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is a real-world approach to learning and teaching. Developed by education experts from 45 states, these K-12 learning standards go deeper into key concepts in math and English language arts. The standards require a practical, real-life application of knowledge that prepares Washington students for success in college, work and life.
Common Core provides:
- Consistent learning expectations for all students.
- Clear standards that focus on understanding over memorization.
- Emphasis on the critical topics students need to succeed after high school.
- Faster testing results with a better, more focused online assessment system.
By 2014-15 these standards will be fully implemented and student achievement will be measured by a new assessment system.
The SMARTER Balanced Assessment Consortium (SBAC) will create state-of-the-art online exams to provide accurate assessment information to teachers and others on the progress of all students, including those with disabilities, English Language Learners and low- and high-performing students.
Get all the materials from past webinars and sign up for upcoming sessions.
Washington joined the initiative in 2009 and adopted the standards in July 2011.
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On this day in economic and financial history ...
AT&T (NYSE: T ) was first incorporated as the American Telephone and Telegraph Company on March 3, 1885. At first, it was a subsidiary of American Bell and was tasked with the construction and operation of the nation's first long-distance telephone network. AT&T proved so successful at this task that it soon eclipsed its corporate parent in importance. AT&T became the heart of the Bell System when it acquired American Bell's assets in 1899. By this point its long-distance lines, originating in New York, were already well established in Chicago and were building gradually toward a transcontinental network that could link New York with California, and all points in between.
AT&T became a transcontinental telephone monopoly in 1915 with the completion of the first call between New York City and San Francisco. Though thousands of local telecom competitors had sprung up between AT&T's buyout of American Bell and its completion of the transcontinental lines, none could match Ma Bell's reach, and it continued to be the dominant operator for decades. AT&T became part of the 20-component Dow Jones Industrial Average (DJINDICES: ^DJI ) a year after inaugurating transcontinental telephony. It was removed in 1928, a year after becoming the first telecom to offer trans-Atlantic telephone service between the United States and the British Isles, but it was reinstated in 1939 and has remained ever since.
Between 1939 and 1984 (the year of its antitrust divestiture), AT&T became one of the largest and best-recognized companies in the United States. Telephone service reached 50% of the country in 1945 and rose to 90% in 1969. AT&T controlled nearly all of this service, thanks in part to what was essentially a government-endorsed monopoly allowed as a result of the Department of Justice's failed antitrust suit of 1956. The consent decree that followed AT&T's antitrust victory gave it largely free rein over American telephone service but barred it from participating in the nascent computer industry, clearing the way for fellow Dow component and onetime tech competitor IBM to become a dominant force in computing.
Another antitrust effort (the third of AT&T's lifetime) proved successful in 1983, breaking Ma Bell into multiple regional operators. The AT&T you now know was once SBC Communications, which began as the regional Bell in Texas, Missouri, Kansas, Illinois, Oklahoma, and Arkansas. It acquired the original AT&T in 2005 and adopted its name and branding shortly afterward.
The once and future king (of beers)
Interbrew and AmBev announced their intent to merge on March 3, 2004, in a deal that would see the combined company leapfrog global beer leader Anheuser-Busch to become the world's largest brewer by volume. The end result of the merger was a company with roughly $12.5 billion in annual sales and a 14% share of the global beer industry, spanning 140 countries. In 20 of these countries, including six of the seven fastest-growing markets, the new company would be the largest or second-largest brewer.
Four years later, InBev made an offer Anheuser-Busch couldn't refuse to become Anheuser-Busch InBev (NYSE: BUD ) in 2009, by far the world's largest brewer. This newly enhanced company produced roughly 20% of the world's beer a year after its merger was completed.
So that's what the H-S-B-C stands for
The Hongkong and Shanghai Banking Company opened the doors of its first branch on March 3, 1865, in Hong Kong. Founded by Scotsman Thomas Sutherland shortly after the Opium War, the bank quickly became a prominent British-led bank in the Far East, opening a Shanghai branch a month later and a branch in Japan a year after that. For more than a century, Hongkong and Shanghai grew throughout Asia, which was only briefly interrupted by the Japanese during World War II. The bank developed a truly global presence in the postwar period by opening or acquiring branches in the United States, the Middle East, India, Canada, Australia, and Britain.
In 1991, these divergent banks reorganized under the umbrella of holding company HSBC (NYSE: HBC ) , which is now headquartered in London. This banking titan was the world's second-largest bank in 2012, its $2.55 trillion in assets trailing only the holdings of Germany's Deutsche Bank.
HP was an early adopter once
Hewlett -Packard (NYSE: HPQ ) became only the ninth dot-com domain name holder in history on March 3, 1986, when it registered hp.com. The only older domain names still used for their original purpose are Xerox's xerox.com and SRI International's sri.com, both of which were registered less than two months earlier. HP's domain name was then the first two-letter domain name ever registered, at a time when commercial Internet service providers did not yet exist. Fewer than 10,000 networks were accessible at the time, whereas millions upon millions of networks now operate around the world. HP's domain registration was a rare example of forward thinking at minimal cost. Unfortunately, most business decisions are a great deal more difficult.
The massive wave of mobile computing has done much to unseat the major players in the PC market, including venerable technology names like Hewlett-Packard. However, HP's rapidly shifting its strategy under the new leadership of CEO Meg Whitman. But does this make HP one of the least-appreciated turnaround stories on the market, or is this a minor blip on its road to irrelevance? The Motley Fool's technology analyst details exactly what investors need to know about HP in our new premium research report. Just click here now to get your copy today.
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What's Input for a Web Application?
Input data is just any data that users and/or external sources bring inside of an application. The list includes, of course, configuration and helper files, databases (why not?), as well as user interface controls that directly interact with the end user.
Note that the list is even longer (and subtler, to some extent) for Web applications. For a Web application, user input comes from any form fields displayed in the page such as text boxes, check boxes, list boxes, and their combinations. Combinations? Yes. How would you otherwise define custom ASP.NET controls that combine together, say, text boxes and drop-down lists?
Now consider HTTP headers. HTTP headers are chunks of information that qualify an HTTP request, for example, to tell the browser about the type of resource being downloaded. You can define custom HTTP headers to move custom data, that is, input for the application.
In general, you should carefully monitor and examine any source of information for an application, including data you retrieve from a database query or receive from a Web service, read out of an e-mail message, or get through an FTP connection. You should carefully verify everything before use. But why? What could happen if you fail to check input data?
Last September, MITRE Corpa company founded to provide engineering and technical services to the U.S. federal governmentreported that attackers are now changing their preferences and paying much more attention to application flaws that allow for code injection. MITRE maintains a list of standardized names and descriptions for publicly known IT security vulnerabilities and exposures. According to their latest statistics, more than 20 percent of attacks discovered in 2006 fall under the umbrella of cross-site scripting (XSS) and 14 percent can be classified as SQL injection. About 10 percent of attacks are due to PHP "includes" and less than 8 percent to buffer overflows. You can see the full statistics here.
Given these numbers, a couple of considerations spring up quite naturally. The prevalence of XSS and SQL injection attacks indicates clearly and neatly that Web applications are definitely an easy place for attackers. However, with more than 34 percent of discovered attacks, can you really conclude that one attacker out of every three is planning XSS or SQL injection attacks as you read this? Of course not. Likewise, you can't determine that one third of Web sites have vulnerabilities.
For an attacker today, it's easier to find XSS or SQL exploits than overflows and such exploits are easier to find for two reasons. A Web site has more likelihood of being vulnerable (than a desktop application) and its databases may contain sensitive and, therefore, attractive information.
But why is a Web site inherently more at risk than a desktop application? Because the nature of the applicationopen to any user with an Internet connectionmakes it easy to reach and therefore it's exposed to attacks. And because most Web developers overlook security issues. A managed platform like .NET significantly reduces the attack surface for buffer overflows; the same doesn't happen for SQL injection and XSS attacks.
In ASP.NET, a first line of defense is built into the framework, but it is not sufficient for you to sleep easy. It still requires that you change your programming habits.
Cross-site scripting (XSS) is an attack that manifests itself when untrusted input is echoed to the HTML page. XSS owes most of its power to the fact that HTML is a markup language. For this reason, in any HTML page some characters are given a special meaning and prepare the ground for special browser behavior. For instance, some characters are inserted to require a particular formatting or command the execution of some script code. The most typical example is the "<" character. There's nothing wrong with this fact as long the page author consciously inserts any special characters.
What if, instead, an attacker silently and sneakily injects markup characters into a regular page and the user's browser processes them? What if the user is then directed to view a malicious page just crafted to steal information or execute code on the local machine? This is more or less the typical effect of an XSS attack.
How could a hacker incorporate external text into a page? There's just one way actuallyvia input data.
To reliably avoid XSS vulnerabilities, you must HTML encode any text that you display programmatically. In this way, you neutralize any malicious script embedded in user-provided data and display the HTML as plain text instead of letting the browser interpret and execute it.
The drawback is that this approach also ignores any benign HTML formatting that users legally apply. This is not necessarily a problem for most Web applications; however, forums, most portals, and news-driven applications may have the need to host user-provided rich text. Now what?
If your application needs to display user-provided HTML markup, you should use whitelists. A whitelist consists of a list of valid and authorized characters and expressions. Hence, your code will just parse the input and strip off any text that doesn't appear in the whitelist. Period.
Security specialists generally consider the whitelist approach to be more secure than the opposite blacklist approach. A blacklist designates characters and expressions that you know to be potentially malicious and dangerous. A blacklist may get quickly outdated and, more importantly, beyond your control. In fact, attackers are generally quick to find new ways to encode malicious code to make it appear safe and innocuous.
What could a hacker gain out of an XSS attack? Frequently, they could steal your cookies, including session and authentication cookies. A hacker who happens to hold your authentication cookie may use the application as if they were you. At the very minimum, he or she could change your user settings; depending on the type of the application, they could gain access to your private and likely sensitive stuff. On the average less dangerous, but still quite annoying, is when they steal your session cookie. In this case, the attacker controls your session data. Again, what they could do depends on what the application does with session data.
Due to XSS, an application that relies on cookies to implement some of its features may receive poisoned data that affects the behavior and maybe the user. False advertising is another possible effect of an XSS exploit. But there's more. XSS can lead to exploit vulnerabilities in Web sites in a sort of anonymous way. The hacker may inject code in an unaware application so that whenever a user performs an innocuous action (i.e., sending a mail or viewing a report) it also triggers a denial-of-service attack against another site. More in general, being a victim of an XSS exploit may mean little to you and your application. XSS holes leave a door opened to uninvited guests to come in and exploit other security bugs that may exist in the application, the browser and, worse yet, the server. Though most of the time the highest costs of XSS holes are represented by damaged reputation.
What can you do, instead, as a developer? You should never trust any user input and always encode meta characters such as the notorious < and >, but also round parentheses, the sharp symbol (#) and the ampersand (&). Table 1 lists the safe representation for these HTML meta characters.
Table 1: Safe Meta Character encodings.
Will I Be Totally XSS-Safe with HTTPS?
||Used to signal the beginning of a markup segment.
||Used to signal the end of a markup segment.
||May indicate a function call.
||May indicate a function call.
||May indicate a section in the page with potentially unknown content.
||May indicate a query string parameter.
A site working over an HTTPS channel sends and receives data to and from the browser in an encrypted format, but you should note that HTTPS per se provides no guarantee of protection. HTTPS is secure because we all trust the authority that has issued the certificate used for encryption. HTTPS is not technologically secure; it just makes you feel secure because it uses a secure tool from a trusted authority. This said, there's not much that HTTPS can do to prevent XSS attacks. HTTPS is a great barrier against attacks such as eavesdropping or man-in-the-middle; but it can't do anything against XSS. XSS takes place on the clientafter the page has been downloaded and before the data is uploaded.
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Paleoindians in Tennessee
We do not know exactly when the first people entered the "New World" from Asia. However, we do have confidence that they had reached what is now Tennessee at the end of the last Ice Age (the Pleistocene) some 13,000 years ago. These people, ancestors of all modern Native Americans, came in small family groups of probably twenty-five to fifty individuals and practiced a hunting and gathering way of life. This adaptation goes back many thousands of years in the Old World. It is believed, from archaeological evidence, that they primarily hunted the large game of the Pleistocene, especially extinct forms such as mammoth, mastodon, and the giant bison. Horse, camel, paleollama, and deer were probably exploited along with smaller animals and edible plants.
Individual Paleoindian groups consisted of two or three related families participating in a seasonal round of hunting and gathering based upon the movement of large animals within large expanses of territory. To date, there is scant record of the physical appearance of these people since skeletal remains are lacking. However, we do believe that general life span was relatively short, with most individuals not living beyond the age of around forty years.
Evidence proving that Paleoindians occupied Tennessee is quite abundant. Recent archaeological investigations conducted by the Tennessee Division of Archaeology have recorded over one hundred camps or archaeological sites associated with this time period. The earliest Paleoindian groups, called Clovis after the original find near the town of the same name in New Mexico, are well represented. Some of the largest Clovis camp sites in the United States have been recorded in the Western Valley of Tennessee. In fact, this area may be the most densely settled region during the Paleoindian Period in the United States. An abundance of high quality chert (flint), used for making spearpoints and other tools, and the high density of large animals (megafauna) are thought to be the main reasons for this great number of Paleoindian sites in our state.
Recently, a kill/butchering site containing the remains of a mastodon was discovered in Middle Tennessee; it provided a date of over 13,000 years for an association of cut mastodon bones and stone tools from the site. This is one of the oldest dates for Paleoindians in the New World and is the first documented mastodon kill site in the Mid-South. Mammoth and giant bison kills have been recorded in the Southwest, and Florida has produced evidence for several mastodon kill and butchering sites.
Paleoindian peoples thrived in the Tennessee area for at least 3,000 years until the end of the Pleistocene and the extinction of large megafauna at about 10,500 years ago. These groups quickly adapted to the ever-changing environment and became experts at the hunting of smaller game, especially deer, and expanded their use of new plant resources. This new adaptation has been called the Archaic period by archaeologists.
Published » December 25, 2009 | Last Updated » February 23, 2011
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Tidal currents created by COASTMAP Data Services. COASTMAP is a framework used to integrate and deliver data from a variety of numerical models and observation systems. (www.coastmap.com
The current vectors seen here are generated from a tidal model called ADCIRC. Note that these vectors represent only the astronomical tidal component of the currents and not other current flows generated from winds or fresh water inflows.
The vectors are calculated from a database that ASA has developed from original work implemented by the U.S. Army Research and Development Center, Coastal and Hydraulics Laboratory (ERDC/CHL) using ADCIRC simulations (Luettich et al., 1992). ADCIRC is a coastal hydrodynamic circulation model that employs a finite element grid which allows flexible gridding (large elements in deep offshore region and fine elements near coasts).
Applied Science Associates (ASA) is an international leader in the development and application of computer tools to analyze marine and freshwater environments. ASA answers questions about our environment and human interaction within that environment, using computer models to simulate physical, chemical, and biological processes, as well as hydrodynamic models to predict surface and subsurface currents in water bodies all over the world. To learn more about ASA, please visit their website at www.appsci.com
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Carla, Monday 17 March 2008
On first arriving in Antarctica it was a bit strange to wrap our minds around the 24 hours of sunlight being experienced here. After three months of 24-hour sun, some of the summer staff were dreading to go back to the real world of the dark nights. Others were seriously itching for a starry night! We sat in the bar getting to know these new people, sipping our drinks while gazing out at the ice and mountains. The hours ticked by but the sun remained.
It was just so bizarre to go to bed at midnight with the sun still blazing through the windows.
Well, the light is fading just as we’ve become accustomed to it, and we’ve begun to see some pretty amazing skies during the evening. We are now headed towards Vernal or Spring Equinox, which occurs on March 21 at noon, when the sun is directly overhead at the equator. At this time the sun sheds an equal amount of light and darkness over the entire globe, giving everybody from Antarctica to the Arctic 12 hours each of sunlight and darkness. From this time onwards night-time in Antarctica will increase by 20 minutes each day, as the sun rises ten minutes later and sets ten minutes earlier.
Nearing the end of June we enter the time known as “polar nights” or, 24 hours of darkness, while simultaneously the Arctic experiences “polar days”, or 24 hours of sunlight. So just how does this happen?
Well, we all know that the Earth is tilted on its axis, 23.5° to be exact. It’s this tilt, along with the Earth’s rotation around the sun that gives us our seasons, and the length of our days.
The figure below shows how Antarctica enters darkness as the Arctic tips towards the sun.
If the Earth were straight up and down, we would have no seasons, get no summer holidays, and wouldn’t enjoy things like spring blossoms, colourful autumn leaves and snow shovelling! This tilt and rotation send Antarctica into complete 24 hour darkness for three months on June 21. This is called Summer Solstice, the first day of summer in the Northern Hemisphere, the longest day of the year and my sister’s birthday – Erin, I hope you think of me and eat something DARK and chocolatey!
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2013-06-18T04:41:58Z
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How to Use RSS
What is RSS?
"RSS," which stands for "rich site summary" or "really simple syndication," is a new technology that can be used to inform Web users when their favorite Web sites have added new content. You can get the latest headlines the moment they are published, without having to visit the Web sites in question. It is also a way of getting very focused content, customized according to your interests.
Many organizations such as the New York Times, BBC News, Google—and now Columbia News—offer RSS feeds. As RSS becomes more widely used, it is showing up on mobile devices, in e-mail applications and in customized portal content like My Yahoo!.
RSS news feeds typically consist of a list of headlines accompanied by short descriptions linked to full-length stories on the Web. For example:
How do I set it up on my computer?
To take advantage of RSS, you need a special program (or service) for reading feeds. There are many such programs, both free and commercial. (The above example uses NetNewsWire Lite.) Here are a few news readers we recommend; a search on the Web for "RSS Reader" will turn up many more:
Mac OSX news reader features a simple, clean layout. The Lite version is free.
This Windows product was designed by the same company that created NetNewsWire.
Certain Web browsers—Mozilla, Firefox and Safari—offer the further option of creating a live bookmark, a feature that will soon be supported by every major browser.
Links to RSS feeds are usually identified by a small orange button that reads either "RSS" or "XML." Depending on the browser, a user clicking on this button will see either a list of headlines and short blurbs, or a page full of code (which can be ignored).
To add the feed to your RSS reader, copy the Web address of the link, go into your news reader application, and create a new subscription by pasting in the address for the feed.
If your browser supports RSS, check the specifications or help menus for how to add RSS to your bookmarks or favorites, or how to read a feed in your browser. Most browsers use some kind of clickable RSS icon to indicate when a feed is available for the site in question. For example, in Mozilla Firefox, a user can create a live bookmark by clicking on the icon in the location bar at the top of the browser window that looks like this:
© Columbia University
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Give me the best instruments in Europe, but listeners who understand nothing or do not wish to understand and who do not feel with me in what I am playing, and all my pleasure is spoilt. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756-91) Austrian composer
We owe the concept of scale and temperament to the ancient Greeks. About the origin of the diatonic scale, the ancient Greek music theoretician, Aristoxenus of Tarantum (fourth century B.C.), wrote:
"We can establish that the diatonic is the first (proton) and the oldest (presbyteron); this is the type that the human voice naturally finds" (Harmonic Elements I, cited by Haik-Vantoura in her Les 150 Psaumes dans leurs melodies antiques, p. T-51).
The chromatic scale, which may be derived from the diatonic scale, was also ancient. Aristoxenus' view is that its origins "go back into the night of time". He also cited "mixed" scales of the "diatonic-chromatic" genre (a modern example being our "harmonic minor"), as did Plutarch (46-127), Greek historian, biographer, essayist, supposed author of De musica, (taken from Plutarch's Moralia). Many of these ideas may indeed have originated with the Babylonians. This topic is covered in much greater detail in the thesis referenced below.
The Greeks studied the relationship between string length and pitch with an instrument called the monochord. Its base was a resonating box, over which stretched a single string. With one end secured by a hitch pin, the string passed over a fixed bar or nut, across a moveable bridge, over a second fixed bar, finally secured at its other end by an adjustable tuning peg. Using the moveable bridge to divide the string into two lengths set to different ratios, they could study the relationship between string lengths and interval.
We are taught that Pythagoras (born on Samos in 582 BC) first demonstrated that two strings, the ratio of their lengths being 2:1, produced an interval of an octave and that the shorter string produced the higher note. There is no written evidence from Pythagoras himself and some, including Walter Burkert in his Weisheit und Wissenschaft: Studien zu Pythagoras, Philolaus und Platon (1965) which has been revised and translated into English as Lore and Science in Ancient Pythagoreanism (1972), have seriously undermined Pythagoras' claim (admittedly made by others) to primacy in this field. The earliest documented use of the monochord in this way was by Euclid in about 300 BC.
Pythagoras may also have discovered that the interval of a perfect fifth was associated with the ratio 3:2, and that the octave could be completed with a second complementary interval, a perfect fourth, associated with the ratio 4:3. He demonstrated this by multiplying 3:2 by 4:3 giving 2:1, the ratio for an octave. This system was extended by introducing a tone, the difference between a perfect fifth and a perfect fourth, with the ratio 9:8. Using the fact that a perfect fourth is made up of two tones plus one semitone, the ratio for the semitone was calculated to be 256:243. Unfortunately, in order to use these intervals as the basis for building a musical scale, we have to solve the problem that arises from two semitones, each set to the ratio 256:243, not quite making a tone set with the ratio 9:8.
The association of musical harmony with ratios of small integers would have commended itself to early Greek philosopher-mathematicians who believed that all numbers were either integer or rational (i.e. a rational number can be written as the ratio of two integers) until it was proved that the square root of two is irrational. The shock was all the greater because one can construct a line of irrational length. The square root of two is the length of the hypotenuse of a right-angled triangle whose other sides are each of unit length.
What we know of Greek music indicates that the lyre was one of their most important instruments. There is little evidence that it performed a harmonic role; rather, it seems to have been used to play melody - indeed Ancient Greek music appears to have formed part of an indisoluble complex of poetic texts, accompanying melody and later, in choral lyric poetry, dance.
The early lyre had three strings but, by the seventh century BC, a fourth string had been added. The four strings were most probably tuned to the notes of an ancient Greek Dorian tetrachord (successive descending intervals: tone, tone, semitone), the four notes encompassing a perfect fourth. Relying on vague, even contradictory evidence, we could continue to believe that Pythagoras, or Lichaon of Samos, increased the number of strings to eight, joining two tetrachords with a tone between them to produce what today we call the major scale (intervals: [tone, tone, semitone], tone, [tone, tone, semitone]), the top and bottom strings being one octave apart. This eight-stringed instrument may be what the Greeks called the kithara, from which we get the words 'cittern' and 'guitar'. However, other strong evidence suggests that the Ionian mode that we use today was first proposed in about 1547 by Heinrich Glarean.
At the outset it should be stressed that we have no evidence that the 'modes' we discuss below were actually used by the ancient Greeks. All we can be certain is that the modes below stem from the work of a number of medieval musical theorists. We do know that these theorists thought they were rediscovering the work of the ancient Greeks but in many important details they seriously misunderstood what the ancient Greeks or later commentators had written on this subject. In particular, the ancient Greeks analysed their tetrachords on the basis that they were descending note rows while the medieval theorists thought the note rows were ascending. For this reason, it is a mistake to think of modes, as we discuss them below, as being constructs of the ancient Greek when in fact they are really those of medieval theorists.
The history of the system of modes can be traced to the Byzantine system of echoi. Today we apply the term 'mode' to fourteen different 'scales'. The first eight were established during the medieval era to help classify existing Gregorian chants. These are the so-called Church, Gregorian, Ethnic or Ecclesiastical modes. A further four were added in 1547 by the Swiss humanist and scholar Heinrich Loris. Henricus Glareanus, as he was called by his Latin name, spent about 20 years planning his Dodecachordon, and it was completed by 1539, eight years before publication.
Much later, two more were added for completeness. Today, modes have given way to our major-minor system of tonality.
Modes come in pairs, authentic and plagal, terms that describe the position in the scale of a particular note, called the finalis or final. When the final is the lowest note in the scale, the scale is said to be authentic. When the final is the fourth note in the scale, the mode is said to be plagal and its name is preceded by the prefix hypo, meaning 'under'. The final is shown below in blue
The modal scales set out below use only the white keys on the piano. Each starts on a different degree of the scale. The original eight (protus, deuterus, tritus and tetrardus, in each case either authentic or plagal), where we highlight the tenor, repercussio or reciting tone (marked in red), together with the four of Glareanus are set out with their characteristic sequence of intervals S = semitone and T = tone:
Church, Gregorian or Ecclesiastical Modes set out in the late ninth-century text ALIA MUSICA which mis-applied original Greek names
Dorian: authentic : protus authenticus
D E F G A B C D : minor mode
Hypodorian: plagal : protus plagalis
A B C D E F G A
Phrygian: authentic : deuterus authenticus
E F G A B C D E : minor mode
Hypophrygian: plagal : deuterus plagalis
B C D E F G A B
Lydian: authentic : tritus authenticus
F G A B C D E F
Hypolydian: plagal : tritus plagalis
C D E F G A B C
Mixolydian: authentic : tetrardus authenticus
G A B C D E F G
Hypomixolydian: plagal : tetrardus plagalis
D E F G A B C D
Modes introduced in the sixteenth century by Swiss theorist Glareanus (1488-1563)
A B C D E F G A : minor mode
E F G A B C D E
C D E F G A B C
G A B C D E F G
Originally rejected by Glareanus because it lacked a perfect fifth above and a perfect fourth below
Locrian: authentic also called Hyperaeolian
B C D E F G A B : minor mode
F G A B C D E F
The tenor is a fifth above the final in the authentic modes and a third below the tenor in the authentic mode when placed in the plagal mode; except when the tenor would have been the note B it is raised to C.
The Dorian, Phrygian, Aeolian and Locrian modes are minor modes because in each case the interval between the first and third degree is a minor third.
All these modal scales are in effect the same sequence but starting from different notes. The 'colour' of each mode is determined by its sequence of intervals, whole- and half-steps, tones and semitones. Modes are pitch-insensitive; in other words, although our examples have been based on the white notes on a piano, modes can start from any note. What is important is that the required sequence of tones and semitones be preserved in each mode.
Richard Lindsey, writing in the Talkbass forum, makes the following observation:
One thing to remember about using the "degrees of the major scale" approach to derive modes is that although you can and do derive the modes that way, modes are also in a way tonalities/modalities of their own. They don't 'necessarily' always have any connection to the major tonality that provides the 'source scale'. Thus, you can have a piece that is in D dorian. The student might be tempted to think, well, doesn't that mean it's really in C major, since D dorian is the second mode of C major. But the answer is no. D dorian, as a tonal centre, is different from the key of C major, even though the D dorian mode has the same component notes as a C major scale. You're probably familiar with the famous Miles Davis tune So What. The harmony is basically D dorian/Eb dorian/D dorian. Not, it is important to note, C major/Db major/C major. Much rock, folk, and ethnic music is actually more modal than it is strictly major/minor.
Historically, the scale or mode was generally the full range of a chant. There are examples where an extra note above or below the scale was added, and even where chants include notes not in the tone row of a particular mode, what today we would call 'accidentals'. Like so many 'rules' in music theory, there is some disparity between theory and practice.
For example most of the chants of the Divine Office do not fit into the system we have set out above. Scholars were obliged to make a few adjustments to their system. The Antiphonale Monasticum (containing the psalms and a number of short antiphons for monastical use) shows how the system was adapted.
The association of particular Greek names with particular modes appears to have taken place during the medieval period. Certainly Boethius (c.480- c.524) associated names differently to each scale. Most modern modal theory, however, uses the names we have given in the chart above. The Ionian mode has become our major scale and the Aeolian mode our natural (or pure) minor scale. For those interested in when the modal system gave way to our modern major-minor key system, we recommend the article entitled When did modal music give way to the modern key system?.
The series of fourteen modes can be found for any 'key'. The examples above are all based on the key of C and are derived from the C major scale: C D E F G A B C. By modulating to another key, say D major, the modes will now be various sequences based on the scale of D major: D E F# G A B C# D. Each mode will start on its own degree of the scale; so for example, the authentic form of the Locrian mode will start on the seventh degree (C#) and the sequence will be: C# D E F# G A B C#.
The modes above have been derived from major scales. When using the melodic or harmonic minor scales as the basis for a sequence of modes, the results will be somewhat different because the successive interval sequences are now different.
The names of the modes we find for each degree of the scale also change. Let us consider modes formed when the basic scale is the harmonic minor. Here S = semitone, T = tone, and U = three semitones:
Our thanks to Ari Dibyantara for correcting an error in an earlier version of this table.
The modal names have precise meanings. For example, the mode on the second degree of the minor harmonic scale, the Dorian b2 b5, is similar to the Dorian mode in the major scale that carries the same root, where the second (2b) and the fifth degrees (5b) are lowered by a semitone (half-step). The Superlocrian (sometimes written Super-locrian) is a Locrian mode where the 4th has been flattened. It is identical to the 4th mode of the Lydian Dominant scale. The name Lydian Dominant is given to a scale containing the notes of a dominant seventh chord plus a raised fourth - this last is a characteristic of the Lydian mode. The raised fourth is actually the only difference between this scale and the Mixolydian mode. The raised fourth is less dissonant than the natural fourth when played over an ordinary dominant seventh chord. For this reason the Lydian Dominant scale is often preferred to the Mixolydian mode when played over any dominant seventh chord, unless the natural fourth is explicitly specified, as in a sus chord. The Lydian Dominant scale is always preferred if the raised fourth is explicitly specified, for example in a dominant seventh sharp eleven chord. The raised fourth is enharmonic with the lowered fifth; for this reason this chord may be notated 7b5 rather than 7#11. However, the notation 7b5 is often reserved to indicate a different scale, such as the diminished scale or the whole tone scale. The sound of the raised fourth - or, enharmonically, the flat fifth, which is how most musicians refer to it - is characteristic of bebop (about which see bebop below).
Unfortunately, once one begins 'naming' modes with altered notes, for example when establishing the modes derived from minor scales, one finds a bewildering choice of names for any particular sequence of notes. The names we have given to the sequences immediately above and below are suggestions only. You should be aware that other writers may use other names. Happily, the sequences themselves do not change, nor the chords that will be associated with them.
When the scale is the ascending melodic minor scale the modes are as follows.
Modes based on the ascending C Melodic Minor scale
Later we will look at some of the ways practical musicians tried to bend the science of 'natural' scales to reality. It is worth pointing out, however, that music did not have to wait for science in order to become a significant preoccupation of communities around the globe and that, in many parts of the world, scales far more complicated than the 12 semitone scale have been readily adopted, including the use of quarter tones and other microtonal intervals. The Greeks could tune and play the lyre many centuries before the birth of Christ but the mathematical solution to the problem of the vibrating string was not published until 1759, by J. L Lagrange (1736-1813).
Modes can start on any note of the major scale starting on any key-note so long as the sequence of intervals between the succeeding notes preserves that which is the source of each mode's 'colour'. The formula for writing modes set out below.
Find the major scale upon which the mode is to be constructed
G Lydian, for example, is constructed on the fourth degree of the scale of D major, i.e. starts on G; 'colour' is Lydian
The mode is written with the same key signature as the major scale from which it is derived
G Lydian, for example, is written with the key signature of D major i.e. two sharps
If one builds all the modes from the same keynote C the results are as follows:
Major/Minor scale description
C D E F G A B
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
C D Eb F G A Bb
1 2 b3 4 5 6 b7
natural minor scale with a raised sixth
C Db Eb F G Ab Bb
1 b2 b3 4 5 b6 b7
Bb Eb Ab Db
natural minor scale with a lowered second
C D E F# G A B
1 2 3 #4 5 6 7
major scale with a raised fourth
C D E F G A Bb
1 2 3 4 5 6 b7
major scale with a lowered seventh
C D Eb F G Ab Bb
1 2 b3 4 5 b6 b7
Bb Eb Ab
natural minor scale
C Db Eb F Gb Ab Bb
1 b2 b3 4 b5 b6 b7
Bb Eb Ab Db Gb
natural minor scale with lowered second and fifth sometimes called 'half diminished'
The significance of modes in music lies both in their harmonic and melodic character. The C major scale, for example, contains the four notes of the C major 7th chord - the notes C, E, G, B natural - as well as the four notes of the D minor 7th - the notes D, F, A, C. The modes are each related to particular chords.
Grouped according to sound (also other suggested chords)
Tonic Major Seventh : Ima7 (also: C, C6/9, C6)
Subdominant Major Seventh : IVma7 (also: C6/9, D/C, G/C)
Supertonic Minor Seventh : IImi7 (also: Cmin, Cmin6)
Mediant Minor Seventh : IIImi7 (also: Cmin, Db/C, Ab/C, Bbmin/C)
Submediant Minor Seventh : VImi7 (also: Cmin, Ab/C, Fmin/C)
Minor Seventh Flat Five : VIImi7(flat 5) (also: Gb/C, Db/C )
Because the same chords may occur in different modes and keys, thinking 'modally' gives the improviser scope to use different modal patterns over common chords each with a different key centre but each pattern related harmonically to the same chord. This is a powerful influence on much modern popular music and takes the composer beyond the more limited world of diatonic major and minor scales.
The player may want to sharpen or flatten notes in a major scale to give a more 'modal' feel to a sequence, as for example in the Lydian dominant, which we met earlier, - or the Lydian flat seven as it is sometime named.
The minor scale-mode chord associations are as follows:
The most common scales are major and minor. One starts with a major 3rd (D to F# for instance), the other with a minor 3rd (D to F natural). These scales are made of whole- and half-steps, with in particular a 1/2 step between the 7th note (called "leading tone/note") and the tonic or "home note."
For instance, D major:
In Irish instrumental music, the minor scale is very rare, the major scale is the most common. However, Irish tunes are also built on modes of the major scale. The modes are given Greek names in reference to old Greek and medieval music theory, but are also called mode 1, 2, 5, 6 (these are the ones found in Irish music) depending on which note of the major scale they start on.
For instance, using the D major scale:
Modes commonly found in Irish Folk Music
Major (Ionian, mode 1):
Dorian (mode 2):
Mixolydian (mode 5):
Aeolian (mode 6):
The Dorian and Aeolian modes sound minor because they start with a minor 3rd, like the minor scale; however, they do not have a leading tone/note. The Dorian mode is by far the more common of the two. If you hear an Irish tune that sounds minor, it is likely to be in Dorian. To make sure, listen to the 6th note: it is a 1/2 step (semitone) higher in Dorian than it is in Aeolian. For instance, E Dorian (see above) has C#, while E Aeolian would have all the same notes except for C natural.
The Mixolydian mode sounds major, but also doesn't have a leading tone/note. Sometimes, it is described as having a flat 7th note, because it is a 1/2 step (semitone) lower than a leading tone/note would be in the major scale.
Another important characteristic of how these modes are used are their harmonic implications. That is, the tunes are built around certain chords, and these sets of chords vary with each mode.
Major (mode 1) tunes are usually built primarily around the I-IV-V chords, the three major chords of any given major key. In D Major for instance, the chords would be D Maj, G Maj, and A Maj.
Tunes in other modes are typically built around two chords only, which are a step (one tone) apart. Dorian and Aeolian (modes 2 and 6) will have a minor "home" chord and a major "contrast" chord a step below. Mixolydian (mode 5) tunes will have two major chords.
For instance, for modes of the D Major scale:
E minor and D Major
A Major and G Major
B minor and A Major
This is a very basic scheme, but it's a good start for an accompanist who has never heard a tune before and who can spot these chords and build from there.
The particular use made of modes in Irish folk music is mirrored in the folk music of other countries. For example, the Phrygian mode is quite common in flamenco music and is often referred to as the 'Spanish' mode. Composers turn to it when they want to impart to a piece an oriental character. In the hands of a highly skilled composer such as Claude Debussy, the use of modes produces enormous excitement and colour. The movement Fêtes from his orchestral suite Noctures uses Dorian, Lydian and Mixolydian modes. We have set out the score using the 'sound heard' convention so that transposing parts (e.g. clarinets, brass) are shown as heard rather than as originally written.
The jazz scales can be thought of in the same way as modes: a set of scales starting on different degrees of an underlying scale that use only the notes of that scale. Several commentators object to this approach. They argue that jazz scales are just 'altered' scales and the suggestion that the various scales are related to a single Ur-scale leads to a serious misunderstanding of the way scales are used in jazz and, more importantly, of how jazz musicians actually think about their use. We are sympathetic to this view but many other commentators take a different view on this and so, in a spirit of completeness, we offer the summary below.
The 'standard' Church modes may be thought of as having been derived from an underlying Ionian or major scale.
In a similar way, jazz scales can be thought of as having been derived from an ascending melodic minor scale which can be thought of also as a rising major scale but with the third degree lowered (or flattened). As with the 'standard' modes, each scale starts on a different degree of the ascending melodic minor scale. Unlike the 'classical' melodic minor scale, the jazz scales (and modes) remains the same when played up or down. We met jazz scales earlier when discussing the modes based on the melodic minor scale but we show them again.
Jazz Scales based on the C Melodic Minor
D Dorian 2b (Dorian Flat 2):
D Eb F G A B C D
Eb Lydian augmented (Lydian 5# or Lydian Sharp 5):
Eb F G A B C D Eb
F Lydian 7b (Mixolydian 4# or Mixolydian Sharp 4):
F G A B C D Eb F
G Mixolydian 6b (Mixolydian Flat 6):
G A B C D Eb F G
A Aeolian 5b (Minor 5b or Minor Flat 5):
A B C D Eb F G A
B Superlocrian (Locrian 4b, Locrian Flat 4 or Diminished Whole Tone):
B C D Eb F G A B
C Hypoionian (Melodic Minor):
C D Eb F G A B C
Jazz Scales with a common tonic, C
Dorian 2b (Dorian Flat 2):
C Db Eb G A Bb C
1 b2 b3 4 5 6 b7
Lydian augmented (Lydian 5# or Lydian Sharp 5):
C D E F# G# A B C
1 2 3 #4 #5 6 7
Lydian 7b (Mixolydian 4# or Mixolydian Sharp 4):
C D E F# G A Bb C
1 2 3 #4 5 6 b7
Mixolydian 6b (Mixolydian Flat 6):
C D E F G Ab Bb C
1 2 3 4 5 b6 b7
Aeolian 5b (Minor 5b or Minor Flat 5):
C D Eb F Gb Ab Bb C
1 2 b3 4 b5 b6 b7
Superlocrian (Locrian 4b, Locrian Flat 4 or Diminished Whole Tone):
C Db Eb Fb Gb Ab Bb C
1 b2 b3 b4 b5 b6 b7
Hypoionian (Melodic Minor):
C D Eb F G A B C
1 2 b3 4 5 6 7
We thank Ari Dibyantara for correcting an earlier error in the table above.
You will see that we have offered a few more 'alternative' names for the scales that you may meet in other music theory texts.
We show below the G minor jazz melodic minor scale.
Various chords may be used to support this scale.
The important thing to remember is that, in jazz, chords and scales are considered equivalent. The wide use of harmonic extensions offers many more close relations between scales and chords than in a harmony based only on the standard triads with the addition of the occasional seventh.
Jazz is a broad term with many sub-categories and fusion styles. Maybe it would be more accurate to apply the name to the type of audience it attracts rather than the type of music being played. Jazz harmony often chooses as its foundation a 12-bar blues.
Here is an example of simple 12-bar blues:
This can be harmonised using the main major modes, the scales you get when you play the same note row (for example, the scale of C major), and start in on a different note (when played from D to D, you get the Dorian Mode). The major modes in a harmonised C major scale are shown below.
C to C
Major or M7 chord
D to D
Minor or m7
E to E
F to F
G to G
Dominant 7, 13 or 9
A to A
B to B
m7b5 or diminished
From the choice of chord one picks a particular scale, and vice versa; this mutual association gives jazz harmony chords and scales not found in other styles of music. We offer a jazz 12-bar to give an idea of what is possible.
As we have seen above modes can also be derived from melodic minor scales. One particularly interesting example is the seventh mode of the melodic minor scale, one that starts and ends on the seventh note of the scale (for example, with C melodic minor, we play from B to B, the superlocrian mode). Its distinctive sound is heard in many jazz pieces and is main use is over an altered dominant seventh chord. For example, in the sequence above, it would be used on the last, F7#9, chord, and also the earlier G7b9 and F7#9 chords. In each case respectively, we use G superlocrian and F superlocrian. Applying the scales to the appropriate chords, and we produce the required harmony.
F Dorian Bb Superlocrian
Bb Mixolydian G Mixolydian
C Dorian F Superlocrian
We thank Peter Francis for his help with this topic.
Before we leave this section on chords it would be useful to summarise the Lydian scales which are so important in jazz.
Lydian scale (or mode)
major scale with a raised fourth
scale that borrows the major key signature from a perfect fourth below or a perfect fifth above
Lydian augmented scale
major scale with raised fourth and fifth degrees
Lydian scale with a raised fifth degree
scale that borrows the ascending form of the melodic minor scale from a minor third below or a major sixth above
Mixture scale also called Lydian b7, Mixolydian #4, Lydian-Mixolydian, Mixolydian-Lydian, Lydian Dominant
major scale with raised fourth and lowered seventh degrees
Lydian scale with a lowered seventh degree
Mixolydian scale with a raised fourth degree
scale that borrows the ascending form of the melodic minor scale from a perfect fourth below or a perfect fifth above
Synthetic Mixture #5 scale
major scale with raised fourth and fifth degrees along with a lowered seventh
Lydian scale with raised fifth and lowered seventh degrees
Lydian augmented scale with a lowered seventh degree
Mixture scale with a raised fifth degree
Key word: blues scales
Music of certain genres have developed around certain chordal patterns and related scales. The blues scale supposedly has its roots in African American music dating back to the days of slavery, but the exact origins of its modern incarnation are unknown. Blues music uses the 'blues scale' one of which we show below.
