 444,
"text": "Gastroparesis is another common misdiagnosis. Like rumination syndrome, patients with gastroparesis often bring up food following the ingestion of a meal. Unlike rumination, gastroparesis causes vomiting (in contrast to regurgitation) of food, which is not being digested further, from the stomach. This vomiting occurs several hours after a meal is ingested, preceded by nausea and retching, and has the bitter or sour taste typical of vomit.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
9va4v4
|
do rgb led's have the ability to display a wide range of colors. what causes the color to change, is it the voltage?
|
[
{
"answer": "An RGB LED is actually 3 LEDs in one package. One each of Red Green and Blue. But changing the intensity of each of the 3 LEDs you get a unique color from the single bulb. The human eye doesn’t see the individual colors but a mix into a single color.\n\nLots more details: _URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "9910525",
"title": "LED lamp",
"section": "Section::::Technology overview.:White light LEDs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "RGB or trichromatic white LEDs use multiple LED chips emitting red, green, and blue wavelengths. These three colors combine to produce white light. The color rendering index (CRI) is poor, typically 25 - 65, due to the narrow range of wavelengths emitted. Higher CRI values can be obtained using more than three LED colors to cover a greater range of wavelengths.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "952677",
"title": "Backlight",
"section": "Section::::Usage.:LED backlights.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 585,
"text": "RGB LEDs can deliver an enormous color gamut to screens. When using three separate LEDs (additive color) the backlight can produce a color spectrum that closely matches the color filters in the LCD pixels themselves. In this way, the filter passband can be narrowed so that each color component lets only a very narrow band of spectrum through the LCD. This improves the efficiency of the display since less light is blocked when white is displayed. Also, the actual red, green, and blue points can be moved farther out so that the display is capable of reproducing more vivid colors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18290",
"title": "Light-emitting diode",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Application-specific variations.:RGB Tri-color.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 90,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 90,
"end_character": 289,
"text": "RGB LEDs consist of one red, one green, and one blue LED. By independently adjusting each of the three, RGB LEDs are capable of producing a wide color gamut. Unlike dedicated-color LEDs, however, these do not produce pure wavelengths. Modules may not be optimized for smooth color mixing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18290",
"title": "Light-emitting diode",
"section": "Section::::Colors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 345,
"text": "By selection of different semiconductor materials, single-color LEDs can be made that emit light in a narrow band of wavelengths from near-infrared through the visible spectrum and into the ultraviolet range. As the wavelengths become shorter, because of the larger band gap of these semiconductors, the operating voltage of the LED increases. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18290",
"title": "Light-emitting diode",
"section": "Section::::Colors.:White.:RGB systems.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 297,
"text": "Multicolor LEDs also offer a new means to form light of different colors. Most perceivable colors can be formed by mixing different amounts of three primary colors. This allows precise dynamic color control. However, this type of LED's emission power decays exponentially with rising temperature,\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18290",
"title": "Light-emitting diode",
"section": "Section::::Colors.:White.:RGB systems.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 56,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 56,
"end_character": 361,
"text": "resulting in a substantial change in color stability. Such problems inhibit industrial use. Multicolor LEDs without phosphors cannot provide good color rendering because each LED is a narrowband source. LEDs without phosphor, while a poorer solution for general lighting, are the best solution for displays, either backlight of LCD, or direct LED based pixels.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18290",
"title": "Light-emitting diode",
"section": "Section::::Colors.:White.:RGB systems.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 541,
"text": "Mixing red, green, and blue sources to produce white light needs electronic circuits to control the blending of the colors. Since LEDs have slightly different emission patterns, the color balance may change depending on the angle of view, even if the RGB sources are in a single package, so RGB diodes are seldom used to produce white lighting. Nonetheless, this method has many applications because of the flexibility of mixing different colors, and in principle, this mechanism also has higher quantum efficiency in producing white light.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3kfd05
|
apple airport express shows xbox one speed 270mb, xbox network stats says 30mb.
|
[
{
"answer": "I'm not sure, but maybe the units are different.\nApple airport express must be showing in Mb(Mega-bits) and Xbox network stats must be using MB(megabytes).\n8bits=1byte!\nSo that explains 30MB=240 Mb.\nLeft 30Mbs in apple express is just a difference of 3MBs.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You're confusing M**b**ps (mega**bits** per second) with M**B**ps (mega**bytes** per second).\n\nThere are 8 bits to a byte, so 270Mbps = 33.75 MBps.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "645156",
"title": "AirPort Extreme",
"section": "Section::::AirPort Extreme models by generation.:6th generation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 449,
"text": "On June 10, 2013, Apple unveiled an updated AirPort Extreme, referred to as \"AirPort Extreme 802.11ac (6th Generation)\". The 6th generation AirPort Extreme (and 5th generation AirPort Time Capsule) features three-stream 802.11ac Wi-Fi technology with a maximum data rate of 1.3Gbit/s, which is nearly three times faster than 802.11n. Time Machine is now supported using an external USB hard drive connected to AirPort Extreme (802.11ac model only).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34894839",
"title": "Expeed",
"section": "Section::::Technology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 716,
"text": "The \"Nikon Expeed\" is based on the Socionext Milbeaut imaging processors with 16-bit per pixel multi-core FR-V processor architecture, using a highly parallel pipelined architecture which allows efficient hardware use, increasing throughput and reducing power consumption. Each core uses an eight-way 256-bit very long instruction word (VLIW, MIMD) and is organized in a four-unit superscalar pipelined architecture (Integer (ALU)-, Floating-point- and two media-processor-units) giving a peak performance of up to 28 instructions per clock cycle and core. Due to the used four-way single instruction, multiple data (SIMD) vector processor units, data is processed with up to 112 data operations per cycle and core.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "444990",
"title": "Boeing 377 Stratocruiser",
"section": "Section::::Operational history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 286,
"text": "Boeing set never-exceed speed at IAS, but in testing, the 377 reached IAS (about TAS) in a 15–20 degree dive at Typical airline cruise was less than ; in August 1953, Pan Am and United 377s (and United DC-6s) were scheduled between Honolulu and San Francisco () in 9 h 45 min each way.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46181169",
"title": "Longest flights",
"section": "Section::::Record flights.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 323,
"text": "The record was further extended on November 9, 2005, by a Pakistan International Airlines Boeing 777-200LR. It traveled eastward from Hong Kong to London-Heathrow in roughly 22 hours, 22 minutes as opposed to a normal westward routing for that sector, which is much shorter at . Aboard were eight pilots and 27 passengers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "187961",
"title": "Acela Express",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 466,
"text": "The \"Acela\"'s speed is limited by traffic and infrastructure on the route's northern half. On the section from Boston's South Station to New York's Penn Station, the fastest scheduled time is 3 hours and 30 minutes, or an average speed of . Along this section, \"Acela\" has still captured a 54% share of the combined train and air market. The entire route from Boston to Washington takes between 6 hours, 38 minutes and 6 hours, 50 minutes, at an average of around .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3684349",
"title": "TomTom",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 520,
"text": "The Go \"x\"40 series, with NavCore 8.2, was released in the autumn of 2008. The x40 series was branded \"LIVE\" with a built-in GSM SIM card, for connected features including HD Traffic, Google Local Search, real-time speed camera updates, and the facility to search for the cheapest fuel on route. In addition, IQ Routes \"24/7\" used the average speed for the time of day, instead of a time-independent average. TomTom \"x\"20 and \"x\"30 users were given an update with support for IQ Routes 24/7 on buying an up-to-date map.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2060996",
"title": "Dassault Falcon 7X",
"section": "Section::::Falcon 7X.:Teterboro-London City record.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 227,
"text": "On May 2, 2014, Dassault Falcon pilots Philippe Deleume and Olivier Froment set a new speed record for the Falcon 7X on a 5 h 54 min flight from New York Teterboro Airport to London City Airport with three passengers on board.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
45m62t
|
How often were peasants used in Middle Age battles? How were they trained? How were they equipped? Who paid for their equipment?