The blues scale is neither a minor nor a major scale but the internal dissonances provide the 'colour' that one associates with blues music - the 'blue' notes are the minor third and the 'flat five'.
You should note the unusual naming of the fourth note of this scale - really a diminished 5th - called the 'flat five'.
In vocal music, the second degree of the scale is often sung somewhere between an Eb and an E. In instrumental music, various techniques are employed to achieve the same effect, such as stretching the string while playing an Eb on a stringed instrument, lipping down an E on a wind instrument, or striking both the Eb and E simultaneously on a keyboard instrument. The flatted seventh and fifth also are not always sung or played exactly on the notated pitch.
Variations on the blues scale that include the natural third, fifth, or seventh can be used as well. Also, note that if the flatted fifth is omitted, the resultant scale is the minor pentatonic scale which we consider below. The minor pentatonic scale can thus be used as a substitute for the blues scale, and vice versa.
The beauty of the blues scale is that it can be played over an entire blues progression with no real avoid notes.
If you try playing lines based on this usage (for example, a C blues scale over a C7 chord) you get instant positive feedback, since almost everything you can do sounds good.
This unfortunately leads many players to overuse the scale, and to run out of interesting ideas quickly. One way to introduce added interest when using the blues scale is to use any special effects at your disposal to vary your sound. This can include honking and screaming for saxophonists, growling for brass players, or using clusters on the piano.
Many draw attention to characteristic rhythms associated with 'blues' music. In fact, the best-known rhythm, called the 'eight-note triplet shuffle', is found also in jazz and swing. This rhythm is illustrated below.
Key word: bebop scales
Bebop scales are not true scales in their own right, but scales that have had a chromatic passing note added to create an eight-note scale. This can be useful when improvising, in quavers (eighth notes), a scale passage can resolve to a chord note, or so that chord tones fall on a strong beat.
The major bebop scale is a major scale with an added raised fifth or lowered sixth.
The C major bebop scale is shown below:
This scale can be used over major seventh or major seventh augmented chords.
The C major bebop scale can also be used as a bridge between chords in a progression such as:
that is, the same scale can be played over the entire progression.
Another way of looking at this is to say that we are:
a. playing the C major bebop scale itself over the Cmaj7 chord
b. playing its eighth mode over the Bm7(flat 5) chord
c. playing its third mode over the E7 chord
d. playing its seventh mode over the Am chord.
These modes closely resemble the major, locrian, altered and minor scales respectively.
Note that we are using the C major bebop scale over a ii-»V-»i progression in A minor. In general, we can use the major bebop scale in any given key over a ii-»V-»i progression in the relative minor to that key.
Other bebop scales include the dominant bebop scale, which is similar to the mixolydian mode but with an additional major seventh.
The C dominant bebop scale is shown below:
This scale can be used over dominant seventh chords. The major seventh is not really an avoid note if you use it as a passing tone between the C and Bb. It also serves as the raised fourth in the Fmaj7 chord that is likely to follow the C7 chord.
The bebop half-diminished scale is also based on a mode, the locrian mode, but has an added raised fifth.
There is also the minor bebop scale, which is a dorian scale with an added raised third.
The C minor bebop scale is shown below:
This scale can be used over minor seventh chords, and is often used in minor key blues progressions to give more of a dominant seventh feel to the chords.
Key word: pentatonic scales
Found in many ancient cultures and traditions, including those of China, Indonesia, the native American Blackfoot people and both Scottish and English folk music traditions, the pentatonic scale is used widely also in jazz, blues, rock and classical music. It may be referred to as an anhemitonic pentatonic scale (anhemi meaning the absence of semitones or half steps), as for example both the major and minor forms of the pentatonic scale, or as a hemitonic scale, in which case one or more of the interval between successive notes will be semitone (half step).
In the pentatonic major scale only the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 5th, 6th and 8th degrees of the major scale are used.
In the pentatonic minor scale only the 1st, 3rd, 4th, 5th, 7th and 8th degrees of the natural minor scale are used.
Pentatonic scales are transilient scales, scales that have fewer notes than heptatonic scales (for example, major scales, minor scales, Greek modes, etc.) and where, when ascending or descending, the melodic lines 'jump' over absent notes.
Note: the degrees of a pentatonic are named according to its related major or minor scale. So the fourth note of a pentatonic major scale is the 5th degree.
The perceptive reader may have noticed that we can arrange the notes of the pentatonic C major scale into an ascending sequence starting on A and thereby generate the pentatonic minor scale on A. This makes even clearer the relationship between these two scales, namely that they are each one of a pair of 'relative' scales, in exactly the same way that the C major scale is the relative major of the A natural minor scale.
In the our 1000+ Scales we give examples of many other pentatonic scales.
The Wikipedia page on Pentatonic scales explains the role of pentatonic scales in modern jazz and popular music generally.
Pentatonic scales are useful in modern jazz and pop/rock contexts because they work exceedingly well over so many chords diatonic to the same key, often better than the parent scale. So, for example, in the key of C major and over a C major triad (C-E-G) the note F, which is usually considered dissonant, becomes what in jazz is called an avoid note for that scale. Actually F can be allowed in some 'modal' musical contexts, where it is a characteristic note of the C Ionian mode. But using the major pentatonic scale offers an easy way out of any problem. The scale notes 1, 2, 3, 5, 6 (from the major pentatonic) are either major triad notes (1, 3, 5) or common consonant extensions (2, 6) of major triads. For the corresponding relative minor pentatonic scale, the scale notes 1, b3, 4, 5, b7 work in the same way, either as minor triad notes (1, b3, 5) or as common extensions (4, b7), all avoid being a semitone (half step) above a chord note.
The 'Minor Key' Problem
Key word: minor key problem
The 'Minor Key' Problem
You may already have been wondering why, if Western music can live with one major scale, it has felt it necessary to define three minor scales, the natural, harmonic and melodic. We have aready seen the melodic deficiency in the natural minor scale, namely the absence of a true 'leading note'. The harmonic and melodic scales address this problem by 'sharpening' or 'raising' the seventh in addition to making other changes to the natural minor scale. This was discussed in lesson 10.
From a harmonic point of view, the 'sharpened' seventh turns the dominant chord from minor (Vmi) to major (Vma) increasing the feeling of 'suspension' from the dominant and increasing the 'pressure' on the dominant to 'resolve' to the tonic minor. Notice that the 'pressure' arises from the dominant and not from the tonic. The tonic can be major or minor but the 'feeling' remains. Occasionally 'fashion' led composers to favour the tonic major chord over the minor tonic at the end of a piece in a minor key. The tonic major chord was then called the Tierce de Picardie.
Sharpened Seventh and the V-Imi Progression
Sharpening the seventh of the minor scale on the dominant seventh also modifies the character of the dominant 7th - tonic cadence (V7-Imi). The sharpening heightens the 'need to resolve' although the cadence is not as 'strong' as when resolving to the tonic major. This is because the interval of a tone between F, the dominant 7th, and E flat in the tonic minor chord has a weaker feeling of 'suspension' than the interval of a semitone between F and E natural in the tonic major chord.
Sharpened Seventh and the V7-Imi Progression
The sharpened seventh affects other chords too. Let us harmonise the natural minor scale, with a sharpened 7th, first with diatonic triads and then with sevenths.
Natural Minor, Sharpened 7th, Triads
Natural Minor, Sharpened 7th, Sevenths
The chord to look at carefully is that on the seventh degree of the scale. If the scale had been the harmonic minor, the A flat would have been 'raised' to an A natural. We have three possible chords on the seventh of the minor scale to consider: that on the natural seventh of the natural minor, that on the sharpened seventh of the harmonic minor (now no longer part of the natural minor scale) and the true diminished 7th on B natural. We illustrate and number all three below.
Seventh Chords on the Seventh Degree of The Minor Scale
This example shows the care one must take when numbering chords. In particular, if the seventh had been a natural then in the 'half diminished' chord it would have become a flat and in the 'diminished' chord it would have become a double flat, so that the chord 'looks' right on the page. One should, by now, begin to understand why notation not only tells us about the 'melodic' form of the music but clarifies the 'harmonic' structure too, at least if the standard notational 'conventions' are followed.
Sharpening the seventh has one last interesting effect on the tonic minor chord. The minor 3rd combined with the major 7th is the origin of its name, the minor/major seventh. It may be used in chordal progressions in both major and minor keys.
We leave further discussion of minor chords until lesson 31 entitled Key Centres.
Key word: altered chords
Any chord, whether major, minor, augmented or seventh, can be 'modified' or 'altered' thereby changing its character or 'colour'. In particular, with the dominant seventh which is wholly characterised by three notes, the root, major third and minor seventh, the fifth, ninth, eleventh and thirteenth may be altered. Raising or lowering by a semitone the notes of the chord and its extensions may change its dissonance. This increases the 'tension' of the chord and increases the sense of release as one moves to a less dissonant chord, for example the tonic. Care must be taken that these altered chords are correctly numbered and later we look at a few examples to show how this is done.
In any chord, a note is said to be altered if it differs from that found in a major scale based on the key note of the chord. By making reference to the major scale, a process known as parallel major comparison, notes not in the scale may be seen as inflected, that is they have been 'sharped' (raised) or 'flatted' (lower). By convention, certain notes are never thought of in this way. The most obvious example is the root itself. If it is 'sharped' or 'flatted' we usually use the new note to establish the new standard major scale to which all the remaining notes are then compared.
The convention is extended also to the 3rd (important in determining whether a chord is major or minor) and 7th (because of its role in dominant chord formulae) degrees of the scale. The 6th degree is excluded unless it appears one octave higher as a 13th. However, both the 2nd (and its octave equivalent, the 9th) and the 4th (and its octave equivalent, the 11th) may be 'altered' as can the 5th. Whether, in fact, particular alterations make harmonic sense often depends on various enharmonic relationships: for example a 'sharped' 2nd degree is enharmonically equivalent to a 'flatted' 3rd which is we have already discovered is excluded.
The standard way of writing altered seventh chords is to identify the quality of the chord (i.e.whether major, minor or dominant) and then add the modified note in brackets. If more than one note is altered both are shown, one above the other in one pair of brackets, with the widest interval at the top. If the fifth has been raised then the usual symbol (+ for augmented) appears before the 7.
So: A9( 11) represents a ninth chord on A with the root, a major 3rd, a perfect 5th, a flattened 7th, a major ninth and a sharpened 11th; while A9( 11) represents a ninth chord on A with the root, a major 3rd, a perfect 5th, a flattened 7th, a major ninth and a sharpened 11th.
represents a seventh chord on G, with the root, major 3rd, diminished 5th, minor 7th and minor 9th.
The main purpose of alternating chords is to increase the effectiveness in a progression. We have seen already how a dominant seventh is more effective than a dominant in a perfect cadence. The examples below show how altered fifths, ninths, elevenths and thirteens can work - listened to the top note of each chord in each example.
Lowered Fifth of the Dominant
Raised Fifth of the Dominant
Lowered Ninth of the Dominant
Raised Ninth of the Dominant
Raised Eleventh of the Dominant
Lowered Thirteenth of the Dominant
Key word: neapolitan sixth
One 'named' altered chord is the Neapolitan Sixth or Phrygian II which is the first inversion of a major chord on the flattened (sometimes described as 'lowered') supertonic, the second degree of the major and minor scales used. This is a member of the family of Neapolitan chords. It is also called Phrygian II
It is called 'sixth' because it is most commonly used in first inversion (or 6/3 position) and is named symbolically as N6. It is commonly used to reach the dominant chord or the tonic chord in second inversion when performing a cadence.
In the key of C the flattened (or 'lowered') supertonic is D flat, the major chord would be D flat, F and A flat. The first inversion has F in the bass. In either form, it is the most common way of modulating down a semitone. It is very occasionally used in root position, N, or in second inversion, N64, (in either case it is then called a Neapolitan chord).
When using a Neapolitan sixth in major keys, its fifth should be lowered in order to create the same chord accidentals as in the minor key.
The examples illustrated below are in D minor and F major.
One striking use of the Neapolitan Sixth chord occurs in the Andante of Schubert's Symphony in C major. Schumann praised this particular passage in his review published in Neue Zeitschrift für Musik (1840).
The alternating dominant chords on C, F and D resolve via a Neapolitan Sixth to the principal theme heard on the oboe in bar 160.
It is a small matter to construct scales that contain the notes of altered chords. Set out horizontally the notes of any particular chord and complete the scale by filling in any gaps. Dominant chords are the most common base for such scales. We will leave further discussion of these 'altered scales' until our lesson on key centres.
There are, however, a number of scales that we can look at now, namely those built up from a repeating pattern of intervals. We have already seen one such scale, the chromatic scale in lesson 11.
With a repeating whole tone, we build the Whole Tone Scale.
The intervals are constant so that any of the six notes could be nominated the tonic. The scale includes notes that could function as root, major third, and the seventh of a dominant 7th plus a ninth. The scale can therefore be thought of as the 'altered' scale of a dominant ninth chord with an augmented fifth (i.e. a V+9 chord).
This idea of 'associating' one scale with other by identifying notes 'in common' (or 'in parallel') can be extended, as the table below shows.
The whole tone scale, for example, can be viewed from many different 'parallel' standpoints.
whole tone scale
notes, or their alterations, that the two scales have in common
first, second, third, fourth, raised fifth and lowered seventh degrees
C Whole Tone scale
Lydian augmented scale
first, second, third, fourth, fifth and lowered seventh degrees
C Whole Tone scale
first, second, third, fourth, raised fifth and seventh degrees
C Whole Tone scale
Synthetic Mixture #5 scale
first, second, third, fourth, fifth and seventh degrees
Another pattern alternates tone and semitone intervals producing the Diminished Scale.
If the pattern is tone-semitone one gets the chord scale of a diminished seventh chord also known as the Octatonic Scale, much used by Stravinsky. Richard Warford points out that it is also one of Messiaen's "modes of limited
transposition" as it can only be transposed up or down a semitone (or half-step) twice. After a third transposition one recovers the original scale but with a new root. In fact, as Nuno André Novo has pointed out, in equal-temperament, there are only three forms of the diminished scale. Those built on roots C, Eb, F# and A are identical, those built on roots D, F, Ab, B are identical, as are those built on roots Db, E, G and Bb
If the pattern is semitone-tone one gets a Dominant Diminished Scale, the chord scale for functioning dominant chords with altered ninths and natural fifths.
alternating-interval symmetry of semitone (half-step) / tone (whole-step)
constant-interval symmetrical scales
whole tone scale six tone scale
constant-interval symmetry of the tone (whole step)
constant-interval symmetry of the semitone (half-step)
Table of Useful Scales
Key word: table of useful scales
Table of Useful Scales
We have prepared a list of 1000+ scales which will now be found on our 1000+ Scales Page.
Key word: non-harmonic notes
Not all notes in a piece of harmony have anything to do with a particular chord or chord progression. These are called non-harmonic notes, non-chordal notes, non-chord notes or non-essential notes.
Non-Harmonic, Non-Chord, Non-Chordal or Non-Essential Notes
passing notes passing tones (US) transient notes nota di passaggio (Italian s.) Durchgangsnote (German s.) Durchgangston (German s.) Übergangsnote (German s.) note de passage (French s.)
notes that pass by a tone (step) or semitone (half-step) between chord notes.
neighbouring notes neighboring tones (US)
notes that leave and return to the same chord note by a tone (step) or semitone (half-step).
appoggiatura notes de gout (French)
a note that is approached by leap, but resolves to a chord note by a tone (step) or semitone (half-step) - the resolution often in the opposite direction to the leap.
the opposite of an appoggiatura, being approached by a tone (step) or semitone (half-step) and resolving to a chord note by a leap.
a note that is held over, that is approached by itself, and resolved to the chord note by stepping down a tone (step) or semitone (half-step) after the chord is played.
a note that is held over, that is approached by itself, and resolved to the chord note by stepping up a tone (step) or semitone (half-step) after the chord is played.
the chord note arrives before the chord is played. It is usually approached by tone (step) or semitone (half-step).
pedal note pedal point
a repeating note or note held over while the harmony changes.
auxiliary note nota ausiliare (Italian) Nebennote (German) note secondaire (French)
a note that relates to a chord note but may not be a neighbouring note.
changing notes neighbor group (US) changing tones (US) nota cambiata (Italian s.) Wechselnote (German s.) Wechselton (German s.) note changée (French s.)
c.n., n. gr. or c.t.
two notes, one that leaves the chord note by a tone (step) or semitone (half-step), then leaps to the next non-harmonic note by skipping over the chord note, before resolving to the same chord note by a tone (step) or semitone (half-step).
Note: the term 'appoggiatura' defined above is a description for a non-harmonic note, and should not be confused with an 'appoggiatura' used as an ornament which is discussed in lesson 23. The French term notes de gout or the English term 'diminutive notes' may be applied to the non-harmonic appoggiatura as well as to other ornamental notes. The term 'syncopation' as a description for a non-harmonic note, should not be confused with the term 'syncopation' used when discussing rhythm.
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Three billion-year-old proteins resurrected
Washington, Feb 28 : Scientists have resurrected two to three billion-year-old proteins from which the enzymes that armour superbugs against antibiotics have descended.
The achievement opens the door to a scientific "replay" of the evolution of antibiotic resistance with an eye to finding new ways to cope with the problem.
Jose M. Sanchez-Ruiz, Valeria A. Risso, from the University of Granada, Spain and Eric A. Gaucher, Georgia Institute of Technology explain that antibiotic resistance existed long before Alexander Fleming discovered the first antibiotic in 1928, the Journal of the American Chemical Society reports.
Genes that contain instructions for making the proteins responsible for antibiotic resistance have been found in 30,000-year-old permafrost sediment and other ancient sites, according to a Granada and Georgia statement.
Their research focused on the so-called beta-lactamases, enzymes responsible for resistance to the family of antibiotics that includes penicillin, which scientists believe originated billions of years ago.
Risso, Sanchez-Ruiz Gaucher used lab and statistical techniques to reconstruct the sequences of beta-lactamase proteins dating to Precambrian times, two to three billion years ago.
The team also synthesised the inferred ancestral enzymes and conducted studies on their stability, structure and function.
"The availability of laboratory resurrections of Precambrian beta-lactamases opens up new possibilities in the study of the emergence of antibiotic resistance," the report states.
The study co-authors also note that the extreme stability and catalytic features displayed by the two-three-billion-year-old lactamases suggest that resurrected Precambrian proteins have utility for the biotechnology industry.
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Secession: A Specifically American Principle
[Part 1 of "The Secession Tradition in America," a paper presented at the 1995 Mises Institute conference, "Secession, State, and Economy."]
The United Nations Charter asserts the self-determination of peoples as a fundamental human right. From this, there has developed a lively debate among international jurists about whether the right of self-determination includes a right of legitimate secession. But while the concept of legitimate secession is being explored in the world at large, it forms no part of contemporary American political discourse. There was a time, however, when talk about secession was a part of American politics. Indeed, the very concept of secession and self-determination of peoples, in the form being discussed today, is largely an American invention. It is no exaggeration to say that the unique contribution of the eighteenth-century American Enlightenment to political thought is not federalism but the principle that a people, under certain conditions, have a moral right to secede from an established political authority and to govern themselves. In what follows I would like to sketch out this all-but-forgotten American political tradition.
The English verb “to secede” comes from the Latin “secedere,” meaning any act of withdrawal. The exclusively political connotations that govern the term today are peculiarly American, and do not appear in English until the early nineteenth century. Prior to then, one could speak of the soul seceding from the body; or of seceding from one room of a building to another; or of seceding from any sort of human fellowship. The latter is how “secession” was defined in Samuel Johnson’s Dictionary in the mid-eighteenth century. But Johnson did not capture the Scottish use of the term.
The Church of Scotland split in 1733. Those who left called themselves “seceders” and the resulting Church the “Secession Church.” The Church went by this name for more than a century, during which time it split again, but was reunited in 1829 under the disarming name of the “United Secession Church.” The seceding self-governing religious community paved the way for the seceding self-governing political community and the term as we understand it today. One of the first to use the term in this new and exclusively political way was Thomas Jefferson, who, in 1825, retrospectively described the colonies as having seceded from the British Union.
The word “secession,” for us, not only has exclusively political connotations, it is a term that marks out a peculiarly modern political act. But this is not obvious, for it might be thought that as long as there have been large-scale political regimes, peoples have sought to withdraw from them. It could be said that the Israelites seceded from Egypt, or that Melos unsuccessfully sought to secede from the Athenian League. We can, of course, speak in this way, but the concept of secession, as understood in contemporary political discourse, is more specific in its meaning. Secession, for us, presupposes the background of the modern state, and this sort of state is only about two centuries old. So secession is not just any kind of political action; it is the withdrawal of a people from a modern state under the moral principle of the right of self-government, and such that the separation requires the territorial dismemberment of that state. The Israelites and Melots were not separating from a modern state, and their withdrawal would not have resulted in the territorial dismemberment of such a state.
The modern state has been theorized in such a way as to entail a strong presumption against secession. It has been said that the sovereignty of a modern state cannot be divided, and that sovereignty is co-extensive with territory. There has been no difficulty in allowing that a modern state can expand its territory and sovereignty, but it cannot allow itself to be dismembered by a supposed right of a people to self-government. Anyone who takes secession seriously as a possibility is necessarily throwing into question the legitimacy of the modern state.
At the time of William the Conqueror, Europe was composed of thousands of independent political units; today there are only a few dozen. This massive centralization and consolidation was accomplished mainly by conquest. The result was that dukedoms, margraviates, small republics, principalities, free cities, and baronies, (not to mention peoples speaking different languages, having different cultures and religions, and pursuing different visions of the human good) were crushed together into the modern state. This state was inherently unstable. A solution was theorized by Hobbes, who postulated a sovereign office whose task was to establish a rule of law which allowed individuals to pursue their own power and glory in that domain in which the law is silent. In time, a modern state came to be seen as an association to protect the rights of individuals, and this added a stronger presumption against secession, because any right of a people to secede could only be the aggregate right of a set of individuals. But if one set could secede, any other set or subset—down to one individual—could secede. An acknowledged right of secession would mean the unravelling of the modern state.
But to affirm a right of secession is not to say that secession is morally justified under any conditions, but only that there can be conditions under which it is justified, and even then there might be reasons for not exercising the right. But those philosophers who first theorized the modern state (Hobbes, Locke, Rousseau, and Hegel) do not so much as raise the question of whether such conditions are possible. Their main task is to understand and legitimate the modern state; the problem of secession simply never occurs to them. And political philosophers since have followed in their steps. John Rawls, for instance, dismisses the possibility of secession without argument. Secessionist discontent, though a pressing fact of contemporary political life, is the most under-theorized concept in political philosophy. Political scientists and international jurisprudence have taken up the question, but philosophers have not. There is only one book length study by a philosopher on the question of whether secession is ever morally legitimate.
One indication of this under-theorized character of secession is its being confused with revolution. Three conceptions of revolution have dominated in modern political speech. The first derives from the Glorious Revolution of 1688. This is revolution as restoration, and its image is the revolution of a wheel. According to eighteenth-century English Whiggism, the Glorious Revolution was a bloodless restoration of a liberty-loving Protestant regime from the attempted usurpations of the Catholic James II. The second form is Lockean revolution. Here a sovereign people recall the powers they have delegated to a government that has violated its trust in protecting life, liberty, and property. The government is overthrown and a new government instituted. The third form is Jacobin revolution. This is not Lockean revolution for the sake of preserving property but an attempt to subvert and to totally transform an entire social and political order in accord with an egalitarian philosophical theory. A Lockean revolution leaves the social order intact, whereas Jacobin revolution aims at a root-and-branch transformation. Marxian revolution is Jacobin, as are many other forms of contemporary political criticism. Gloria Steinem once said that to talk about reforms for women is one thing, to talk about the total transformation of society is feminism. So conceived, feminism is a species of Jacobin revolution.
Secession is quite distinct from these dominant conceptions of revolution. All presuppose the theory of sovereignty internal to the modern state and the prohibition against dismembering its territory. Secession is not revolution in the sense of eighteenth-century Whiggism because it is not the restoration of anything. It is the dismemberment of a modern state in the name of self-government. Nor is it Lockean revolution. A seceding people does not necessarily claim that a government has violated its trust. And even if the claim is made, there is no attempt to overthrow the government and replace it with a better one. Indeed, a seceding people may even think that the government is not especially unjust. What they seek, however, is to be left alone to govern themselves as they see fit. Finally, secession is not Jacobin revolution because it does not seek to totally transform the social and political order. Indeed, it seeks to preserve its social order through secession and self-government.
We may, of course, continue to call secession “revolution” if we like, but the danger is that there will be a tendency to confuse it with the dominant meanings of revolution. A seceding people may indeed be said to be in a state of revolt in so far as they resist being coerced back into an established modern state, but this sort of revolt is quite different from revolution. And the moral considerations that would legitimate such resistance are categorically different from that which would legitimate revolution in the above senses, all of which seek, for different reasons, to overthrow an established regime. A seceding people is happy leaving the existing regime exactly as it is. It seeks only to limit its territorial jurisdiction. This, of course, is a serious matter, but it is not revolution in any of the traditional senses. Its name is secession.
Nowhere is the under-theorized character of secession and the confusion that results from failure to distinguish it from revolution more evident than in the habit of describing the conflict with Britain and the North American colonies as the “American Revolution.” It is true that there were whiggish themes from the ideology of 1688 about restoring the rights of Englishmen, and there were Lockean themes about self-government. But the act of the British colonists in America was an act of secession. It was neither whiggish, nor Lockean, nor Jacobin revolution. The colonists did not seek to overthrow the British government. Commons, Lords, and Crown were to remain exactly as before. Indeed, many of the colonial leaders, such as Adams and Hamilton, admired the British constitution and government, and sought to imitate its best features. They wished simply to limit its jurisdiction over the territory they occupied. They wished to be let alone.
Much has been made of the influence the Lockean idiom of self-government had on the Founders. But it is important to realize that, though Locke allows the overthrow of a corrupt regime, he does not allow secession in the form of dismembering the territory of a modern state. And for citizens of a regime who have given their express consent, he does not even allow the right to exit, much less the right to carry territory with them. There is every reason to believe that Locke, like the “friends of America” (Burke, Pitt, Shelburne, Barré), would have supported reforms on behalf of the Americans, but would have stopped short of secession.
The case is quite otherwise with David Hume, who supported complete independence for the colonies as early as 1768, before the idea had occurred to most Americans. In this he stood virtually alone among major British thinkers. The Edinburgh literati were overwhelming in their support for strong measures against the Americans. Hume, however, staunchly defended secession of the colonies from 1768 until his death on 25 August 1776, five days after the Declaration of Independence was published in Edinburgh’s Caledonian Mercury. To the disappointment of his “oldest and dearest friend,” Baron Mure, who had asked him to write a letter on behalf of the county of Renfrewshire advocating military measures against the Americans, Hume wrote: “I am an American in my Principles, and wish we would let them alone to govern or misgovern themselves as they think proper.”
In this statement, Hume put into words, for the first time, an ideology of “Americanism,” the thought that there are political principles specifically American. What were those principles? They were free trade and the corporate liberty of a people to govern themselves. Hume argued that if the ports of America were open to free trade, it would result in only a trifling temporary loss of revenue, and would, in the long run, benefit British commerce.
Let us, therefore, lay aside all Anger; shake hands, and part Friends. Or if we retain any anger, let it only be against ourselves for our past Folly; and against that wicked Madman Pitt; who has reduced us to our present Condition.
[Listen to "David Hume on Colonial Secession," a lecture presented by Donald W. Livingston at the 1995 Mises Institute conference, "Secession, State, and Economy."]
Lee Buchheit, Secession: The Legitimacy of Self-Determination (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1978). This book is an excellent discussion of the debate over whether a right of secession can be recognized in international law.
The Compact Edition of the Oxford English Dictionary (New York: Oxford University Press, 1971), the articles on “secede” and “secession.”
Allen Buchanan discusses Rawls on secession in Secession: The Morality of Political Divorce: From Fort Sumter to Lithuania and Quebec (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1991), pp. 5–6.
John Locke, Two Treatises of Government, Peter Laslett, ed. (London: Cambridge University Press, 1988), p. 349.
David Hume, The Letters of David Hume, John Y.T. Greig, ed. (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1969), vol. 2, pp. 302–3.
Ibid., pp. 300–1. Pitt had sought to establish a mercantile empire of managed trade which Hume thought required constant war for its maintenance and an increase in the public debt. For an in-depth study of Hume on secession and America, see my Philosophical Melancholy and Delirium (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998).
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Operation makes dementia patients faster and smarterJanuary 25th, 2011 in Medicine & Health / Neuroscience
Researchers from the University of Gothenburg and Sahlgrenska University Hospital are the first in the world to show that an operation can help patients with dementia caused by white matter changes and hydrocephalus.
Presented in the American Journal of Neurosurgery, the results are based on the world's first study to demonstrate the effects of a shunt operation using a placebo control. 14 patients were followed for an average of three and a half years after the operation, with half being given a non-functioning shunt in other words a sham operation and the other half a functioning shunt. This is the equivalent to the placebo given in drug trials to determine how much of the treatment's effect is down to the patient's and others' expectations.
"For obvious reasons, this is problematic in a surgical context and surgical placebo studies are highly unusual," says Magnus Tisell, docent at the Sahlgrenska Academy and consultant neurosurgeon at Sahlgrenska University Hospital. "However, if you can actually do this kind of study, the level of evidence is the highest possible class 1."
The researchers found that patients' mental functions and ability to walk improved tangibly after having a shunt inserted. Half were given an open shunt right from the start and showed immediate improvement, while the other half were initially given a closed shunt and improved only after three months when the shunt was opened.
"Shunt operations have long been used for hydrocephalus, but this study offers more scientifically conclusive results to support the effect of the treatment, and also shows that shunt operations can help far more patients than previously believed with their walking and memory," says Tisell.
Surgery is not generally used today for patients with hydrocephalus and white matter changes. But the researchers' findings pave the way for a brand new group of patients who could benefit from a shunt operation.
"We believe that far more patients than is currently the case could benefit from a shunt operation, which will require more resources," says Tisell. "We also need to find out more about which patients are good candidates for the operation and which shunt is best in each particular case."
More information: Journal: Journal of Neurosurgery
Title: Shunt surgery in patients with hydrocephalus and white matter changes.
Authors: Magnus Tisell ,Mats Tullberg, Per Hellström, Mikael Edsbagge, Mats Högfeldt, Carsten Wikkelsö
Provided by University of Gothenburg
"Operation makes dementia patients faster and smarter." January 25th, 2011. http://phys.org/news/2011-01-dementia-patients-faster-smarter.html
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If you have any interesting or funny facts about animals or would like to find out more information about a particular animal, please fill up the Feedback form and we will be happy to add it to our list of animal facts.
Yes, chameleons have very long tongues (sometimes longer than their own body) which they can rapidly extend out of their mouths. The tongue extends faster than the human eye can follow, at around 26 body lengths per second. Usually it hits the prey in about 30 thousandths of a second. The tongue's tip is a bulbous ball of muscle, and as it hits its prey, it rapidly forms a small suction cup. Once the tongue sticks to the prey, it is drawn quickly back into the chameleon’s mouth, where the chameleon's strong jaws crush it Even a small chameleon is capable of eating a large locust or mantis.
Their eyes are the most distinctive among the reptiles. The upper and lower eyelids are joined, with only a pinhole large enough for the pupil to see through. The eyes can rotate and focus separately to observe two different objects simultaneously, giving them a full 360-degree arc of vision around their body. When prey is located, both eyes can be focused in the same direction, giving sharp stereoscopic vision and depth perception. They have very good eyesight for reptiles, letting them see small insects from a relatively great (5-10cm) distance.
All chameleon species are able to change their skin color. Different chameleon species are able to change into different colors which can include pink, blue, red, orange, green, black, brown and yellow. A change can occur in
20 seconds! Chameleons are naturally colored for their surroundings as a camouflage. Chameleons change their color in response to light exposure and ambient temperature, as well as to express their mood (not for camouflage, as is commonly believed). Emotions and attraction of a mate can induce the color changes seen in a chameleon. The color changes also play a part in communication.
This video shows a chameleon eating a fly, only to be eaten by a snake.
How does a chameloen change color?
This video illustrates how the cells of a chameleon can create color changes to express emotions.
We welcome your feedback, comments and questions about this site - please submit your feedback via our Feedback page.
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The device could help astronomers figure out why the expansion of the universe is accelerating.
The Dark Energy Camera is the world's most powerful digital camera. About the size of a phone booth and boasting 570 megapixels, the device took eight years to construct -- by astronomers, technicians, and engineers collaborating across three continents -- and is currently mounted to the Blanco telescope in Chile. From that perch, it is able to observe light from over 100,000 galaxies. Galaxies that are up to 8 billion light years away.
Again: 8 billion light years away.
That light isn't just mind-bogglingly ancient. It could also hold answers to one of the biggest mysteries in physics: why, exactly, the expansion of the universe is accelerating.
Last week, the Dark Energy Camera captured its first light, capturing images of matter from across the universe. Above and below is a selection of some of those mind-boggling -- and perhaps problem-solving -- sights.
Hat tip J.J. Gould.
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Alec JeffreysBorn: 1950
Jeffreys discovered a process that detects extremely variable DNA regions, enabling genetic fingerprinting. This made it possible to conclusively link suspects to the scene of a crime based on samples of blood, semen, skin, or hair. It also exonerated numerous people falsely convicted before genetic fingerprinting was invented.
Fact Monster/Information Please® Database, © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
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Families & Visitors<< Back to November 2012 Newsletter
Agreeing to Disagree
How disagreements can be good for your relationship!
During the Thanksgiving break – and beyond – some new discussions may come up between you and your student. It’s all part of the fact that she’s learning new, exciting things, while also testing her own thought processes and perspectives.
As a result, you and your student may not always see eye-to-eye on certain topics. Politics, diversity, religion… there are any number of hot-button issues that can start a verbal tussle. And with the emotion of Election Day coming around this month, it’s a good reminder that these disagreements can actually be good for your parent/student relationship.
Keeping an Open Mind
The key is agreeing to disagree in a respectful, open-minded manner. You can both do that by:
- Engaging. Let your student know that, just because you have had differences in opinion before, you’re still very interested in hearing what he has to say about things. Don’t avoid the tough topics.
- Listening. Allow your student to say her piece, without interrupting to inject your opinion. Sometimes just knowing that you’re being listened to makes all the difference in the world.
- Keeping an Open Mind. We can all change our minds once we hear the facts – or those facts can clarify a pre-existing opinion. It’s all part of being a growing, engaged human being.
- Not Taking Differences of Opinion Personally. If your student takes a different stance than you do, it’s not because he hates you or disrespects you. It’s likely because he has had experiences that have led her to form a different opinion. It’s really not about you.
- Sharing Your Pride. The fact that your student is an independent, critical thinker, no matter her opinion, can be a source of great pride. Don’t forget to praise your student for her abilities and curiosity.
Having an intentional discussion about agreeing to disagree is an important step in developing an adult relationship with your student. Let the conversations begin!
Politics, diversity, religion… there are any number of hot-button issues that can start a verbal tussle.
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In May 1867, having been led by the spirit of God, newly freed slaves from Charleston joined with their ministers to establish the Mud Creek Missionary Baptist Church in East Flat Rock, North Carolina. With no permanent meeting house and only circuit riding clergymen, the faithful walked great distances to share services with other congregations or worshipped in brush arbors and sheds. In 1887, members had saved enough money to buy land and construct a simple sanctuary, which also served through the week as a self-supporting school and community center. Deacons addressed moral transgressions at Saturday meetings, three sermons were delivered on Sunday, and baptisms were conducted year-round in the icy waters of Mud Creek. In 1933, the church moved to its present location on Roper Road in East Flat Rock.
Below is the Digital Heritage Moment as broadcast on the radio:
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Gaiozoic Era - Text by M. Alan Kazlev Used to designate the geological period on Earth from the Great Expulsion onwards. Some prefer to imply a shorter time span, given the implications of the Fermi Paradox, and refer to this period as the Gaiacene Epoch.
Holocene Epoch - Text by M. Alan Kazlev and Stephen Inniss On Old Earth the Holocene ("entirely recent") is the most recent but one epoch in geologic time, lasting from about 12,000 BT (10,000 b.c.e.) to the Great Expulsion. This brief span of time from the birth of agriculture until the end of human baseline dominance on the species' home planet was the Golden Age according to most Anthropist sects. It was preceded by the Pleistocene and succeeded by the Gaiacene.
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There are several different types of root rot that can attack, damage and kill trees including Armillaria Root Rot, Phytophthora Root Rot and Phymatotrichum Root Rot. There are also many common names for these various root rots including cotton root rot, Texas root rot, mushroom root rot, oak root rot and many other names used in various regions throughout North America.
Some of the symptoms of root rot include the dulling of normal leaf color and the loss of a tree's growing vigor. Often leaves may wilt and turn yellow or brown. Major branches can also die or show excessive signs of wilt. In fruit trees, a sign of root rot is often the lack of fruit production on any of the lower branches, with fruit only visible on the upper branches. The roots can also appear to be decaying and the lower trunk and cambium layer of the tree often have brown spots. As the root rot spreads it is also possible to see small white mushrooms or white fan-like plaques or strands develop around the base of the tree trunk.
Root rot, if left untreated, can cause rapid tree decline and death. Trees sometimes live for many months in a weakened state, while others will die very quickly.
To control the spread of root rot, remove dead trees and as much of their roots as possible. If the plant is newly infected, expose its base to air for several inches by removing 3 to 4 inches of soil. Root Rot should be treated with Agri-Fos Systemic Fungicide or ArborFos Systemic Injectible Fungicide. The injectable treatment should be applied as soon as the first signs of root rot are identified. If using the foliar spray, repeat every 1 to 2 months and increase the dosage and frequency in more advanced disease cases.
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October 29th, 2012
03:00 PM ET
Taking medical tape off an adult isn't too painful because breakage occurs in the glue (you can sometimes see the leftover residue). But removing the same adhesive from a newborn can break fragile skin, causing significant damage, says Jeffrey Karp, researcher at Brigham and Women's Hospital in Boston.
Traditional medical tape has two layers: the sticky one and the non-sticky one that forms the backing. The adhesive is designed for adults, Karp said; newborns need something else just for them.
In the neonatal intensive care unit tape often needs to be changed, Karp said. If the tape is on a joint, peeling the fragile skin can cause mobility problems.
"The kids are just completely helpless here," he said.
The researchers looked to nature for inspiration: Spiderwebs have some adhesive regions and others that are not so sticky. Mica, a strong mineral, has layers that can peel off easily. Geckos have feet with patterned surfaces that allow them to stick to walls, but which they can easily remove from surfaces for walking.
Influenced by these examples, the researchers have designed a tape with three layers. On top is the non-sticky backing, and a sticky layer clings to the skin, as usual. But the middle layer has an anti-adhesive coating. Using a laser, researchers etched a pattern into this middle layer so that they could control how the adhesive and backing interact.
"By controlling those interactions, we were able to define a regime where the adhesive could secure devices very strongly to the skin, but was very easy to remove," Karp said.
The concept appears to "offer a major advantage by providing adhesion and anchoring without causing damage to the skin," said Dr. Michael Katz, interim medical director of the March of Dimes Foundation.
This is all still preliminary, though; the tape has not yet been clinically tested.
More than 1.5 million injuries per year nationwide happen because of medical adhesive removal, the study said. Besides newborns, elderly patients can also suffer skin damage from harsh adhesives.
The research was funded by grants from Philips Children's Medical Ventures and National Institutes of Health, and the work was performed in collaboration with the Institute for Pediatric Innovation.
Karp and Langer know a lot about making things stick. They also used gecko feet as inspiration for creating a waterproof adhesive bandage. This is now being tested on large animals.
From around the web
About this blog
Get a behind-the-scenes look at the latest stories from CNN Chief Medical Correspondent, Dr. Sanjay Gupta, Senior Medical Correspondent Elizabeth Cohen and the CNN Medical Unit producers. They'll share news and views on health and medical trends - info that will help you take better care of yourself and the people you love.
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By Dave Sigworth, publicist of The Maritime Aquarium
We don’t mean to keep repeating ourselves but we’re back today on the topic of sharks and how the populations of many shark species around the world are perilously low.
Sharks, of course, are among the top (or apex) predators in the oceans. But the oceans lose millions of sharks each year to the by-catch of commercial fishing, shark finning and sport fishing. Habitat loss contributes too. Exact numbers aren’t known but the best estimate is somewhere between 26 and 73 million sharks per year.
This is troubling for two reasons: 1) taking predators out of a habitat throws the natural balance of things out of whack, and 2), at this rate, we’re in danger of some species disappearing altogether.
Daily through Feb. 24, The Maritime Aquarium is offering you a chance to join us in going “Shark Raving Mad” – mad, because we’re mad (or crazy) about sharks; but also mad because we’re mad about what’s happening to sharks.
Special offerings each day include stations where Aquarium educators will help you to learn more about sharks, shark adaptations and threats to sharks. Kids can make a fun shark hat. At 12:15 & 3:15 p.m. daily, a 40-minute bonus “add-on” programs about sharks will culminate with each participant feeding the animals in the Shark & Ray Touch Pool. (There’s an additional cost for that of $30 in addition to admission. Reservations are suggested.)
There’s one more thing that visitors can do to help sharks – and, if you can’t join us at the Aquarium, you can still do it from home very easily: create a “Shark Stanley” that will be displayed with thousands of others from around the world in hopes of influencing CITES delegates in Bangkok next month when they meet to consider protections for sharks and rays. (CITES is the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora.)