|
[
{
"answer": "Could you clarify what you mean, do you mean in the sense of any peasant class individual participating in a war or do you mean armed mobs with no training at all?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In Mughal North India, peasants were used as infantry, they were the cannon fodder in battle, many also worked supporting roles such as coolies, carriers, cooks, servants, etc. The main warriors were from kshtriya castes, professional soldiers who were officers, cavalry, elephant riders, general's, etc.\n\n\nUnder Akhbar the Great there was the Mansabdari system, every government official was expected to maintain an small army according to his rank, peasants, mercenaries etc were hired or conscripted and trained. The Mughlas were Turks and not Indians, so not a lot of them trusted locals, so they brought in adventurers and mercs from Persia and Central Asia. Akhbar however made alliances with the Rajputs, a tribe of ass kicking war lords belonging to Kshtriya Caste. Their society was a war like one, every able bodied man was expected to go to war. Thus since most of the armies at the time were composed of professional soldiers, peasants usually played a supporting role, unless there was a shortage of men. \n\nI'll look for sources later.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "For high and late medieval Western Europe, I think the definition of 'peasant' is important, because Medieval social structures had multiple de facto (and de jure) classes of untitled people, who could have very different material circumstances.\n\nIf by peasants, you mean 'the lower classes of serfs/villeins/tenant farmers, u/MI13 deals with their (non) use in the later middle ages [here](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2428384",
"title": "Battle Realms",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 425,
"text": "Peasants gather three resources in the game: rice, water and horses. Horses are war units that can be used to combine with other military units i.e riding or can be turned into pack horses when assigned for peasants. Only one type of builder unit is required. Peasants are the only units that can be produced outright. Most of the buildings available are training structures where peasants are trained to become other units.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41207308",
"title": "German Peasants' War",
"section": "Section::::Background.:Military organizations.:Peasant armies.:Peasant resources.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 383,
"text": "Peasants served in rotation, sometimes for one week in four, and returned to their villages after service. While the men served, others absorbed their workload. This sometimes meant producing supplies for their opponents, such as in the Archbishopric of Salzburg, where men worked to extract silver, which was used to hire fresh contingents of \"landsknechts\" for the Swabian League.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41207308",
"title": "German Peasants' War",
"section": "Section::::Background.:Military organizations.:Peasant armies.:Peasant resources.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 838,
"text": "The peasants possessed an important resource, the skills to build and maintain field works. They used the wagon-fort effectively, a tactic that had been mastered in the Hussite Wars of the previous century. Wagons were chained together in a suitable defensive location, with cavalry and draft animals placed in the center. Peasants dug ditches around the outer edge of the fort and used timber to close gaps between and underneath the wagons. In the Hussite Wars, artillery was usually placed in the center on raised mounds of earth that allowed them to fire over the wagons. Wagon forts could be erected and dismantled quickly. They were quite mobile, but they also had drawbacks: they required a fairly large area of flat terrain and they were not ideal for offense. Since their earlier use, artillery had increased in range and power.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21423531",
"title": "Economy of the Han dynasty",
"section": "Section::::Taxation, property, and social class.:Conscription.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 706,
"text": "At the age of twenty-three years male peasants were drafted to serve in the military, where they were assigned to infantry, cavalry, or navy service. After one year of training, they went on to perform a year of actual military service in frontier garrisons or as guards in the capital city. They remained liable to perform this year of service until the age of fifty-six. This was also the age when they were dismissed from their local militias, which they could join once they had finished their year of conscripted service. These non-professional conscripted soldiers comprised the Southern Army (\"Nanjun\" 南軍), while the Northern Army (\"Beijun\" 北軍) was a standing army composed of paid career soldiers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8217499",
"title": "Races and nations of Warhammer Fantasy",
"section": "Section::::Realms of Men.:Kingdom of Bretonnia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 655,
"text": "Some more well-off peasants may still serve as \"Men-at-arms\" in their lord's forces, each aristocrat being able to raise a few hundred men-at-arms from their peasant tenant families. These part-time soldiers are paid a marginal wage and are provisionally given basic armor and carry pikes or spears as their armaments. Each is also required to wear the livery of his lord's house. Though organized and markedly courageous, they are mostly poorly trained and under-supplied as their lords will rarely spare the time and resources to properly equip them. As such, men-at-arms often rely on salvaged or captured arms and other war gear from the battlefield.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42501350",