Here’s all you need to do: Click on this link for “Shark Stanley”: http://goo.gl/pE38W
Download it and print it out. Cut out “Shark Stanley” and take a photo of you with it. Then email the photo with your name and nationality to firstname.lastname@example.org.
Simple as that. They’re hoping to collect 5,000 photos from all 176 CITES countries.
This is just one effort being made to help sharks by Shark Defenders. There’s also a big shark symposium at Yale University on Friday (Feb. 15).
Oh and one more thing: on Saturday & Monday (Feb. 16 & 18) as part of our “Shark Raving Mad” offerings, kids at The Maritime Aquarium can gather around for readings of the book, “The Adventures of Shark Stanley & Friends.” Can’t make it? Download the story and learn more about this effort to save sharks at www.sharkdefenders.com/p/shark-stanley.html.
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Each time she bites into an apple, she hears the sound of bees buzzing in her ears. Whenever the Rolling Stones come on the radio, visions of silver triangles appear in his head. These experiences aren't from people reliving the '70s. They are normal for the 4 percent of the population with synesthesia – a perceptual condition that's marked by a mixture of the senses.
"Synesthesia is a harmless condition," says David Eagleman, Ph.D., assistant professor of neurobiology and anatomy. "There doesn't seem to be any disadvantage to it. In fact, it might only be advantageous because synesthetes often have better memories than non-synesthetes. That's because they're tagging information with an extra dimension."
Because synesthesia can involve any of the senses, it's estimated that there are more than 100 different forms. Synesthetes might see colors when they listen to music; feel shapes while tasting food; or experience tastes when hearing words.
"With synesthesia, you have more cross activation between neighboring neural areas than you do in normal brains," Dr. Eagleman says. "In a synesthete's brain, neighboring areas are talking to each other more than normal."
The most common form of synesthesia is associating colors with letters of the alphabet or with numbers. For example, a synesthete might see the letter "H," and that induces the color pale yellow, or see the number "2" as lime green.
Dr. Eagleman stresses that the blending of senses synesthetes experience is not a hallucination. "It's not the same as a hallucination," he says. "Hallucination is something that you see, and you believe it exists in the outside world. Synesthesia is not like that.
"It's automatic, involuntary, and unconscious," Dr. Eagleman continues. "You know that it's in the mind's eye. There's no confusion about what they're looking at."
Another common form is experiencing a series of numbers or units of time in a particular sequence. To research this type, Dr. Eagleman developed a virtual reality program.
"It allows people to place all of their weekdays, months, or numbers into a threedimensional space and arrange them in relationship to their body space," he says.
Synesthesia appears to be heritable, and this intrigues Dr. Eagleman, who is interested in its genetic basis. Through the study, "The Genetics of Synesthesia: Linking Genes to Perception," he wants to find the gene responsible for synesthesia.
The latest issue is available here in PDF format. (NOTE: 55meg file)
Please send us your news & photos for CLASS NOTES.
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Citizenship & leadership
Explore what it means to be an active citizen and leader in your community. Learn leadership skills through community involvement to:
- create community working with others in leadership roles;
- motivate yourself and others to greater personal and public achievements;
- understand how to contribute to your community, your state, your economy, your country, and the world;
- create a personal and public vision for life in the 21st century
Citizenship & leadership projects
Learn to solve problems and take action in your community.
Build relationships, develop communication techniques, and strengthen your organizational skills to make a positive impact in your club, home, school or community.
Minnesota State 4-H Ambassadors educate youth and adults across the state about leadership, service, diversity and teamwork.
4-H Cloverbuds explore and learn about the world in a non-competitive environment by doing fun activities with the guidance of parents or other adult helpers.
Explore language, family traditions, culture, global connectedness, genealogy, and concerns of other young people.
Learn how to identify community needs, plan a service project and execute your idea.
If you find that no single project is quite right for you, you can develop your own project. Be your own researcher, scientist, artist, communicator, and evaluator. Ask your local 4-H leader or Extension staff for resources to help create your own project area.
From learning a pledge to basic practices of parliamentary procedure practices youth begin to practice citizenship and leadership, even from the Cloverbud (K-3) level.
Club officer positions
Members of 4-H clubs are elected to a officer positions. There are also committee membership opportunities. Involvement in these leadership roles will allow youth to begin learning responsibility and accountability as they take on these roles. Through training and practice the members are taught the competencies of planning and conducting a business meeting, facilitating group dynamics and the basics of Robert’s Rules of Order.
Members of a 4-H Club are encouraged to practice giving back to their communities by Community Pride projects. Working together clubs will identify and plan out a project that will benefit the community. This process should be club driven with youth and adult voice working together for success.
County officer positions
Youth in the county 4-H program are elected to a county wide officer position. These positions are elected to a 4-H Council or Federation that is the governing body for the clubs in the county. There are also committee membership opportunities on the county level. Involvement in county wide leadership roles will build upon the competencies members learned in the club level.
Day camp counselors/adventure volunteer/project day
Youth are given the opportunity to provide leadership at Day Camps, Adventures or Project days during the year. Youth will be able to use their competencies of group dynamics and presenting topics to campers attending the day camp, Adventure or Project Day.
County ambassador programs
Youth are given the opportunity to development leadership competencies by becoming a member of a County Ambassador program. Meeting monthly youth enhance their competencies in leadership while working with peers and adult advisors. Youth in these programs will build the competencies around organizations, respect and learning leadership.
4-H Council and 4-H Federation meetings
These are county wide meetings where all members are encouraged to attend. From making motions to becoming a member of a county committee youth are given opportunities to advance their competencies in organizations, communication and respect.
To view additional county or local club events, visit your county website.
4-H camp counselors
Camp counselor training is designed to provide the skills and knowledge to be an effective camp counselor and leadership team member. Training topics include: role of camp counselor, theme and program development, recreation leadership, group facilitation, conflict resolution, outdoor environment and nature programming, and much more.
Regional youth leadership training
Youth are given the opportunity to attend trainings designed to enhance and build their leadership competency. Through a regional leadership training youth will learn about their leadership styles, communication, respect and various club leadership to help at the local club and county level.
Building Leadership and Understanding (BLU) is an exciting and fun leadership adventure. More than 400 youth from across Minnesota come together to learn and practice valuable leadership skills that they will use in their communities throughout their lives. More info.
The Minnesota State 4-H Ambassadors provide leadership and service to Minnesota 4-H. They are selected to serve all 4-H youth and act as spokespeople for 4-H youth development programs. They serve as educational resources by teaching, planning leadership conferences, and working for 4-H at the Minnesota State Fair. They also work to fulfill county requests for leadership trainings, award ceremonies, retreats, and promotions of 4-H to outside organizations. A considerable amount of time and energy goes into spreading the word about 4-H and its positive impact on youth. More info.
Youth Exploring Leadership and Learning Out Loud! is an annual statewide, four-day leadership conference with group discussions, workshops, service opportunities, challenging speakers and hands-on activities designed for youth. More info.
4-H plays a pivotal role in youth development and public education at the Minnesota State Fair. More than 7,000 4-H youth have the opportunity to interact with the public and educate fairgoers through 4-H exhibits, demonstrations, performances, and 4-H promotion. More info.
The National 4-H Conference is a working conference in which youth and adults, at the invitation of the Secretary of Agriculture, assist in the development of recommendations to help guide 4-H Youth Development Programs nationally and in their communities. More info.
CWF is a citizen and leadership event for high school youth from across the United States. Youth learn about government, the legislative process, meet with elected officials and visit many national monuments and historical sites in Washington D.C. More info.
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(b. 1697, Venezia, d. 1768, Venezia)
Imaginary View of Venice1740-42
Etching, 295 x 425 mm
British Museum, London
In the early 1740s Canaletto made an important journey outside of Venice along the Brenta canal with Bellotto towards Padua, and executed a number of drawings that were to form the basis of etchings and paintings. The stimulus of new surroundings seems to have had a very positive effect, because these works, although perhaps his least known, can in some cases be counted as the most innovative and attractive.
The etching in particular are noteworthy. He executed in total 34 plates, probably between 1735 and 1746, and published 31 of them together. The views included depictions of Dolo, Mestre, Padua, Venice and the lagoon - in fact almost the entire range of subjects Canaletto explored on canvas. The artist proved himself as adept at capturing the nuances of atmosphere, texture and visual anecdote in this graphic form, as in his more prolific paintings. But exactly how he learnt the art of etching is not known, he may have been essentially self-taught.
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At the onset of this terrible decade in Cambodian history, the Communist Party of Kampuchea's (CPK) armed opposition to prince Norodom Sihanouk was gaining momentum. Those who would be remembered as the “Khmers Rouges,” a term coined by Sihanouk himself, occupied bases in the northeast and northwest corners of the country from which they rendered unsafe as much as a fifth of Cambodia's territory (Chandler, 1996). To the west, Vietnamese communist troops held bases on Cambodian soil. Up to this point, the population of Cambodia can be reasonably well extrapolated from the demographic analysis of its 1962 census (Migozzi, 1973; Siampos, 1970).
In March 1970, the National Assembly voted Sihanouk out of power to the benefit of his own Prime Minister, Lon Nol. Sihanouk learned of the coup while on holiday, out of the country. With the support of North Vietnam, he took command of an opposition alliance whose military force on the ground consisted mostly of his former foes of the CPK. In part because of the North Vietnamese support to the opposition, the new Cambodian government started a strong campaign against the half million ethnic Vietnamese then living in Cambodia and suspected of supporting Sihanouk. The Cambodian army killed thousands of Vietnamese civilians (Chandler, 1996:205), and about 300,000 people are believed to have fled—or to have been expelled by force—to Vietnam during the first eight months of 1970 (Migozzi, 1973:44). But the inexperienced and ill-equipped army failed to drive North Vietnamese forces out of the country.
Over the next four years, the Lon Nol government gradually lost control over the Cambodian countryside. The mortality impact of the civil war is difficult to assess, but the main controversy in this respect concerns the impact of a massive bombardment of eastern Cambodia by U.S. planes in early 1973—sometimes referred to as the “Kissinger war” because of former U.S. Secretary of State Henry Kissinger's involvement— meant to weaken the North Vietnamese troops. Sihanouk (1986:144) mentions a widely circulated but unsubstantiated estimate that 700,000 Cambodians were killed under the Lon Nol government. Kiernan (1989) argues that the impact of the U.S. bombing could not be more than 150,000 deaths, and subsequent reevaluations of the demographic data situated
Although more emphasis is given here to deaths and refugees movements, the historical account in this section borrows liberally from Chandler (1996), to which the reader is referred for more details about the political developments of the decade. For an unforgettable, personal account of the post-1975 period, see Ung (2000). For a discussion of the available demographic data, see Huguet (1992), Banister and Johnson (1993), and Heuveline (1998a).
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http://www.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=10086&page=103
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Who was supposed to write the Commandments - God or Moses?
Question: In Ex. 34:1 God says he will write on the stone tablets, but in Ex. 34:27 he tells Moses to do the writing.
Response: The word "write" is being used in two different ways. In the first verse, it is being used in the sense of being the author, or originator, of the 10 Commandments. In the second verse, the word "write" is being used in a physical sense, in which Moses is inscribing the words of God into the two stone tablets.
God is the author of the 10 Commandments, Moses was the inscriber. God is writing the words through Moses.
Here are the NIV English translations of the two verses in question:
The LORD said to Moses, "Chisel out two stone tablets like the first ones, and I will write on them the words that were on the first tablets, which you broke. - Exodus 34:1 (NIV English translation).
Then the LORD said to Moses, "Write down these words, for in accordance with these words I have made a covenant with you and with Israel." - Exodus 34:27 (NIV).
The first verse shows that God is the author of the 10 Commandments, and the second verse shows that he worked through Moses to inscribe the words of the 10 Commandments.
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Definition of Dysphonia, spasmodic
Dysphonia, spasmodic: A disorder that involves the muscles of the throat that control speech. Spasmodic dysphonia causes strained and difficult speaking or breathy and effortful speech. Also known as spastic dysphonia and laryngeal dystonia.
Last Editorial Review: 3/19/2012
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Rosacea, a chronic and often embarrassing disorder of the facial skin that affects an estimated 14 million Americans, may be linked to genetics, according to a new survey conducted by the National Rosacea Society (NRS) and published in Rosacea Review.
The NRS survey of 600 rosacea patients found that nearly 52 percent of the respondents had a relative who also suffered from the condition and that people of some nationalities are more likely than others to develop the disorder.
The Spring 2008 Rosacea Review is now online at rosacea.org. This issue highlights the National Rosacea Society's efforts to increase visibility of the condition during Rosacea Awareness Month, including evidence of rosacea's impact and prevalence and news of a college student's project that raised both public awareness and funds for the NRS research grants program.
The skin of individuals with rosacea has a greater sensitivity to heat, according to a recent study in the Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology.
Patients with rosacea "often complain of increased skin sensitivity and frequently describe a burning sensation," said Dr. Daniela Guzman-Sanchez and colleagues of the Wake Forest University School of Medicine. They noted that although this heightened sensitivity is well recognized in practice, there had been no formal research on the phenomenon.
A new question-and-answer section called Ask the Doctors is now featured on Rosacea.org. Leading dermatologists, ophthalmologists, researchers and other experts will answer a wide variety of readers' questions about rosacea, from potential causes to skin care and lifestyle factors. An interactive form on the home page of the new section makes it easy to submit questions, and new questions will be posted every month. In addition, all entries will be archived, creating another important resource for rosacea patients.
While rosacea has grown increasingly common as the baby boom generation enters the most susceptible ages, mounting evidence has shown that this conspicuous red-faced disorder may be more devastating and prevalent than widely believed. The National Rosacea Society (NRS) has designated April as Rosacea Awareness Month to alert the public to this chronic and often embarrassing condition now estimated to affect well over 14 million Americans.
Results of two recent studies provide new understanding of how and when angiogenesis -- the formation of new blood vessels -- may contribute both to the initial development of rosacea and its persistent presence.
In a study of skin samples with and without rosacea, Dr. Amal Gomaa and colleagues at Boston University found evidence of angiogenesis in both the blood and lymphatic circulatory systems in skin with rosacea lesions.
Although rosacea rarely appears in children, its potential occurrence should be considered during medical examinations because of the possible severity of ocular (eye) involvement, according to a report in the February 2008 issue of the Archives of Dermatology. Researchers Dr. Mélanie Chamaillard and colleagues at the National Reference Center for Rare Skin Disorders, Bordeaux, France, suggested that an ophthalmologic (eye) examination be carried out for all children with skin signs of rosacea.
The Frequently Asked Questions section of Rosacea.org has been updated and expanded to include new information on rosacea and answers to additional questions. To view the new rosacea FAQs, click here. This section was reviewed and edited by Dr. Mark Dahl, chairman of dermatology at the Mayo Clinic Arizona, former president of the American Academy of Dermatology and a member of the National Rosacea Society medical advisory board.
As rosacea becomes more familiar to the public, the "frequently asked questions" about the condition have evolved. So, the National Rosacea Society has updated the FAQ page on rosacea.org with new questions, including:
The Winter 2008 Rosacea Review is now online at rosacea.org.
Although surveys have found rosacea can inflict significant damage to quality of life and emotional well-being as it becomes increasingly severe, medical help is available to control or prevent its potentially devastating effects on facial appearance. The National Rosacea Society (NRS) has designated April as Rosacea Awareness Month to alert the public to the warning signs of this chronic and conspicuous disorder of the facial skin, now estimated to affect more than 14 million Americans.
Rosacea can be a trying condition under the best of circumstances, but it can be particularly vexing to women during menopause and even their monthly cycle.
Many women report more flushing episodes and increased numbers of bumps and pimples during these times, according to Dr. Wilma Bergfeld, head of the clinical research section of the dermatology department at Cleveland Clinic and former president of the American Academy of Dermatology.
The National Rosacea Society (NRS) announced that four new studies have been awarded funding as part of its research grants program to advance scientific knowledge of the potential causes and other key aspects of this chronic and potentially life-disruptive disorder that affects an estimated 14 million Americans.
The Fall 2007 Rosacea Review is now online at rosacea.org.
A new booklet for patients, "Managing Rosacea," is now available to National Rosacea Society (NRS) members. The new publication gives tips on what to tell your doctor, describes management options for each subtype and provides guidance on lifestyle and personal care. Members may obtain a free copy -- via postal mail -- by emailing a request to the NRS at email@example.com, or by calling 1-888-NO-BLUSH toll free.
Although they are normal inhabitants of human skin and cannot be seen, microscopic mites known as Demodex folliculorum may actually be something to blush about, as a new study funded by the National Rosacea Society demonstrated for the first time that these invisible organisms may be a cause or exacerbating factor in rosacea.
Special care may be needed for rosacea patients with severe forms of ocular rosacea (eye symptoms), according to Dr. Sandra Cremers, instructor of ophthalmology at Harvard Medical School. As part of a National Rosacea Society (NRS) research grant, she recently developed a scoring system to identify severe cases of this rosacea subtype, which may affect half of all rosacea patients.
The Summer 2007 Rosacea Review is now online at rosacea.org.
The incidence of rosacea may be higher than widely believed, according to a preliminary study presented at the recent rosacea research workshop, sponsored by the National Rosacea Society (NRS) during the annual Society for Investigative Dermatology meeting. In addition, an ongoing Irish study found similar prevalence rates of subtype 2 (papulopustular) rosacea in both indoor and outdoor workers.
The National Rosacea Society is a 501(c)(3) nonprofit organization whose mission is to improve the lives of people with rosacea by raising awareness, providing public health information and supporting medical research on this widespread but little-known disorder. The information the Society provides should not be considered medical advice, nor is it intended to replace
consultation with a qualified physician. The Society does not evaluate, endorse or recommend any particular medications, products, equipment or treatments. Rosacea may vary substantially from one patient to another, and treatment must be tailored by a physician for each individual case. For more information, visit About Us.
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As previously mentioned, there are many types of performance-based assessments. Each type of assessment brings with it different strengths and deficiencies relative to credible and dependable information. Because it is virtually impossible for a single assessment tool to adequately assess all aspects of student performance, the real challenge comes in selecting or developing performance-based assessments that complement both each other and more traditional assessments to equitably assess students in physical education and human performance.
The goal for assessment is to accurately determine whether students have learned the materials or information taught and reveal whether they have complete mastery of the content with no misunderstandings. Just as researchers use multiple data sources to determine the truthfulness of the results, teachers can use multiple types of assessment to evaluate the level of student learning. Because assessments involve the gathering of data or information, some type of product, performance, or recording sheet must be generated. The following are some examples of various types of performance-based assessments used in physical education.
Using Observation in the Assessment Process
Human performance provides many opportunities for students to exhibit behaviors that may be directly observed by others, a unique advantage of working in the psychomotor domain. Wiggins (1998) uses physical activity when providing examples to illustrate complex assessment concepts, as they are easier to visualize than would be the case with a cognitive example. The nature of performing a motor skill makes assessment through observational analysis a logical choice for many physical education teachers. In fact, investigations of measurement practices of physical educators have consistently shown a reliance on observation and related assessment methods (Hensley and East 1989; Matanin and Tannehill 1994; Mintah 2003).
Observation is a skill used with several performance-based assessments. It is often used to provide students with feedback to improve performance. However, without some way to record results, observation alone is not an assessment. Going back to the definition of assessment provided earlier in the chapter, assessment is the gathering of information, analyzing the data, and then using the information to make an evaluation. Therefore, some type of written product must be produced if the task is considered an assessment.
Teachers and peers can assess others using observation. They might use a checklist or some type of event recording scheme to tally the number of times a behavior occurred. Keeping game play statistics is an example of recording data using event recording techniques. Students can self-analyze their own performance and record their performances using criteria provided on a checklist or a game play rubric. Table 14.1 is an example of a recording form that could be used for peer assessment.
When using peer assessment, it is best to have the assessor do only the assessment. When the person recording assessment results is also expected to take part in the assessment (e.g., tossing the ball to the person being assessed), he or she cannot both toss and do an accurate observation. In the case of large classes, teachers might even use groups of four, in which one person is being evaluated, a second person is feeding the ball, the third person is doing the observation, and a fourth person is recording the results.
Individual or Group Projects
Projects have long been used in education to assess a student’s understanding of a subject or a particular topic. Projects typically require students to apply their knowledge and skills while completing the prescribed task, which often calls for creativity, critical thinking, analysis, and synthesis. Examples of student projects used in physical education and human performance include the following: demonstrating knowledge of invasion game strategies by designing a new game; demonstrating knowledge of how to become an active participant in the community by doing research on obesity and then developing a brochure for people in the community that presents ideas for developing a physically active lifestyle; demonstrating knowledge of fitness components and how to stay fit by designing one’s own fitness program using personal fitness test results; demonstrating knowledge of how to create a dance by video recording a dance that members of the group choreographed; and doing research on childhood games and teaching children from a local elementary school how to play them. Criteria for evaluating the projects are developed and the results of the project are recorded.
Group projects involve a number of students working together on a complex problem that requires planning, research, internal discussion, and presentation. Group projects should include a component that each student completes individually to avoid having a student receive credit for work that he or she did not do. Another way to avoid this issue is to have members of the group award paychecks to the various members of the group (e.g., split a $10,000 check) and provide justifications about the amount given to each person. To encourage reflections on the contributions of others, students are not allowed to give an equal amount to everyone. These “checks” are confidential and submitted directly to the teacher in an envelope that others in the group are not allowed to see.
The following example of a project designed for middle school or high school students involves a research component, analysis and synthesis of information, problem solving, and effective communication.
Portfolios are systematic, purposeful, and meaningful collections of an individual’s work designed to document learning over time. Since a portfolio provides documentation of student learning, the knowledge and skills that the teacher desires to have students document guides the structure of the portfolio. The type of portfolio, its format, and the general contents are usually prescribed by the teacher. Portfolio collections may also include input provided by teachers, parents, peers, administrators, or others.The guidelines used to format a portfolio will be based on the type of learning that the portfolio is used to document. The following are two basic types of portfolios:
- Working portfolio—A repository of portfolio documents that the student accumulates over a certain period of time. Other types of process information may also be included, such as drafts of student work or records of student achievement or progress over time.
- Showcase or model portfolio—A portfolio consisting of work samples selected by the student that document the student’s best work. The student has consciously evaluated his or her work and selected only those products that best represent the type of learning identified for this assessment. Each artifact selected is accompanied by a reflection, in which the student explains the significance of the item and the type of learning it represents.
It’s a good idea to limit the portfolio to a certain number of pieces of work to prevent the portfolio from becoming a scrapbook that has little meaning to the student and to avoid giving teachers a monumental evaluation task. This also requires students to exercise some judgment about which artifacts best fulfill the requirements of the portfolio task and document their level of achievement. The portfolio itself is usually a file or folder that contains the student’s collected work. The contents could include items such as a training log, student journal or diary, written reports, photographs or sketches, letters, charts or graphs, maps, copies of certificates, computer disks or computer-generated products, completed rating scales, fitness test results, game statistics, training plans, report of dietary analyses, and even video- or audio recordings. Collectively, the artifacts selected will document student growth and learning over time as well as current levels of achievement. The potential items that could become portfolio artifacts are almost limitless. Kirk (1997) suggests the following list of possible portfolio artifacts that may be useful for physical activity settings. A teacher would never require that a portfolio contain all of these items. The list is offered as a way to generate ideas for possible artifacts.
A rubric (scoring tool) should be used to evaluate portfolios in much the same manner as any other product or performance. Providing a rubric to students in advance allows them to self-assess their work and thus be more likely to produce a portfolio of high quality. Portfolios, since they are designed to show growth and improvement in student learning, are evaluated holistically. The reflections that describe the artifact and why the artifact was selected for inclusion in the portfolio provide insights into levels of student learning and achievement. Teachers should remember that format is less important than content and that the rubric should be weighted to reflect this. Table 14.2 illustrates a qualitative analytic rubric for judging a portfolio along three dimensions.
For additional information about portfolio assessments, Lund and Kirk (2010) have a chapter on developing portfolio assessments. An article published as part of a JOPERD feature presents a suggested scoring scale for a portfolio (Kirk 1997). Melograno’s Assessment Series publication (2000) on portfolios also contains helpful information.
Student performances can be used as culminating assessments at the completion of an instructional unit. Teachers might organize a gymnastics or track and field meet at the conclusion of one of those units to allow students to demonstrate the skills and knowledge that they gained during instruction. Game play during a tournament is also considered a student performance. Rubrics for game play can be written so that students are evaluated on all three learning domains (psychomotor, cognitive, and affective). Students might demonstrate their skills and learning in one of the following ways:
- Performing an aerobics routine for a school assembly
- Organizing and performing a jump rope show at the half-time of a basketball game
- Performing in a folk dance festival at the county fair
- Demonstrating wu shu (a Chinese martial art) at the local shopping mall
- Training for and participating in a local road race or cycling competition
Although performances do not produce a written product, there are several ways to gather data to use for assessment purposes. A score sheet can be used to record student performance using the criteria from a game play rubric. Game play statistics are another example of a way to document performance. Performances can also be video recorded to provide evidence of learning.
In some cases teachers might want to shorten the time used to gather evidence of learning from a performance. Event tasks are performances that are completed in a single class period. Students might demonstrate their knowledge of net or wall game strategies by playing a scripted game that is video recorded during a single class. The ability to create movement sequences or a dance that uses different levels, effort, or relationships could be demonstrated during a single class period with an event task. Many adventure education activities that demonstrate affective domain attributes can be assessed using event tasks.
Documenting student participation in physical activity (NASPE Standard 3) is often difficult. Teachers can assess participation in an activity or skill practice trials completed outside of class using logs. Practice trials during class that demonstrate student effort can also be documented with logs. A log records behaviors over a period of time (see figure 14.1). Often the information recorded shows changes in behavior, trends in performance, results of participation, progress, or the regularity of physical activity. A student log is an excellent artifact for use in a portfolio. Because logs are usually a self-recorded document, they are not used for summative assessments unless as an artifact in a portfolio or for a project. If teachers wanted to increase the importance placed on a log, a method of verification by an adult or someone in authority should be added.
Journals can be used to record student feelings, thoughts, perceptions, or reflections about actual events or results. The entries in journals often report social or psychological perspectives, both positive and negative, and may be used to document the personal meaning associated with one’s participation (NASPE Standard 6). Journal entries would not be an appropriate summative assessment by themselves, but might be included as an artifact in a portfolio. Journal entries are excellent ways for teachers to “take the pulse” of a class and determine whether students are valuing the content of the class. Teachers must be careful not to assess affective domain journal entries for the actual content, because doing so may cause students to write what teachers want to hear (or give credit for) instead of true and genuine feelings. Teachers could hold students accountable for completing journal entries. Some teachers use journals as a way to log participation over time.
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Angle between the horizontal and the direction of concern.
The angular distance between the horizon and an object in the sky, such as the sun. The zenith angle is 90° minus the elevation angle.
the angle from the GPS receiver's antenna between the horizontal and the line of sight to the satellite
The inclination (in degrees) of the satellite's position in space relative to the horizon.
The angle between the local horizon and an object in the sky, measured positively from the horizon upwards.
the angular deviation from the horizontal to which a surveying instrument's telescope has been raised to sight a target.
The angle between the horizontal plane and the line of sight to a target or object.
(Also called elevation.) The angle between the horizon and a point above the horizon, measured along the arc that passes through the zenith and the point in question. In astronomy this is termed altitude. Compare azimuth, depression angle, zenith distance.
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http://www.metaglossary.com/meanings/502029/
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2013-05-18T08:49:30Z
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In an analysis of data from the 2003 National Assessment of Adult Literacy that was recently published, IWPR found that women earn less than men regardless of literacy level, but that women with low literacy levels are particularly likely to have low earnings relative to men. Higher literacy levels are associated with higher earnings for both men and women, but the “jump” in earnings from low to high literacy is especially noticeable for women at earnings levels that can sustain women and their families.
These findings are consistent with the phenomenon that women need to do more to reach the earnings of men. The gender wage gap remains substantial after decades of measurement, occurs both between and within occupations, and—we now know—exists regardless of men and women’s degree of literacy. In order for women to earn the same amount as men, they must obtain more education and develop more skills than those possessed by men. Low literacy—which occurs at similar rates among women and men—is a barrier to effective education and training that can help low-income individuals obtain jobs that allow for family economic security.
Programs that help women (and men) improve their literacy, obtain job training, and get degrees are key elements in the effort to help low-income Americans get better jobs. Adult and basic education programs, bridge programs that connect teens and adults to college, workforce training programs, and supports for nontraditional students enrolled in colleges are needed to help hard-working Americans get higher-paying jobs. Many of these programs are under threat of budget cuts. Cuts in education and training are short-sighted cost-saving measures that reduce workforce readiness while also threatening one of the few pathways out of poverty for millions of Americans with limited literacy.
Kevin Miller is a Senior Research Associate with the Institute for Women’s Policy Research.
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http://www.iwpr.org/blog/2012/02/14/new-research-from-iwpr-finds-low-literacy-hurts-women-more-than-men/?like=1&source=post_flair&_wpnonce=a832ba55c5
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2013-05-21T10:06:25Z
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Calcium is one of the four major alkali minerals and is essential for the healthy functioning of the body. It is the mineral of structure and solidity, with approximately 99 per cent of the calcium in your body being stored in your teeth and bones. It's also vital for many of your bodily functions such as muscle contraction, nerve conduction, the regulation of enzyme activity and the formation of cell membranes. Good digestion, blood clotting, cardiovascular health and hormonal balance are also a part of calcium's repertoire because it boosts vitality.
A calcium deficiency is most commonly linked to poor growth in children and osteoporosis in adults, especially menopausal women. The most common advice for counteracting a deficiency is to include more calcium-rich foods, and dairy is usually at the top of the list.
There are, however, two problems with this advice. First, many people are lactose intolerant. The National Digestive Diseases Information Center in the US estimates that 40 million Americans are lactose intolerant and a reported 90 per cent of Asians are unable to digest lactose.
Second, calcium absorption is dependent on vitamin D and magnesium. We need a specific calcium to magnesium ratio of 2:1 for optimum absorption. In dairy, this ratio is nonexistent, meaning it is not the best option for increasing calcium intake, according to a study published by the Harvard School of Public Health.
In light of this, here are 10 non-dairy, calcium-rich foods: bok choy, kale, sea vegetables, broccoli, almonds, Brazil nuts, tofu, salmon, figs and sesame seeds.
It is not necessary to completely avoid dairy unless it causes significant digestive problems, but it is important not to rely on dairy alone for our calcium intake. In many cases one cup of the above mentioned foods will have more calcium than one cup of milk.
Laura Holland is a well-being consultant and nutritional therapist. For more information, visit www.BeUtifulYou.co.uk
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http://www.thenational.ae/lifestyle/food/food-for-thought-10-best-non-dairy-sources-of-calcium
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On This Date in History: Grover Cleveland was the only president to serve two non-consecutively terms as President of the United States. So, it is quite common for him to be listed as the 22nd and 24th President. In his first campaign, there was much mud-slinging between he and Republican James G. Blaine. The accusations against Blaine were pretty pedestrian. They claimed that he took bribes. Cleveland was accused of fathering a child with a woman to whom he was not married! In a world in which we are used to politicians making denials to claims against them, Cleveland took a novel approach. Guilty as charged. He acknowledged the legitimacy to the question and said that the child was indeed his. The American people seemed to shrug their shoulders and Cleveland was promptly elected. Goes to show, all you need to do is tell the truth! It’s amazing how difficult it is for some politicians to try such a simple and winning formula. Interestingly, the mother named the baby boy, Oscar Folsom Cleveland.
Now, Cleveland was an attorney by trade and he had a partner in practice by the name of Oscar Folsom, which raises the question as to why the mother used both the law partner’s names. Anyway, Folsom died in 1873 following an unfortunate carriage accident and left his old friend Grover to manage the estate. And manage he did! No, he didn’t marry his good friend’s wife…he married his daughter. Frances Clara Folsom was but 9 years old when her father died but Cleveland made sure that she and her mother’s finances were in order. After Frances Clara graduated from Wells College, he proposed marriage. Frances was not one to make a rush decision so she took a trip to Europe to clear her mind. When she returned, no doubt some thought she had lost her mind because the on June 2, 1886, President Grover Cleveland became the first president to be married in the White House to Frances, who was 27 years his junior. I wonder if when she was growing up she called him “Uncle Grover.”
They had several children, one of which was Ruth. The official story by the maker of the “Baby Ruth” candy bar was that it was named after the President’s daughter. Somehow, a judge sided with the company in a lawsuit it brought against the makers of the “Babe Ruth Home Run Bar” saying the competitor’s name too closely resembled “Baby Ruth.” Trouble is, Ruth Cleveland died in 1904, the candy company wasn’t in existance until 1916 and the “Baby Ruth” bar wasn’t born until 1921…or about the time that a certain George Herman Ruth was beginning to make a name for himself. But, the makers stuck to the story and, to this day as far as I know, the estate of Babe Ruth has not gotten a dime from the makers of the bar.
So, let’s jump ahead almost to the Cleveland’s 10th wedding annivesary. President Cleveland was in his second term as President and was the defacto head of a Democrat Party. Now, at this time there were no real laws to limit or control immigration. Yet, anti-immigrant sentiment had run high in the nation throughout the 19th century. In Antebellum America there was even a political party called the American Party that had some cloudt and became known as the “Know Nothings” with a platform that took an exceptional view of Americans born in the country and opposed any “non-native” Americans. Well, by the late 19th Century, the Democrat Party had taken the lead in anti-immigrant sentiments. Hence, as head of that party, on this date in 1896 Cleveland ordered his cabinet secretaries to determine exactly how many foreigners worked in the federal government. Much like illegal immigrants today, late 19th Century immigrants from Europe were blamed for rising crime rates. Cleveland held these “aliens” responsible for bringing with them ideas like socialism and communism. Once he found out the identities of the culprits, he had them investigated for potential subversive behaviour. Cleveland maintained that it was his duty and the right of the government to “prevent the influx of elements hostile to its internal peace and security…even where there is not treaty stipulation on the subject.” I’m just not sure how far back Cleveland took this. I mean, ultimately, everyone except for the Native Americans were immigrants at one point or another. If the investigators took it to the limit, then they’d have to investigate everyone in the government including the other investigators and the President himself!!
Today, we often hear of protestors who claim that governmental is unconstitutional or over-reaching. Many times, those bringing the charges are simply not well versed in Constitutional Law but, some times, the charges may hold merit. Either way, it would be wrong to assume it had never happened in American history. And it would be wrong to assume that the country would necessarily fall to pieces if the supposed un-Constitutional behavior of the government came about. Eventually, we seem to get things right. The pendulum of power has always swayed too and fro and as long as there are counterbalances amongst the people, the branches of government and the judicial system then things tend to work out in the end. The key to this democracy, in my view, is to maintain the balance of power between states, Congress, the executive and judiciary and to make certain that each part of government is by and for the people, not by and for those who would make themselves king or the would-be king makers.
Weather Bottom Line: Snow White and I had planned to take our niece, McKenna, to visit the animals at Henry’s Ark today. My sister-in-law informed us “it’s supposed to rain” on Tuesday. I told her nonsense. But, it’s an example of how people perceive forecasts. I told you yesterday that I had seen forecasts of 50% chance of rain for Tuesday and 50% on Wednesday and then it changed to 40% on Tuesday and 60% on Wednesday. Either way, when someone sees 40% then most people assume its going to rain. The truth is, it has been my experience that the majority of people on TV don’t even know what the rain chance means. They will usually say that a 40% chance of rain means that there will be “a 40% coverage of rain.” That would be wrong. Officially what it means is that at the forecast site, in this case the airport, given the forecast conditions that there would be measurable rain in that rain gauge 40 out of 100 days of similar weather conditions. It has nothing to do with coverage nor with rain amounts. In order for it be to an issue of coverage, uou would have to have a rain gauge about every 100 feet in the area because one must be able to verify an hypothesis. Now, the last station I worked for was quite reasonable because no one lives at the airport. So, we modified the meaning to say that at any given point in our viewing area we were forecasting that there would be rain 40 out of 100 days.
When I forecast, I always took the public perception into account. I personally did not think it would rain on Tuesday but had noted that a couple of models wanted to throw out a few sprinkles. I figured that the best chance for rain would be after midnight and on Wednesday. So, I would have put a 20% or 30% chance of rain on Tuesday because when people see that, they think that it won’t rain and I didn’t much think that it would but would have allowed for perhaps an outside possibility. By elevating the rain chances to say 70% for late Tuesday night and Wednesday, that would indicate to people when the best chance for rain was and also play to the perception that 70% means to most people that it will indeed rain.
All of this is holding true. Our air is just so doggone dry that I don’t see how the storms from the west will be able to hold together and by the time they get here, it will be after dark. On Wednesday, the storms will get going again but the best chance for them to really get rambunctious would be to our east when they are moving through the heating of the day. My guess is that we get rain in the first part of Wednesday and those storms become stronger as they head toward Lexington. However, should the initiation take place just to our west on say an outflow boundary left over from the Tuesday storms, then there would be the potential for some strong storms on Wednesday. So, I would say that its possible but not probable for strong storms in our region but that at least some shower or even thundershower activity will be in the region. After that, it gets hot heading into next weekend when it would appear that there may be another opportunity for strong storms.
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Monday 4 April is being marked across the world as International Day for Mine Awareness and Assistance in Mine Action.
"Mine clearance prevents an indiscriminate weapon from causing harm and havoc long after conflicts have ended, while also creating jobs, transforming danger zones into productive land and setting societies on course for lasting security," declared United Nations Secretary-General Ban Ki-Moon in his message to support the initiative.
On 8 December 2005, the UN General Assembly declared that the same date each year would be officially proclaimed and observed as an occasion to focus action on the landmine issue - which is hugely serious in many developing countries, on account of the mining that has taken place during over 450 conflicts since the Second World War ended in 1945.
The day calls for continued efforts by national states, with the assistance of the United Nations and relevant organisations, "to foster the establishment and development of national mine-action capacities in countries where mines and explosive remnants of war constitute a serious threat to the safety, health and lives of the civilian population, or an impediment to social and economic development at the national and local levels."
More on the International Day for Mine Awareness and Assistance in Mine Action - http://www.un.org/en/events/mineawarenessday/
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The Birth of the Modern World: 1780-1914
December 2003, ©2003, Wiley-Blackwell
This price is valid for United States. Change location to view local pricing and availability.
This thematic history of the world from 1780 to the onset of the First World War reveals that the world was far more ‘globalised’ at this time than is commonly thought.
- Explores previously neglected sets of connections in world history
- Reveals that the world was far more ‘globalised’, even at the beginning of this period, than is commonly thought
- Sketches the ‘ripple effects’ of world crises such as the European revolutions and the American Civil War
- Shows how events in Asia, Africa and South America impacted on the world as a whole
- Considers the great themes of the nineteenth-century world, including the rise of the modern state, industrialisation and liberalism
- Challenges and complements the regional and national approaches which have traditionally dominated history teaching and writing
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Irish Historical Mysteries: The Flight of the Earls
The Flight abroad in 1607 of the Earls of Tyrone and Tyrconnell and their followers is generally reckoned to mark the end of Gaelic Ireland as a distinct political system. Yet there has never been agreement on the reasons why the Earls fled at that particular time, and today the debate is still ongoing. Before examining the various accounts of the Flight, let us first look at the historical background.
It was Henry VIII and his Tudor successors, Edward VI, Mary and Elizabeth I, who completed the conquest of Ireland begun by the Anglo-Normans four centuries before. Prior to the time of the Tudors, most parts of Ireland lay outside English control, being dominated either by Gaelic lords such as O'Neill and O'Donnell, or descendants of the Anglo-Norman conquerors such as Fitgerald and Butler. Following the destruction of the Leinster Fitzgeralds in 1535 in the wake of the revolt of Silken Thomas, Henry was in a position to try more conciliatory methods, designed particularly to persuade the Gaelic and Gaelicised Anglo-Norman lords to give up their distinctive ways and submit to the Crown. The policy of 'Surrender and Regrant', whereby Irish lords submitted to English control and received English titles in return, was a considerable success, examples being Burke, created Earl of Clanrickard, O'Brien, created Earl of Thomond, and O'Neill, created Earl of Tyrone. Yet Henry's second great campaign, a religious one to extend the Protestant Reformation to Ireland, enjoyed little success in Gaelic areas. (1)
Under Henry's daughter Elizabeth the policy of subduing Ireland was pursued with determination, but she was also prepared to ally persuasion with force when she deemed it appropriate. In 1570 the establishment of Presidencies in Munster and Connacht brought English government to these areas. The Munster Rebellion of 1579-83 was put down with great severity, and was followed by a plantation, while in 1585 the lords and landowners of Connacht accepted English land tenure under the 'Composition of Connacht'. Ulster remained the exception to this record of success, and the English moved to confront the northern Gaelic lords in the 1590s. In 1595 Hugh O'Neill, Earl of Tyrone, openly joined Hugh O'Donnell, Earl of Tyrconnell, and Hugh Maguire of Fermanagh in resisting English encroachments with force. Thus began the Nine Years War, the final contest which would decide the future of Gaelic Ireland and the Tudor Conquest. O'Neill's extension of the conflict outside his territories, his acceptance of Spanish assistance, and his promotion of Catholicism, all combined to persuade the English of the critical importance of defeating him and his followers.
O'Neill's military tactics were primarily defensive but extremely skilled, and in 1598 he won a great victory over the English at the Battle of the Yellow Ford. The English under Lord Deputy Mountjoy responded with a scorched earth policy. When the Spaniards arrived in Kinsale in 1601, the Irish risked an offensive march south, but this led to the disastrous defeat at Kinsale in that year. O'Neill, O'Donnell and their allies retreated, and the English over-ran Ulster. Hugh O'Donnell departed to Spain, and on his death there, his brother Rory became Earl of Tyrconnell. O'Neill himself surrendered in 1603 and signed a Treaty at Mellifont, Elizabeth unknown to him having died shortly before. It is a measure of O'Neill's continuing strength that he had not been forced to surrender unconditionally, but had in effect secured a negotiated settlement, and both he and Rory O'Donnell were allowed to return to their lands. Elizabeth's successor, James VI of Scotland and I of England, was anxious to maintain O'Neill's renewed loyalty, while O'Neill for his part was prepared to try to work within the new system. However, for reasons which we will now explore, O'Neill was soon to decide that he could not live with the new order and that flight abroad was preferable.
It is worthwhile looking at the differing circumstances of O'Neill and Rory O'Donnell in the aftermath of the 1603 settlement. O'Neill was master within his Earldom, whereas O'Donnell had to contend with the rival claims of Niall Garbh O'Donnell. The main concern of both O'Neill and O'Donnell was the attitude of the Lord Deputy, Sir Arthur Chichester, and his Solicitor General, Sir John Davies, who resented the Gaelic lords' continuing privileged position in the north, and sought to use institutions of English law to undermine them. Fearing that Chichester was to be appointed Lord President of Ulster, O'Neill appealed directly to James VI in 1606 against what he saw as the imposition of an overlord. James remained committed to conciliating O'Neill, and he was assured that 'the King had no thoughts of establishing such a government' as the Presidency of Ulster. In contrast, the positions of O'Donnell and Maguire of Fermanagh were worsening, and the evidence indicates that they were planning to abandon Ireland and enlist in the army of Archduke of the Netherlands, then a Spanish possession. (2)
Another opportunity to weaken O'Neill was presented by a territorial dispute in 1607 between him and his son-in-law, the chieftain Donal O'Cahan. Davies encouraged O'Cahan to file a suit against O'Neill, which the Solicitor-General saw as a useful test case to assert royal control over O'Neill's lands. King James had invited O'Neill to submit his grievances directly to him, and O'Neill acted on this invitation. Although the Privy Council in Dublin favoured O'Cahan, the King ordered O'Cahan and O'Neill to present themselves before the English Privy Council in order to decide the case.
Meanwhile, Maguire had left Ireland, and O'Donnell was preparing to do likewise. O'Neill was also to make a decision to go into exile, for reasons which we must now examine. While Nationalist historians have presented O'Neill and his followers as having been persecuted into exile, Unionist historians of course have viewed their flight as evidence of their treasonable intent. Inevitably, the Revisionist historians took a look at the case, and in the early 1970s Nicholas Canny presented a new account of the Flight. According to Canny, it was Maguire's intention to hire a ship on the Continent and return to Ireland to collect O'Donnell and their families and followers. Though he left in the Summer, Maguire returned with a ship with unexpected speed in August 1607. In Canny's account, Maguire's unexpectedly early return must have come as a shock to O'Neill, so that on 4 September 1607 'the usually calculating Tyrone panicked, and joined Tyrconnell and Maguire in voluntary exile'. (3)
Are there any surviving documents which might give an account of the Flight from O'Neill's and the Gaelic point of view? It turns out that there are, and these were unearthed by Micheline Kerney Walsh in Continental archives, principally the Archivo General de Simancas in Spain. These sources, letters of O'Neill, O'Donnell and others, had been unknown to or little used by earlier historians, and were referred to only briefly by Canny. Kerney Walsh translated a selection of these documents and published them with a scholarly introduction under the title Destruction by Peace, thus making them available to the non-specialist as well as the scholar. Kerney Walsh's apt title came from a comment of O'Neill in 1615: 'They [the English] themselves . . . teach us this manner of feigned friendship and of destruction by peace'. (4)
Using the largely untapped sources she had uncovered, Kerney Walsh showed that O'Neill believed his position in Ireland was becoming untenable, and that the invitation to London was a prelude to arrest and execution. O'Neill therefore, and not in any panic, decided to retreat to Spain and appeal to King Philip for military assistance. If successful in overthrowing English rule, the plan was to annex Ireland to the Spanish Crown, and here the legend that the Milesians came from Spain would of course have made this more plausible. (5) O Neill explained his predicament thus to King Philip:
. . . in order to save our lives, there was no other remedy but to take up arms, or to escape from the Kingdom. We chose to escape rather than stir the whole Kingdom to rebellion without first being assured of the help and assistance of Your Majesty.
Depending on your point of view, this was either treasonable plotting or a perfectly understandable attempt to circumvent your enemy's attempts to destroy you. As a result of bad weather, O'Neill and his party had to land first in France, and due largely to English intrigue eventually ended up in Rome without being able to make immediate contact with King Philip. However, Kerney Walsh convincingly paints a picture of O'Neill as a man neither defeated nor in permanent exile, but merely having tactically retreated abroad in the hope of returning with Spanish military assistance. Unfortunately for O'Neill, he was never to realise this hope and would die in exile in Rome in 1616.
It would be fair say that although Kerney Walsh's account is carefully researched and severely dents Canny's, it is essentially Nationalist in interpretation. Inevitable, Kerney Walsh's account has itself come under scrutiny, most recently in an article by John McCavitt in 1994. McCavitt conceded that Kerney Walsh had undermined Canny's account in a number of respects, but insists that the new material she uncovered simply reinforces the view that O'Neill and his supporters had been engaged in 'conspiratorial machinations'. Like Canny, McCavitt based his account principally on English State Papers, and he did not engage in new research in the Spanish documents, relying instead on Kerney Walsh's calendar. To a rather comical degree, McCavitt effectively puts the Earls in the dock, and finds O'Neill in particular guilty of various 'treasonable practices'. Yet he concludes that O'Neill's flight abroad was a misjudgment, as the English might not in fact have moved against him. (6) Like 'what if', 'might not' is a speculative phrase which historians ought to avoid, especially when coming to conclusions. Furthermore, 'treason', like 'heresy', is one of those hopelessly value-laden terms which should never be employed descriptively by historians claiming objectivity.
No doubt there will be further re-examinations of the Flight of the Earls, with sympathetic Nationalist accounts claiming a tactical temporary retreat in the face of intolerable persecution, and hostile Revisionist and Unionist accounts claiming a precipitate flight arising from fear that treasonable plotting was about to be discovered. What is at stake here is nothing less than the legitimacy of the dispossession of the Gaels of Ulster and the plantation of their lands by Scots and English. This is a subject still surrounded by debate four hundred years later, but perhaps less bitter in tone, no doubt reflecting the fact that the ongoing Peace Process has produced a Protestant-Catholic power-sharing administration in Northern Ireland. Though he classes himself as a 'Post-Revisionist', the writer makes no secret of the fact that he tends towards the Nationalist interpretation of the Flight of the Earls as no mere cowardly flight, and he believes that Kerney Walshs's account portraying a tactical withdrawal accords best with the available evidence. Indeed, in the course of the 400th anniversary of the event in 2007 the harsh 'Revisionist' interpretation is less in evidence, and there is a growing consensus that the departure of the Gaelic lords in 1607 was more a 'strategic regrouping' than a flight of traitors. (7)
1999, last updated 7 September 2007
(1) T W Moody and F X Martin Editors, The Course of Irish History, Cork 1994 Edition, pages 174-88.
(2) N P Canny, 'The Flight of the Earls 1607', Historical Revision XVI, Irish Historical Studies, 17, 1970-71, pages 382-7.
(3) Canny, 'Flight of the Earls', page 399.
(4) Micheline Kerney Walsh, Destruction by Peace: Hugh O Neill after Kinsale, Monaghan 1986, page 350.
(5) Kerney Walsh, Destruction by Peace, pages 3-4 and passim.
(6) John McCavitt, 'The Flight of the Earls 1607', Irish Historical Studies, 29, 1994, pages 160, 172-3. See also the author's more measured and less unsympathetic The Flight of the Earls, Dublin 2005 Edition, which makes more use of the Spanish documents, but still via Kerney Walsh's calendar.
(7) 'Flight of Earls was more a "strategic regrouping"', Irish Times, 20 August 2007.
Back to Irish Historical Mysteries: Contents
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Correlation and Application of Statistics to Problems of Heredity 97
anticipate 9.9 °/O chestnut and 90.1 0/, non-chestnut foals, a result almost
exactly that observed.
If we judged by A (iii), A (iv), and G, we should conclude that black and brown had no factor for chestnut. In that case chestnut and bay crossed with black and brown would produce no chestnut foals. This is flatly contradicted by C, D, E and F which indicate that browns and blacks can contain a factor for chestnut. The only explanation is, perhaps, a rather forced one, namely that the matings in A (iii), A (iv) and G were few in number and possibly made from a very few sires of brown and black colour without factors for chestnut, while C, D, E and F, providing far more numerous rnatings, contained blacks and browns with such factors. C, D, E and F, indeed, tend to confirm this, for when the sire is black or brown there are far fewer chestnuts produced than when the dam is black or brown; in the latter case the larger number of dams used would give a greater chance of their carrying factors for chestnut.
Galton himself by averaging up the likenesses in coat-colour of foal to dam and to sire concluded that as some 32.83 °/a of foals followed the colour of their dam and 31.75 °/o that of their sire, there was no prepotency, but such an averaging method misses the possibility of discovering a prepotency due to the presence or absence of "factors." The equality of male and female hereditary influence is borne out by the long series B, but hardly by the other and shorter series such as C and D*. Galton was very fully aware of what he terms the "rudeness " of the data. He head been troubled with much the same problems in considering hair colour ; but he had then obtained an analysis of the pigments in human hair from Professor Sorby and the latter investigator had shown the existence of two distinct pigments, one red and one black. Sorby painted two trees in these two pigments extracted from human hair, pictures which used to hang in Galton s dressing room and are now in the Galton Laboratory. More recent microscopic investigation seems to show that the same two pigments occur in the hair of horses and dogs, but that the red pigment is diffused in the hair, i.e. "the whole ground substance of the fibrillae is impregnated with it." On the other hand the black or melanine pigment occurs in the form of pigment granules'. On examination of a number of specimens of horse hair in samples from ribs and mane of chestnut horses, ranging from the golden chestnut of the Trakehnen stud to the black chestnut, the diffused red pigment was found in all, but the pigment granules varied from scarcely any in the golden and light chestnuts to close packing in the dark and black chestnuts. This corresponds very closely to the range of granular pigmentation found in passing from light red to dark auburn hair in man. Such results suggest that it is very desirable to study microscopically the distribution of the two pigments in the hair of horses'
* For example in 124 matings of chestnut dam by brown or black sire there were only 6 chestnut foals, but in 126 matings of chestnut sire with black or brown dam there were 46 chestnut foals.
t Pearson, Nettleship and Usher : Monograph on Albinism, Part ii, pp. 319-345, Cambridge University Press.
P G III 13
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Education company Pearson aims to help develop a generation of young coders through its application iCreate.
Currently a prototype, iCreate allows children between the ages of seven and 11 to learn code by controlling a character's actions. For example, children can control a long jumper by inputting code to make him jump higher, faster and farther.
The web-based app, borne out of a 20-hour hack session, was created with close guidance from Pearson’s ICT subject advisor Gareth Byrne.
Designed to fit in with the new Computer Science curriculum, due to roll out in schools in 2014, iCreate focuses on coding and creating, a move away from the previous ICT curriculum which mostly focused on how to use desktop software.
Pearson's head of future technologies, Diana Stepner, told Computer Weekly that iCreate is a great opportunity to get children working with code and seeing the effect it has first-hand.
When children are at the age where they are learning to speak, they should learn to code too
Diana Stepner, head of future technologies, Pearson
“The children can change the code themselves and see how that affects the character. They can change different attributes of the character through a user interface or HTML code,” she said.
“There are a variety of education applications out there, such as Scratch. That is more of a drag-and-drop application though. iCreate is about learning to code. When children are at the age where they are learning to speak, they should learn to code too,” added Stepner.
To further encourage programming among young people, Pearson sponsored the Young Rewired State, which brings young coders together for a week of learning and competition.
iCreate was showcased at the Young Rewired State competition recently. “This was great timing, as there were lots of students available to test iCreate and give feedback,” added Stepner.
Pearson’s future technologies team focuses six to 12 months into the future to create potential opportunities for technology in education. Part of this includes creating prototypes.
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Koalas are nocturnal marsupials famous for spending most of their lives asleep in trees. This sedentary lifestyle can be attributed to the fact they have unusually small brains and survive on a diet of nutrient-poor leaves. The koala's leaf of choice is eucalyptus, a particularly fibrous and highly toxic plant. Luckily for koalas, what they lack in brain power they make up for in the length of their intestine, which measures a colossal two metres and is packed with super micro-organisms that detoxify the leaves.
Scientific name: Phascolarctos cinereus
Orphaned koala babies get a trip to the vet.
Orphaned koala babies get a trip to the vet.
Young koalas stay dependent on their mothers for a whole year.
Though not classified as endangered, Australia’s iconic marsupials were placed on the IUCN's Climate Change Hit List following the Copenhagen summit in 2009. Since the European settlement of Australia, koalas have fared badly. In the past two centuries, vast numbers were killed for their fur, but today, it is habitat loss and the impact of urbanisation that are the leading threats. But more than anything, it's their fussiness over food that led the IUCN to nominate them for the climate change hit list. Rising carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere saps the nutrients and causes toxicity levels to rise in the koala's preferred diet of eucalyptus leaves. If eucalyptus becomes unpalatable to koalas, malnutrition and potential starvation will follow.
Species range provided by WWF's Wildfinder.
The following habitats are found across the Koala distribution range. Find out more about these environments, what it takes to live there and what else inhabits them.
Discover what these behaviours are and how different plants and animals use them.
Additional data source: Animal Diversity Web
Population trend: Unknown
Year assessed: 2008
Classified by: IUCN 3.1
The koala (Phascolarctos cinereus) is an arboreal herbivorous marsupial native to Australia, and the only extant representative of the family Phascolarctidae. It is classified in the suborder Vombatiformes within the order Diprotodontia, and its closest living relatives are the wombats. The koala is found in coastal areas of the continent's eastern and southern regions, inhabiting Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria and South Australia. It is easily recognisable by its stout, tailless body, round, fluffy ears and large, spoon-shaped nose. It is popularly known as the koala bear because of its bear-like appearance. The koala has a body length of 60–85 cm (24–33 in) and weighs 4–15 kg (9–33 lb). Pelage colour ranges from silver grey to chocolate brown. Koalas from the northern populations are typically smaller and lighter in colour than their counterparts in the more southern populations. It is possible that these variations are separate subspecies, but this is disputed.
Koalas typically inhabit open Eucalyptus woodlands, and the leaves of these trees make up most of their diet. Because this eucalypt diet provides them with only low nutrition and energy, koalas are largely sedentary and sleep for up to 20 hours a day. They are asocial animals, and bonding only exists between mothers and dependent offspring. Adult males communicate with loud bellows that intimidate rivals and attract mates. Males mark their presence with secretions from their chest glands. Being marsupials, koalas give birth to underdeveloped young that crawl into their mothers' pouches, where they stay for the first six to seven months of their life. These young koalas are known as joeys, and are fully weaned at around a year.
Koalas are listed as of Least Concern by the International Union for Conservation of Nature. The Australian government, however, lists populations in Queensland and New South Wales as Vulnerable. The biggest threat to their existence is habitat destruction due to agriculture and urbanisation. Because of its distinctive appearance, the koala is recognised worldwide as an iconic symbol of Australia.
Take a trip through the natural world with our themed collections of video clips from the natural history archive.
One third of known species are under threat - do they have more than a future on film? We've unearthed footage of some remarkable animals, plants and habitats that are facing an imminent threat to their survival.
With Ooh's and Ahh's galore this video clip collection celebrates a world of adorable animal babies.
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Vaginal Bleeding During Pregnancy
Embryo is the word used to refer to the developing baby before it is 12 weeks old. After 12 weeks it is called a fetus.
Everyone knows that when your monthly bleeding stops, it's a common sign of pregnancy. So what does it mean when a pregnant woman starts to bleed? Well, it can mean a number of things, so don't automatically panic and assume your pregnancy is in danger.
Bleeding in Early Pregnancy
Bleeding in early pregnancy (the first three months) is a sure-fire way to upset a newly expectant mom. Red spots on your underwear can make you think you're going to lose your baby, almost as soon as you've gotten used to the idea of being pregnant. If this happens to you, take it easy. You should call your doctor and report the bleeding, but it's most likely nothing to worry about.
In early pregnancy, vaginal bleeding that is not a cause for worry can be the result of either of the following conditions:
- Settling in. There is occasional, light bleeding when the fertilized egg attaches itself to the wall of your uterus.
- Hormonal changes. It's not all that unusual for a pregnant woman to bleed at the time she would normally menstruate. This bleeding is usually light and short-lived.
Although most bleeding is nothing to worry about, it's also true that bleeding in early pregnancy can, in some cases, signal a problem. It can be a sign of two dangers:
- Miscarriage. Heavy bleeding, along with abdominal pain, might mean that you are experiencing a miscarriage (birth of the baby before it is old enough to survive outside the womb). At this point there is nothing you can do to stop the miscarriage, but you should call your doctor immediately to make sure you receive medical care.
- Ectopic pregnancy. Brown vaginal spotting or light bleeding accompanied by abdominal pain on one side can mean an ectopic pregnancy. This happens when the egg is implanted outside the uterus and can't grow to full term in that location.
In both of these cases, the embryo cannot be carried to full term and the pregnancy ends.
Bleeding in Middle or Late Pregnancy
Labor is the physical process that prepares the body for childbirth.
Bleeding in middle or late pregnancy might be nothing more than a sign that your cervix (the opening to the uterus) has been rubbed too much during intercourse or an internal exam. In other cases, however, it might be a sign that you need quick medical attention.
The most common medical causes of bleeding in middle or late pregnancy are as follows:
- Problems with the placenta. If the placenta (the organ on the inner wall of the uterus that supplies the baby with everything it needs to grow) is situated in the wrong position or is beginning to separate from the wall of the uterus, you will begin to bleed. The amount of blood and pain will depend on the degree of the problem.
- Miscarriage. Although a miscarriage in middle or late pregnancy is not common, it does happen. A possible miscarriage (that might be stopped with medical help) is often signaled by a pink discharge for several days, or a small amount of brown discharge that appears on and off for several weeks. Heavy bleeding, along with cramps, usually means the miscarriage cannot be stopped.
- Labor. Heavy bleeding, especially when combined with abdominal or back pain, can be a sign of labor. If this occurs in mid-pregnancy, your doctor will rush to intervene in hopes of stopping the baby from arriving early. If this occurs in the last week or two of your pregnancy your doctor will probably tell you to meet him in the delivery room.
Excerpted from The Complete Idiot's Guide to Pregnancy and Childbirth © 2004 by Michele Isaac Gliksman, M.D. and Theresa Foy DiGeronimo. All rights reserved including the right of reproduction in whole or in part in any form. Used by arrangement with Alpha Books, a member of Penguin Group (USA) Inc.
To order this book visit Amazon's website or call 1-800-253-6476.
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"Trail can be found by supporting the bike on a flat surface in an upright position for measuring purposes. A centerline is run down through the head tube until it hits the flat surface. A vertical line is then dropped from the front axle until it hits the ground. The distance between these two points on the ground is the trail. The comfort range of trail is 50 to 65 millimeters. Beyond these limits in either direction, it would be considered less desirable."
Dynamic Stability Of Bicycle Design : Part 2
Dynamic Stability Of Bicycle Design : Part 3
Dynamic Stability Of Bicycle Design : Part 4
A Bicycle Model To End All Models
"Linearized Dynamics Equations For The Balance & Steer Of a Bicycle" - J. P. Meijaard, Jim M. Papadopoulos, Andy Ruina, A. L. Schwab, 2007
History Of Bicycle Dynamics
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Connect With Us
Kirtland's Warbler (Dendroica kirtlandii)
The first Kirtland’s warbler in North America was identified in 1851 from a specimen collected on Dr. Jared Kirtland’s farm near Cleveland, Ohio. Biologists did not learn where it nested until 1903 when they found a warbler nest in northern lower Michigan. Today, Kirtland’s warblers face two significant threats: lack of crucial young jack pine (Pinus banksiana) forest habitat and the parasitic brown-headed cowbird (Molothrus ater).
A pair of Kirtland’s warblers requires at least eight acres of dense young jack pine forest to nest, but often 30 to 40 acres is needed to raise their young. Their exacting requirements for nesting, as well as cowbird parasitism, caused a drastic decline in numbers and led the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service to list the Kirtland’s warbler as an endangered species in 1967.
Endangered means a species is in danger of extinction throughout all or a portion of its range, while the less dire threatened designation means a species is likely to become endangered within the foreseeable future.
Until 1995 Kirtland’s warblers had only been known to nest in the northern part of Michigan’s Lower Peninsula. Today, they also nest in the Upper Peninsula, and since 2007, have nested in Wisconsin and Canada. They migrate from their nesting grounds to the southeastern coast of the United States on their way to wintering grounds in the Bahamas.
Kirtland’s warblers have bluish-gray backs with black streaks, yellow breasts, black side streaks and split white eye rings. They measure about six inches in length. Females are not as brightly colored as males.
Primarily insect eaters, Kirtland’s warblers forage for insects and larvae near the ground and in lower parts of pines and oaks. They also eat blueberries.
Kirtland’s warblers nest only on the ground near the lower branches and in large stands of young jack pines that are 5 to 20 feet tall and 6 to 22 years old. The tree’s age is crucial, although biologists are not sure why. It is possible that the birds need low branches near the ground to help conceal their nests. Before the trees are six years old, the lower branches are not large enough to hide the nest. After 15 years, these lower branches begin to die.
Concealed by branches, overhanging grass and low shrubs, the warbler’s cup-shaped nest is made of grasses. While being fed by their mates, females incubate four to five eggs for about 14 days. After hatching, the chicks remain in the nest for another nine or ten days before fledging, or leaving the nest.
Once it was believed that forest fires harmed the environment. However, we now know that fires play an important role in forest ecosystems. For example, without fire, jack pine cones do not completely release their seeds. Suppressing forest fires prevented the natural establishment of new jack pine stands. Since Kirtland’s warblers will only nest in stands of young jack pines, the population dwindled dramatically before scientists realized that there is a role for fire in forest ecology — and in the Kirtland’s warbler life history.
The second greatest threat to Kirtland’s warbler survival is the brown-headed cowbird. Cowbirds lay eggs in other bird’s nests, leaving the unsuspecting hosts to incubate and care for the young cowbirds. This is called nest parasitism.
When a female cowbird lays its egg in a nest, it often removes one of the host’s eggs. The cowbird egg hatches a day before the others, getting a head start on growth. The young cowbird is bigger and able to claim more food than other nestlings, and may crowd or push the other baby birds out of the nest.
Some species have developed ways to combat cowbird nest parasitism. They may abandon their nest and lay eggs elsewhere or build another nest on top of the cowbird egg. However, Kirtland’s warblers have not developed such defenses. Because of cowbird nest parasitism and Kirtland’s warblers’ inability to protect their nest and young, less than a third of their nests produced young in 1971.
The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, in cooperation with the Michigan Department of Natural Resources, the U.S. Forest Service and the Michigan Audubon Society, initiated an aggressive cowbird removal program in 1972 that has continued to this day. As a result, Kirtland’s warblers now have very good nesting success and enough young are being produced to increase the population.
Biologists, naturalists, and bird watchers began to recognize the dire plight of the Kirtland’s warbler in the 1950s. To keep track of the dwindling numbers of Kirtland’s warblers, birders counted the number of singing males every 10 years starting in 1951. Females do not sing and therefore are almost impossible to count accurately, but studies indicate there is approximately one female for each male. In 1961, the total population of males and females was more than 1,000. By 1971 the population had plummeted to about 400 birds. At that time, biologists began counting singing male warblers every year.
In 1973, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Service) appointed the Kirtland’s Warbler Recovery Team, the first endangered species recovery team established by the Service. This team included representatives from the Michigan Department of Natural Resources, the Service, U.S. Geological Survey, U.S. Forest Service and interested citizens. The team’s job was to determine how to save the warbler from extinction. They identified and prioritized conservation actions.
Today, warbler conservation measures are working. About 190,000 acres of public lands have been set aside by the Michigan Department of Natural Resources, the U.S. Forest Service and the Service specifically for Kirtland’s warbler management. From record lows of 167 in 1974 and 1987, the number of singing males increased to a record high of 1,828 in 2011.
The recovery team has recommended that 38,000 acres of warbler nesting habitat always be available—enough to reach the recovery goal. Since the trees continuously grow older and warblers cannot nest in forests older than about 22 years, land managers must create new habitat every year. About four thousand acres of forest are clearcut and 2-year-old jack pine seedlings planted each year. The cut trees are chopped and used for fuel or particle board —nothing is wasted. Over ninety-five percent of the warblers counted during recent censuses were on these managed land areas.
A portion of the Michigan Department of Natural Resources annual habitat management is funded through State Wildlife Grant money from the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. In recent years, the amount of these grants has decreased, along with other funding for similar work by the U.S. Forest Service and the State of Michigan.
Due to many dedicated people, the Kirtland’s warbler has met the recovery population goal. However, as a conservation-reliant species, the continued success of Kirtland’s warbler is dependent on annual habitat management and cowbird control. It is hoped that soon, provisions can be made to ensure that these management activities are continued into the future, allowing Kirtland’s warblers to be removed from the list of threatened and endangered species. Once these commitments are in place, we can be assured that Kirtland’s warbler will continue to search out young jack pine forests each spring for generations to come.
Last updated: January 3, 2013
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Introduction / History The Jambi people also known as the Jambi Malay or Melayu Jambi, primarily live in central Sumatra. They occupy the regencies of Batanghari, Bungo-Tebo, Sarolangun, Muaro Jambi, Merangin and the capital city of Jambi Province. The Jambi language is part of the Malay language cluster. Their culture has been heavily influenced by the Minangkabau culture. Most of the area inhabited by the Jambi is a lowland basin of dense jungles, peat bogs, swamps and rivers. This area is drained by the mighty Batang Hari River and its many tributaries. The river system, which is 409 miles/655 km long, is important both as a means of transportation and as a source of fish. The Jambi are adept swimmers and fishermen. They use eight types of traditional fishing tackle, as well as the modern fishnet. They are great eaters of fish and complain that a meal is incomplete if lacking the distinctive fish flavor.
What are their lives like? Most Jambi earn their livelihood from fishing. To catch fish they use both modern and traditional methods and equipment. They catch, sell and eat over eleven types of fish. Other ways of making a living include farming and plantation work. The Jambi are a very proud people due to their links with the ancient Malay kingdom that flourished from the 7th century AD until the Middle Ages. Sadly, this pride now threatens their economic development due to their unwillingness to accept modernization and reform. This can be seen when comparing their lives to those of transmigrants to the Jambi area, who now enjoy a higher standard of living than the native Jambi. Transportation between neighboring communities is done more frequently by water than by land. The reason is that most Jambi communities are located in forest areas with thick undergrowth and extensive swamps which make land travel difficult. Many traditional ceremonies and special rituals are performed by the Jambi. These are for events such as the birth of a child, giving a name to the child, cutting the child's hair for the first time, piercing a girl's ears at age two and circumcision for boys between the ages of six and ten years old. Once a child is at the age of adulthood (15 years old for a female and 17 years old for a male), there is a ritual of filing the teeth to make them even, as a rite of passage into adulthood.
What are their beliefs? Almost all of the Jambi are Muslim. Every village has a mosque or prayer house and typically also an Islamic religious school (madrasah). For the Jambi, all principles and guidelines governing human life originated with their ancestors, who in turn received them from the Qu'ran and the Hadith (written instructions for faith and practical matters taken from the life of the prophet Mohammed). The Jambi also believe that religious leaders, dwarves and shamans have supernatural powers.
What are their needs? Many Jambi feel neglected and exploited by the transmigrants who have come in the area over the past few decades. Greater educational assistance will help them learn skills that will make them more competitive with other ethnic groups who have moved into the area. Better medical help is also needed.
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MINNEAPOLIS - The recent heat wave has prompted a number of health alerts. One of them is an ozone warning. It has many people wondering what it is, and why it can be so dangerous.
Ozone is a gas in the atmosphere that is formed when pollutants react with sunlight and heat. The pollutants can come from combustion sources and emissions from paints and solvents, even wildfire smoke is in this category. More pollutants speed up the rate of ozone production.
In the lowest layer of the atmosphere ozone is known as smog.
Some people are more sensitive to ozone than others. Children, the elderly and those with respiratory conditions are especially susceptible to ozone's effects.
"Ozone is a respiratory irritant. It's sort of like a sunburn on your lungs," said Cassie McMahon, an Air Quality Specialist for the Minnesota Pollution Control Agency. "So, it can also damage plants like a sunburn. You might have decreased lung function. You might feel tightness in your chest or you might be wheezy. So if you're exposed to high doses you'll look for those symptoms, but also if you're exposed to repeated doses, much like a sunburn, it can get worse and worse."
Ozone has both good and bad properties, depending on where in the atmosphere it's located.
The good comes in to play when the ozone is located high up in the stratosphere. The ozone layer, which you have probably heard of, protects the earth by forming a shield that blocks out some of the sun's harmful ultraviolet rays.
For more on air quality and ozone, visit AirNow.gov.
(Copyright 2012 by KARE. All Rights Reserved. This material may not be published, broadcast, rewritten or redistributed.)
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If 4 million cars were taken off the road in a single year, stopping 9 billion kilograms of carbon dioxide being discharged, most environmentalists would whoop with joy. But what if the same saving came from planting genetically modified crops?
This is the claim of an annual audit of GM crops by the International Service for the Acquisition of Agri-Biotech Applications (ISAAA), which is funded largely by the GM industry.
The audit, published on 18 January, bases its estimate on GM planting in 2005 in the US, Canada and Argentina. Graham Brookes of PG Economics in Dorchester, UK, who supplied the data, says 85 per cent of the savings come from the fact that farmers growing weedkiller-resistant GM crops don't have to plough their fields to get rid of weeds, so organic matter in the soil is not exposed to the atmosphere. This, according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate ...
To continue reading this article, subscribe to receive access to all of newscientist.com, including 20 years of archive content.
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Page:Sanskrit Grammar by Whitney p1.djvu/93
Conversion of n to ṇ
lingual sibilant or semivowels or vowels—that is to say, by ष् ṣ, र् r, or ऋ ṛ or ॠ ṝ—: and this, not only if the altering letter stands immediately before the nasal, but at whatever distance from the latter it may be found: unless, indeed, there intervene (a consonant moving the front of the tongue: namely) a palatal (except य् y), a lingual, or a dental.
a. We may thus figure to ourselves the rationale of the process: in the marked proclivity of the language toward lingual utterance, especially of the nasal, the tip of the tongue, when once reverted into the loose lingual position by the utterance of a non-contact lingual element, tends to hang there and make its next nasal contact in that position; and does so, unless the proclivity is satisfied by the utterance of a lingual mute, or the organ is thrown out of adjustment by the utterance of an element which causes it to assume a different posture. This is not the case with the gutturals or labials, which do not move the front part of the tongue (and, as the influence of k on following s shows, the guttural position favors the succession of a lingual): and the y is too weakly palatal to interfere with the alteration (as its next relative, the i-vowel, itself lingualizes a s).
b. This is a rule of constant application; and (as was pointed out above, 46) the great majority of occurrences of ṇ in the language are a result of it.
190. The rule has force especially—
a. When suffixes, of influence or derivation, are added to roots or stems containing one of the altering sounds; thus, rudréṇa, rudrā́ṇām, vā́riṇe, vā́riṇī, vā́rīṇi, dātṝ́ṇi, hárāṇi, dvéṣāṇi, krīṇā́mi, çṛṇóti, kṣubhāṇá, ghṛṇá, kárṇa, vṛkṇá, rugṇá, dráviṇa, iṣáṇi, purāṇá, rékṇas, cákṣaṇa, cíkīrṣamāṇa, kṛ́pamāṇa.
b. When the final n of a root or stem comes to be followed, in inflection or derivation, by such sounds as allow it to feel the effect of a preceding altering cause: thus, from √ran, ráṇanti, ráṇyati, rāraṇa, arāṇiṣus; from brahman, bráhmaṇā, bráhmāṇi, brāhmaṇá, brahmaṇyà, bráhmaṇvant.
c. The form piṇak (RV.: 2d and 3d sing. impf.), from √piṣ, is wholly anomalous.
191. This rule (like that for the change of s to ṣ) applies strictly and especially when the nasal and the cause of its alteration both lie within the limits of the same integral word; but (also like the other) it is extended, within certain limits, to compound words—and even, in the Veda, to contiguous words in the sentence.
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A logic simulator is a computer program that allows designers and experimenters to conduct virtual tests of complex digital circuitry before working with any hardware. The user can interact with the program to find a component arrangement that will perform a desired task. Once a suitable design has been found, the logic simulator makes it easy to optimize, debug, and modify the circuitry.
Borland releases requirements definition simulation tool for teams
Borland's new browser-based requirements defini...(SearchSoftwareQuality.com)
Solstice releases test tools for integration projects
Solstice Software has released a suite of appli...(SearchSOA.com)
All digital systems comprise multiple logic gates, often in vast numbers. Some large or sophisticated systems also contain smaller, self-contained digital devices such flip flops, multiplexers, oscillators, integrators, differentiators, and counters. Each smaller device plays a unique and vital role in the complete system. Before the advent of logic simulators, engineers had to design digital devices and systems by going through a tedious combination of trial-and-error hardware manipulation and educated guesswork.
Logic simulators vary from vendor to vendor, but all offer intuitive GUIs (graphical user interfaces) including toolbars, drag and drop, color coding, and online help. Some programs also offer animation, signal tracing, and alternative logic-gate interconnection options. On the downside, logic simulators run far more slowly than the actual systems do (in some cases millions of times more slowly). Logic simulators can also place significant demands on computer resources because of the vast number of parallel hardware processes that take place in any nontrivial digital system.
Continue reading about logic simulators:
The University of Michigan Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science outlines logic simulation processes.
Read about basic logic simulation methods at tutorial-reports.com.
Yashusi Umezawa of Fujitsu Laboratories discusses how logic simulation can help engineers check data integrity.
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Lesson 1A: Online Advertising
This lesson will allow students to reflect on their online activities and explore how advertisers attempt to reach them through this medium.
Students will understand how advertising is used on the Internet.
1. Begin with a discussion about how students use the Internet. Invite students to talk about the activities they do online—social networking, playing games, shopping, research, etc.
2. Ask students to talk about the kinds of ads they’ve seen online. Tell students that sometimes, online advertising is obvious, but sometimes, it is not. Review these examples of online advertising:
- Banner ads and other web page ads: These ads appear on websites, usually at the top or sides of the page. They direct you to a website for more information about what is being sold.
- Ads based on your interests: Some online ads you see are placed there based on your interests. But how does an advertiser know what you like? Businesses may track the websites visited and searched for on your computer. Then, they put ads for those products on your computer. However, they can’t tell exactly who is doing the searching. For instance, if your brother searches for sports scores and visits team websites on the family computer, everyone in the family will see more sports-related ads (even family members not interested in sports).
- E-mail Ads: Sometimes, you see ads in your e-mail from a store you’ve shopped at online. Other times, you might sign up to be on a mailing list for a company or a store. Businesses or organizations often use e-mail to send you messages about special sales, promotions, or events. But be careful–e-mail ads also could be spam and contain a virus. Be cautious about opening attachments, downloading files, or clicking links in emails, no matter who sent them.
- Viral Marketing: Just like a joke or story spreads from person to person, advertising spreads that way, too. You might get a link to a funny video or message from a friend – and you might send it on to other friends if you like it. If the video or message shows a product (like a soda, movie, new song, gadget), chances are it’s an ad.
- Advergaming: This is a commercial in the form of a game. For example, you may go online and play in a food brand’s made-up world, using codes you get on the package. These ads let you interact with a business’s characters and logo—a symbol used by companies to identify their products.
3. Remind students that all ads want to grab your attention. To do this, ads can try to make us have different feelings: happy, excited, surprised, curious, etc. Ask students to think about how they feel as they complete the next activity.
4. Have students pair up. Distribute copies of Web Worksheet 1. Direct students to complete a scavenger hunt for online ads for a favorite food, film, or TV show. NOTE: To ensure that students are looking for ads on safe sites, provide students with a list of approved sites to visit during their hunt.
5. Once each pair has completed the scavenger hunt, invite students to share some of their experiences from the activity. In particular, ask students to talk about how successful the different types of ads were–did they think the target audience would buy that product?
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|Vitamin A for Fetal Development|
|Written by Mary G. Enig, PhD|
|Saturday, 12 November 2005 17:40|
True vitamin A is a vitamin that occurs only in animal fats. In primitive societies, pregnant women consumed special foods rich in vitamin A--such as liver, spring butter and fish eggs--in a conscious effort to produce healthy, well-formed children. Modern research completely validates these traditions.
In a recent paper,1 Maija H. Zile, of the Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition, Michigan State University, details the role of vitamin A in fetal development. Working with bird and mouse embryos, she and other researchers have determined that the vitamin A requirement begins at the time of formation of the primitive heart and circulation, and the development of the hindbrain, a period that corresponds to weeks 2-3 in humans. Without vitamin A, the embryo succumbs to gross abnormalities of the heart and is aborted.
Each organ system begins development during a specific window of time. Vitamin A regulates the differentiation of the primitive cells into cells specific to each organ system, in essence signaling to the genes their marching orders so they "know" where to locate themselves and what kind of tissues to become. If vitamin A is lacking during any of these windows, the organs develop abnormally or not at all.
The major target tissues of vitamin A deficiency include the heart, central nervous system, the circulatory, urogenital and respiratory systems, and the development of the skull, skeleton and limbs. Vitamin A deficiencies during the period when any of these systems begin specialization can result in abnormalities and defects.
According to Zile, even partial vitamin A deficiency affects the sensitive developing central nervous system; it plays a key role in the development of the visual system, the retina, the inner ear, the spinal cord, the craniofacial area including the pharyngeal and branchial arches and the thymus, thyroid and parathyroid glands.
During mid-gestation, vitamin A is required for fetal lung development. In vitamin A-deficient animals, congenital malformations in the urogential system occur.
Another fascinating avenue of research has shown that vitamin A holds the key to what scientists call the "holy grail" puzzle of developmental biology: the existence of a mechanism that ensures that the exterior of our bodies is symmetrical while the inner organs are arranged asymmetrically. Researchers at the Salk Institute have found that vitamin A provides the signal that buffers the influences of asymmetric cues in the early stages of development, and allows these cells to develop symmetrically. In the absence of vitamin A, the exterior of our bodies would develop asymmetrically, with the result being that our right side would be shorter than the left side.3
After the formation of all the organ systems, vitamin A supports their growth. Chronic vitamin A deficiency during pregnancy compromises the liver, heart and kidney and impairs lung growth and development during the last weeks of gestation.4
Unfortunately, FDA and other agencies warn pregnant women to avoid foods like liver and cod liver oil, claiming that too much vitamin A from these foods can cause birth defects. The study usually cited in support of these warnings was carried out in 1995 at the Boston University School of Medicine and published in the New England Journal of Medicine.5 In the study, researchers asked over 22,000 women to respond to questionnaires about their eating habits and supplement intake before and during pregnancy. Researchers found that cranial-neural crest defects increased with increased dosages of vitamin A; but neural tube defects decreased with increased vitamin A consumption, and no trend was apparent with musculoskeletal, urogenital or other defects.
This study is a poor rack on which to hang the myriad warnings that have kept pregnant women from eating liver and taking cod liver oil. Researchers made no distinction between synthetic vitamin A derived from multivitamins and processed food like margarine, and natural vitamin A from food; nor did they take blood samples to determine vitamin A status. Food recall surveys are a notoriously inaccurate method of determining nutrient intake.
Subsequent studies found that high levels of vitamin A did not increase the risk of birth defects. A 1998 study from Switzerland looked at vitamin A in pregnant women and found that a dose of 30,000 IU per day resulted in blood levels that had no association with birth defects.6
A 1999 study carried out in Rome, Italy found no congenital malformations among 120 infants whose mothers consumed an average of 50,000 IU of vitamin A per day.7 Some participants consumed up to 300,000 IU vitamin A daily during pregnancy with no birth defects in the offspring. An average of 50,000 IU vitamin A per day is consistent with our recommendation of cod liver oil to supply 20,000 IU per day plus additional vitamin A in liver, butter, seafood and egg yolks.
About the Author
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Religion within the Boundaries of Mere Reason
Part One (Sections 1–2)
Religion within the Boundaries of Mere Reason is organized into four parts, but for our purposes these four large divisions will be broken up into ten smaller, more manageable sections. In the present section, Kant explores two main issues. First, he explores how it is that we know human nature to be either inherently good or inherently evil. Secondly, he explains that although humans have a natural propensity to do what is right, this tendency is consistently overshadowed by a propensity to engage in morally corrupt behavior.
Let us begin with the first question: how do we know, with certainty, that human nature is either inherently evil or inherently good? After all, human nature is a complicated thing, and perhaps it is not only evil or only good. It seems reasonable to think that human nature is partly good and partly evil.
Kant rejects the theory that human nature is a mix of good and evil, inviting us to consider the following argument: every time a human being acts freely—that is, acts of his or her own free will—a law or a general rule is formulated inside the person. Kant calls this law a maxim. A maxim's primary function is to ensure that impulses do not directly dictate our behavior. The Golden Rule is a maxim, for instance, albeit an abstract and general one. But why do we need maxims? Why not allow our impulses and desires to guide our behavior directly? Kant says that in order to act freely, we must have some power to ratify or reject our desires. If our desires overwhelm us and we have no veto-power, then we cannot say that we truly act freely. Maxims allow us to accept or reject a given desire, and hence allow us to act freely. Because a maxim is good only duty inspires it, human nature can only be good (in accordance with duty) or evil (in accordance with everyday desires).