"title": "Battle of Pfeddersheim",
"section": "Section::::Battle.:Troops and weaponry.:Peasants.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 369,
"text": "The peasants were armed with lances, morning stars and farm implements. In addition, some peasant mobs had captured firearms. However, in comparison with the prince's troops they were poorly equipped because the most of the weapons they had were those they had captured or stolen. The prince's troops, of course, were able to be issued with weapons from the armouries.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "45361083",
"title": "Croquant rebellions",
"section": "Section::::The 1594/95 uprisings.:The Uprisings.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 1084,
"text": "These saw themselves overpowered and were not able to contain the advance of the peasant troops. According to Jean Tarde, there was one soldier for each 100 peasants, and their military organisation owed itself to the fact that a good number of artisans, \"sons of good families\" (some historians, such as Mousnier and Bercé, include some minor nobles, or squirearchs, joining the revolt), and former soldiers were accompanying them. On the other hand, although the King had decreed an end to the movement, he also had expressed a certain benevolence toward the rebels and had promised to hear their complaints, and so for months the nobles felt indecisive about the degree of violence to employ in the repression, and their answer was due soon. As the reinforcements that the governor of Bourdeille had asked the King for were slow in coming, the nobility and the wealthy classes of the cities organised their own armed League. Months later, the reinforcements required by the King arrived from Jean de Sourches de Malicorne, governor of Poitou, and Jean du Chasteigner, M. de Albin.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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]
}
] | null |
22w7h0
|
When roman emperors were divinized posthumously, what did that mean to the surviving population? And were the divinized emperors endowed with "powers", like Neptune/Poseidon's power over the sea?
|
[
{
"answer": "Hi, that's a very interesting question, I have never questioned the 'why' in that way before. The answer goes back to Julius Caesar, the persona and the events around his death. \n\n > \"He died in the fifty-sixth year of his age, and was ranked amongst the Gods, not only by a formal decree, but in the belief of the vulgar. For during the first games which Augustus, his heir, consecrated to his memory, a comet blazed for seven days together, rising always about eleven o'clock; and it was supposed to be the soul of Caesar, now received into heaven: for which reason, likewise, he is represented on his statue with a star on his brow.\" (Suet. Jul. 88) \n\n > \"They afterwards erected in the Forum a column of Numidian marble, formed of one stone nearly twenty feet high, and inscribed upon it these words, TO THE FATHER OF HIS COUNTRY. At this column they continued for a long time to offer sacrifices, make vows, and decide controversies, in which they swore by Caesar.\" (Suet. Jul. 85) \n\nAnd a tad too long to quote, [this section](_URL_0_), which shows how popular Julius Caesar was among to common people. \n\nLooking at the above quotes, we can tell that Julius Caesar was divinized because the people wanted it and because of certain divine circumstances following his death. Starting with the comet, an understanding of the superstition of the Romans is necessary. I made a quick search on the subreddit and [this](_URL_2_) discussion shows upon the problems with using the term 'superstition', so I'm not going to analyze that further. What I wanted to say though is that the Romans were very aware of things such as birds in the sky, comets, how healty animals were, and so on. A comet showing in the sky for seven days following the death of such an important man as Julius Caesar, that's got to be important, and Suetonius shows us that. \n\nSecondly, having cults around a person was by no means a new invention. Scipio Africanus was said to have had a cult created around him in Iberia following his successes in the Second Punic War (Polybios, 10, 40). Cults around the Persian kings, the Egyptian Pharaohs and even Alexander the Great, had also been well established before this time. What was new here was the political situation. Caesar had won the civil war and had the people on his side. When he was murdered chaos ensued and one of Marcus Antonius (Mark Anthony) moves was to suggest that Caesar was to be divinized. \n\nSo, this is a bit of the background to why Julius Caesar was divinized, let's get into the deeper parts of your queries. The Romans were fans of continuity. As you can see above, Caesar's divination wasn't something completely new because it had been done before (in a way) with Scipio Africanus, except Scipio only had a cult, he wasn't divinized. This continuity along with the legal adoption of Gaius Octavius (henceforth Augustus) meant that it wasn't questioned whether or not Augustus was a *divi filius* (son of a god) or not. Because Julius Caesar became *divus* Julius after his death it was obvious that Augustus must be *divus* Augustus *divi* Julius. \n\nNow, if you look at the book titles [here](_URL_1_.), you can see that far from all emperors were in fact divinized. Suetonius died early in the 2nd century AD so there are a few divinized emperors missing there, but as you can see there are a lot of missing *divus* titles. \n\nStarting with Augustus, all emperors were actually titled *divus* < name > during their lives. Supposedly also the empresses considering the Livia was divinized in 27 AD and thus became *diva* Augusta, but that's the only example and thus hard to tell. Anyway, looking at the structure of the Imperial Cult, we can deduce that living emperors had the title *divus* (except Tiberius who refused to be seen as divine), which became *divi* after their deaths. However, just like with the case of Julius Caesar, the *divi* appointment actually had to be voted after the emperor's death. Meaning that just because you were a *divus*, which can be explained as a-god-to-be, there was no guarantee that you'd in fact be divinized after you died. You had to deserve to be made a god. \n\nThe last part of course sounds really strange to us. That also begs the question of what kind of god the emperors actually became. During my own research of the subject I created three categories of gods to separate them. The first category was the great gods like Jupiter, Mars, Neptune, etc., Olympian gods with unquestionable powers. The second category was smaller gods, such as Roma (the personification or Rome) or Mithras, gods that weren't omnipotent. The third category is then where the emperors fit, along with ruler kings and such. As far as I have seen, we don't have a single source explaining what kind of powers the emperors had after they died, which is why the above categorization is necessary. \n\nHowever, the emperor had a unique trait, the *numen* on top of the *genius* that everyone had. I wrote this a little while ago so I'll just copy-paste: \n*Numen*: The emperor's life spirit. Only the current living emperor had a *numen* as far as I've understood it. Meaning no one else than the emperor even had a *numen*. Genius: Today we like to describe it as the soul. However that's a really easy explanation and isn't quite correct. Soul is a christian term. Everyone had a *genius*, but what made the emperor special was that he had both a *genius* and a *numen* and they were both worshipped differently. \n\nSo, on to the last part of your queries (unless I have missed something, feel free to ask) - \"what did that mean to the surviving population\". This is something that might be rather hard to tell since we don't have writings from the general population about it. We do however have inscriptions on tombstones of dead priests in the Imperial Cult. Those tombstones show us that the cult of a dead emperor was abandoned or neglected as soon as a new emperor was divinized. This was, the divinzed emperor was a sort of god after his death and they weren't un-divinized, but when there was a newer divinzed emperor, whom the living were more familiar with, they turned to him instead. There is one exception to this. Because of the short life-span of Titus (he was only emperor for 2 years), the cult around *divi* Vespasianus stayed strong a lot longer than might have been expected when Titus also was divinized. \n\nAn ending note is that the Imperial Cult wasn't just a religion, it was politics and propaganda. Therefore it follows that the older the divinization of an emperor is the less it's worth in current times, for the current Imperial family. The Flavian family had no reason to keep the Augustan Imperial cult alive and likewise the adoptive emperors (Nerva-Pertinax) didn't strengthen the Flavian cult, especially after Domitianus reign. This explains in part why the cult of a previous emperor died out as soon as there was a newer one. \n\nSources: \nSuetonius, *The Lives of the Caesars*, translated by Alexander Thomson. \nPolybios, *Histories*, translated by Evelyn S. Shuckburgh. \nTaylor (1931), *The Divinity of the Roman Emperor*. \nFishwick (2002), *The Imperial Cult in the Latin West, Studies in the Ruler Cult of the Western Provinces of the Roman Empire*, III 1, III 2. \nFishwick (2004), *The Imperial Cult in the Latin West, Studies in the Ruler Cult of the Western Provinces of the Roman Empire*, III 3.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "3828146",
"title": "Imperial cult of ancient Rome",
"section": "Section::::Context and precedents.:\"Divus\", \"deus\" and the \"numen\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 97,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 97,
"end_character": 1441,
"text": "The \"divi\" had some form of precedent in the \"di parentes\", divine ancestors who received ancestral rites as \"manes\" (gods of the underworld) during the Parentalia and other important domestic festivals. Their powers were limited; deceased mortals not normally possess the divine power (\"numen\") of the higher gods. Deceased emperors did not automatically become \"divi\"; they must be nominated for the privilege. Their case was discussed by the senate, then put to the vote. As long as the correct rituals and sacrifice were offered, the \"divus\" would be received by the heavenly gods as a \"coelicola\" (a dweller in heaven), a lesser being than themselves. Popular belief held that the \"divus\" Augustus would be personally welcomed by Jupiter. In Seneca's \"Apocolocyntosis\", on the other hand, the unexpected arrival of the divinised Claudius creates a problem for the Olympians, who have no idea who or what he is; and when they find out, they cannot think what to do with him. Seneca's sarcastic wit, an unacceptable impiety towards a \"deus\", freely portrays the \"divus\" Claudius as just a dead, ridiculous and possibly quite bad emperor. Though their images were sacrosanct and their rites definitively divine \"divi\" could be created, unmade, reinstated or simply forgotten. Augustus and Trajan appear to have remained the ideals for longer than any, and cult to \"good\" \"divi\" appears to have lasted well into the late Imperial dominate.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "14531824",