The previous argument only addresses what happens in particular instances of decision making, which does not directly prove that human beings are either good or evil by nature. To draw the conclusion that human beings are either good or evil, Kant has to show that we typically ignore duty, instead choosing to act on our everyday desires. In other words, Kant's argument only becomes complete when he explains why we are, by nature, consistently influenced by evil desires and impulses.
The second question in this section asks, if we have a tendency to do what is right, how is it that we are consistently swayed by evil desires and impulses? Kant claims that our propensity to do what is right comes in three forms: the propensity to preserve our own species (survival), the propensity to seek the respect and affection of others (social needs), and the propensity to regard the moral law as important enough to follow consistently. Kant acknowledges and rejects that theory that survival and social needs sometimes conflict with the demands of the moral law.
Kant believes that our moral constitution is weak in three distinct ways. First, we are frail, which means that often we do not act in ways that we know to be morally upright. Second, we are impure, which means that we sometimes act morally only when doing so also suits our interests. Finally, we are depraved, which means that often we act in direct opposition to what we know to be right. In each of these cases, our moral constitution freely chooses the immoral alternative. In Kant's view, we do not choose badly because someone forcues us, or because our physical and psychological needs require it, but because we consciously choose to ignore what we know to be morally right.
Philosophers since Kant have quarreled with two main problems that arise in this section. First, one might wonder why maxims—the rules that human beings formulate internally when they make choices—have to be either good or bad, rather than both at the same time. Second, one might question Kant's assertion that any action not performed wholly from a sense of duty is evil.
Kant says that maxims cannot encompass both good and bad desires. He believes that every desire that we face, every impulse that competes for our ratification, falls into one of two categories: run-of-the-mill, everyday desires, or the desire to fulfill your duty and do what the moral law requires. He says we can only be good if we do what duty calls for, and when we act on everyday desires and impulses, as we often do, we are acting immorally.
Kant excludes the possibility that maxims can include more than one desire or impulse. Professional philosophers have struggled with this issue, and most of them either admit Kant's belief that maxims are only motivated by one desire, or insist that maxims can, strictly speaking, include more than one desire or inclination. The latter theory appears to be more consistent with Religion within the Boundaries of Mere Reason. For instance, Kant says in 6:24 that free action not based on the moral law must be based upon an everyday desire, and that "it follows that his disposition as regards the moral law is never indifferent (never neither good nor bad)." This quotation shows Kant's idea that an everyday desire and duty can be unified in one maxim, although the resulting behavior must be considered evil, not good.
This brings us to the second problem: why do maxims forged from a combination of duty and everyday desire have to be considered evil? Again, philosophers have given two responses. Some have said that actions done from both duty and desire are not necessarily evil, but rather lack (in Kantian terminology) full moral worth. This response assumes that passages where Kant describes as evil actions motivated by duty and desire are merely exaggerations. Yet some philosophers have said that Kant did mean to call such behavior evil.
Kant might mean to stress that our predisposition to evil is the real problem, not the moral worth of the actions themselves. In 6:30, Kant says that humans have an overwhelming tendency to engage in immoral behavior, and "the mind's attitude is thereby corrupted at its root, and hence the human being is designated as evil".
Readers' Notes allow users to add their own analysis and insights to our SparkNotes—and to discuss those ideas with one another. Have a novel take or think we left something out? Add a Readers' Note!
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| Position statements of Climate Revolution Initiative and the underlying facts and assumptions.
#1. State of Climate
We are quickly edging forward on the precipice of a cliff ready to fall towards a climate catastrophe unimagined today. Only through a planet wide emergency response, beginning immediately, can we hope to prevent it.
a. World close to triggering runaway climate change Expand this ↓
Scientists have identified tipping points in the climate system that can set-off abrupt or runaway climate change. Runaway climate change refers to climate events that trigger one another and become impossible to control once set in motion much like tiles in a domino effect. Physicist Stephen Hawking has said that in worst case scenario eventually atmosphere on Earth "might end up like Venus, at 250 degrees centigrade and raining Sulphuric acid."
Possible sequence of events in runaway climate change could be: continued release of GHG emissions due to human activities leading to warming of the poles leading to complete melting of arctic sea ice which in turn reduces reflectivity of sunlight in the region in turn warming the oceans even more leading to release of larger amounts of methane in arctic permafrost which further warms the atmosphere leading to melting of Greenland raising sea-levels by seven meters and drying up of Amazon rainforest which catches fire and releases massive amounts of CO2, further intensifying warming and so on.
b. Tipping points are already beginning to be triggered Expand this ↓
Three of the tipping points identified by scientists include the loss of Arctic sea ice, Amazon rainforest dieback and loss of arctic permafrost. Scientific evidence suggests that each one of these is stressed to a very high degree. In 2007 the Arctic sea ice declined by a record extent, 22% lower than the previous record low observed in 2005. This is about 70-80 years ahead of IPCC projections.
For the past three years, parts of the Amazon basin have been experiencing sustained drought - one of its worst over the last 100 years threatening release of up to 95 gigatonnes of CO2 if it catches fire.
Another large carbon sink threatened is the Arctic permafrost that contains 1.5 trillion tonnes of carbon along with boreal regions according to one estimate. Reports from the Arctic reveal that "massive deposits of subsea methane are bubbling to the surface." Methane is now considered to be 30 times worse than carbon dioxide in its global warming potential.
c. Implications of runaway climate change include death of billions Expand this ↓
Projections by UK Met office conclude that if emission continue to rise and some of the positive feedbacks are triggered, world will warm by 4°C by 2060 itself, not 2100 as projected by IPCC. Kevin Anderson, head of the Tyndall centre of climate research, recently stated that a 4°C world would sustain population no more than half a billion people at most.
As world population is projected to rise to around 9 billion by 2050, it implies that 4°C warming would lead to death of more people than there are on the planet at present. Other noted scientists have also warned of a 4°C world which they say could lead to mass migration of entire nations towards colder regions.
d. Present level of greenhouse gas concentration is sufficient to trigger tipping points Expand this ↓
Recent research show that when GHG emissions stop completely, temperatures will not fall down but continue rising steadily or plateau at best. This implies that even if all emissions ended today, there will still remain a high probability of runaway climate change as the sea ice in Arctic, which is witnessing 4°C of warming above pre-industrial levels today, will continue to melt, the permafrost continue to thaw and Amazon rainforest continue to be threatened.
Other scientists go even further. Ramanathan and Feng, for example, state that even if greenhouse gas (GHG) concentration is stablised at 2005 level, it already commits us to warming of 2.4°C and perhaps as high as 4.3°C. NASA's top climate scientist James Hansen also argues that we have gone well past what can be considered as the safe limit of CO2 concentration in the atmosphere.
This implies that not only do we need to bring all emissions to a halt as soon as possible, we would also need to suck carbon out of the atmosphere. Ending all GHG emissions requires a planetary emergency response in phasing out fossil fuels and other emission sources as well as putting up infrastructure for installation of air capture towers to suck carbon out of atmosphere.
Yet, the world has pinned all its hope on emission reduction targets at international negotiations when it is evident that such targets have little meaning in light of above even if they are achieved. "The ultimate goal of climate protection policy, as stipulated by the UNFCCC, appears to be a delusion" noted Hans Joachim Schellnhuber, chief climate advisor to the German government, the G8 presidency and the EU presidency, in a paper citing Ramanathan and Feng.
e. Greenhouse gas concentration must be reduced at a rapid pace to avoid triggering runaway climate changeExpand this ↓
According to the IPCC AR4, emissions must peak by 2015 to avoid dangerous climate change. However, in their worst case scenario, temperature rise still shoots up to 2.4°C. While that may appear alarming, the latest scientific evidence show that IPCC projections tend to be highly conservative and they discount uncertainty regarding climate sensitivity.
As noted above, NASA scientist Hansen suggests we have already passed the dangerous limit of CO2 in the atmosphere. Thus, we may not have any time at all. What makes this scenario worse is that the gap between where we need to go in terms of emission reductions and where we are headed in business as usual is so wide that barring an unprecedented global response to reduce world emissions dramatically beginning immediately -- there's not much hope that we will be able to get there.
#2. International Response
The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) cannot possibly address climate crisis adequately in time. Copenhagen was a failure and so would be Mexico.
a. The Copenhagen accord led by United States is meaningless Expand this ↓
Described as 'historic' by US president Barrack Obama, the Copenhagen accord reached in December 2009 is completely devoid of any significance as it includes no short-term or long-term emission reduction targets; no deadline for emissions to peak; no legally binding mandate for developed countries to reduce emissions; no legally binding mandate for developing countries to reduce emissions; and no agreement on whether to extend Kyoto Protocol or end it and agree to a new treaty.
It includes fairly little new finance and no agreement on how the bill will be split between countries; no clarity on where the finance will come from and how will it be distributed; and no agreement on how to scale it up.
b. Run by a jury of the accused Expand this ↓
UNFCCC was formed on the belief that member nations would willingly accede to emission reduction controls with consensus on presentation of scientific evidence. Neither the UNFCCC treaty not its secretariat has any enforcement mechanism to mandate unwilling countries to accede to what is demanded by accumulated scientific evidence.
The negotiation process at Copenhagen, for example, could be compared to a court forming a jury of criminals, past, present and future (along with their victims), and asking them to decide among themselves the punishment that should be meted out to them. What transpired next has been called the greatest coup in the history of UNFCCC.
The biggest criminals in the jury carry out secret closed-door meetings and unilaterally declare they have reached an agreement that punishes no one. They then bribe and bully the victims and everyone else to agree to their verdict. Only a handful, courageous victims dare to speak out against these tactics while most others happily accept the payout.
By its very design, UNFCCC's consensus driven process is fundamentally unsuitable for contentious issue like this and is wedded to failure from the start. There is absolutely no possibility that under the present political, social and economic climate United States, China and India would voluntarily accede to emission cuts as required by science -- viewed by them as politically unfeasible rather than a necessity for survival.
c. Aiming for the wrong targets Expand this ↓
The laws of science that are driving climate change are non violable. Long-term cooperative action therefore must aim at ensuring zero probability of dangerous climate change irrespective of political feasibility because while changing politics is possible, changing the laws of physics and chemistry is not. Aiming for any outcome other than zero probability of dangerous climate change is morally and ethically bankrupt as it makes irreversible climate change a possibility.
Yet, environmental groups religiously following UNFCCC negotiations and lobbying for emission reduction targets of 25-40% by 2020 for Annex1 nations, have not done the math -- calculations needed to determine time bound targets that will guarantee a safe climate. Their targets are based on IPCC projections that aim for 450ppm as CO2 stablisation target when new research shows the safe limit may be between 300-325ppm and certainly not more than 350ppm.
IPCC projections also disregard uncertainty regarding climate sensitivity. The footnote to those projections state that IPCC assumption regarding climate sensitivity is a "best estimate". If we account for uncertainty and assume higher climate sensitivity, then the same 25-40/2020 target produces near certainty (up to 78% probability) of crossing 2°C as opposed to a 50% probability under IPCC assumptions, currently being pursued by environmental groups.
Any group or individual pushing for these targets must explain to the rest of the world why is a 50% chance of preventing dangerous climate change desirable or even acceptable. None of these people would get on a plane with a 50% chance of crashing. How can they collectively determine that 50% chance of saving human civilisation is good enough without first asking the people of this world whether that is the risk they are willing to take?
25-40% reductions by 2020 is a dastardly goal which reeks of acquiescing half-heartedly to what is referred as "political reality." Anyone submitting to the present level of political will should have no business setting the climate protection boundary.
Even the goal of limiting temperature rise within 2°C by itself has been questioned. In his testimony to U.S. congress in July 2008, NASA's top climate scientist James Hansen calls it "a recipe for global disaster, not salvation." First conceived in the 90's by the European Union, the goal should have been long obsolete as climate science has progressed miles ahead since then. The IPCC, which is bound not to be policy prescriptive, does not explicitly recommend keeping temperature rise within 2°C and admits that it could still mean up to 2 billion people facing water shortages and extinction for up to 30% of the world's species.
Another reason the targets pursued at UNFCCC are unreliable is because all scientific evidence and research published since the release of IPCC AR4, the basis for these targets, reveal that IPCC projections are highly conservative. In paper after paper IPCC comes out to be behind. Yet international negotiations continue to be based on science that is obsolete.
d. Poor past performance Expand this ↓
While negotiating an agreement that must be put into force immediately and one that must succeed no matter what, is it prudent to trust an institution whose past is marked with delays and failure? Especially when cost of failure is so high?
The UNFCCC process is often criticised as crippled with bureaucracy. It took five years of arduous talks to form Kyoto Protocol. Adopted in late 1997, it then took another seven years of talk to put it into action. Set to expire in 2012, the Kyoto Protocol was given 15 long years to achieve a paltry 5% reduction in emissions.
Yet, world emissions grew 29% between 2000 and 2008 alone, tripling the rate of growth in 1990's. After the failure of Copenhagen, environmentalists are now pinning hopes on Mexico, expecting world countries to agree to reducing emissions about ten times as much as Kyoto in less than half as much time (2012-2020).
e. No enforcement. No paln B. Expand this ↓
The probability of developed and developing countries mending their differences and agreeing to drastic emissions reductions in Mexico later this year after fighting for two decades, is fairly remote. But even if one assumes that they do claim to arrive at such an agreement, there would be good reason to remain sceptical.
For one, there are loopholes built into national proposals submitted to the twin UNFCCC tracks of Kyoto Protocol and Long-term Cooperative Action. Loopholes like offsets, creative accounting and emissions that are not accounted for; allow for member countries an easy escape route to continue emitting.
Secondly, Cap and Trade, the implementation mechanism for emission reductions, has been fraught with its own complexities, corruption and fraud even at the relatively small scale it has been implemented during Kyoto Protocol. Now when emission reductions must be scaled up several fold, negotiators are relying on the same failed mechanisms.
Thirdly, there is as yet no full-proof international mechanism for guaranteeing compliance from member states. Nothing would prevent the United States or China to forgo the commitments they make. No one will stop trade with the US or China, for example, if they didn't follow through their promises.
A case in point is the failure of fiscal regulation measures introduced by the European Union. Articles 99 and 104 of the EU treaty led to the 'Stability and Growth Pact', an agreement by EU member states that is meant to ensure that their fiscal deficit does not cross 3%.
However, despite provision for multiple warnings and sanctions against offending member states, the agreement failed to apply sanctions against big states like France and Germany when their fiscal deficits shot up. The recent disclosure by Greece that its fiscal deterioration increased to four times the EU limit and that the figure it had been reporting previously was the result of "creative accounting", is yet another example that guaranteeing compliance of an international treaty when the member country is determined to break it, is nearly impossible.
Finally, UNFCCC does not have a plan B and one could well argue that by the time it establishes that the present agreement is not working, there would be no time for a plan B. The tipping points of runaway climate change would have been triggered and there would be fairly little that would be possible at that stage to save humanity.
#3. Indian Response
The Indian government remains ignorant and in denial of climate science while being steadfastly committed to multiplying emissions domestically and thwarting an ambitious deal internationally.
a. A government in denial of climate science threatens its citizens' right to live Expand this ↓
In light of the clear and present danger of triggering runaway climate change, it is evident that continued emission growth is not an option. Yet, government's policies do not admit to this irrefutable scientific fact. India's emissions are variously estimated to grow three to five fold or more by 2030. Over the next few decades, 75% of growth in world emissions will come from what are traditionally called "developing" countries like India and China as we continue along the business as usual pathway.
The government's no-compromise economic growth policy favors trade and industry and is against the interests of over 1 billion plus ordinary citizens. It risks their lives from the effects of climate change in the short term and eventually committing them to runaway climate change. Every citizen of this nation has a right to challenge policies that have grave implications for their future and as such threaten their right to live.
b. A government in denial of the shift in developmental paradigm commits to rapid emission growth Expand this ↓
The 2007 Fourth Assessment Report of Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC AR4), the overwhelming scientific evidence in support of changes in earth's climate currently being witnessed world over and the widespread acceptance that the model of economic development followed since the industrial revolution can no longer be sustained is leading to rethinking of the definition of development world over.
Much of the so-called "developed" world is gradually coming around to accept that deep and wide emission cuts are inevitable. That sustainable development is not some special kind of development the rich indulge in to keep the "green brigade happy" but that it is the only kind of development that makes sense going forward.
There's no acknowledgement of such a paradigm shift in India. And even no discourse on whether it makes any sense for us to play catch-up with the "developed" nations on per capita emissions and then reduce when those nations are already preparing to catch-up (catch-down?) to our levels of consumption.
We remain stuck in the obsolete paradigm where development means an ever-increasing-fossil-fuel-consumption-driven -uncompromising-GDP-growth-centric-economy at the expense of the lives of present and future citizens of this country.
c. A government in denial of resource depletion invites complete collapse Expand this ↓
Oil, coal, natural gas and other fossil fuel and mineral sources are in finite quantity in the earth's crust. India's economy, however, and most of the rest of the world, is predicated on the notion of continued economic growth and therefore continued exploitation of natural resources -- a physical impossibility in a world with finite resources.
Over 70% of India's oil demand, for example, is met through imports. As our economy grows over the next two decades and as does China's, this demand is set to increase manifold. But is there enough oil in oil reserves to feed this growing appetite? This question led the International Energy Agency (IEA) to conduct a comprehensive survey of all of its 800+ oil fields around the world in 2008.
In December that year, while releasing results of its study the IEA admitted for the first time of the existence of peak oil and issued a stunning conclusion: "even if world oil demand stablises at current level, the world would require four Saudi Arabia by 2030 just to offset the oil field decline."
But the demand is not stablising. It is multiplying. The Integrated Energy Policy adopted by the government of India projects a three-fold increase in oil demand by 2032 over 2007 level. Yet, the government's policies assume endless oil availability. There are no preparedness plans and not even a recognition that peak oil is a problem.
As oil touches all aspects of a nation's earnings -- trade, industry, transportation, agriculture, infrastructure etc -- a major collapse is inevitable if we do not transition our economy to alternative sources of energy. A U.S Department of Energy report on peak oil concluded that it would require the world two decades of preparation in advance of peaking of oil to assure a safe transition. It warned that without timely mitigation, the economic, social, and political costs will be unprecedented.
d. Equity alone cannot be the defining criteria behind India's response Expand this ↓
India has long pointed fingers towards the West arguing that they have historical responsibility and must assume leadership in reducing emissions. The West however refuses to take serious action unless India and China share part of the responsibility as well. From the perspective of mitigation of climate change, the widespread belief in India's political circles that equity is in our self-interest in entirely mistaken.
An ideal way to determine our policy response to deal with the climate crisis would have been an honest and thorough examination of costs and benefits associated with every policy alternative available to us. We deploy an army of intelligence agencies with thousands of employees on terrorism monitoring yet we don't examine risks associated with our climate policy that pose a danger several orders of magnitude greater.
There is little discussion on the available possible policy alternatives, least of all on a thorough examination of their costs and benefits. The stubborn refusal of our policymakers to even look at or examine any other policy response has led them to prioritise short-term gain at the cost of long-term risk.
There is no denying that historical emissions and per-capita approach (adjusted for rate of population growth) would provide for the most equitable mechanism under which the share of emission reductions are determined. However, it is self-interest not equity that should guide India's response. If our call for equity is resulting in a deadlock and inaction then equity is clearly not in our self-interest because ultimately we want global action on climate change.
The risk from runaway climate change is several times greater than the gains through unlimited economic growth, even assuming that such a policy can be sustained over the long term. Quite clearly, any cost-benefit analysis of India's policy supports action on climate mitigation. Unfortunately, by prioritising the short-term gains to the economy and putting mitigation to the backburner, our policymakers are ignoring the prohibitive cost of inaction.
e. Poverty as an excuse to multiply emissions cannot be justified Expand this ↓
There is yet another belief fundamental to India's policy response (or lack of it) to the climate crisis -- India cannot curb emissions as it needs to feed the poor and allow them the room to grow. For one, if India adopts a low-carbon growth pathway the poor will be just as happy. They do not care that the electricity they get comes from burning of fossil fuels or by harnessing wind power, for example, as long as they get the electricity when they need it.
Secondly, it is assumed that welfare of the poor is directly linked to economic growth but there's no evidence of a direct relationship between economic growth and standard of living in India. Residents of Mumbai, for example -- have a life expectancy of seven years less than the national average despite the city being the country's economic hub. There are no reliable figures available on poverty alleviation achieved since India began the liberalisation process about two decades ago.
At best, economic growth is a highly inefficient method of eradicating poverty. Another popular assumption is that both poverty alleviation and emission reduction cannot be addressed at the same time. This is just as untrue. There exist mechanisms that can make a serious dent in the country's emission growth as well as alleviating poverty at the same time. One of them is a revenue neutral carbon tax. Expectedly, the government has no plans regarding this.
Finally, India's poverty is actually the reason we should be aggressive in pursuing mitigation of climate change as studies show that the poor of the developing world will be worse affected by its effects in the short term. We have more to lose than any other country with increasing frequency of cyclones, sea level rise, unpredictable weather fluctuations, disruption of rainfall patterns and higher incidence of diseases. Our policies do not reflect that we realise this.
f. Emission intensity cuts are a sham as they require no new action! Expand this ↓
In December 2009, in the run-up to Copenhagen climate conference, the government of India announced cuts in emission intensity ranging from 20-25% by 2020. A closer examination, reveals that these cuts are based on no-mitigation scenario, i.e, emission intensity would reduce by itself without any new action by the government.
As old power plants, industrial machinery, equipment and appliances give way to more efficient power plants, industrial machinery, equipment and appliances over the natural course of time, energy intensity of the nation would come down on its own in due course of time. This reduction in emission intensity is contained in a report on emission pathway projections released by Ministry of Environment & Forests itself back in September that year.
Therefore, the so-called "cuts" in energy intensity announced by the government with much fanfare are nothing but an elaborate sham and a clever PR campaign to take pressure off India to make real reduction in emissions. Unfortunately, no civil society organisation or media report was able to identify this clever trick of the government.
g. Government party to Copenhagen Crimes Expand this ↓
At the Copenhagen climate conference, India is widely known to have teamed up with China and other developing countries in exclusive closed-door talks with the United States. The meetings resulted in the so-called Copenhagen Accord -- a document so watered down and meaningless that it is not worth the paper it is written upon.
The accord drafted by India, China under the leadership of United States contains no emission reduction targets for any of these countries. It contains provision for declaration of voluntary pledges to reduce emissions. According to scientific assessments, the emission reduction pledges submitted by UNFCCC member states so far would lead to 6°C warming by end of the century.
The Government of India has consistently refused to take a lead in emission reductions citing historical responsibility of the developed world but when it comes to getting the developed countries to sign on emission reductions, it conveniently ignores the threat to its citizens and works hand in hand with them to water down a potentially strong international deal.
History would not judge this massive compromise of the interests of citizens of this country and those of the world kindly. India is party to what could best be described as 'Copenhagen Crimes' -- predetermined and organised efforts to thrwart an ambitious international agreement on climate change.
#4. Civil Society Response
Civil society institutions have been unsuccessful in bringing about an adequate political response. Focussing on governments while neglecting popular public opinion and lack of public commitment has been a critical failing.
a. Failed to secure emission reduction commitments Expand this ↓
The Copenhagen accord is a testament to civil society's abject failure in influencing the international climate negotiation process. All the public demonstrations, rallies, global people formations, research reports and collective outcry of civil society institutions for change leading up to the Copenhagen conference and during the event ended up being completely inconsequential.
Physically shut out from the main event during its crucial second half, the organisations and individual demonstrators gathered at Copenhagen not only failed at exerting pressure on the deliberations towards securing emission reduction commitments, but their impact was so negligible that no notable leader even stopped to acknowledge them in their speeches.
The developed nations led by United States and developing countries led by India and China were absolutely determined not to concede legally binding emission reduction commitments. So, when an ineffective civil society lobby met with a resolute opposition in the political leadership, there was no other outcome likely except dilution of the targets sought.
Hyped as a do or die event before it started, the Copenhagen climate conference eventually ended any hope that civil society has any influence over the international climate negotiation platform where binding commitments were being desperately fought off.
b. Failure demonstrates need for a new strategy Expand this ↓
The institutions working in the area of climate change mitigation come from varying backgrounds and are vastly fragmented. Despite the common goal of effective political action on mitigation of dangerous climate change, there is no agreement on the means, tools and strategies needed to achieve it. Protests seem to exist for the sake of protests with little regard to consequence.
New plans and projects are announced with conscious knowledge that even when successful, they would at best lead to incremental change and at worse be completely inconsequential while the science is abundantly clear that we need big changes. Yet, there is no evidence of self-examination and call for change within the civil society itself. After the Copenhagen debacle, most organisations have continued functioning with business as usual.
It is evident that no common strategy exists or if one has existed in the past, its utter failure shows that it needs to change. If a civil society institution working in the area of climate change succeeds in winning a landmark battle tomorrow it will be through a strategy vastly different from all the others employed in the past.
c. No influence on popular public opinion Expand this ↓
Climate change can also be seen as a failure of public to perceive the true scientific and political context and implications of various developments; and, the failure to communicate the same to the public on the part of civil society, media, scientific community and governments.
Although civil society should ideally represent the common man, opinion polls show that popular public opinion on climate change internationally has ranged from doubt to scepticism while interest in strong political action has been continuously on the decline.
In India, while there is public consensus, at least amongst the educated class, of climate change as a looming threat; however, its extent, severity, the scale of change required and what exactly constitutes that change -- such issues and many others surrounding it are poorly understood.
At Climate Revolution Initiative, it is our strong belief that no large political change or climate policy reform is possible unless the governments perceive that significant majority of the population demands that change. Merely asking the government, protesting against their policies or talking to them at the table will not yield results unless there is widespread public support and demand for change.
Thus in our view, by focussing solely on the governments, the civil society has been barking up the wrong tree. This is true internationally and for India as well. Civil society has failed to identify and address the most critical qualification for large scale change -- public support for it.
While there are several organisations working at the grassroots, their impact on the masses is questionable due to their limited reach and capacity. Their message might reach thousands or tens of thousands on occasion but how well their audience understands the issue in all its facets is unclear. Complexity inherent in the issue of climate change requires a communication approach that is rich in compelling content, personalised to a specific context, presented in a usable manner and delivered to a wide audience.
d. Perceived as extreme and isolated in policy circles Expand this ↓
Although climate activism is a vast field and there are several new players, traditional environmental organisations internationally and in India continue to dominate the composition of civil society institutions active in this field. There are several ways to categorise environmental organisations but some of the key defining characteristics are a) grassroots driven, b) action oriented and c) judiciary focussed; with a significant overlap between these roles at times.
The events most often highlighted in the mainstream media are those led by action oriented and judiciary focussed organisations. In these reports environmentalists are often seen atop buildings or bridges unfurling large banners, going on hunger strikes or fighting court battles against "developmental" projects like large dams, for example, that have positive associations in the public mind. Since photo captions and news reports generally do not, and due to limitations of the medium cannot, elaborate the complex background and context behind the story, this inadvertently leads to vague associations of "crazy environmentalists" or "obstructionist people" in the reader's mind.
Thus, despite the excellent work done under enormous constraints, environmentalism in popular culture, and particularly in policy and judicial circles, has unfortunately come to mean extreme, isolated, single dimensioned and unbalanced approach often perceived as obstructionism to the developmental paradigm, as the latter is traditionally defined. The environmentalist's view is seen as one that does not represent the mainstream and that must be counter-balanced with other approaches, priorities, realities and "greater common good."
Clearly environmentalists have done a poor job of making themselves understood. No strategy is apparent on part of the civil society to counter this popular but deeply flawed understanding of their role in the public consciousness.
e. Out of touch and ill-equipped to handle scale of the challenge Expand this ↓
Yet another lesson from Copenhagen is that civil society seem to have underestimated the resistance they would face from governments. It was perhaps unclear to them that governments have interests so deeply entrenched in the status quo that no amount of worldwide human formations and climbing of parliaments will lead them to change.
Evidently, traditional environmental organisations, particularly the grassroots and action oriented ones, lack any understanding and experience of institutionalising large scale change. None of their past experience has prepared them to tackle what confronts them today.
Most of the strategies, rather tactics, pursued by civil society in the area of climate change revolve around shock and awe, tokenism, incrementalism and symbolism - completely inconsequential and bereft of any lasting meaning.
Position statements on economy and resource depletion; and, on technology will be added shortly.
|Home About Us Position Statements Initiatives & Proposals RTI Initiative Green-India ↗|
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Unfortunately, every class usually has a bully or two. The boys are more likely to hit or get into fights. With girls, aggression tends to take the form of saying mean things, or excluding others. If your child has an encounter with a bully, don't overreact. It could make the child feel more helpless, if you immediately rush to their rescue. Instead, base your actions on how your child responds to the incident. In a couple of days, they may forget the whole thing. But when bullying happens repeatedly, you'll need to deal with the problem. One way is to help your child make more friends; kids with a wide social network are less likely to be picked on. Plan a fun outing with a couple of classmates, or invite kids over to your house. Suggest that they join a club or group, like Girl Scouts or Little League. You can also practice ways your child might respond to the bully. First, have them tell a teacher what's going on. While many kids are reluctant to be tattletales, other children in the class are likely to resent the bully too, and be glad someone told. If an adult isn't around, your child should ignore the bully, or tell them forcefully to stop. Let them know aggression should be used only as a last resort.
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Phoenicopteriformes are also known as flamingos. Flamingos have long legs so that means that they can go into deeper water level. They are found at the Western and Eastern Hemisphere. Flamingos do not sleep like other birds. They sleep sitting down with their feet tucked in, or standing on one leg. While they sleep, flamingos like to face the wind. In fact, when you see them sleeping, they tend to move back and forth because of the wind. Flamingos always stand on one leg and curl the leg under the body to keep their foot warm and to conserve their body heat. Whether the weather is cool or warm, the flamingos still curl their legs.
Before a flamingo takes off, they first run several steps, begin to flap their wings, and they lift up into the air. Landing is reversed. The bird touches down and runs several paces. When a flamingo is in flight, their head and neck is stretched out in front and its legs right behind it. The flight speed of a flock of flamingos can reach 50 to 60 kph (31-37mph) they are known to fly 500 to 600 km (311-373mi.) Blue-green and red algae, diatoms, larval and adult forms of small insects, crustaceans, mollusks, and small fishes are the main diet for flamingos. The shape of a flamingo’s bill determines its diet. It will either have a shallow or a deep-keeled-bill. They fight over the food they eat because of feeding grounds.
When flamingos are born, they are grayish white color. The chicks have straight beaks which will become curved as they mature. The adults feed them food from glands located near the digestive tracks. It takes three years for the chicks to get full coloration. Flamingos will not display or breed until they get their full pink color. Some flamingos will abandon their nests because of a low flying aircraft. They are also noisy and social birds. They take flight as they sense a sudden movement or noise. Flamingos can live up to fifty years.
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THE most dubious phrase in English after "act natural" is "trust me". A party asking for trust without offering a reason why is probably untrustworthy. And yet the internet's entire security ecosystem relies on precisely that reasoning. Browsers believe in the integrity of secured websites based on other unknown parties' word. In these complicated times such implicit trust may be misplaced. Thankfully, work is afoot to change how trust is assigned, and it cannot come too quickly.
A month ago, this Babbage extolled Democratic Senator Charles Schumer's exhortations to major web companies to make secure connections the default method for users. This would keep malicious parties from hijacking sessions with social media and other sites on open networks, especially Wi-Fi hot spots.
Commenters suggested your correspondent was naive, and perhaps rightly so. The encryption used by secure websites relies on tenuous relationships. Critics noted that the system that validates the integrity of a protected connection may already be subverted by nations and individuals. In fact, a breach of security at Comodo, a firm that creates security documents for websites, among its other businesses, revealed just how weak the system is. Allegedly, an Iranian cracker was able to issue himself—through a Comodo affiliate—valid certificates for domains at Skype and other firms.
When a surfer connects to a site that uses something called SSL/TLS, the only worldwide standard used to initiate and encrypt connections, a web server provides information that the surfer's browser is meant to check. The information comes in the form of a certificate, which is counter-signed by third parties known as certificate authorities (CAs). (Private web and other communications use variants of this approach; its strength can be ratcheted up, too.)
CAs are, in turn, signed off on by browser makers and operating-system (OS) designers—some browsers consult an internal list of CAs and others turn to a list embedded in the OS. In either case, the system uses detail provided by the CA to confirm that the certificate is legitimate. But what does legitimate mean, in this context? Well, just that a CA says it is legitimate. In other words, "trust me". Currently, any CA in the world may vouch for the authenticity and integrity of a certificate for any domain name in the world, as it pleases.
Many governments have indirect or direct ties to some of the hundreds of CAs approved by Microsoft (OS and Internet Explorer), Apple (OS and Safari), the Mozilla Foundation (Firefox) and Google (Chrome). Democracies like Britain or the United States might formerly have adopted a hands-off policy on such matters. But shell games with certificates can, in principle, be used to intercept nominally secure data. Worse still, such ploys are often undetectable. But not all countries are democracies. And even those can sometimes be a little too prying.
SSL/TLS certificates are scoped to a specific name at a domain, such as www.economist.com. When a secure URL is entered or clicked in a browser, the operating system converts this name into a machine-readable address like, for The Economist, 18.104.22.168, using the decentralised domain-name system (DNS) to handle the query. However, DNS can easily be subverted: a home computer can be infected with a virus which rewrites the queries before they get to the DNS server and diverts them to a malicious site; at the other end of the scale, a sovereign can mislead all the machines connected anywhere in a given country. (This is routine at Wi-Fi hotspots. After you connect to most such networks and try to view a page, your browser is redirected to a "splash" page for logging in or accepting usage terms. The DNS request is intercepted and rewritten by a device on the venue's network.)
The secure web infrastructure was designed in part to defend against this. The browser may be tricked into connecting to a server designed to extract your identity or intercept communications, but the browser will see the wolf under the sheep's clothing. It will alert the user and hinder him from connecting to a server that lacks a certificate, issued by some CA, for the domain it claims to be representing. But if a valid certificate can be obtained, neither the user nor the browser have any idea that they have been hijacked.
These issues are well known to the boffins who run the parts of the internet most users never need to know about. Stephen Schultze, the associate director of Princeton's Center for Information Technology Policy, says that a number of changes in how people apportion trust could alleviate the most severe risks of the present system.
First, browser and OS makers ought to prevent CAs from issuing certificates willy-nilly, but so far have not been serious about it. Apple, Google, Microsoft, and other OS and browser firms may offend governments in countries in which they do business by not accepting all certificates as valid from CAs with sovereign or nepotistic ties, and limiting them to validating specific country domains (such as .cn or .uk). But Mr Schultze says these firms may stiffen their resolve after recent breaches, which affect their own businesses and give the heebie-jeebies to their customers. At the very least, CAs may be subject to stricter vetting (and perhaps auditing) to be included on approved lists.
Second, browsers could offer tools that resemble ad blockers or spam blacklists that would allow non-expert users to avoid connections to illegitimate sites that seem to have been validated. Along these lines, Google announced on April 1st that it had assembled, and would update a global almanac of SSL/TLS certificates. It retrieves security data routinely while indexing the web. These data could be consulted by browsers or third-party plugins to sniff out unusual changes in security documents and warn users—or simply prevent a connection.
Finally, a comprehensive solution would let domain owners confirm that the names and machine numbers issued by a given CA are kosher. Under DNS-based Authentication of Named Entities (DANE), a standard being developed by Mr Schultze and others at the Internet Engineering Task Force, a browser retrieves a certificate from a web server, but checks with the DNS whether the certificate is in fact the one that was issued to a given domain owner. So, though a CA will still provide a validation step, the domain owner will have had to give it the thumbs up first. To prevent malevolent fiddling the DNS infrastructure itself needs to be secured, too. A long-running effort to do this, known as DNSSEC, hit a key milestone in 2010 and may have enough pieces in place soon to be usable. This is important because DANE would be incomplete without it.
Whilst all current browsers must be updated to take advantage of DANE, the new system can coexist with the old, and a gradual transition can be made. Browser plug-ins could bridge the gap before browser makers build in DANE, too. Those that want the added robustness of the new system—whether individuals, companies, or governments—may accelerate the adoption of updated browsers as DANE becomes available.
These moves do not provide total assurance that what your browser is told about an internet site's identity and security is true. Trust, but verify—and verify again.
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Gessler Corner: Repetitive Acid Reflux Calls for Doctor's Visit
Published: Sunday, January 20, 2013 at 8:13 a.m.
Last Modified: Sunday, January 20, 2013 at 8:13 a.m.
Most people experience heartburn: the unmistakable discomfort that emanates from the stomach and is felt as a burning sensation that goes sometimes from the mouth all the way down to the pit of a person's stomach.
It has been estimated that about 10 percent of Americans experience heartburn at least once a week.
It is known that heartburn can be triggered by many things, especially dietary indiscretion. Foods that lead to heartburn are tomatoes, chocolate, caffeine, citrus, cinnamon, hot seasoned foods, tobacco and alcohol.
Heartburn is also experienced in persons who eat prior to going to bed. It is a good idea to not eat a minimum of three hours before going to bed.
It is known that certain medications can lead to heartburn. The medicines that are most notorious for doing this are pain medications that contain aspirin, NSAIDS (Advil, Aleve, ibuprofen), and medications that contain caffeine and alcohol.
There are many other medications that can cause heartburn. It is known that almost any cold medicine can lead to heartburn. Obesity is a leading cause of heartburn. A person who is obese is a person whose weight is approximately 20 percent over an individual's ideal body weight. Unfortunately, in America, more people fall into the category of obesity; thus, more people are experiencing heartburn.
If a person is experiencing heartburn, they should see their family doctor for a complete evaluation. Heartburn can be caused from a bacteria as well. It is known that the bacteria Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) plays a major role in the cause of heartburn, acid reflux, gastritis, and even ulcers. This bacteria was discovered in 1983. It has been shown that if this bacteria exists in a person and if this bacteria is eradicated with the use of antibiotics and acid suppression, then many people will never experience significant reflux again.
If a person is suffering from heartburn and especially if a person is taking something for heartburn on a regular basis, he or she should see a family doctor for a complete evaluation.
Dr. Gordon J. Rafool is a specialist in Family Practice and Geriatrics at Gessler Clinic, Winter Haven.
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Posts Tagged teaching reading comprehension
The process of teaching kids to read can be a fun; for some of them however, it could be one of the most arduous task to do. Simple procedures applied to teaching kids about basics of reading mentioned below, should be implemented to obtain better results and develop the reading habit.
Teaching Kids to Read
The basic methods employed to teach kids to read are described in the article below. One can even teach older kids to read properly with the techniques given below. To teach your child to read could test the patience. One can however, simplify the task by applying proper instructional techniques. Read more on teaching reading comprehension.
Teach Your Child to Read
The simple process to be followed in teaching pre-schoolers to read is putting more stress on vowels and the phonetics associated with them. The following instructions would help to teach your baby to read.
One should use completely different books which do not contain the regular (boring) format of letter and words. The books need to have letters printed in a bold and big font size. Teaching in unconventional ways always yields better results. Most importantly, kids are not under pressure of learning something they do not want to. One should first pick up three-lettered words and say every letter aloud, one-by-one. One should proceed to the next letter after the child has repeated it. At the end of this 3-step process, the child should be instructed to say the whole word by combining the components/letters. Some children might find it difficult to successfully complete the procedure. Saying the letters and words along with the kids boosts their confidence and thereby helping children read properly. Read the rest of this entry »
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Science Fair Project Encyclopedia
- This article is about communism as a form of society built around a gift economy, as an ideology advocating that form of society, and as a popular movement . For issues regarding the organization of the communist movement, see the Communist party article. For issues regarding one-party states ruled by Communist Parties (and everything associated with them), see Communist state.
As a theoretical social and economic system, communism would be a type of egalitarian society with no state, no privately owned means of production and no social class. In communism, all property is owned by the community as a whole, and all people have equal social and economic status. Theoretically, human need or advancement is not left unsatisfied because of poverty, and is rather solved through distribution of property as needed. This is thus often the system proposed to solve the problem of the poverty cycle .
Perhaps the best known maxim of a communist society is "From each according to his ability, to each according to his need." This economic model is also referred to as a gift economy.
As a political movement, communism is a branch of the broader socialist movement. The communist movement differentiates itself from other branches of the socialist movement through various things - such as, for example, the communist desire to establish a gift economy, and their commitment to revolutionary strategies for overthrowing capitalism.
A communist is someone who favors communism.
Marxism and Anarchism
A communist society in theoretical Marxist terms is no different from the kind of society that is advocated by Anarchism, (specifically Anarcho-communism), but traditionally, Marxists argue for a temporary socialist government to facilitate the transition. Both movements are defined by their agitation for the elimination of wage labor and capitalism in favour of a non-statist gift economy. Both Marxist communists and Anarcho-communists seek to abolish private as well as state ownership of the means of production and the state itself.
However, unlike many Marxists, anarchists do not believe that a stage where the state owns the means of production is needed or desirable between capitalism and communism. They wish to implement their libertarian system without going through a period of "state socialism" where the state acts as an "instrument" of the working class. Anarchists, with their distrust of rulers, argue that this ultimately risks the rise of a potentially tyrannous "red bureaucracy", that could hijack a revolution, seizing power, and thus leading to abuse.
This has resulted in a sometimes hostile relationship between many Marxists and Anarchists, though this hostility is generally not present amongst the autonomous and more libertarian Marxist traditions. Anarchists were involved in the October Revolution, and supported the idea of workers' councils or Soviets, but are fiercely opposed to the centralization of power away from them that occurred in later periods, especially under Stalin. They considered this, as well as the organization of a central army as opposed to workers' militias run directly by local soviets, to be treachery and leading away from communism.
The best-known form of communism is Marxism and its various derivatives. Among other things, Marxism proposes the materialist conception of history; there are stages of economic development: slavery, feudalism, capitalism, and communism. These stages are advanced through a dialectical process, progressing society as history progresses. This progress is driven by class struggle. Communism is the final form of class society as it results in one class, or conversely, no classes, as those divisions cannot exist if only one exists.
Although many small communist societies have existed throughout human history, Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels were the first to devise a rigorous theoretical basis for communism. The political theory they created, namely Marxism, became the chief advocate of communism in the modern world.
Marxism seeks to explain historical phenomena in terms of class struggle. According to Marxists, human society consists of a number of social classes, which are differentiated by their relationship to the means of production. For example, capitalist society consists of the bourgeoisie (the capitalists; those who own the means of production) and the proletariat (the workers; those who must work for wages in order to make a living, because they do not possess any means of production of their own). One social class is the ruling class, and it uses its wealth and power to exploit the other class(es). For example, in capitalism, the bourgeoisie exploits the proletariat by drawing a profit from the proletariat's work. According to the theory, a business owner's profit equals what the workers produce minus what the workers get paid - thus, in order for the owner to make a profit, the workers must get paid less than what they produce; see surplus value. Eventually, one of the exploited classes rises up to overthrow the ruling class and the existing system, establishing itself as the new ruling class of a new system (for example, capitalism was established when the bourgeoisie overthrew feudalism and the feudal ruling class - the aristocracy).
According to the theory, class struggle is the engine of a cycle in which socio-economic systems are created, destroyed and replaced. Marxism identifies several systems that have been created and destroyed by it since the beginning of human history. However, social classes - and therefore class struggle - have not always existed. They were created at the dawn of human civilization, when nomadic tribes first settled down and started practicing agriculture. Before that, human beings lived in a kind of classless society that can be described as primitive communism. Primitive communism ended when agriculture created the conditions for private ownership of the means of production (which, at that time, simply meant private ownership of cultivated land). This differentiated people into land owners and those who needed to work other people's land for a living, and this in turn resulted in the slavery-based system of the ancient world. That system eventually gave way to feudalism, which eventually gave way to capitalism.
According to Marxism, the class struggle within capitalism will eventually lead to the proletariat overthrowing the bourgeoisie and establishing socialism. Socialism, in turn, will result in the gradual fading of social classes (as the means of production are made public property), which will lead to the final stage of human society - communism.
And that is the Marxist foundation for communism. Communism cannot change into another system because class struggle - the mechanism that drives such changes - no longer exists.
Marxism and Leninism
Within Marxism, there are several different trends. The largest of these trends is Leninism, which was based on the writings and actions of Vladimir Lenin. According to Lenin, capitalism can only be overthrown by a Proletarian Revolution, not by parliamentary means. Furthermore, in opposition to Marx, Lenin argued that the revolution would occur first in the less developed nations, and that it would require a "vanguard of the proletariat" composed of a relatively small, tightly organized Communist Party of workers de-classed intellectuals (see the article on Leninism for an explanation of the differences between Lenin and Marx, and their basis).
Most (but by no means all) present-day communists are of the Leninist variety.
Leninism versus Democratic Socialism
As explained above, according to Marxism, the laws of class struggle would drive capitalism to evolve into socialism and then, eventually, into communism. The Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD) and other overtly Marxist parties, were formed to fight the class war on the parliamentary front. However, Marx never claimed to know exactly how long this process would take, and Marxists have often made very different speculations on the subject. Some of the more optimistic ones believed that capitalism would begin to fall apart in coming decades.
As the years passed, and with capitalist society showing no signs of collapse, some Marxists began to search for an explanation. Some members of the SPD, such as Eduard Bernstein decided that class war had failed, that a socialist society would have to be created without revolution, and that it could be brought about through the process of reforming existing capitalist institutions. This ideology became known as democratic socialism (not to be confused with social democracy) and began to spread through existing socialist and/or "labourist " parties, such as the British Labour Party, although this particular party is perceived as moving into right wing in recent years.
Others, however — including Vladimir Lenin and Rosa Luxembourg — argued that Marx had failed to analyze capitalism as a global system (since he had concentrated on the issue of how capitalism works and develops inside a single country). They looked at the larger picture, and concluded that capitalism was entering a new stage (called "imperialism" by Lenin), in which rich countries colonized and exploited poorer ones (in much the same way as the rich exploited the poor within a single country). Therefore, a revolution in the poor countries - or a world revolution - was needed in order to begin the process of overthrowing capitalism and moving towards socialism (with the final aim of reaching communism). This ideology became known as Leninism, and formed the basis on which the political parties of the Communist International were founded.
It was the Leninist branch of Marxism that used the terms "communism" and "communist" most extensively. All political parties calling themselves "The Communist Party of [country]" were/are Leninist parties.
Stalinism versus Trotskyism
In the early 1930's, Leninism itself fractured in two distinct branches: Stalinism and Trotskyism. The reasons for this split revolved around the controversial policies of Joseph Stalin in the Soviet Union. Previous to Stalin's rise to power, the Communist Party of the Soviet Union functioned on a democratic system (known as democratic centralism) and members were encouraged to form their own opinions. It was believed that freedom of speech and diversity helped strengthen the Party (and Soviet society in general). As such, a number of different currents of opinion formed within the Communist Party. The two most prominent of these were headed by Joseph Stalin and Leon Trotsky, respectively. Stalin argued for the consolidation of socialism in one country (even one as underdeveloped as Soviet Union was at that time) and claimed that, due to the aggravation of class struggle along with the development of socialism, it was necessary to enforce strict Party discipline. Trotsky argued that the fate of socialism in the Soviet Union depended on the fate of socialist and communist revolutions around the world (therefore supporting the thesis of Permanent Revolution), and claimed that Stalin's authoritarian practices were harmful and dangerous (therefore calling for more democracy, both inside the Party and throughout the Soviet Union in general).
Stalin eventually succeeded in gaining full control of the Party and the Soviet government. He went ahead with his policies, which became known as Stalinism. Trotsky and his supporters organized into the so-called Left Opposition, and their platform became known as Trotskyism. However, their attempts to remove Stalin from power failed. Stalin imprisoned, executed or exiled most dissenters - especially the Trotskyists. Trotsky himself was exiled, and eventually assassinated in Mexico in 1940 when an ice pick was driven into the back of his head.
Other forms of communism
Many communist societies (communes) have existed throughout history, and many non-Marxist (or pre-Marxist) Western intellectuals advocated ideas quite similar to what is today known as communism.
Some historians beleive that one of the possible Jewish sects, the Essenes, from which Jesus Christ is thought to have come from, functioned in strikingly similar ways to communism. This similarity is not widely agreed upon and the evidence is too contradictory to make statements claiming this degree of similarity. There are similar theories about other groups in the same time period. These early groups shared some elements in common with communism but were not completely identical. Although contradicting, some of the evidence point to the notion that the individuals of these groups held no property of their own, thereby allowing the community as a whole to hold all property in common; in this way, a classless community was possible. (In the case of the Essenes classes did exist but were according to religious standards rather than socio-economic.) Along with this similarity, there also exist several key elements that differentiate many of these groups from communism. They did in fact possess a form of a state, or ruling authority with varying degrees of hierarchy. See religious communism for more information.
Ideas of communal ownership evolved during the Enlightenment, exerting varying amounts of influence on the philosophes. The greatest of these influences were on Jean-Jacques Rousseau, the abbé de Mably , Morelly (whose thoughts extensively influenced the French Revolution, in particular the Jacobins) and other revolutionary egalitarian clubs embodied in persons like Jean Paul Marat.
Many 19th-century idealists, disgusted by the ongoing oppression and mass poverty created by the Industrial Revolution, broke away from society to form short-lived communal "utopias". An example was Robert Owen's New Harmony community in Indiana. People who believe that communism can be implemented in such a way are called utopian socialists by Marxists.
The French philosopher Étienne Cabet, in his book "Voyage et aventures de lord William Carisdall en Icarie" ("Travel and adventures of lord William Carisdall in Icaria") (1840), depicted an ideal society in which an elected government controlled all economic activity and supervised social affairs, the family remaining the only other independent unit. In 1848 he attempted to organize Icarian communities in the United States. His efforts were mostly in vain, but small Icarian communities existed even after his death, until 1898.
The short-lived Paris Commune (1871) was arguably the main example followed by revolutionaries of the early 20th Century, and also the largest historical example of a communist society. The Communards held Paris for two months against Prussian/German and French government soldiers. The Commune passed various laws reducing the power of property owners, such as canceling rents and debts, before being bloodily suppressed. Marx later criticized the Commune for being too timid to secure its own survival, but praised it as the first successful revolution of the working class.
Today, a small number of people, primarily from industrialized nations , have, like the Owenites , opted to "drop out" of the existing society, preferring to live on communes of their own design. This movement saw its zenith during the counter-culture phenomenon of the 1960s and 70s in the West, and such people have been characterized as new bohemians or hippies.
Also in the present day, the tradition of communism continues in the form of Israeli kibbutzim although these communes have moved away from the communistic ideal and now allow degrees of individual ownership and capitalist production.
See Criticisms of Socialism for critique of socialism in general. In addition, there is also specific critique against communism.
Main Article: Communist states
As communism entails the abolition of the state, a communist state is an impossibility according to communist theory. There have been, however, a large number of states ruled by self-declared Communist parties. Large scale human rights violations occurred in these states as documented in extensive historical research, particularly during the regimes of Stalin and Mao, but shown to have started immediately after the Russian revolution during the regime of Lenin and to have continued to occur in all communist states during their existence.
The many abuses that occurred under these regimes have often been used as an argument against the ideology of communism itself, especially by anti-communists, citing for instance Marx's "dictatorship of the proletariat". This is rejected by communists as a simplistic approach to historical events and ideas, noting that communism itself is stateless in theory and thus cannot be related to the actions of 20th century states. Many anti-communists consider this a dodge of criticism that could similarly justify dismissing human rights violations under capitalism as not representative of the capitalist theory. The response is usually that capitalism is inherently prone to certain abuses by defending property and profit.
Critics of communism say it would be impossible for a communist society to plan its own economy.
People who believe in the subjective theory of value (STV) think that theoretically, in a capitalist system, scarce skills and resources are rationed by prices that reflect relative scarcity of the resources and competing demands. In their view, in a Soviet-style planned economy prices can send the wrong signals to consumers and planners , resulting in decisions that don't reflect the choices they would make if they knew the actual costs and competing demands for those resources.
This is not how communists view the capitalist system. To communists, placing value in a commodity instead of in the labor necessary to create that commodity is commodity fetishism. Values do not reflect scarcity but the necessary and homogenous labor time embedded in a commodity. Prices do not "send signals", since they simply reflect an exchange of commodities with an equal amount of homogeneous and necessary labor time congealed in them. Markets do not simplify planning or improve quality or efficiency because such decisions are made in the production of a commodity, not the exchange of it.
To understand the STV objection to communism, it is necessary to unravel the ambiguities of the word "plan". Of course, people and institutions plan very elaborate and far-sighted projects within a capitalist context. For example, nobody questions that human beings possess the rationality necessary to plan a skyscraper.
But the critics of communism say that the planning of a skyscraper (the blueprints, sitting, delivery schedule for materials) all typically takes place within a capitalist/contractual context. In their view, investors contract to buy stock or bonds in a development company. That company hires sub-contractors . The terms for the raw materials are haggled out with suppliers, etc. -- in the STV view, all subject to the rise or fall of prices and alternative investment possibilities for various parties.
Critics of communism contend that the implementation of communism in the sense described above would involve supplanting precisely these market and contract conditions that make planning possible. In the STV view it would be planning instead of haggling, rather than planning within the context of haggling. That is what they contend is not practicable.
Communists would respond that nothing mentioned here would constitute any kind of roadblock in a communist society. While communists do not "write recipes for the cookshops of future" communist societies, they claim that open source projects such as Linux, Amish barn-raisings and societies of the sort Karl Marx called "primitive communist" are 'communist-like' examples of how communist planning might work, from a small to large scale. As far as the idea that prices rise and fall, communists would say that prices simply reflect necessary homogenous congealed labor time, and claim that absent innovations in production, prices generally remain stable relative to one another.
Critics of communism would respond that since communist prices do not reflect the scarcity of the raw materials or the consumer demand for the products, one could easily end up with a Stakhanovite drive to build as many skyscrapers as possible, with a consequent blotting out of the sky with empty buildings, and a shortage of steel and other resources that might have been very useful if market prices had allowed them to be redirected elsewhere.
The failure of the European experimental communist economies in 1980s, described by economists such as Janos Kornai in his shortage economy model, with the resulting wealth gap between capitalistic countries and former Soviet satellite states and Soviet Union republics marked the economical failure of the Soviet experiment with communism.
Objectivists and other critics of communism (such as laissez-faire capitalists) see self-interested behavior as a moral ideal. They claim that communism removes incentives necessary for human productivity. Indeed, they argue that workers have to be rewarded with currency according to their immediate contribution to production. They thus reject a gift economic view of work with respect to incentive, which is less immediate and more collective-based. Their view on "human nature" is, therefore, not shared by Communists, who take the view that self-interest is a function of the material conditions of society. Communists claim that if the material conditions change so that competition and greed would no longer be necessary, mass behavior would change accordingly.
Communists have a disdain for the concept of 'human nature' or an invariable 'human condition' which exists throughout all human beings. They usually take the view that it is the material conditions which surround a person, such as their environment, that shapes a persons character. Also, according to them, the 'nature' of human beings is not determined by an underlying, constant condition which is present in all humans, but instead by the social and economic factors which surround them.
Critics point out that 'human nature' is at least in part influenced by genetic factors, which make some characteristics of human nature indeed partly invariable. Some also point to the chimpanzees and other primates, which can also engage in selfish and greedy behaviour. The rebuttal to this criticism given by Communists is that natural selection favours the collective in the survival struggle, rather than the individual; This would constitute an "evolutionary incentive" for gift economics. However the so-called selfish gene view of evolution is that natural selection acts on genes rather than collectives, and so such cooperation can be mainly expected in genetically related societies. This, however fits the human species as the species is very young and highly related in itself.
Communists believe, however, that once capitalism has been destroyed, and socialism has been established, selfish desires and greed will recede from the forefront of societal conditioning. They foresee a society where the desire for personal gain is interconnected with the atmosphere of mutual assistance and co-operation, making self-interest and the interests of the collective one and the same. Capitalists reject this as far-fetched - from here the argument breaks down into elements of realism versus idealism.
It is also possible to argue from games theory such as Prisoner's Dilemma that in some cases the 'best course' for an individual may be to defect from such mutual assistance. In such a case the society might enforce the status quo by coercion, which may be provided by peer pressure, compatible with an egalitarian gift economy. This would produce a society with values dedicated to mutual benefit, in addition to a default ostracism of defectors in a gift economy that would discourage so called "freeloaders".
However, the minimal requirements of a communist society only require internal mutual benefit, and does not mean such a society is prevented from fighting and competing with other external societies, as long as the society itself remains communal and non-competitive. An example of this are societies of hunter-gatherers, which often have shared ownership of possessions and extremely high peer pressure, often have a very high degree of violence since it is often beneficial for the tribe to exploit other tribes. The issue among many communists of whether humanity should cooperate as one ultimate collective or not appears to be a further ideological splitting point. However, if the size of the society increases then peer pressure decreases and it becomes increasingly more tempting to defect from mutual assistance.
If capitalism is to be overthrown in a revolution, then a socialist revolution could be costly in terms of human lives. Communist revolutionaries argue that the violent or non-violent character of a revolution is not determined solely by the revolutionaries, but also, or even primarily, by the owners of the means of production who have a stake in capitalism, and the government tied to the ruling classes. Critics of communism, however, point out that the revolutionary way is by definition opposed to democracy.
The Future of Communism
As with all attempts to foresee the future, it is difficult to tell with any degree of confidence what is in store for communism. And, of course, any prediction depends on which "communism" we are talking about (the social system, the ideology, or the political movement).
As a political movement, made up of parties and individuals that consider themselves communist, communism is tied up practically and ideologically with the labor movement and the anti-globalization movement. The tide of the communist movement can generally be gauged by the success of the labor and anti-globalization movements.
Outside of the industrialized core of developed nations, the communist movement takes on legal and extra-legal dimensions. There are several dozen guerrilla groups in the world which identify themselves as communist in one form or another. In places like Peru, the Philippines, Nepal, and Southeast Asia, the success of communism can be gauged by the success of guerrilla wars. In countries with strong Communist Parties, such as India and Russia, the success of communism can be gauged by the success of those political parties.
As far as "communist states" are concerned, there are five countries still ruled by Communist Parties formally belonging to the Marxist-Leninist tradition: the People's Republic of China, Cuba, North Korea, Laos and Vietnam. However, the experiences of these five states have starkly diverged, especially since the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991. On the one hand, Cuba and North Korea were hit hard by the lack of Soviet economic assistance, trade and military support. On the other hand, the world's other three remaining communist states (all in East Asia) were far less dependent on Soviet subsidies (and in China's case, not at all, given the Sino-Soviet Split) at the time of the collapse of the Warsaw Pact.
Following the lead of China under Deng Xiaoping whose encouragement in rhetoric and policy of wealth creation was neatly summarized by his exhortation "poverty is not socialism, to get rich is glorious", Vietnam and Laos have moved away from Soviet-style centralized planning, in favour of a private market economy that (at least in China's case) is very difficult to distinguish from outright capitalism. China has been particularly aggressive in its pursuit of "socialism with Chinese characteristics," even to the point of admitting entrepreneurs to the Communist Party. Therefore, China today is generally regarded as being capitalist de facto, with just a little higher degree of government control than is seen in conventional capitalist countries. Many Marxists also regard the other four remaining "communist states" as being state-capitalist rather than socialist.
Writing "Communism" or "communism"
According to the 1996 third edition of Fowler's Modern English Usage, communism and derived words are written with the lowercase "c" except when they refer to a political party of that name, a member of that party, or a government led by such a party, in which case the word "Communist" is written with the uppercase "C".
- The Black Book of Communism
- Communist state
- Communist party
- Council communism
- De Leonism
- Festa de l'Unitŕ
- Free Software
- Gift economy
- Left communism
- Libertarian socialism
- Political models
- Red Army Fraction
- Antonio Gramsci
- Daniel De Leon
- Fidel Castro, Che Guevara
- Ho Chi Minh
- Karl Marx, Friedrich Engels
- List of socialists
- List of Trotskyists
- Mao Zedong
- Mikhail Bakunin, Peter Kropotkin (libertarian socialism)
- Rosa Luxemburg
- Salvador Allende
- Vladimir Lenin, Leon Trotsky, Joseph Stalin
- Rodney Carlisle and James H. Lide, Complete Idiot's Guide to Communism, Alpha Books, March, 2002, trade paperback, 362 pages, ISBN 0028643143
- Francois and Deborah Furet, Passing of an Illusion: The Idea of Communism in the Twentieth Century, University of Chicago Press, 1999, hardcover, 506 pages, ISBN 0226273407
Online resources for original Marxist literature
- Marxists Internet Archive
- Theses on Feuerbach
- Principles of Communism
- The Communist Manifesto
- The Civil War in France
- Socialism: Utopian and Scientific
- Reform or Revolution?
- What is to be Done?
- One Step Forward, Two Steps Back
- Two Tactics of Social-Democracy in the Democratic Revolution
- Materialism and Empirio-Criticism
- The Right of Nations to Self-Determination
- Imperialism, The Highest Stage of Capitalism
- The State and Revolution
- The Military Programme of the Proletarian Revolution
- The Tasks of the Proletariat In Our Revolution
- Communism is not exactly dead!
- Economic and social roots of Communism
- Che-Lives - a Web site dedicated to Che Guevara, aswell as featuring the internet's largest communistic forum. It also harbors a few socialists.
- Google Directory collection of critical articles
- Capitalism and Human Nature a Cato institute article, from a Capitalist point of view.
The contents of this article is licensed from www.wikipedia.org under the GNU Free Documentation License. Click here to see the transparent copy and copyright details
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A glossary of botanical terms used in the homeopathy database.
binomial (or binominal ), a name consisting of two words (i.e. genus + species epithet).
basionym, the original name under which a species was described. e.g. Selenicereus grandiflorus (L.) Britton & Rose was originally described as Cactus grandiflorus L.
ex, (latin, from), used to connect the names of two authors, the second of which has validated a name proposed but either unpublished or not validly published by the first.
f., (latin, filius) son.
forma (latin, form), a subspecific rank used to describe minor variants.
homonym, identical name for different species thus illegally duplicating a name previously and validly published.
in, (latin, in), used to connect the names of two persons, the second of which is the editor, or overall author, of a work in which the first was responsible for validly publishing a name.
incertae cedis (latin, of uncertain seat), of uncertain taxonomic position.
new combinations indicate a change in taxonomic position and/or rank of a species or subspecific name. The original author is cited in parentheses, followed by the name of the author who proposed the new combination. e.g. Dieffenbachia seguine (Jacq.) Schott indicates that this name published by Schott is based on the older name or basionym (Arum seguine Jacq.).
nom. ambig. (latin, nomen ambiguum), ambiguous name, a name used by different authors to mean different species, so it becomes a permanent source of confusion or error. e.g. Crataegus oxyacantha L. Sp. Pl. 1: 477. 1753, nom. ambig.
nom. illegit. (latin, nomen illegitimum), illegitimate name, a validly published name that does not conform to ICBN rules. e.g. Gelsemium sempervirens (L.) Pers., Syn. Pl. 1: 267. Apr-Jun 1805. nom. illeg., not (L.) J. St.-Hil., Feb-Apr 1805.
nom. nud. (latin, nomen nudum), naked name; a name published without a description. e.g. Jacaranda gualanday Cortés Fl. Colombia. 99. 1897, nom. nud.
nom. rejic. (latin, nomen rejiciendum), a name formally rejected, usually in favour of another (conserved) name. e.g. Lycopersicon lycopersicum (L.) H. Karst., Deut. Fl. ed. 1. lief. 966. 1882, nom. rejic.
orthographic variants are different spellings for the same name. Only one variant of any name is treated as validly published, the form that appears in the original publication except as provided in Article 60 of the Botanical Code. The orthographic variation is given in parentheses and follows the bibliographic citation. e.g. Rauwolfia serpentina (L.) Benth. ex Kurz Forest. Fl. Burma 2: 171. 1878. 'Rauvolfia',
pre-Linnean authors are indicated in square brackets. e.g. Balsamum tolutanum [C. Bauhin] L.
sensu lato, in the broad sense.
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An ancient environmental technology is making a comeback.
Five centuries ago, Spanish explorer Francisco de Orellana reported vast areas of indigenous settlement and cultivation along the Amazon River. Surprisingly, the incredibly rich and productive forests of this region were supported by poor soils. The ability of these soils to sustain such large populations was, until recently, a mystery.
The discovery of terra preta — a fertile black soil manufactured by these ancient civilizations — now paints a picture of how these peoples were able to sustain themselves. More importantly, the discovery teaches us much about how we can sustainably support ourselves on this increasingly crowded planet. Recent experiments with terra preta have produced large increases in crop yields. And the primary component of terra preta — the key to its fruitfulness — is biochar.
Biochar is the material remaining after biomass (in this case, plant material) is burned through a special process called pyrolysis. Pyrolysis differs from regular combustion, such as that of a campfire, in that it occurs in the presence of little to no oxygen. Without oxygen, the biomass does not fully burn to smoke and ash. Instead, much of the carbon remains as a black, lightweight substance, very similar to ordinary charcoal.
Proponents of biochar advocate its production and use for many reasons.
The first reason relates to the fertile terra preta soils found in the Amazon. Biochar can significantly increase soil quality. Using biochar helps soil retain nutrients, decreasing the need for fertilizers. It also helps some soils retain water, which decreases the need for irrigation. Through a one-time application, farmers around the world can potentially increase the productivity of their crops.
The second advantage of biochar is its ability to store carbon in the soil for long periods of time. Biochar proponents view this ability as a possible way to reduce atmospheric carbon dioxide levels that contribute to global climate change. Plants store atmospheric carbon dioxide as carbon, and when they die and decompose that carbon is released back to the atmosphere. If those plants are converted to biochar, however, most of their carbon can be sequestered in the soil indefinitely because biochar does not decompose. Thousands of years later, the terra preta soils in the Amazon are still high in carbon, according to recent research.
At the Bard Center for Environmental Policy, students spent several weeks this January studying the application of biochar in soils around the world. With the assistance of Dr. Hugh McLaughlin, a leader in the field, students built and used pyrolysis stoves to make biochar. They conducted small greenhouse experiments to observe the growth of wheat, radishes and mung beans in soils that included the biochar they’d produced.
The students also interviewed biochar entrepreneurs, including Jason Aramburu, CEO of Re:char, an organization testing the use of biochar in Kenya and working to encourage the creation and use of biochar by farmers in sustainable and productive ways. Re:char has developed a stove to produce biochar that is inexpensive and easily manufactured within the country.
With the world’s population growing and arable land shrinking, this ancient technology offers a promising, sustainable route toward food security and carbon sequestration.
Nick Martin and Justin Wexler are first-year master’s degree students at the Bard Center for Environmental Policy. Martin is in the climate science and policy program and Wexler is in the environmental policy program. They took a short-course elective on bochar in January, which examined the problem of scaling up environmental solutions by focusing on the use of biochar.
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Reasons to write about history
matter what you hope to do after college, you should be able to analyze human
affairs, evaluate other people's analyses of human affairs, express your
analyses clearly in writing, and produce a persuasive written argument. The study of history is a good way to develop
all these skills.
books and essays you read and the lectures you hear in a history class are not
simply recitations of indisputable facts.
They are arguments for particular interpretations of historical
evidence. Historians look at a welter of
disorganized details and try to discern patterns. They construct their narratives from
incomplete and randomly preserved relics of the past. You should expect them to persuade you that
they have relied on the best possible evidence and interpreted that evidence
way to become an astute judge of historical argument is to write historical
arguments yourself. In order to do this,
you have to read diverse kinds of texts, become familiar with the varieties of
historical evidence, assess the credibility of the evidence available to you,
and think about the significance and relationship of established facts. You have to formulate a thesis and muster
evidence and arguments to support that thesis.
By doing these things, you can develop the ability to write coherently
and persuasively about the past and about other issues as well. That ability will serve you well in many
college courses and in a variety of situations beyond the university.
What makes a good history essay
history essay is clearly and consistently focused on the assigned topic. It provides a complete, unambiguous answer to
a question or questions posed either by the writer or by an instructor. Its driving force is a thesis -- a central
argument -- that the writer aims to explain and support. In other words, a good history essay is a persuasive
argument for the soundness of a particular conclusion or set of conclusions
about the past.
thesis statement provides a concise but comprehensive summary of the essay's
central argument, preferably at the beginning of the essay. It sets out the principal elements of the
argument in a way that indicates their relationship to each other. Most supporting evidence belongs in the body
of the essay, where the writer explains each part of the argument further.
supporting evidence includes illustrative examples, pertinent data, and
quotations that are drawn from credible sources, which the writer
identifies. Although supporting evidence
should be sufficient to justify generalizations and debatable inferences, it
need not be voluminous. An essay's
persuasiveness is not determined by the volume of sources it cites. A persuasive essay balances argument and
evidence. It states the writer's reasons
for including particular evidence.
essay presents arguments in a logical order, grouping all material on the same
subject and articulating the relationship of the grouped material. Wherever the essay takes up a new subject, it
signals the transition with a sentence that indicates how the ensuing
discussion relates to preceding material and
to the essay's central argument. Most
good essays have the following structure: Introduction (thesis), body
(successive explanations and defenses of the main elements of the thesis),
precision and accuracy are important features of a good history essay, as are
careful wording and well constructed sentences.
Although you should strive first and foremost for focus, compelling
analysis, and effective use of evidence, you will find these nearly impossible
to achieve if you lack the vocabulary and the knowledge of syntax and grammar
needed to express clear thoughts on your subject.
Tips for producing a good history
the essay assignment and/or question(s) posed very, very carefully. Highlight key words and get clear about their
the assignment and/or question(s) fresh in your mind, read the text(s) you will
draw on to make your argument. Note
points and material that bear on your topic.
on your reading, formulate a tentative thesis or overall answer to the
question(s) posed in the assignment.
Then review the list of possible points and supporting material culled
from your reading, asking yourself whether they make good arguments and
evidence for the validity of that thesis.
Adjust the proposed thesis to comport with the evidence available.
only the most compelling arguments and evidence on your list.
about how your arguments and evidence relate to each other and determine the
most logical, persuasive order to present them.
Rewrite your thesis to reflect this logic.
right to the point. Make your first paragraph
or two (depending on the limit on the length of your paper) a complete summary
of the highlights of your argument.
of your thesis paragraph(s) as a set of signposts, showing the reader which way
you will go and which "landmarks" you will reach first, second,
come to a new "landmark" (a new place in your argument), signal your
arrival with a transition sentence that reminds the reader of your overall
argument and indicates how the next paragraph(s) will explain and support the
next part of that argument.
as if your reader is familiar with this field of history but has not thought
before about your specific topic.
care to quote and cite your sources accurately.
Cite the sources of all ideas, specific data, and quotes that are not
yours. Ask the instructor about the
prescribed form for citations. Whatever
the form prescribed, provide enough information for the instructor to locate
the same data or passage.
find yourself struggling to express your thoughts in writing, try this: put
your writing aside and say out loud, in ordinary, conversational English,
"What I'm trying to say is...."
If you like what you say, write it down.
Polish the words and phrasing later.
your essay aloud, preferably to a willing friend, to see whether it is clear
and flows easily.
your draft carefully for syntactical problems and mechanical errors.
dictionary and a handbook of grammar and English usage at hand while you write.
(Strunk and White, Elements of Style,
is a good handbook.) Consult them
whenever you have doubts about meaning, spelling, punctuation, etc.
brief conclusion that sums up what you have actually covered in the body of
your essay. Compare that conclusion to
your introductory paragraph(s). If need
be, rewrite your introduction (thesis paragraphs) to conform to what you have
actually argued and proved.
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At one time or another, most of us have experienced “pruney” fingers, or the exaggerated wrinkling of fingers and toes that results from prolonged exposure to water. Until the early twentieth century, most scientists attributed the pruney fingers phenomenon to osmosis, or the movement of water into dry outer layers of the skin. This movement of water was thought to puff up the skin covering the tips of hands and feet. Such action expands the skin’s surface area, and was assumed to lead to the visible wrinkling of skin in fingers and toes (1).
In the 1930s, however, researchers realized that patients with fingertip nerve damage failed to experience the same pruney effects (1). It has since become apparent that the wrinkling of skin associated with exposure to water is due in larger part to the function of the nervous system than to osmosis (2).
In fact, the primary mechanism that contributes to the shriveling of skin in response to water is vasoconstriction, the shrinkage of blood vessels under the epidermis. In response to water, the nervous system restricts blood flow to the fingertips. The resulting loss of volume in each finger causes the skin to shrink inward, forming the wrinkles we associate with “pruney” fingers (3).
But why would the brain automatically signal wet skin to shrivel up? Moreover, why does this effect only involve the tips of fingers and toes?
In 2011, evolutionary neurobiologist Mark Changizi proposed a now widely accepted theory regarding the cause of finger and toe wrinkling in response to water. Changizi suggested that human ancestors evolved this behavior in order to get a better grip with their hands and feet under wet conditions. According to Changizi, the wrinkles in the skin act like car tire threads, channeling water out of the way and allowing fingers and toes to grasp more effectively (3). Experiments that compare the gripping ability of wrinkled fingers and normal fingers on slippery objects, such as wet marbles, confirm Changizi’s explanation(1). The ability to better maintain grip in wet conditions could give human ancestors a competitive advantage, especially in particularly wet climates.
- B. Summers, Why Do Our Fingers Wrinkle During a Bath? (2013) Available at http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=why-do-our-fingers-and-toes-wrinkle-during-a-bath
- J. Hamblin, Why We Get Prune Fingers. (2013) Available at http://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2013/01/why-we-get-prune-fingers/266980/
- Getting a Handle on Why Fingers Wrinkle. (2013) Available at http://www.npr.org/2013/01/11/169144851/getting-a-handle-on-why-fingers-wrinkle
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This section has information about how to use pronouns correctly.
Contributors:Chris Berry, Allen Brizee
Last Edited: 2010-04-17 05:56:40
Pronoun Case is really a very simple matter. There are three cases.
- Subjective case: pronouns used as subject.
- Objective case: pronouns used as objects of verbs or prepositions.
- Possessive case: pronouns which express ownership.
|Pronouns as Subjects||Pronouns as Objects||Pronouns that show Possession|
|he, she, it||him, her, it||his, her (hers), it (its)|
The pronouns This, That, These, Those, and Which do not change form.
Some problems of case:
1. In compound structures, where there are two pronouns or a noun and a pronoun, drop the other noun for a moment. Then you can see which case you want.
Not: Bob and me travel a good deal.
(Would you say, "me travel"?)
Not: He gave the flowers to Jane and I.
(Would you say, "he gave the flowers to I"?)
Not: Us men like the coach.
(Would you say, "us like the coach"?)
2. In comparisons. Comparisons usually follow than or as:
He is taller than I (am tall).
This helps you as much as (it helps) me.
She is as noisy as I (am).
Comparisons are really shorthand sentences which usually omit words, such as those in the parentheses in the sentences above. If you complete the comparison in your head, you can choose the correct case for the pronoun.
Not: He is taller than me.
(Would you say, "than me am tall"?)
3. In formal and semiformal writing:
Use the subjective form after a form of the verb to be.
Formal: It is I.
Informal: It is me.
Use whom in the objective case.
Formal: To whom am I talking?
Informal: Who am I talking to?
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A Possible Source of the
by Donald E. Sheppard
State Name "Tennessee"
Hernando de Soto entered Tennessee from North Carolina while leading his army down a river (the Little Tennessee River) in 1540. His Chroniclers reported passing through a native village precisely at today's Tennessee Border.
That village was called Tallassee on a relatively unknown 1762 map (shown at left and below). This map had been carefully prepared for the King of England and published in the Memoirs 1756-1765 of Lt. Henry Timberlake.
As a Virginian on "Official Business" for the Crown, and on good terms with the Cherokee, Lt. Timberlake had visited their tribe for several months and sketched a map of their "Over the Hill" villages during the war between France and England (the "French and Indian War").
Timberlake immediately visited England's King George III with three Cherokee Chiefs* from that neighborhood. His map was drawn for presentation to the King by London's best cartographers. The name "Tennessee" appeared as a river and a native village on it (see below) and may have been the first such map with that name to be seen by English royalty, given that France had held all of that land until just before Timberlake's arrival in London in 1762.
That river led into today's Tennessee, a hunter's paradise, from the Carolinas. "Through its valleys and over its hills roamed countless herds of buffalo, deer and elk. Within its forests and canebrakes there were bears, wolves, panthers, bobcats, foxes, and other wild animals in great number," according to Tennessee historian Edward Albright.
Desoto's army got there along an Indian trail from today's Columbia, just above Charleston (for DeSoto's Tennessee Chronicles, see: Rangel, Elvas, Inca and Biedma). In 1690 Charleston was colonized by Englishmen and French Huguenots who traded furs with England for their support. Most of their furs came from the "Over the Hill" Tribes, given the abundance of both on the Tennessee land claimed by France.
In 1663 England's King Charles II had granted all of that land "...which lies between 36 degrees and 30 Minutes, Northern latitude, and so West in a direct line as far as the South Seas (The Pacific Ocean); and South and Westward as far as the degrees of 29 northern latitude; and so West in a direct line as far as the South Seas," including today's Tennessee, to his Carolina colonists. Plus, Charleston's location was the closest English port to the Tennessee Tribes.
Charleston's French speaking fur traders used the trail DeSoto had used into Tennessee: first up the Appalachian Mountains then down the Little Tennessee River (labeled "Tennessee River" on Timberlake's Map). Carolina even built Fort Loudon on that river (see the map above) to keep the French out of the Carolinas while protecting their Tennessee access trail.
In 1775 another traveler, William Bartram (pp. 276, Dover Press), commented about that river from "...the highest ridge of the Cherokee Mountains, which separate the waters of the Savannah river from those of the Tanase ...running rapidly a North-West course through the mountains, is joined from the North-East by the Holstein (Tuckasegee River); thence taking a West course yet amongst the mountains, receiving into it from either hand many large rivers, leaves the mountains immediately being joined by a large river from the East (today's Tennessee River), becomes a mighty river... thence meanders many hundred miles through a vast country (today's Tennessee) consisting of forests, meadows, groves, expansive savannas, fields and swelling hills, most fertile and delightful, flows into the beautiful Ohio, and in conjunction... (into) the sovereign Mississippi."
That trail, down today's Tennessee River from the Great Smoky Mountains, was used for decades by Carolinians trading with interior tribesmen. There were no other trails thru those mountains because of tight passes and very steep inclines... and there were no other places near Carolina to get such fine trade pelts during the 1700's. That river's name, "Tennessee or Tanase" was used by pioneer Carolinians, and later by the entire English speaking world, for that bountiful place.
*King George III, by the way, rewarded Timberlake's Cherokee visitors with the Proclamation of 1763 which ended the French and Indian War: "...the tribes of Indians with whom we are connected, and who live under our protection, should not be molested (on) any lands beyond the sources of any of the rivers which fall into the Atlantic Ocean..." That law lasted until the American Revolution in 1776: the year after William Bartram's visit.
Eastern Tennessee Conquest Trails
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Green Building Resources
Adaptive Reuse of Older Buildings
Adaptive Reuse is a process that adapts buildings for new uses rather than demolishing them.
Build to Imitate Nature
Most of us will never own a home designed by a world renown architect. But even on a budget, you can build an earth-friendly, energy-efficient home using principles practiced by Pritzker Prize winner, Glenn Murcutt.
Green Architecture, or Green Design
This glossary page is your introduction to concepts of eco-friendly green design.
From our Architecture Glossary, definition and examples of Sustainable Development and similar terms related to urban planning and community design.
Living an earth-friendly life begins at home. These recycling tips from our Guide to Landscaping offer innovative ways to reduce waste in the yard, garden, and beyond.
Association for Environment-Conscious Building
An organization formed in the UK to create awareness on environmental issues in the construction industry. Offers a research periodical, a discussion forum, and listings of services and products.
Environmental Building News
This newsletter reports on environmentally responsible design and construction.
Global Green USA
Global Green USA is a national environmental organization that sponsors local initiatives to (1)design and build "green" buildings and cities, (2) eliminate weapons of mass destruction, and (3) provide clean, safe drinking water. Recently Global Green partnered with movie star Brad Pitt to sponsor a Sustainable Design Competition for reconstruction in New Orleans.
Green Building Concepts
Provides information for resources which are most efficient for building homes. Site includes building tips and product information.
Green Building Primer
An extensive guide, with building specs, from Building Environmental Science and Technology (B.E.S.T).
International Development Research Centre
The IDRC is a public corporation helping communities in the developing world find solutions to social, economic, and environmental problems through research.
International Institute for Sustainable Development
A large site filled with information about all types of sustainable development issues.
Permaculture The Earth
Explore all aspects of permaculture -- the art and science that applies patterns found in nature to the design and construction of human and natural environments.
Residential Environmental Design
Articles, bulletin board, publications, courses, events, and other resources for the study of ecological residential design.
Sustainable Architecture, Building and Culture
A comprehensive collection or resources, from a design and consulting firm which specializes in sustainable architecture.
Sustainable Development: DIMENSIONS
Home page for the Sustainable Development Department of the Food and Agriculture Organization.
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About Kinship CareKinship Care - What is it?
Kinship care is typically classified in two ways: informal or formal. Relatives play an essential role in helping to meet the needs of children who are unable to live with their parents. The connection to family, relatives, and community is important to a growing child:
- Children can live with people they already know and trust.
- Children can maintain their personal and cultural identity.
- Families learn to rely on their own resources and strengths.
Informal kinship care:
When family members decide that it would be in the child's best interest, due to issues of safety and stability, to provide out-of-home placement without outside agency involvement, the arrangement is called "informal kinship care." Sometimes, there isn't time to talk about or plan for the new arrangement. For example, this might happen if a parent gets ill, is evicted from his or her apartment, or becomes incarcerated.
Informal caregivers do not have any legal rights with respect to the children in their care. Regardless of why a child is living with relatives, the child's parents are still the legal guardians. The informal arrangement can be ended by the legal parent/guardian at any time. Additionally, in an informal relationship, a child welfare agency does not lave legal custody, so the caregiver's home does not need to be licensed by the state.
Formal kinship care:
Children are removed from the care of their parents/guardians when it is in the best interest of the child, due to issues of safety or stability. In this case, a process is in place that involves the child being under the legal protection of a child welfare agency. When the agency arranges for relatives to care for the child, that arrangement is called "formal kinship care." The kin provides a home and full time care, which includes nurturing and protecting the child. The child protective agency or court has legal custody of the child and ensures that the kinship caregivers' home meets safety requirements and other conditions of a family home environment. A caseworker from the agency works with the caregiver to set up a "permanency plan," and will check in with the caregiver and their kin by making monthly home visits. In formal kinship care, relatives participate as responsible and integral members of the child and family's support team. Relatives not closely related to a child may need to be licensed.
Adapted from definitions provided by the Child Welfare League of America
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San Luis Valley Colorado Heritage
The towns in the San Luis Valley are among the oldest settlements in Colorado, and, with just 47,000 residents, the valley’s vast landscape has changed little since the early days of settlement. The art, architecture, religion, tradition and folklore of American Indians, early Spanish colonists, Mexican settlers and miners of the Southwest permeate the region. Historic agricultural practices, such as irrigation by acequias (ditches bringing surface water from rivers) are still in use. Traditional, spiritual and religious practices and festivals co-exist with the largest interfaith ecumenical community in North America.