"title": "Late Roman army",
"section": "Section::::Evolution of the 4th-century army.:Danubian military junta.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 778,
"text": "The Danubian emperors ruled the empire for over a century, until 379. Indeed, until 363, power was held by descendants of one of the original Junta members. Constantine I' s father, Constantius Chlorus, was a \"Caesar\" (deputy emperor) in Diocletian's Tetrarchy. Constantine's grandson Julian ruled until 363. These emperors restored the army to its former strength and effectiveness, but were solely concerned with the needs and interests of the military. They were also divorced from the wealthy Roman senatorial families that dominated the Senate and owned much of the empire's land. This in turn bred a feeling of alienation from the army among the Roman aristocracy which in the later 4th century began to resist the military's exorbitant demands for recruits and supplies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "1123369",
"title": "Historiography of the fall of the Western Roman Empire",
"section": "Section::::Overview of events.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 970,
"text": "In June 474, Julius Nepos became Western Emperor but in the next year the \"magister militum\" Orestes revolted and made his son Romulus Augustus emperor. Romulus, however, was not recognized by the Eastern Emperor Zeno and so was technically an usurper, Nepos still being the legal Western Emperor. Nevertheless, Romulus Augustus is often known as the last Western Roman Emperor. In 476, after being refused lands in Italy, Orestes' Germanic mercenaries under the leadership of the chieftain Odoacer captured and executed Orestes and took Ravenna, the Western Roman capital at the time, deposing Romulus Augustus. The whole of Italy was quickly conquered, and Odoacer was granted the title of patrician by Zeno, effectively recognizing his rule in the name of the Eastern Empire. Odoacer returned the Imperial insignia to Constantinople and ruled as King in Italy. Following Nepos' death Theodoric the Great, King of the Ostrogoths, conquered Italy with Zeno's approval.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13545563",
"title": "Democratic elements of Roman Republic",
"section": "Section::::Fall of the Republic.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 526,
"text": "Once Octavian named Tiberius as his heir, it was clear to everyone that even the hope of a restored Republic was dead. Most likely, by the time Augustus died, no one was old enough to know a time before a dictator ruled Rome. The Roman Republic had been changed into a despotic régime, which, underneath a competent and strong Emperor, could achieve military supremacy, economic prosperity, and a genuine peace, but under a weak or incompetent one saw its glory tarnished by cruelty, military defeats, revolts, and civil war.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6852",
"title": "Caligula",
"section": "Section::::Emperor.:Claims of divinity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 472,
"text": "Caligula's religious policy was a departure from that of his predecessors. According to Cassius Dio, living emperors could be worshipped as divine in the east and dead emperors could be worshipped as divine in Rome. Augustus had the public worship his spirit on occasion, but Dio describes this as an extreme act that emperors generally shied away from. Caligula took things a step further and had those in Rome, including senators, worship him as a tangible, living god.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25789",
"title": "Romulus Augustulus",
"section": "Section::::Legacy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 615,
"text": "As the last Western Roman emperor before the traditionally agreed-upon end of the Western Roman Empire, Romulus has been portrayed several times in film and literature; the play \"Romulus the Great\" (1950), by Friedrich Dürrenmatt, focuses on the reign of \"Romulus Augustus\" and the end of the Roman Empire in the West. The 2007 film \"The Last Legion\", and the novel on which it is based, includes a heavily fictionalized account of the reign and subsequent life of \"Romulus Augustus\"; escaping captivity with the aid of a small band of loyal Romans, he reaches Britain, where he eventually becomes Uther Pendragon.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1827032",
"title": "History of democracy",
"section": "Section::::Antiquity.:Rome.:The Roman Empire and late antiquities.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 558,
"text": "The Roman Empire had been born. Once Octavian named Tiberius as his heir, it was clear to everyone that even the hope of a restored Republic was dead. Most likely, by the time Augustus died, no one was old enough to know a time before an Emperor ruled Rome. The Roman Republic had been changed into a despotic régime, which, underneath a competent and strong Emperor, could achieve military supremacy, economic prosperity, and a genuine peace, but under a weak or incompetent one saw its glory tarnished by cruelty, military defeats, revolts, and civil war.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7ocreb
|
In terms of evolution, do beneficial traits often get passed down with irrelevant/negative traits?
|
[
{
"answer": "It’s possible that a single gene can have multiple phenotypic effects (I can’t think of any but it’s possible), but it is much more likely, and common, that a particular phenotype is the result of multiple genes. Any two given genes, and even different mutations within a single gene, can sort independently. Even if there were one gene responsible for multiple traits, it’s possible that mutations at different points in the gene are responsible for the different traits, and can sort independently at very very low rates. \n\nEdited for fat fingering.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "What you mean is generally called gentic draft or hitchhiking effect and it can cause all kinds of interspecies (and sometime intraspecies) variation.\n\nAs a simple example from [wikipedia](_URL_0_)\n > The Y chromosome does not undergo recombination, making it particularly prone to the fixation of deleterious mutations via hitchhiking. This has been proposed as an explanation as to why there are so few functional genes on the Y chromosome.\n\nI can explain more if you want to :)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The general answer is yes, there are traits that tend to be correlated. \n\nThere are two mechanisms for this.\n\n & nbsp;\n\nThe first is linkage. Genes are linked if they are on the same chromosome, and traits associated with genes close together (closely linked) tend to be inherited as a group. For example, red hair, freckles, and pale skin are closely linked traits in humans. \n\n & nbsp;\n\nThe second mechanism is pleiotropy, which is when a single gene affects several traits. So the alleles you have for that gene might have some effects that are beneficial, some neutral, and some detrimental. \n\nThe textbook example of pleiotropy where one trait is good and the other is bad (this is called antagonistic pleiotropy) is the sickle cell allele. One trait associated with that allele is defective hemoglobin, which leads to sickle cell disease if you have two copies of that allele. But it also confers resistance to malaria. So depending on the environment (i.e. if malaria is present), that allele may be a net benefit or a net detriment within a population. \n\nInterestingly, some cystic fibrosis alleles may operate the same way, conferring resistance to cholera, but causing disease when two defective alleles are present.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Something to consider is that sometimes what looks like a negative trait can actually have benefits that may increase the likelihood of it being passed on.\n\nFor example, Sickle Cell Anemia is a genetic condition that causes your red blood cells to be the wrong shape, and causes chronic pain and vessel blockages. This sounds like a pretty obvious negative trait, BUT in Africa it is surprisingly common in the population.\n\nTurns out that the different shape of the red blood cells makes you resistant to malaria, which is also common in Africa. What seemed to be a negative trait actually had a hidden benefit.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Certain traits can be linked together. For example selection for tameness in many domestic animals has also selected for floppy ears and a characteristic coat pattern (white stripe or patches on the head). This is probably because these traits are all influenced by the way the head/brain develops in the embryos [Source](_URL_0_). However domestic animals are a pretty special case since they have undergone very strong selection in a very different direction than natural selection in a relatively short amount of time. I can't think of any similar such traits in the human population, besides more obvious and direct correlations such as light skin predisposing one to skin cancer. In your example it would be very hard to imagine how heart health could be linked to palm lines, especially since the length of palm lines have very little influence from your genes (identical twins do not have identical palm lines).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "17204799",
"title": "Antagonistic pleiotropy hypothesis",
"section": "Section::::Benefits and costs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 612,
"text": "Antagonistic pleiotropy has several negative consequences. It results in delayed adaptation, an altered path of evolution, and reduced adaptation of other traits. In addition, the overall benefit of alleles is cut down significantly (by about half) by pleiotropy. Still, antagonistic pleiotropy has some evolutionary benefits. In fact, the conservation of genes is directly related to the pleiotropic character of an organism. This implies that genes that control for multiple traits, even if the traits have different implications for the organism's fitness, have more staying power in an evolutionary context.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "611074",
"title": "Point mutation",