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A long history of interactions and trades with other neighboring countries has influenced the British cuisine greatly, along with other factors, such as the mild climate and island geography. Foreign-influenced food in Britain have become increasing popular, completing with traditional dishes with origins rooted back from the beginning of the country.
Britain first started out with a poor selection of food, mainly due to the Industrial Revolution in the 18th century. Most of the population works in factories and live in run-down housing, resulting in a decline of cooking. After the World War II, the average nutritional values were raised, which helped the situation a little bit. Influences from post-war immigrants help contribute more cultural dishes from other countries. New food spotted in Britain were; pasta, pizza, prawn cocktail, steak, chips and peas, spaghetti bolognese, chicken tikka masala, and much more. With new innovations such as refrigerators and microwave ovens lead to a rise in ready-made meals sold in supermarkets. The industrial revolution revealed popular take-away food like fish and chips, mushy peas, steak and pie and mash, with ethnic influences from India and China.
Now the popularity of celebrity chefs on television have gained the awareness of the new and improved British cuisine. A boom of new restaurants swept the nation after the interest in good quality food is renewed, including increase in organic food after farming crises. An increasing amount of the population (3-4 million) has adopted vegetarianism after a mad cow disease crisis. Also, 7 million claim to not eat red meat. Vegetarian food in stores and restaurants is not uncommon. Despite having a fast food reputation, traditional British dishes is still common today. The most popular traditional dish is Sunday roast, accompanied by Yorkshire pudding and assorted vegetables. Beef, pork, and lamb are also popular. At home, there are many home-made deserts such as rhubarb crumble, bread and butter pudding, spotted dick, and trifle, flavored with custard. Tea is an essential beverage drank throughout the day, accompanied with scones, biscuits, or sandwiches. The full English breakfast remains a classic.
The recent British cuisine still has a fairly bad international and represented as dishes of simply cooked meats and vegetables. Many thinks that British cuisine do not reach the same level of quality at the other European countries, like France. French president Jacques Chirac even openly claims that British food is the worst in Europe, following Finnish. During the Middle Ages, the Britain had a great reputation for their cuisine but that had changed when the majority of the population moved away in the 18th century. They are slowly regaining back the same quality and selection of food they once have through influences.
Hash is a combination of beef, often leftovers from last night’s corned beef or roast beef, onions, potatoes, and spices that are mixed together into a coarse, chunky paste and then cooked alone, or with other ingredients. In the United Kingdom it is eaten for lunch or dinner and in celebration of Ash Wednesday involves the serving and eating of hash.
Sunday roast is a traditional, popular meal to the British and Irish, made of roasted meat and other small accompaniments. The roasted meat can be beef, pork, lamb, chicken, duck, goose, gammon, turkey, or other game meat. The accompaniments range from boiled/roasted vegetables, Yorkshire pudding, relishes, crackling, etc. Traditionally, the meat was left in the oven before going to church on a Sunday morning, then returning back home to a fully cooked meal during lunchtime.
Kedgeree is a dish consisting of flaked fish, usually smoked haddock, boiled rice, eggs and butter. It originated amongst the British colonials in India and hence was introduced to the United Kingdom as a popular breakfast dish in Victorian times, part of the then fashionable Anglo-Indian cuisine. During that time, fish was often served for colonial breakfasts so that fish caught in the early morning could be eaten while it was still fresh. It is rarely eaten for breakfast now, but is still a common food.
Pork pie is a traditional British food. It consists of pork and pork jelly in a hot water crust pastry and is normally eaten cold. There are two main types of pork pie - one of which has the name Melton Mowbray Pork Pie. The main difference is that the Melton Mowbray pie uses uncured meat whilst the more common commercial pies use cured meat. Melton Mowbray pies also have hand-raised crusts and often look slightly irregular in shape after baking.
Bubble and speak
Bubble and squeak is a traditional British dish made with the shallow-fried leftover vegetables from a roast dinner. The chief ingredients are potato and cabbage, but carrots, peas, Brussels sprouts, and other vegetables can be added. It is traditionally served with cold meat from the Sunday roast, and pickles. Traditionally the meat was added to the bubble and squeak itself, although nowadays the vegetarian version is more common. The cold chopped vegetables (and cold chopped meat if used) are fried in a pan together with mashed potato until the mixture is well-cooked and brown on the sides. The name is a description of the action and sound made during the cooking process.
Crème brûlée is a dessert consisting of a rich custard base topped with a layer of hard caramel, created by burning sugar under a salamander or other intense heat source. It is usually served cold in individual ramekins. The custard base is normally flavored with just vanilla, but it can be flavoured in a number of ways, with chocolate, liqueur, fruit etc.
Bread and butter pudding
Bread and butter pudding is a traditional dessert popular in British cuisine. It is essentially a baked form of French toast. It is made by layering slices of buttered bread scattered with raisins in an oven dish into which an egg and milk mixture (sometimes with vanilla or other spices added) is poured. It is then baked in an oven and served. Some people may serve it with custard, but often the pudding under the crust is runny enough to enjoy without sauce.
Toad in the hole
Toad in the hole is a traditional British dish. It consists of sausages in Yorkshire pudding mix, usually served with vegetables and gravy. Strong regional dialect has resulted in the dish being locally called "Tow'd in't th'ow" in some areas. Badly made toad in the hole is sometimes described as "frog in a bog". In some countries, including Australia and Canada, and in the U.S. region of New England, Toad in the Hole is the name of a dish that involves cutting a hole in a slice of bread, cracking an egg into it, and then frying it.
Ulster Fry, is a dish of fried food that is popular throughout the province of Ulster in Ireland. A traditional Ulster Fry consists of bacon, eggs, sausages, the farl form of soda bread, potato bread and tomato. Other common components include mushrooms, baked beans, wheaten bread, and pancakes. Black pudding, and/or white pudding may be added to create an Irish breakfast, though neither are used in a traditional Ulster Fry. All this is traditionally fried up in lard, though many people use sunflower or vegetable oil these days.
Chicken Tikka Masala
Chicken Tikka Masala is Chicken Tikka in a masala gravy.There is no standard recipe for Chicken Tikka Masala, but most are variants of tomato gravy with cream or coconut cream and various common spices. So popular is it that British politician Robin Cook described it as "a true British national dish".
Mushy peas are dried marrowfat peas which are first soaked overnight and then simmered until they form a bright green paste. They are a very traditional northern English accompaniment to fish and chips, and are considered a part of traditional British cuisine.
Bolognese sauce is a meat based pasta sauce originating in Bologna, Italy. Bolognese sauce is sometimes taken to be a tomato sauce. This is a mistake: authentic recipes have only a very small amount of tomato—maybe a couple of tablespoons of tomato paste. The people of Bologna traditionally serve their famous ragù with freshly made tagliatelle. Less traditionally, the sauce is served with rigatoni or used as the stuffing for lasagne or cannelloni.
Fish and chips
Fish and chips, a popular take-away food, consist of deep-fried fish in batter with deep-fried potatoes. For decades fish and chips dominated the take-away food sector in the United Kingdom, -.Australia, and New Zealand, and had considerable popularity in Canada, Ireland, South Africa, the United States, and some coastal towns of the Netherlands and Norway. Fish and chips also enjoy great popularity in Denmark.
Trifle is an English dessert dish made from thick custard, fruit, sponge cake, fruit juice or, more recently, gelatin dessert and whipped cream, usually arranged in layers with fruit and sponge on the bottom, custard and cream on top. Some trifles contain a small amount of alcohol - non-alcoholic versions use fruit juice instead, as the liquid is necessary to moisten the cake.
Steak and kidney pie
The steak and kidney pie is a distinctive British dish consists of diced beef steak and beef kidneys in a thick sauce. It is often a one-crust pie, which means that the filling is covered but not completely enclosed by the pastry. The sauce typically made of beef broth, flavored with salt, pepper and parsley, onions, and thickened with flour, cornstarch which is also called a beurre manié. Two-crust steak and kidney pies are best made with warm water crust pastry, which is less likely to get drenched in sauce, but one-crust pies may also be made with puff pastry or short crust pastry.
A scone is thick bread. made of wheat, barley or oatmeal and baking powder. The scone is a basic component of the cream tea. The scone is similar to North American biscuits. In fact, many recipes are identical.
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The recipe for finding human genetic variation
Think of it as the Julia Child recipe for how to discover variations in the human genome. A paper published online yesterday in Nature Genetics from Broad researchers is the go-to source for investigators searching for the differences in the DNA sequences between individuals. For those who appreciate Julia’s multi-page masterpiece of how to bone a duck, this is an equivalent recipe for tackling one of the most medically informative pursuits facing today’s genomics investigators. Finding DNA variations between individuals and groups is one of the bedrock approaches for finding clues to what causes human disease.
“It is a step-by-step guide to finding high-quality variation information using next-generation sequencing technology,” explains Mark DePristo, Manager, Genetic Analysis in the Broad's Program in Medical and Population Genetics. “This paper is a compilation of all the steps needed from preparing the data and integrating it to give you a complete picture of all real differences in the genomes of individuals. It provides the intellectual organization of a very complicated problem.”
Much as a cook relies on rigorous testing and development of recipes to come up with just the right menu, scientists have been relying on the many tools developed at the Broad for working with today’s complicated sequencing data. ‘There are many, many discrete steps to finding variations in the human genome,” Mark explains. “We name every step, every tool, describing each of them.”
The paper represents years of work at the Broad, all in pursuit of solving a single, but highly complicated, problem: how to sequence the genomes of individuals and see where they differ from the accepted reference.
The question has taken years to answer correctly but researchers have been developing new tools, or ingredients, to solve the puzzle. Because the Broad’s software tools are made publicly available immediately and without fee, researchers globally have been using all of these tools for a long time. “This paper is somewhat like an archival statement of what people have been using,” adds Mark. “This is saying here is the flow between tools. There have been many publications of individual tools. But this paper explains the tools used and why they are used.”
Just as a professional cook is always looking to add just the right ingredients in their proper proportions, Broad researchers continue to develop new and improved tools within their variation discovery framework.
A Google search revealed the following reviewer’s comments about Julia’s duck deboning: “It seems intimidating in theory, but it turns out to be oddly satisfying…. [the] instructions demystify the process and reassure.” Perhaps genomics researchers taking on variation discovery will feel the same about one of the Broad’s master recipes.
And though Julia may have worked solo, this work was accomplished with the help of a team of computational biologists, mathematicians, and computer scientists. Current team members include Mark DePristo, Eric Banks, Ryan Poplin, Kiran Garimella, Jared Maguire, Christopher Hartl, Anthony Philippakis, Guillermo del Angel, Manuel Rivas, Matthew Hanna, Aaron McKenna, Timothy Fennell, Andrey Sivachenko, Kristian Cibulskis, Stacey Gabriel, David Altshuler, and Mark Daly.
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Brain in Hand
Paleontologists today are lucky. We have new tools that could only be dreamed of a few decades ago. One of these is rapid prototyping, which allows us to create replicas of important fossils – or even models of structures that did not actually fossilize! In the case of the Paraptenodytes brain project, we were able to create an accurate physical model of the brain that can be studied, displayed, and shared with other scientists. This is a great opportunity, because all we originally had was the skull. Now, we have an endocast of the brain too, thanks to CT reconstruction. It is almost like creating a new “bonus” fossil.
How can this be done? Rapid prototyping is basically 3D printing. After loading up a digital file of the object to be printed, the prototyping machine builds the physical model layer by layer, using a nylon composite powder. A laser is used to sinter the powder together. This means that the laser causes the atoms in the powder to diffuse across the boundaries of the particles, joining the layer together into a single piece without actually melting it. A the end, we have an amazing model of a penguin brain.
One of the great things about prototyping is that the files are digital, so they can be shared easily across long distances. I could transfer a copy of the Paraptenodytes brain files to a colleague in another country in a few minutes time and they could print one out in their lab. Another advantage of this technology is that unlimited copies can be made with no degradation – unlike the case of traditional molds, which slowly become less accurate with use due to wear and tear. Finally, the prototypes can be made out of other materials besides nylon composites – stainless steel, ceramics, colored plastics and even silver are possible. One day if I become a millionaire, I may treat myself to a solid gold Paraptenodytes brain.
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A Character is a single token from the Unicode basic multilingual plane. It can also convert to the lowermost 16 bits of an integer.
Each Unicode character belongs to a certain category, which we can inspect using getType():
The surrogate category is divided into the high surrogates and the low surrogates. A Unicode supplementary character is represented by two Characters, the first from the high surrogates, the second from the low. Integers, known as code points, can also represent all Unicode characters, including supplementary ones. The code point is the same as a Character converted to an integer for basic plane characters, and its values continue from 0x10000 for supplementary characters. The upper 11 bits of the code point Integer must be zeros. Methods accepting only char values treat surrogate characters as undefined characters.
To convert a Unicode character between a code point and a Character array:
We can enquire of code points in a char array or string:
Every character also has a directionality:
Every character is part of a Unicode block:
Character assists integers using different radixes:
We can find the Unicode block for a loosely-formatted textual description of it:
Constructing and Using Characters
We can't represent Characters directly in our programs, but must construct them from a string:
There's a number of Character utility methods, accepting either a code point or a basic-plane character, that test some attribute of the character:
We can use characters instead of numbers in arithmetic operations:
We can auto-increment and -decrement characters:
Some miscellaneous methods:
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National Cocoa Day
Cuckoo for cocoa? December 12 is National Cocoa Day!
The weather outside may be frightful, but cozying up with a mug of hot cocoa can make the day more delightful.
The Mayans are first credited with cultivating the cacao bean to brew xocoatl, an unsweetened version of modern-day hot chocolate. Much later in the 17th century, Spanish doctor Antonio Colmenero de Ledesma published the first recipe as an elixir, adding different spices to treat a number of ailments. Even President George Washington washed down his breakfast of cornmeal hoe cakes with a cup of hot chocolate.
Even though "hot chocolate" and "hot cocoa" are often used interchangeably, purists stress that there is a difference. Hot chocolate is made from mixing heated water or milk with melted chocolate pieces, while hot cocoa is made from cocoa powder and warmed water or milk.
In 1828, Dutch chemist Coenraad Van Houten patented his process of extracting some of the cocoa butter from the beans, leaving behind a cocoa powder with a reduced fat content. He added alkaline salts to the cocoa powder so that it would dissolve more easily with liquid. The final product is "Dutch-process" or "Dutched" cocoa power. An added advantage to having a naturally lower fat cocoa powder is that you can pile on the marshmallows and whipped cream!
Copyright 2012 by CNN NewSource. All rights reserved. This material may not be published, broadcast, rewritten or redistributed.
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“We fertilize the forest because we need more biomass. The forest has the ability to bind CO2, which makes it a carbon bank. Secondly, we can use the additional timber produced for biofuel, which in turn replaces fossil fuel.”
Both scientists and governments are increasingly preoccupied with the role agriculture can play in the fight against climate change. One aspect of this is examining forests, and how increased CO2 storage capacity as well as increased biomass production can be achieved.
“The forest has the ability to bind CO2”
Erik Eid Hohle, The Energy Farm, Center for Bioenergy
"Tens of billions of dollars are being earmarked for carbon capture and storage at power stations, with the CO2 to be buried underground or under the sea. But perhaps the international community is overlooking a tried and tested method that has been working for millennia - the biosphere,” said UN Under-Secretary-General and UNEP Executive Director Achim Steiner earlier this year.
Recently, the Ministry of Food and Agriculture in Norway presented their climate report for the agricultural sector, and indicated fertilization of forests as a point of action. “Nitrogen fertilizer can contribute to increased productivity in the forest and more carbon stored in the soil,” the ministry writes in a white paper – Climate challenges – the agricultural sector as part of the solution.
In the Nordic region, fertilizing by use of helicopter has proven most effective because of the ability to cover large areas in a short period, and special fertilizers have been developed to maximize impact. This has been done for decades, especially in Sweden. The benefits for both farmers, who experience increased quality of their products, and the environment, are well documented.
Even though some N2O gas is being emitted in the process, and the fact that this is a global greenhouse gas 300 times more harmful to the environment than CO2, the net effects of carbon binding are nevertheless considerable. The IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) calculates in general that 1.2 per cent of nitrogen fertilizer is emitted as N2O. Despite this, the overall effect is still a net binding of approximately 10,000 kg CO2 per hectare by using 150 kg of nitrogen fertilizer.
The Center for Bioenergy in Norway also emphasizes the positive energy output via biomass. “For every unit of fossil fuel you put in, you get 15 times more biomass, so this is probably the smartest way to use oil,” says Erik Eid Hohle.
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I f you always wanted to do your part in saving the Earth and didn’t know where to start, recycling is one of our most pressing environmental issues. Waste is one our biggest environmental concerns, and is responsible for producing most damage being done. Initiating a recycling program and reducing your carbon footprint at home or work can make a ‘world’ of difference.
Reducing waste is a great first step in going green. What you don’t use will produce zero waste. Look for items that are reusable or are made of recyclable materials. Anything made of paper, plastic, and metals such as electronics and aluminum can be recycled. Some states require a deposit on glass and aluminum beverages to encourage recycling, and the system has been a success. ‘Free boxes’ are sprouting up all over the place, perfect for recycling your clothing.
Growing your own food is another way to reduce your carbon footprint, and it also saves you money at the grocery store, proving fresh, organic nutrition in your backyard. Composting food scraps, yard debris and other waste is great for the garden, and requires minimal soil.
Resist the urge to buy a gas-gussling SUV or other types of unnecessary vehicles. Fuel efficient cars are available in all makes and models. The cost of fuel alone should be an indicator to us about the declining oil market, and the dire need for conservation.
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Sunium, a cape in Greece, is the southernmost promontory of the Athenian area of Attica. A temple built there in the 440s B.C., was thought to have been dedicated to Athens' goddess Athena, until 1898 when an inscription identified the god so honored -- Poseidon. Sunium, which was near the Laurium silver mines, was also important as an alternative war-time sea route for food to Athens.
In the Odyssey 3.278, Apollo killed the steersman of Menelaus' ship at Sunium. In the stories of Theseus and the minotaur, Theseus' father jumped to his death at Sunium. The poet Byron inscribed his initials in the marble of Poseidon's temple, 11 of whose Doric columns still stand.
- "Sounium" The Concise Oxford Companion to Classical Literature. Ed. M.C. Howatson and Ian Chilvers. Oxford University Press, 1996.
- 1911 Encyclopedia - Sunium
- "Tourism and the Environment"
Ambio, Vol. 6, No. 6, The Mediterranean: A Special Issue (1977), pp. 336-341.
- "Athenian Food Supplies from Euboea"
H. D. Westlake
The Classical Review, Vol. 62, No. 1 (May, 1948), pp. 2-5.
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About Site Map Contact Us
|A service of the U.S. National Library of Medicine®|
On this page:
Reviewed July 2012
What is the official name of the ERCC8 gene?
The official name of this gene is “excision repair cross-complementing rodent repair deficiency, complementation group 8.”
ERCC8 is the gene's official symbol. The ERCC8 gene is also known by other names, listed below.
Read more about gene names and symbols on the About page.
What is the normal function of the ERCC8 gene?
The ERCC8 gene provides instructions for making a protein commonly called the Cockayne syndrome A (CSA) protein. Little is known about the function of this protein, although it is involved in repairing damaged DNA. DNA can be damaged by ultraviolet (UV) rays from the sun and by toxic chemicals, radiation, and unstable molecules called free radicals. The damage caused by these agents can block vital cell activities such as gene transcription, which is the first step in protein production. If left uncorrected, DNA damage accumulates, which causes cells to malfunction and can lead to cell death.
Although DNA damage occurs frequently, normal cells are usually able to fix it before it can cause problems. Cells have several mechanisms to correct DNA damage; one such mechanism involves the CSA protein. This protein specializes in repairing damaged DNA within active genes (those genes undergoing gene transcription). However, its specific role in this process is unclear. The CSA protein interacts with other proteins, probably to identify areas of damaged DNA.
How are changes in the ERCC8 gene related to health conditions?
Where is the ERCC8 gene located?
Cytogenetic Location: 5q12.1
Molecular Location on chromosome 5: base pairs 60,169,658 to 60,240,904
The ERCC8 gene is located on the long (q) arm of chromosome 5 at position 12.1.
More precisely, the ERCC8 gene is located from base pair 60,169,658 to base pair 60,240,904 on chromosome 5.
See How do geneticists indicate the location of a gene? in the Handbook.
Where can I find additional information about ERCC8?
You and your healthcare professional may find the following resources about ERCC8 helpful.
You may also be interested in these resources, which are designed for genetics professionals and researchers.
What other names do people use for the ERCC8 gene or gene products?
See How are genetic conditions and genes named? in the Handbook.
Where can I find general information about genes?
The Handbook provides basic information about genetics in clear language.
These links provide additional genetics resources that may be useful.
What glossary definitions help with understanding ERCC8?
acids ; amino acid ; cell ; deficiency ; DNA ; DNA damage ; DNA repair ; free radicals ; gene ; gene transcription ; mutation ; NER ; nucleotide ; nucleotide excision repair ; pigmentation ; protein ; radiation ; sensitivity ; sun sensitivity ; syndrome ; toxic ; transcription ; UV rays
You may find definitions for these and many other terms in the Genetics Home Reference Glossary.
See also Understanding Medical Terminology.
References (11 links)
The resources on this site should not be used as a substitute for professional medical care or advice. Users seeking information about a personal genetic disease, syndrome, or condition should consult with a qualified healthcare professional. See How can I find a genetics professional in my area? in the Handbook.
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Part 1: North Carolina's First Radio Stations, Part 2: Radio Enters Its "Golden Age" in North Carolina, Part 3: National Networks and Popular Local Shows and Personalities, Part 4: Radio Broadcasting and the Civil Rights Movement, Part 5: Growth of FM Stations and Increasing Corporate Ownership
Part 3: National Networks and Popular Local Shows and Personalities
With the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941 came a temporary freeze on radio station applications, which hampered smaller carriers. Through the 1940s, the airwaves were dominated by the four major broadcast networks:NBC, ABC, CBS, and the now-defunct Mutual Broadcasting System. In addition to war-related news, the networks provided a wealth of block programming-from serialized dramas to live performances. Comedy shows featuring Fred Allen, Jack Benny, George Burns, and Gracie Allen, along with dramas such as the Lux Radio Theater, Orson Welles's Mercury Theatre on the Air, and The Guiding Light, made radio the centerpiece of family entertainment. Kay Kyser joined the ranks of big band leaders like Benny Goodman, Glenn Miller, and Duke Ellington on nationally broadcast shows.
Despite the networks' seeming monopoly of radio real estate, small stations still managed to spring up across North Carolina. Mount Airy's WPAQ, after its birth in 1948, began broadcasting live string band performances at 10,000 watts while also amassing a sizable catalog of traditional and folk music. In 1947 the North Carolina Association of Broadcasters was founded to provide support and information to state radio talent. Recognizable on-air personalities carved out reputations in the region. Greensboro native Edward R. Murrow moved on to a national audience, but local color ruled the state's airwaves. Commentators such as WBT's fiery, pulpit-tested J. S. Nathaniel Tross and WRAL's Fred Fletcher, known for his children's programming and traffic reports, were radio fixtures for years. Although by the 1950s television replaced radio as America's "everyday" medium, local radio fought the advance of network TV by filling spots on the airwaves normally overlooked by larger corporations, such as early morning time slots. For 30 years Grady Cole, beloved as "Mr. Dixie," was the voice of WBT's sunrise schedule, providing farm reports, community announcements, weather reports, and more into the early 1960s.
Devotion to certain broadcasters induced listeners to continue tuning in, either for a chance of catching the "Voice of the Duke Blue Devils," announcer Lee Kirby, or the sweet sounds of Crackerjacks bandleader Arthur Smith. In addition to Grady Cole, WBT helped bring Charles H. Crutchfield, a station program director and the eventual president of Jefferson-Pilot Broadcasting, to prominence in the postwar years.
Kay Kyser and his band entertain U.S. Navy personnel during a live NBC radio broadcast of Kay Kyser's Kollege of Musical Knowledge, ca. 1943. North Carolina Collection, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill Library.
1 January 2006 | McFee, Philip; Williams, Wiley J.
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Individual differences |
Methods | Statistics | Clinical | Educational | Industrial | Professional items | World psychology |
Prehensility is the quality of an organ that has adapted for grasping or holding. Examples of prehensile body parts include the tails of New World monkeys and opossums, the trunks of elephants, the tongues of giraffes, the lips of horses and the proboscides of tapir. The hands of primates are all prehensile to varying degrees, and many species (even a few humans) have prehensile feet as well. The claws of cats are also prehensile. Many extant lizards have prehensile tails (geckos, chameleons, and a species of skink). The fossil record shows prehensile tails in lizards (Simiosauria) going back many million years to the Triassic period - Celeskey (2005).
Prehensile tails in animals such as monkeys are articulated and thus limited to some degree in flexibility. Zippel (1994) discovered that Corucia zebrata - underlined, the Solomon Islands monkey skink has a prehensile tail that has a snow cone muscle structure that is loosely attached to the vertebrate but has a sronger connection to an outer shealth. This makes the tail omnidirectional and give the monkey skink the means to move one part of its tail in one direction while the other remains rigid or moves in a different direction. This is often orchestrated in an angry male establishing territorial dominance.
Proboscises are evolutionary adaptations that have allowed species to have a great natural advantage for manipulating their environment for feeding, digging, and defense. It enables many specialized animals such as primates to use tools in order to complete tasks that would otherwise be impossible. For example, chimpanzees have the ability to use sticks to fish for termites and grubs.
The word is derived from the Latin term prehendere, meaning "to grasp."
|This page uses Creative Commons Licensed content from Wikipedia (view authors).|
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Salvador, or San Salvador, a republic in Central America; on the coast of the Pacific; area, 7,225 square miles; pop. 651,130, mostly Spanish-speaking Indians and half-breeds. A range of volcanic peaks, varying in height from 4,000 to 9,000 feet, runs through the center of the country, dividing an interior valley from the lowlands, on the coast. The soil is remarkably fertile. Cattle-breeding is carried on, but not extensively. The manufactures are unimportant. The chief exports are coffee, indigo, silver, raw sugar, balsam of Peru, leather, etc. The established religion is Roman Catholicism. The government is carried on by a president and four ministers. There is a congress of 70 deputies elected by universal suffrage. The inhabitants had long the reputation of being the most industrious in Central America, and the State, in proportion to its size, is still the most densely peopled. Salvador remained under Spanish rule till 1821, when it asserted its independence and joined the Mexican Confederation. In 1823 it seceded; later, was part of the Republic of Central America; in 1853 became an independent republic; in 1906 was embroiled with Honduras in the war with Guatemala.
Entry from Everybody's Cyclopedia, 1912.
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Saint John the Baptist of Studium
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The ecclesiastical architecture of the East is more varied, partly as a result of differences in the liturgies. The monastery of St. John the Baptist of Studium in Constantinople (463) and the church of the Acheiropoietos at Thessalonica (470) were basilicas with tribunes and narthexes, which, in their proportions, approached those of centrally planned structures. The large central aisle,...
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The echinoderms - meaning spiny skin - are the starfish, sea urchins and sea cucumbers.
Starfish like the Bloody henry starfish and the Common starfish which live in our waters are predators that move across the seabed using special organs called tube feet.
Visible spines on the outside of urchins and on the skin of starfish and sea cucumbers are there to deter predators.
On the sandflats at St Martin’s and Tresco there are important populations of burrowing Heart urchins. Crevice Sea cucumbers and featherstars are often seen on reefs by divers.
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Sweating up new skin cells
Humans have evolved a sweaty way to repair skin wounds.
It was thought that the body repairs wounds such as bed sores and burns by generating new skin cells from hair follicles or the skin at the edges of the wound, the same way that other animals do.
But Laure Rittie of the University of Michigan Medical School and colleagues have shown that a type of sweat gland not found in animals also plays a role.
The team used a laser to create minor wounds in 31 volunteers. Over the following week, they took skin biopsies of the wound to identify where new skin cells had grown. Before wounding, there were few new cells in the eccrine glands, which help regulate temperature, but four days later, there were plenty.
This suggests that the glands contain a reservoir of adult stem cells that can be recruited to repair wounds (The American Journal of Pathology, doi.org/jtp). Humans have three times more eccrine glands than hair follicles, making them the major contributor to new skin cells.
The finding is “unexpected and against current dogma,” said Elaine Fuchs of the Howard Hughes Medical Institute in Maryland.
Yogurt can help hypertension
People who take in at least 2 percent of their calories from yogurt have lower blood pressure and are about 30 percent less likely to develop hypertension than people who don’t eat yogurt, scientists reported at the American Heart Association’s High Blood Pressure Research meeting in Washington, D.C.
The yogurt finding is from a study in which researchers followed nearly 2,200 adults for 15 years and assessed their diets periodically with a questionnaire.
Eating at least one 6-ounce serving of yogurt every three days would provide the 2 percent “dose” cited in the study. Yogurt by itself does not lower blood pressure or prevent hypertension, but a diet that includes nutrient-rich foods such as low-fat yogurt instead of less-healthy foods does combat high blood pressure.
The changing hysterectomy
For generations of women, hysterectomy was all but a rite of passage before age 50, albeit a difficult one. Even now, it remains the second-most-performed surgical procedure for American women still of reproductive age, and by age 60, one in three women has undergone the surgery, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
Despite that, hysterectomy rates in the past three decades have dropped from almost 56 per 10,000 women to 33 per 10,000, American Congress of Obstetricians and Gynecologists statistics show, and the surgery itself has been streamlined into minimally invasive procedures that make the operation and recovery easier.
Hysterectomy remains controversial. While many medical experts see good news in pioneering advances and quick recovery times, some of them also say that up to two-thirds of the 600,000 hysterectomies performed each year in this country could be avoided.
Today, alternative treatments often replace surgery,
For younger women, 90 percent of hysterectomies deal not with reproductive cancers but rather with pelvic pain; uterine fibroids, or benign tumors; excessive bleeding; and endometriosis.
For older women, the most common underlying diagnosis is cancer.
Side effects of the surgery can include the early onset of menopause, bladder and bowel problems and loss of sex drive.
Research also shows that hysterectomy can increase a woman’s risk of heart disease and lung cancer.
Compiled from News wire services
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Rangeland regeneration on Wooleen
Wooleen Station is situated in the Mulga shrub lands. The rangelands to which the Mulga shrub lands belong comprise 80% of Australia and 40% of the World. 1/3 of man’s domesticated stock run on these rangelands and they also form the habitat for much of the world’s wildlife. Wooleen is also situated in the oldest landscape in the world, and the oldest rocks in the world are found nearby. Wooleen encompasses some 36 kilometers of the Murchison River and the same of the Roderick River, including all of the Roderick’s lower reaches and the nationally important wetland, Wooleen Lake.
Surveys done in the Murchison area by the Western Australian Department of Agriculture in the mid 1990s describe the flora as diverse, with 830 recorded vascular species, of which around 5% are endemic or near-endemic. Unfortunately the same survey also recorded that 42% of the vegetation was in poor to very poor condition, 37% remained in fair condition, and 21% was still in good condition. Worse still these figures do not show that most of the land in poor or very poor condition is the prime land along riparian areas favored by grazing animals, and the countryside in good condition is mostly areas that have never been developed due to their low pastoral potential, such as sparsely vegetated rocky areas that few animals are willing to brave.
The survey did report that over 1.8% of the Murchison catchment was severely degraded and eroded, that is degraded to the point whereby it is not ever expected to recover its pastoral potential. 1.8% corresponds to 1561 km2, or over half the size of the A.C.T. Other catchments in the area record much higher figures of severe degradation and erosion. Alarmingly, these degraded areas are entirely situated in prime areas, mainly riparian areas. Since the survey was done there have been an increasing number of reported dry years and droughts in the Murchison, which begs the question, are we getting dryer, or is the landscape losing its ability to cope with normal conditions?
At Wooleen we believe the latter. The rangelands are described as a renewable resource, but this is only true if we manage the land so that is able to renew itself, and is healthy enough to withstand the normal cycles of climate. We believe that Wooleen’s landscape is below that critical line of health, especially in the most productive and ecologically important riparian areas.
So how did the landscape get to this stage?
The immediate response is usually that the pastoralists have destroyed the landscape through greedy overstocking, however this assumption bears closer inspection. Pastoralists do not own the land, it’s owned by the government and leased for the purpose of pastoralism. In the first 40-50 years of pastoral settlement in the Murchison area pastoralists were incentivized and in fact compelled by law to erect infrastructure and carry minimum numbers of stock. The theory was it was Australia’s land, and it should be used to produce for the Australian economy.
And produce it did. According to the Australian Bureau of Statistics in 1935 more than 27% of the world wool production was from Australia. Australia owned more sheep than any other country in the world, 112,217,000 compared with the next highest, the Soviet Union with 73,300,000. Wooleen owned 27,000 of them, and in 1935, 450 sheep were slaughtered as rations to feed the workforce employed to tend those sheep. Australia rode on the sheeps back, as the saying goes. The grand old Wooleen homestead is a testament to those high times, as are many of the old buildings in the main streets of countless cities and towns throughout Australia.
However by 1939 it became all too apparent that something had gone wrong with this system. Wooleen was down to 10, 900 sheep, 16,000 having died of starvation over 4 years. In the Murchison area, 840,000 sheep had been reduced to 250,000 over 5 years. A drought had struck.
Normally the landscape would have been well equipped to cope with this event, as surface waters evaporated so too did the large grazing herbivores that relied on the surface water. However with the establishment of windmills and wells, water was now available all of the time and no longer a limiting factor. 27,000 sheep continued to eat. But the vegetation was not being replenished by rainfall, and the sheep continued to eat into the reserves that should never have been touched. Because these reserves were the fabric that hold the landscape together.
A Royal Commission was appointed to investigate the situation in 1940: ‘Report of the Royal Commission appointed to inquire into and report upon the financial and economic position of the pastoral industry in the leasehold areas in Western Australia. Fyfe W.V.’ They reported that 75 % of the saltbush species and 25% of the acacias had been removed. In some areas 90% of scrub and shrubs had disappeared, leaving the landscape extremely susceptible to wind and water erosion, and resulted in the severe degradation and erosion still evident today. None the less the report was aimed at getting the show back on the road, and restocking as soon as possible.
Some pastoralists at this time were pushing for properly conducted scientific studies in pastoral areas to better understand the rangeland environment, and in the early 1950s the Department of Agriculture located professional agricultural scientists in pastoral areas for the first time. A separate Rangeland Pastoral Management branch was established in 1971, and ushered in a period of excellent scientific research, including the previously mentioned survey of degraded land.
Meanwhile the pastoral industry was learning how the Australian rangelands worked the hard way. Restocking commenced as quickly as the sheep could breed up again in the good seasons, but it was noticed that much of the scrub had not recovered. In fact it still hasn’t recovered. We now know this because many of the plants that were wiped out in the 1930 drought, and subsequent droughts, live for a very long time. In fact we still don’t know how long most of them live, though it would be reasonable to assume over 100 years for plants less than waist high, and over 300years for many small trees and shrubs. Not only do they live a long time, they also grow very slowly, and require much more time to establish than current practices allow.
Since that time there have been numerous droughts and stock numbers have never reached what they were before a drought, indicating that we are rapidly losing the productive capacity of the land. In 1975-77 the Collaborative Soil Conservation study by the state and federal government estimated that the vast majority of the pastoral rangelands require rehabilitation following range deterioration including vegetation decline, soil erosion and woody weed invasion.
And yet the State of the Environment Report 2006 gives an upbeat view of how the pastoral rangelands are progressing. It shows that some monitoring sites have improved, most have stayed the same and some have regressed. The important question to ask however is:
What is the base line that is being used for comparison? Or: If they have improved, against what are we judging that they have improved?
The answers to these questions are that they are being compared to monitoring sites established in the mid 1990s, which plainly reported that the sites were very degraded at the time of establishment! So 60 years after the problem was identified in a Royal Commission, and after no respite for the landscape in all that time, the government is happy to accept 1990 as a baseline for monitoring. What is amazing about this information is that the rangelands have been able to get worse in some cases since then! One would have thought that after 110years of miss- management the landscape had reached rock bottom, literally.
At Wooleen we decided in 2007 to completely destock the entire property for 4 years, and turn off all windmills to limit availability of water to unmanaged grazing animals (such as kangaroos). While destocking is not a new practice normally it would only be applied to a small area, and for a year at most. For this we needed permission from the Pastoral Lands Board (PLB), as it was at the time necessary to keep stock on every pastoral lease unless permission was granted otherwise. It took 1 year for the PLB to give its permission.
The re-establishment of the vegetation on Wooleen is only the first step, and while this has progressed much better than expected, there is still a long way to go. In fact the more it recovers, the more we realise that it should be so much better! This is because very desirable pasture plants are turning up in places that we never realised they would grow, especially perennial grasses.
Unfortunately due to financial constraints we have had to reintroduce the cattle before the landscape has even halfway recovered. This will mean that we are taking a two steps forward one backward approach, but it cannot be avoided at this stage.
Which brings us to the second stage of our quest for sustainability, running stock in a way that does not start the landscape back into a downward spiral. While there is a lot of learning to do in this regard, we are convinced that we have to find a way to periodically rest the landscape to allow it to recover from grazing, especially during dry times. In order to achieve this with the last lot of cattle we only kept them on the station for 8 months, which worked well ecologically but was a tough financial decision, as we did not realise the full economic potential of the herd, and we sorely needed to! But it meant another summer without grazing pressure, which has ensured a continued positive ecological trend.
Finance is of course a major drawback to environmental recovery, and while tourism helps in between times, it does not cover the cost of running the station. At least we have the tourism. Many pastoralists would love to restore the productive capacity of their stations, but have no other source of income. Still the conditions of our pastoral lease stipulate that the majority of income must come from pastoralism, which is a hangover from the very early days before the turn of the century. A tourism permit must be applied for and states only ‘low-key’ tourism activities can be established.
While we haven’t had cattle we have still been busy! Constructing Envirolls with the help of school groups, building Ponding banks, planting grasses and changing infrastructure to replicate the natural systems we have lost. The culmination of this work, in partnership with neighbours and with a federal environmental grant, resulted in the Roderick River flowing clear of eroded sediment at its terminus for the first time in living memory. We turned a red river clear in 2009 and partly clear in 2010 which was the second biggest flood on record.
We are very excited by these results, and presented them to the federal government, Department of Sustainability, Environment, Water, Population and Communities. They replied saying that we had proven that it could be done, and now we should go ahead and keep doing it. No further funds would be forthcoming.
The sad fact of the matter is that a handful of pastoralists struggling to make a living in an industry that has been struggling for over 20 years are not able to afford the broad scale rehabilitation measures required. Even if those measures are as simple as destocking. Pastoralists argue why should we pay for the rehabilitation of land that was largely depleted before we were born, that does not belong to us any more than any other Australian? How could we pay for it anyway? This is the scenario facing pastoralists interested in rehabilitating the landscape, and despite the challenges many are trying to do it anyway.
If you would like to donate to the rangeland regeneration efforts on Wooleen Station then please use the button below:
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"Learning how to work with diversity within our teaching groups is a helpful skill that we will be able to apply wherever we go in life. Knowing how to negotiate and teach others new skills is a vital skill that everyone should learn."
— Lauren Kasten, Trabuco Hills High School Student (2008) - Mission Viejo, CA
The YouthTEACH2Learn program is a career exploration program where students explore teaching as a career. During the course, the students gain practical experience by observing elementary school classrooms, learning how to teach, developing and teaching standards-based lessons to younger students in neighboring elementary schools and participating in local community service projects. In addition, students also have the opportunity to meet local educators, attend career panels and visit local college campuses in order to determine if the teaching is a "good-fit" for their professional goals.
- The program:
- Encourages career exploration and increases the number of students entering the teacher pipeline.
- Increases elementary students' interest in science and math at an early age.
- Provides elementary school teachers with enhanced science or math lessons and encouragement to improve their own science or math lessons.
- What will students do during the class?
- Work with a team of students to develop and teach science or math lessons to elementary school students.
- Obtain valuable public speaking and presentation skills.
- Learn to work on a team.
- Participate in 20 hrs of community service related to teaching science or math.
- Explore college opportunities as they attend career panels and visit local colleges, such as Santiago Canyon College or the University of California at Irvine.
- Learn about careers as they visit local companies during the Innovators' Road Trip.
- Meet other students who are interested in teaching.
- Develop relationships with future mentors.
- Why would students take the class?
- Explore teaching as a career.
- Have the chance to help others learn gaining a sense of accomplishment
- Gain experience working with children
- Develop academic and professional skills such as leadership, teamwork, meeting deadlines, and public speaking.
- Earn 3 units of transferable college credit.
- Visit companies to learn more about careers.
- Great resume builder, college reference, and work experience.
- School Wide Benefits
- Create an interest in science and math at feeder schools
- Develop future teachers from the community
- Create a culture of students able to speak in complete sentences
- On site resource that can track student interests and trends
- Adopt a teacher program-help grade papers, develop lesson plans, etc
- Give students a direction after they graduate and create a college going culture
- Increase the number of students playing a vital role in the community
- What the program includes…
- Full year curriculum guide
- Teacher guide and student workbooks
- High school teacher training
- Student t-shirts
- Stipend for lesson supplies
- Coordination with elementary schools
- Evaluation process and results
- Program liaison
- Please Join Us!
- Learn more about the YouthTEACH2Learn Program
- Contact us for more information
Nate Moser, Program Manager
949 609-4660 ext 16
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Why Alaska's Pebble Mine Matters in Seattle
Salmon spawn in our rivers, climb our fish ladders, adorn everything from totem poles to T-shirts and grace our plates. They are synonymous with Seattle. And we spend a great deal of time and effort trying to protect their habitat close to home.