"section": "Section::::General consequences.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 844,
"text": "Point germline mutations can lead to beneficial as well as harmful traits or diseases. This leads to adaptations based on the environment where the organism lives. An advantageous mutation can create an advantage for that organism and lead to the trait's being passed down from generation to generation, improving and benefiting the entire population. The scientific theory of evolution is greatly dependent on point mutations in cells. The theory explains the diversity and history of living organisms on Earth. In relation to point mutations, it states that beneficial mutations allow the organism to thrive and reproduce, thereby passing its positively affected mutated genes on to the next generation. On the other hand, harmful mutations cause the organism to die or be less likely to reproduce in a phenomenon known as natural selection.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2890996",
"title": "Inbreeding depression",
"section": "Section::::Mechanisms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 537,
"text": "An example of inbreeding depression is shown to the right. In this case, \"a\" is the recessive allele which has negative effects. In order for the \"a\" phenotype to become active, the gene must end up as homozygous \"aa\" because in the geneotype A\"a\", the A takes dominance over the \"a\" and the \"a\" does not have any effect. Due to their reduced phenotypic expression and their consequent reduced selection, recessive genes are, more often than not, detrimental phenotypes by causing the organism to be less fit to its natural environment.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1505283",
"title": "Pleiotropy",
"section": "Section::::Evolution.:Antagonistic pleiotropy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 407,
"text": "Sometimes, a pleiotropic gene may be both harmful and beneficial to an organism, which is referred to as \"antagonistic pleiotropy\". This may occur when the trait is beneficial for the organism's early life, but not its late life. Such \"trade-offs\" are possible since natural selection affects traits expressed earlier in life, when most organisms are most fertile, more than traits expressed later in life.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15993881",
"title": "1000 Genomes Project",
"section": "Section::::Background.:Natural selection.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 1152,
"text": "Natural selection in the evolution of a trait can be divided into three classes. Directional or positive selection refers to a situation where a certain allele has a greater fitness than other alleles, consequently increasing its population frequency (e.g. antibiotic resistance of bacteria). In contrast, stabilizing or negative selection (also known as purifying selection) lowers the frequency or even removes alleles from a population due to disadvantages associated with it with respect to other alleles. Finally, a number of forms of balancing selection exist; those increase genetic variation within a species by being overdominant (heterozygous individuals are fitter than homozygous individuals, e.g. \"G6PD\", a gene that is involved in both Hemolytic anaemia and malaria resistance) or can vary spatially within a species that inhabits different niches, thus favouring different alleles. Some genomic differences may not affect fitness. Neutral variation, previously thought to be “junk” DNA, is unaffected by natural selection resulting in higher genetic variation at such sites when compared to sites where variation does influence fitness.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1505283",
"title": "Pleiotropy",
"section": "Section::::Evolution.:Antagonistic pleiotropy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 503,
"text": "Unfortunately, the process of antagonistic pleiotropy may result in an altered evolutionary path with delayed adaptation, in addition to effectively cutting the overall benefit of any alleles by roughly half. However, antagonistic pleiotropy also lends greater evolutionary \"staying power\" to genes controlling beneficial traits, since an organism with a mutation to those genes would have a decreased chance of successfully reproducing, as multiple traits would be affected, potentially for the worse.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10636961",
"title": "Four Fs (evolution)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 317,
"text": "Conventionally, the four Fs were described as adaptations which helped the organism to find food, avoid danger, defend its territory, et cetera. However, in his book \"The Selfish Gene\", Richard Dawkins argued that adaptive traits do not evolve to benefit individual organisms, but to benefit the passing on of genes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
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