These days, most of our wild salmon come from Alaska, in particular, from the tundra-like headwaters of Bristol Bay, the world’s greatest salmon nursery, where storied rivers such as the Kvichak and Nushagak spawn 40 percent of the global sockeye population. Each spring, tens of millions of adult salmon pile into Bristol Bay before migrating up their natal rivers, supporting a commercial fishery that employs nearly 14,000 people—including many fishermen and seasonal workers from the Puget Sound region—and directly generates approximately $500 million annually.
But beneath these pristine spawning grounds sit huge reserves of copper, molybdenum and gold. And, a multinational mining partnership—London-based multinational Anglo American PLC and Vancouver, B.C.–based Canadian Northern Dynasty Minerals Ltd.—wants to dig North America’s largest open-pit mine here to get at these metals, which have an estimated worth of up to $500 billion. Preliminary plans call for processing 10 billion tons of ore and storing billions of tons of waste behind tailings barriers far larger than Grand Coulee Dam. With an industrial footprint twice the size of Seattle, the Pebble Mine would operate in a seismically active region that can boast the 20th century’s biggest volcanic eruption—nearby Novarupta, in 1912, with a blast 10 times that of Mount St. Helens.
This is why some local tribes, whose members have subsistence-fished the Bristol Bay rivers for thousands of years, petitioned the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to assess the Pebble project. A draft of that EPA report suggested that should the mine proceed, environmental degradation is likely, even imminent. The first and only public hearing outside of Alaska was held in Seattle last May. Eighty percent of the public comments at that meeting, from Seattle fishermen to Alaskan tribal members, supported the EPA process.
Tom Douglas calls Pebble mine “one of the most critical environmental debates of our time.
The EPA is slated to release a final report any day now. Proponents worry, and opponents hope, that the agency will use its power to kill the project outright, thanks to a rarely used clause in the Clean Water Act that authorizes the federal agency to prohibit the discharge of dredged or fill material that negatively impacts fisheries, wildlife, municipal water supplies or recreational areas.
It’s a predicament for the new millennium. Copper, in particular, is an important ingredient in all sorts of modern conveniences, from smartphones to microwave ovens. (Northern Dynasty estimates Pebble could produce one-quarter of America’s domestic copper supply for more than 50 years.) On the other side of the ledger, salmon are the main ingredient in the diets of local Native Americans, who represent a majority of the immediate area’s population.
“Bristol Bay is one of the last really big, fully functioning salmon ecosystems on the planet,” says Thomas Quinn, a professor at University of Washington’s School of Aquatic and Fishery Sciences. He’s been researching salmon in Bristol Bay for the past 25 years and believes the mine, “on balance, would be bad for Alaska, bad for the U.S. and even bad for the world.” Because of the region’s porous soils, an accidental spill of toxic mining contaminants would spread quickly from drainage to drainage, imperiling the salmon and everything else that depends on them, from grizzly bears and eagles to salmon-based native cultures.
The carefully regulated fishery allows enough salmon to reach the spawning grounds each year so that the runs replenish themselves, leaving, on average, 26 million sockeye for the commercial fishery. In a world of diminishing natural resources, a well-managed wild salmon run such as this is a de facto poster child for that trendy yet elusive ideal, sustainability.
By now it’s a familiar story: multinationals getting rich off the public domain and leaving taxpayers with a ruined environment and a massive cleanup bill. The Pebble backers say this won’t happen again, but history suggests otherwise. A quick look at Anglo American reveals a checkered track record. Corporate watchdog Philip Mattera points to a long list of accidental spills, contaminations, deaths and unintended consequences caused by Anglo American–associated mining interests, including an operation in Nevada that was the single largest producer of mercury air pollution in the U.S.
Seattle restaurateur Tom Douglas calls it “one of the most critical environmental debates of our time.” Last October, he held a press conference at his waterfront restaurant Seatown to voice his objections and ask fellow Seattleites to get involved. “Wild salmon are at the core of our identity and culture here in the Pacific Northwest,” he wrote in an open letter to his customers. “They have shaped our communities and the economy.”
Douglas is hardly alone among Seattle chefs. Kevin Davis, chef/owner of Steelhead Diner and Blueacre Seafood, has been decrying Pebble for years, finally meeting with Senator Maria Cantwell in Washington, D.C., not long before she became the first U.S. senator to oppose the mine in September 2011. An avid Northwest angler, Davis has fished the waters around Bristol Bay, too. “It’s a magical place, it really is,” he says. “The idea of opening that area to open-pit mining is just egregious. There’s only a little water left on earth that hasn’t been ruined.”
These chefs have surprising allies—in local jewelers E.E. Robbins, Ben Bridge and Blue Nile. They oppose Pebble, even though they’re in the business of selling gold. “I happen to enjoy the outdoors and I love to fish,” says Emerson Robbins, a third-generation jeweler and E.E. Robbins founder. “Thank God we live in a place that cares about the planet and we put our environment before our pocketbook.”
Of course, the biggest impact on Seattle livelihoods in the event of an accident would be felt by commercial fishermen. There are approximately 800 Bristol Bay fishing permits owned by Washington state residents, with around 100 fishermen in the Seattle area, not including all the support personnel who go north each fishing season. In a good year, a single boat might net as much as 100,000 pounds of salmon in the two-month window, earning a little more than a dollar per pound before expenses. The fish are off-loaded to vessels that bring the catch to the processor, where they’re cleaned and readied for shipment. While most of the 32-foot fishing boats stay in Alaska, many of the larger tenders spend the winter moored at Fishermen’s Terminal in Ballard.
Seattle resident Ben Blakey, 30, grew up fishing and working in Bristol Bay with his family, and now fishes for sockeye every year on his own boat. Like virtually all fishermen, Blakey is opposed to the mine. Compared to profiting from salmon runs that have been returning on schedule more or less for millennia, he says, the mine is a short-term project and not worth it. But his argument goes beyond the merely economic. “One of the great things about the area is how pristine it is,” Blakey says. “The heavy hand of industrialization hasn’t left its mark yet, and that’s probably why the runs are still so good.”
With the reelection of President Obama bolstering their hopes, mine opponents wait to see if the EPA will kill Pebble. Meanwhile, next time you’re grilling a shiny wild salmon, it’s worth remembering that all that glitters is not gold.
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|COURSES DESCRIPTION_METALLURGY & MINERAL PROCESSING|
Page 7 of 33
MM 205 INTRODUCTION TO METALLURGY
Introduction to crystallography: Crystal structure, symmetry, crystal forms, crystal systems and classes, Miller indices. Physical properties of minerals and their relationships with crystal symmetry and crystal chemistry; isotropy and anisotropy. Phase changes, crystal growth.
Introduction to minerals and rocks: Classification of minerals, rocks and ores. The structure of the earth, rock-forming processes, formation of ore deposits. Properties, identification and occurrence of the common ore minerals and rock-forming minerals.
Typical examples of ore deposits. The mineral resources of Zambia.
Introduction to metals: Properties of metals, classification of metals, relative abundance of metals. Resources and reserves, renewable and non-renewable resources, the main metallic raw materials. Scope and sequence of metallurgical treatment and metal processing. Recycling.
Introduction to mineral processing: Terminology, basic principles and equipment used in the main unit operations in mineral processing. Crushing, grinding, classification, flotation, gravity separation, thickening, filtration.
Introduction to pyrometallurgical extraction: Terminology, basic principles and equipment used in the main unit operations in pyrometallurgy. Roasting, sintering, smelting, converting, refining.
Introduction to hydrometallurgical extraction: Terminology, basic principles and equipment used in the main unit operations in hydrometallurgy: leaching, ion exchange, solvent extraction, cementation, electrowinning, electrorefining. Industrial application of these techniques in the production of iron and steel, copper, lead, zinc, aluminium and gold. Beneficiation of coal. Production of sulphuric acid and cement.
Alexander, W. and A. Street , Metals in the Service of Man(9th edition), Penguin Books (1989)
Cooray, G. and A. Lane , A Guide to the Minerals of Zambia NCCM/RCM, Lusaka (1978)
|Office of The Chancellor|
|Office of The Vice-Chancellor|
|Office of The Deputy Vice-Chancellor|
|Office of The Registrar|
|Office of The Bursar|
|Office of The Librarian|
|Dean of Students|
|School of Agricultural Sciences|
|School of Education|
|School of Engineering|
|School of Law|
|School of Mines|
|School Of Medicine|
|School of Natural Sciences|
|School of Veterinary Medicine|
|School of Humanities and Social Sciences|
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Unraveling the Origins of a Symbol of the Tropics
The coconut variety Niu Leka, or Fiji Dwarf, from the South Pacific may represent the earliest lineage in the coconut’s domestication.
The coconut tree is a symbol of the Tropics, and as a source of fiber, food, fuel, soap, and cooking oil, it is sometimes called “the tree of life.” But one aspect of the tree has remained a mystery—its origins. Scientists have debated the tree’s genealogical roots for decades.
Using genetic markers found in coconuts and other palm trees from around the world, Alan Meerow, a geneticist with the USDA-ARS Subtropical Horticulture Research Station in Miami, Florida, has completed a phylogenetic analysis of a large group of palm species (the Attaleinae subtribe) that provides the most comprehensive look yet at the coconut tree’s family history. The results suggest that the ancestors of the coconut tree originated in South America, that the tree’s closest living relatives are a modern genus of American palms (the genus Syagrus), and that it diverged from them about 35 million years ago. The genus Syagrus includes another popular Florida ornamental, the queen palm.
Meerow and colleagues also found that the modern coconut tree probably evolved about 11 million years ago, perhaps in the South Pacific. The Fiji Dwarf, a variety of coconut tree now grown in the United States, shares its South Pacific ancestry with many of today’s other coconut varieties, according to Meerow. “The Fiji Dwarf is more distantly related to all these other varieties,” he says.
The work, published in PLoS One, is more than an academic exercise. Five of the 80 known varieties of coconut tree are major ornamentals in Florida. Identifying their closest relatives will help in the search for genes with traits capable of resisting diseases, insect pests, and other threats. An epidemic of lethal yellowing phytoplasma in the early 1980s destroyed an estimated 100,000 coconut palms in South Florida. Bud rot, caused by several fungal pathogens, threatens coconut production around the world.
“The more we know about it, the easier it will be to address future threats,” Meerow says.
Patterns of differences in DNA can open a window into a plant’s evolutionary past, revealing when it diverged from its ancestors. Meerow and colleagues looked for patterns among a family of genes developed as markers by ARS researchers studying cacao (chocolate) plants. Known as “WRKY genes,” they are valuable “clocks” for dating the occurrence of important evolutionary events.
With these molecular clocks and evidence from fossil palms, Meerow traced the coconut tree’s ancestry back more than 40 million years to palms that grew in both Madagascar and eastern Brazil. He also found that milestones in the coconut’s early “family tree” coincide with major geological events in South America, making it likely they played a role in how these palms evolved. A group of palm species in southern Brazil, for example, split off from a relative in Chile about 14 million years ago, around the time when geological events gave rise to the Andes Mountains. The extensions of oceans into the western Amazon region that lasted from 25 to 30 million years turned dry areas into wetlands and probably altered the evolution of coconut ancestors growing at the time across South America, Meerow says.—By Dennis O'Brien, Agricultural Research Service Information Staff.
This research is part of Plant Genetic Resources, Genomics, and Genetic Improvement, an ARS national program (#301) described at www.nps.ars.usda.gov.
Alan W. Meerow is with the USDA-ARS Subtropical Horticulture Research Station, 12501 Old Cutler Rd., Miami, FL 33158; (786) 573-7075.
"Unraveling the Origins of a Symbol of the Tropics" was published in the August 2010 issue of Agricultural Research magazine.
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Lapwings on RSPB lowland wet grassland reserves
21 September 2005
Breeding lapwing numbers on lowland wet grassland have crashed, and in some parts of the UK they are largely dependent on nature reserves (where numbers have been maintained). Current research is looking at ways to help this bird in the wider countryside.
This familiar farmland bird is also known as the green plover or peewit, and is regarded by many with much affection. Its wheezing calls and tumbling flight are emblematic of wet meadows.
- Phase of recovery: Trial management/recovery
- Amber list Bird of Conservation Concern
- BAP priority: Wales and Northern Ireland
What was the problem?
There has been a decline in the number of lapwings on lowland wet grassland as a result of changes in farming practices, changes in land use, drainage and unsuitable grazing. In some parts of the UK, lapwings are now restricted to nature reserves.
Research has focused on studying the best ways to manage wet grassland for lapwings. Much of this research has occurred on RSPB reserves and it has included looking at water level management, and the effect of livestock grazing and trampling and research into the best ways of encouraging invertebrates that chicks depend on. Trials showed that prolonged and widespread flooding of wet grassland was not successful as it reduced invertebrates in the soil.
We now know that the best way to manage for lapwings on wet grasslands is to produce a mosaic of flooded and non-flooded ground, with short vegetation, plenty of invertebrates and some semi-permanent pools. Grazing is vital to maintain the optimum sward, but a balance between the correct level of grazing and risk of nest trampling must be struck. This knowledge has been incorporated into agri-environment schemes and plans for managing other wet grassland sites.
Wet grassland has declined and is now rare in some areas. The RSPB has acquired lowland wet grassland or land to recreate wet grassland to help maintain the lapwing’s range. Our reserves at West Sedgemoor, Somerset; Ynys Hir, Cardiganshire; Otmoor, Oxfordshire; Berney Marshes, Norfolk; Campfield Marsh, Cumbria and Insh Marshes, Highland, are also used as demonstration sites so other land managers can learn how to create ideal conditions for lapwings.
Lapwing numbers are being maintained on the RSPB’s lowland wet grassland reserves in contrast to the national trend, and our management benefits other breeding wading birds such as black-tailed godwits, snipe and redshanks. Invertebrates also benefit from our management of coastal grazing marsh including the Maid of Kent – a beetle that only occurs on RSPB reserves managed for wading birds.
21 September 2005
Although we now have a good idea how to create the best habitat to encourage breeding lapwings on wet grassland reserves, there is still much we don’t know.
For example, we are continuing research to investigate ways of increasing the number of chicks that fledge. RSPB researchers are currently investigating low cost ways of creating wet patches on drier areas of land, and working out how to increase densities of invertebrate food for lapwing chicks.
Lowland wet grassland is still a threatened habitat, affected by many factors. We will continue to press for agri-environment schemes that can secure good management of wet grassland sites. Water supply is also critical to managing this habitat, and we will continue to press government for action on flood management, water abstraction and water quality.
In some areas, lapwings are now dependent on nature reserves or Sites of Special Scientific Interest (SSSIs). The RSPB is pressing for lapwings to be included in SSSI designations on key lowland wet grassland sites that are important for the species. The RSPB is also urging that more should be done to get existing lowland wet grassland SSSIs into favourable condition.
Climate change is an increasingly important consideration for managing lapwings and other species on wet grassland. Wetland habitats will be affected by changes in both the amount and the seasonal timing of rainfall, and protecting wet grassland in southern parts of the UK is likely to become increasingly difficult. Our reserves will therefore continue to play an important role in maintaining lapwing populations in these areas.
Thank you to all the farmers and landowners who have been involved in improving their land to make it more suitable for lapwings. The achievement of individual farms is celebrated through the Lapwing Champion Competition sponsored by Jordans Cereals.
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Today in the innermost region of our solar system, NASA’s Messenger space probe will swoop past Mercury for the third and final time. The maneuver will give scientists a close look at the dense, iron-rich, oddball planet, and will also alter the probe’s trajectory and prepare it to begin orbiting Mercury in March 2011.
As Messenger travels within 142 miles of Mercury at 12,000 miles per hour, the spacecraft’s camera will swivel to stare at a succession of craters and other geological features…. One target will be an old 90-mile-wide crater. Another will be young 13-mile crater and a splash of light-colored soil surrounding it. A third crater of interest has materials of unusual color perhaps produced by violent volcanic eruptions [The New York Times]. When this third flyby is complete, 95 percent of the planet will have been mapped in high resolution.
Scientists will also take a moment to examine the stream of charged atoms that start at the planet’s surface and extend millions of miles into space in a comet-like, gaseous tail. The ions bleed from Mercury’s surface as it is blasted by the full force of the solar wind, a stream of particles from our star which buffets the entire Solar System [BBC News].
While researchers are waiting eagerly to see what the flyby’s measurements and pictures will reveal, they’re keeping in mind that the best rewards will come later, when Messenger becomes the first spacecraft to orbit Mercury and begins a year-long study of the planet. Therefore, the most crucial element of the flyby is that Mercury’s gravity will act as a brake for the probe, setting it on a trajectory to enter orbit in one and a half years. Explains mission scientist Eric Finnegan: “Slowing the spacecraft by [5,900 miles per hour], Messenger’s orbital period around the Sun will be decreased by 13 days, closely matching the 88-day orbital period of the innermost planet” [BBC News].
80beats: Mercury Flyby Reveals Magnetic Twisters and Ancient Magma Oceans
80beats: Mercury Close-Ups Reveal the Planet’s Ancient Volcanic Eruptions
80beats: Brand New Postcards From Mercury, Courtesy of Messenger Space Probe
80beats: Mercury Is Shrinking and Cooling, Space Probe Reveals
Image: NASA/Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory/Carnegie Institution of Washington. Messenger took this picture yesterday on its approach to Mercury.
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Duke researchers key in Large Hadron Collider tests
The future of physics is being shaped in a concrete tunnel 574 feet beneath the border of France and Switzerland—and Duke is playing an important role.
Professors and students from the University are contributing to the progress being made at the Large Hadron Collider (LHC), the world’s largest particle accelerator. The European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN) built the LHC in order to test various theories of high-energy physics and especially to check for the existence of the Higgs boson—an elementary particle often called the “God particle” by the media due to its hypothesized importance in explaining the Big Bang Theory.
“During the past 20 years we have reached an impasse. Established theory can explain all measurements, but it does not explain why our universe on the whole looks the way it does,” said James B. Duke professor of physics Berndt Mueller. “The hope is that the LHC will provide the data that are needed to decide what the correct extension of our current understanding of nature is. The competing theories go under the name supersymmetry, technicolor, additional dimensions and so on. I would not be surprised if none of them turn out to be right.”
The Duke professors of physics involved in the research include Steffen Bass and Thomas Mehen, who are working on theory, and Ayana Arce, Alfred Goshaw, Ashutosh Kotwal, Mark Kruse and Seog Oh, who are focusing more on experimental work, Mueller noted. The physics department is also sending several undergraduate students to work at the LHC this summer, he added.
He said he believed the collider can further physicists’ understanding of how the universe was created and can possibly reshape physics forever.
“The LHC accelerates atomic nuclei to extremely high energies and collides them,” Mueller said. “This makes it possible to study processes that only occurred during the Big Bang when the universe was extremely hot.”
Thousands of scientists are collaborating on this project, and their responsibilities vary from monitoring malfunctioning sensors to studying the effects of collisions between particles, said Arce, assistant professor of physics.
Arce is using the ATLAS detector—a 7,000-ton instrument designed to examine the collision of protons in the LHC to uncover new types of particles or new ways that particles interact.
“Every collision is different, but most of them involve familiar particles—the quarks inside protons, as well as electrons, neutrinos, photons and their ‘cousins’—and the results can be predicted by existing theoretical models,” Arce said. “My colleagues and I want to find collisions that we can’t explain with these theories.”
Junior Zach Epstein is working under Kotwal this summer on the ATLAS detector studying particle decay.
“The ATLAS experiment is a huge thing within the LHC and hundreds of people are working on it,” he said. “It is exciting to have the opportunity to work on this. At the same time, it is important to realize that this is just a small piece in the puzzle. Answering the big questions will take a long time.”
Mehen, associate professor of physics, said in time, the LHC could help solve some of physics’ most enduring questions.
“I think that there are a lot of interesting theories postulated [in physics], and I have worked on some of them, but I think that what is really interesting is the opportunity to obtain new experimental data [from the LHC] which may address long-standing questions,” said Mehen. “Theorists have been speculating for decades about what will happen at the LHC—it is time for us to listen to what nature will tell us.”
Although disputes are more often the rule than the exception in physics, the university’s professors all agreed on one thing—whatever happens at the LHC, the future of physics is bright.
“These are very exciting times in physics, and especially particle physics now that the LHC is working extremely well,” Kotwal said. “Any new discovery at the LHC will be a game-changer, and with multiple discoveries possible, we may soon have a whole new paradigm in sub-atomic physics.”
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What Contributes to Alcoholism?
For decades, physicians, psychologists and scientists have worked together to determine what contributes to alcoholism? The hope is that if these factors can be diagnosed and influenced, a cure for alcoholism can be found. While alcoholism is often misconstrued as a lack of moral conduct and will-power brought about by an individual’s own hedonistic indulgence, alcoholism was defined as a disease by the American Medical Association (AMA) in that it is chronic, debilitating, progressive and fatal if left untreated. To date, the only known “cure” for alcoholism is continuous abstinence.
There are numerous factors that may contribute to alcoholism. The dominant factor most often thought to be the basis for alcoholism is a genetic propensity for it; that is, an individual’s biological make-up is such that they are predisposed to alcoholism. Physicians and scientists have determined that individuals who are labeled “alcoholic” process alcohol differently than their peers. Other factors that may contribute include environmental influence, social conditioning, childhood or adult trauma or abuse and certain addictive personality traits that lead to addiction.
It’s estimated that nearly 70% of people who have mood disorders also struggle with alcoholism and drug addiction. Mood disorders such as depression, anxiety, bi-polar disorder and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) create a chemical imbalance in the brain, resulting in mood swings that can be severe. Individuals may attempt to manage these imbalances by self-medicating with drugs and alcohol. People who have co-occurring disorders such as alcoholism coupled with bi-polar disorder are termed “dual diagnosis.”
Antisocial personality may contribute to alcoholism. People who resist conforming within the rules and dictates of society may be more likely to struggle with addiction. This disposition can lend itself to social isolation and the inability to build and maintain intimate relationships, which can encourage alcoholism and drug addiction.
This desire to isolate can also encourage low self-esteem and insecurity, another factor that can contribute to alcoholism or drug addiction. People who don’t have a strong sense of self-confidence are more apt to turn to drugs and alcohol as a way in which to belong and feel at ease in social situations. This may also be brought about by “all or nothing thinking,” which is also associated with many addictive personalities. A person who thinks this way is either a complete success or an utter failure, either a winner or a loser, either the head of an organization or the janitor – there’ s no middle ground. This type of extreme thinking can also lead to extreme mood swings and again, the need to self-medicate these emotions can contribute to alcoholism.
The desire for instant gratification can lend itself to a quick fix rather than delaying gratification in order to achieve long-term goals. This attitude is encouraged by our consumerist society which sends a constant message that everything will be okay if you buy this car, take this pill, have this degree, date this person. Learning how to delay gratification in order to reach long-term goals  Our society encourages immediate gratification by consumption from an early age. The right jeans, the right car, a new pill, a new relationship Рall of these attempt to fix dissatisfaction from the outside in. People with addictive personalities want to feel good right now rather than do the work required to enjoy the benefits at a later date.
Finally, the desire to escape painful memories or emotions that arise from childhood or adult trauma or physical, mental or verbal abuse can lead someone to drink or take drugs far beyond a healthy level. These underlying issues need to be addressed with a clinical therapist or counselor in order to release the power and allow an individual to work through them to reach a healthy level of emotional maturity where drugs and alcohol are no longer required to medicate the pain.
These factors that contribute to drug alcoholism are addressed at SouthCoast Recovery through¬† individual clinical therapy and one-on-one drug and alcohol counseling sessions. Alcoholism and drug addiction is merely symptomatic of underlying issues and at SouthCoast Recovery, we offer the most quailified professionals in the recovery field to help you work through these issues in a safe and supportive environment. Drug and alcohol treatment stand a better chance at long-term success if the underlying psychological and behavioral issues are addressed in relation to an individual’s drug and alcohol use. Our clinical therapist has 47 years experience in the diagnosis and treatment of underlying disorders associated with alcoholism and drug addiction, and our certified drug and alcohol counselors are members of CAADE, the California Association of Alcohol and Drug Educators. If you or a loved one needs help addressing problems with alcohol or drugs, we can help. SouthCoast Recovery is a drug rehab facility in Dana Point offering 30, 60, 90 day and 6 month residential drug and alcohol treatment.
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In an earlier work, we have shown that the Filipino does not have a Western mind.1 Instead of being deductive, he thinks inductively and intuitively. These two features are what I call "psychological." Although we know that inductive thinking is also logical, the word logical has come to be almost equated with discursive and deductive thinking.
Induction may be defined as "the legitimate inference of universal laws from individual cases."2
One clue to how Filipinos think is their languages. English and most of European languages are characterized by subject, predicate and linking verb. The linking verb can also embody active verbs. That is why propositions in English and other western languages can be reduced to the algebraic formula of s = p, where s stands for subject and p for predicate. Where there is no subject, then an impersonal subject is made as in `It is raining' or `There is a man.' Philippine languages, on the other hand, are more complex because they can have from one to four components.3 In Tagalog (which is like other Philippine languages), `Umuulan' (literally, `is raining') is a complete sentence as a monadic solidarity. So is `May tao' (literally, is a man). Furthermore, Philippine languages are concrete. The concreteness of thinking, however, approaches the abstract through the poetic.
ALGEBRAIC AND GEOMETRIC LOGIC
Ellington-Waugh classifies logic as either algebraic or geometric.4 Western, as algebraic, logic can be translated into mathematical symbols. Symbolic logic uses the equation where two components (subject and predicate) are either equated or denied (which happens when a preposition is either affirmative or negative). However, geometric logic is not like algebraic logic because it deals with constructing relationships between figures which may be similar. The symbols, like that of a mandala, can have more than one value, such that it may either be east, west, north, or south. Hence the mandala (which is often a circle or square or combinations thereof) may serve as "a cosmogram, a psychogram, and a purified ritual site" which simultaneously represents "various meanings."5
Furthermore, while the algebraic logic is linear, geometric logic is non-linear. Since the latter has different levels of meaning, it is more profound. Algebraic logic propositions are either-or in nature, but propositions in geometric logic are both/and. Hence the latter tend to be ambiguous, non-verbal or symbolic. Thus contrary symbols in dream can co-exist in the both/and propositions of geometric logic.
The distinction between algebraic logic and geometric logic is similar to the distinction between and "semantic" and "poetic" meaning.
Poetic meanings are metaphorical and orient the individual toward objects in the external world establishing a motivational, attitudinal, and emotional context. The individual is invited to participate maximally in the situation,and hence is oriented for action. Semantic meaning, on theother hand, is merely the neutral naming of the object. It is perception without affective overtones.6
In the semantic meaning, both object and subject are separated from each other. The division between subject and object arose especially during the Enlightenment period of Western history.
Poetic meaning therefore is multi-level. Words do not have one meaning but are multi-faceted like the truth which can never be fully exhausted. Its spirit of the truth is contrary to semantic meaning which tries to narrow down the truth and its meaning.
One cannot judge volleyball from the rules of basketball, or checkers from the viewpoint of chess; rather each game must be judged from its own rules. Likewise to judge geometric logic from the viewpoint of algebraic logic would miss the point. Unfortunately, this has been done, for example, in a study judging Filipino logic from Aristotelian deductive logic.7
THE USE OF THE POETIC
The use of versed debate is pan-Philippine, from the tribal to the lowland Filipinos. Why do they use the poetic instead of plain language on certain occasions?
Let us first look at the tribal Filipinos because they represent the pre-colonial people. From Northern Luzon are the Ilongots and from the south in Mindanao are the Subanens of Zamboanga.
The Ilongots of Northern Luzon have been known to be headhunters.8 They use poetic oratory to manage conflict which negotiates anger. These poetic encounters facilitate deals and mediate two contending parties. The context of these debates is a meal with plenty of food and drink. The purpose of these poetic encounters is to negotiate and to cultivate a relationship with an opposing party. The issue may be compensation for past killings or the asking for the hand of women in marriage. In these encounters the orators confront each other with the use of indirect (poetic) language. A direct or blunt language may hurt feelings and thereby result in disruptive outburts. These debates need good orators who "have both `knowledge' and `passion' in their speech; they wear ornaments and taunt their opposites with witty words, and in so doing, prove themselves established men of `anger.'"9 Their public oratorical debates (purung) use "a style of speech, and correspondingly, of social interaction, that Ilongots recognize as different form that encountered in ordinary working life."10 In these debates, "there is a concern for hearts that hide their deepest thoughts, a use of language that is intentionally indirect, a drama of revelation and deception.11
Before they go to debates, the orators learn from the differences which their people feel, like past grievances against other groups or past hurts like killings which will demand compensations.
In their metaphorical language a short supply `honey' or `wine' are conventional ways of talking about a wife. `Tasted objects' refer to weapons, `young pups' are prospective husbands, `absence' means death, `handling of death' is burial.12 For example, Amung kamin limdeseka alaken, (literally, `We are like frogs who jumped') actually means `We jumped into this and feel vulnerable.'13
The negotiation may drag for hours. The purpose of delaying is to permit each party to know better each other, to gain trust while enjoying the food and drink. Good orators know how to retrain their anger and tortured thoughts and use indirect speech to "'hide' their deeper meanings."14
Trained in elaborate and metaphorical turns of phrase, all orators are `slow' and cautious in their use of speech; they allow time for words to `reach' their points and avoid direct statement. In purung as in daily talk, the overt mention of offense may be disruptive. And although the orator hopes his phrases will excite an opposite's response, he knows that insults suffered may give rise either to violence or to new and difficult demands. Speech alone seems to provide a neutral ground in terms of which one can negotiate relations.15
In short the use of poetic language is primarily for diplomacy. This tactful language is more effective plain language in attaining desired goals.
The Subanens, a tribal group in Mindanao also have poetic encounters.16 Again the context is a drinking party.17 The poetic encounter takes place in the last stage of the drinking party. Its first stage is the tasting part which assigns the role, distances and authority rules to the participants. The second stage is the competitive drinking where the participants take turns in drinking and talking as well as in exchanging information. The third and final stage is the game drinking where, after euphoria has been established, issues are decided on the basis of poetic skills.
Songs and verses are composed on the spot to carry on discussions in an operetta-like setting. Even unsettled litigation may be continued in this matter, the basis for decision being shifted from cogent argument to verbal artistry. . . . Participants who have displayed marked hostility toward each other during the course of drinking talk may be singled out for special ritual treatment designed to restore good feelings.18
Other Tribal Filipinos
As early as 1668, the Jesuit historian and ethnographer, Ignatio Francisco Alzina, noted that the early Visayans of Leyte and Samar had different types of poetry. One was the ambahan which consists of two lines of blank verse, each verse containing seven syllables.19
Another type is the bical.
The meter is the same and the verses are complete in thought. This one is used between two persons, either two men or two women. They answer one another in strict musical time and without hesitation for one or two hours at a time, saying anything they wish even in satiric fashion and making public whatever faults the other may have. The shortcoming may be physical which is most common or at times moral, when these are not too offensive. . . . When the bical and the party is over, everything remains forgotten without any resentment for the shortcomings or failures included in the rendition or contest.20
The present-day Hanunoo Mangyans of Mindoro, a group of tribal Filipinos, have retained the ambahans which has also seven syllables for each verse.21 They also have poetic debates in their own language.
For the lowland Filipinos one remnant of versed debate has been the traditional negotiation for marriage. Since traditional marriage is not a union of two persons, but of two extended families, the choice of a future spouse needs expert negotiators. In the Visayan context these negotiators did their business in verse.22 Besides serious business, versed debate also served as entertainment. An example of this kind is the kulilisi (Visayan) or duplo and karagatan (Tagalog), a socio-religious play held during funeral wakes.23 A similar verse debate is the balitaw.24 The context of entertainment of the Balagtasan which we shall explain later.
We shall take two types of poetry (namely, proverbs and balagtasan) to illustrate how Filipinos reason.
PROVERBS AND REASONING
Proverbs, those short, didactic statements current in a given tradition, are one kind of folklore.25 Folklore mirrors and validates the culture, educates, maintains conformity of the culture's behavioral norms, entertains and offers catharsis.26 Thus in traditional Philippine culture the use of proverbs in face-to-face communication stresses "moral points and in supporting popular arguments."27 The quoting of local proverbs and aphorisms minimizes or even overrules objections.28 Verzosa says that
among Filipinos, as among other Orientals, the use of proverbs has the dignity of authorized finality. Proverbs may settle a feud, a long drawn litigation, even a dispute of long standing that may involve bloodshed. The occasion and nature of circumstances call for appropriate salawikain or proverbs. Our venerable mga matanda sa nayon or elders in Filipino communal districts held these proverbs as authoritative injunctions. We can note that the proverbs are not uttered one after another unless there is an occasion for advice or query. They are intended for all ages and children are taught early the implications and significance of proverbs.29
These proverbs, which were considered as "dogmas" in early Philippine tradition, range from general attitudes toward life, to ethics, values, general truths, humor, to many miscellaneous topics. The proverbs may be prose statements or poetic statements from five syllables to five-line stanzas.
Their imagery are "derived from the common everyday life and occupations of the folk."30 Human life may be compared to crops, the behavior of animals, common objects in the farm, rural ways and manners. They also reflect customs and beliefs, native food and delicacies, games and amusements.
When compared to proverbs of other nations, especially the west, Philippine "parallels tend to be more concrete and specific than their foreign counterparts."31 They are also poetic and have a "predilection for rhyme."32
In spite of the linguistic and cultural variety of Filipinos, "there is a general agreement among the proverbs from different regions regarding basic outlook on life, ethical teachings, and observations about life and human nature."33 Hence the proverbs "give a clear and accurate image of the Filipino."34
The following instances may illustrate the logic of proverbs. A daughter who quarrels with her mother is made to respect her when her sister quotes a Capisnon proverb: "Bisan tuktukon ang balahibo mo sing pinupino, indi ka pa gihapon makabayad sang imo utang nga kabalaslan sa imo ginikanan!" (Free translation: Even if your body hair is cut into very fine pieces, you cannot still pay your "debt of reciprocal favor" to your parent!)35
A woman reconciles two quarreling brothers when she tells the younger one to "respect your elder sibling because you never became a human being if he caused your mother's death when she delivered him."36
In the two cases mentioned above, the appeal to values as rooted in the culture clinches the argument. Therefore arguments by value has a high convincing power.
Furthermore, proverbs as symbols do not have a one-to-one correspondence. One proverb can be used on different occasions. This Tagalog proverb may serve as an example,
Kahoy na babad sa tubig,
sa apoy huwag ilapit;
pag nadarang at nag-init,
(Even soaked wood, if put near the flame long enough, will
The proverb not only applies to the dangers of constant association between men and women, but applies also to other circumstances such as relations between good and bad people.
Compared to the simple construction of proverbs, the balagtasan is a more complicated matter.
If the proverb is a short metaphor, the balagtasan is a longer metaphor.
Balagtasan is a poetic debate.37 It is a later development from the karagatan and the duplo, both of which are forms of poetical banters delivered during the nine days of the prayers for the dead, the thirtieth day after death and finally on the first death anniversary (pag-iibis ng luksa). The karagatan was a play performed to amuse a bereaved family. Unlike the karagatan and duplo, the topic discussed under balagtasan are set.
The balagtasan in its present form began in 1925 and is named after Francisco (born 1788), the renowned Tagalog poet. Its counterpart in the Ilocos regions is the Bukanegan (after Pedro, the Ilocano poet). Its counterpart among the Kapampangans is the Crissotan (after the Kapangpangan poet, Juan who used the pen name Crissot).38
A variant of the balagtasan is the batutian (named after Jose Corazon de Jesus whose pen name was Huseng). Batutian differs from balagtasan in the sense that the former uses jokes, banters and boasts among the contending poets.39
Balagtasans take a topic for debate. The first one in 1925 ("Bulaklak ng Kalinisan", Flower of Cleanliness) was allegorical. Another old text was "Alin ang higit na mahalagang taglayin: ang dunong, ang yaman, ang sipag, o ang ganda?" (Which should be valued more: learning, wealth, industry, or beauty?) However, more modern topics, as aired on the radio have more current themes. For instance, should the country have divorce? Should a person marry early or late? Should religion be an obstacle to marriage? Whom should parents prefer to finish their education first: male or female children? Who tend to be more jealous: men or women?
From Libiran's collection of balagtasans, we shall take a sampling of two, an old one ("Alin ang Higit na Mahalagang Taglayin: and Dunong, ang Yaman, ang Sipag, o ang Ganda?") and recent one ("Dapat ba o hindi dapat mag-asawa agad ang isang tao?) which was aired over the radio in 1982. To facilitate quotation, we have numbered the stanzas of the previous one with two digits (from 01 to 48) while the latter has three digits (from 100 to 140).
Since this is only a sampling, our findings are preliminary. We recommend that more studies on the balagtasan be carried out.
One must note about the literary genre of balagtasans. They are poetic debates intended for entertainment and not as a serious academic debate. In spite of the entertainment purpose of balagtasans, the logic is there.
We notice that in the Balagtasan, argumentation is based on inference by comparison or analogy. The inference on the real experience of the speaker which is familiar to the audience.
The images in forms of analogies and metaphors are the models for inference. The metaphors may refer to nature, to God, to real experience. For example, marriage may be compared to unripe fruits (103), to water (107), bamboo (111). God is creator (42, 44), master (45). Some personal experiences are those of parental quarrel (124), young love (125), hunger and plenty (8).
We find the following structure in the balagtasan: (1) a thesis, (2) followed by a reasoning which is supported by (3) a metaphor, and (4) a conclusion. Each number refers to a "level." In most instances the thesis (level 1) and the conclusion (level 4) are often omitted, but implied because they are part of a string of argumentations on the same topic.
For example (103):
Kung agad na mag-asawa mura't batambata,
Halaghag pa ang isipa't hindi alam umunawa;
Bungangkahoy ang katulad ng pitasi'y murang mura,
Kaya tuloy nang mahinog, maasim ding mawiwika.
(If married at once while immature and young,
The mind is still care-free and hardly understands;
It's like the fruit when plucked very young;
The fruit is said to be sour even if ripe it becomes.)
The same can be reconstructed as follows:
(1) Thesis: (implied, against early marriage).
(2) Reason: Because the mind is unsettled and immature.
This is based on experience in young marriages which
do not last long. If they endure, they are filled with
troubles and misunderstanding.
(3) Metaphor: Fruits when plucked green ripen sourly.
(4) Conclusion: (not mentioned but implied).
The counter-argument (107) runs thus:
Kung ikaw ma'y maliligo, sa tubig daw ay aagap
At nang hindi ka abutin noong tabsing nasa dagat;
Kung sinagot nang dalagang inibig nang buong tapat,
Pagtataling puso ninyo'y hindi dapat na magluwat;
Pakat baka ang mangyari, ang lunggati't hinahangad,
Maging isang panaginip kung panaho'y makalipas.
(When you are swimming in the water, be careful
So that you won't catch a sea cold;
If the proposal is accepted by the woman you love most,
The binding of two hearts should not lie in wait;
Lest it will happen that the ambition you wish,
Will become a dream through the lapse of time.)
The stanza (which is in favor of early marriage) can be reconstructed as:
(1) Thesis: (not mentioned but implied)
(2) Reason: because when you wait for old age, your dream
will not come true.
(3) Metaphor: young marriage is like swimming; one should
not stay long lest one will catch a sea cold.
(4) Conclusion: (not mentioned but implied)
Stanza 109 (which is against early marriage) may be constructed thus:
(1) Thesis: (implied)
(2) Reason: (implied, that early marriage might lead to
regret and affliction.)
(3) Metaphor: a glutton who gulps hot soup burns his
mouth and does not relish the fried fish.
(4) Conclusion: (not mentioned but implied).
The same structure can be seen in stanza 111 (against early marriage):
(1) Thesis: (implied)
(2) Reason: (implied)
(3) Metaphor: young bamboo used for making tools easily
gets destroyed. But a house made of fully grown bamboo
(4) Conclusion: therefore those who marry late will be far
Another argument for early marriage runs thus:
(1) Thesis: early marriage has another advantage.
(2) Reason: their honeymoon and togetherness are sweet.
(3) Contrast metaphor: the love of old couples is dry and
(4) Conclusion: (implied)
(1) Thesis: (implied)
(2) Reason: (implied)
(3) Metaphor: early marriage is like planting early a
fruit tree: children are produced easier and you can
"harvest" their help and love.
(4) Conclusion: (implied)
The arguments presented by di dapat, the negative side (that is against early marriage) does not deny the facts presented by the affirmative side (dapat). The negative side adheres to customs and traditions such as respect to elders, the value of gratitude (utang na loob). That is why in this debate the negative side seems to have the upper hand.
Argumentation Based on Higher Values
After Knowledge, Beauty, Industry, and Wealth show their arguments on who is the best, they separately appeal to God as their source (18, 19, 42, 44, 45) or as the higher value. As mentioned earlier, the appeal to the values of traditions as also a base of argumentation.
What was said of the balagtasan is also reflected in the proverbs.
We believe that what we said of the balagtasan also applies to their counterparts in other Philippine languages such as the Bukanegan for the Ilocanos and the Crissotan among the Kapampangans.
One example of the Ilocano counterpart was held in 1954.40 Like the Tagalog balagtasan, three Ilocano poets discussed which of the three virtues (sanikua [wealth], adal [education, knowledge], dayaw [dignity/honor]) is the best. Iloko poetry shows deep religious feeling, didacticism and moralizing.41
Classification of Inferences
Comparative oriental philosophy has been quite useful in clarifying Filipino philosophy. From the viewpoint of contents, Buddhism classifies syllogisms and inferences into three kinds, namely, analytical, causal, or negative.42 An example of the analytical type is: "All horned animals have hoofs. Now the goat has horns. Therefore it must have hoofs." An example of inference by causation: "There is smoke in the mountain. So there must be fire there." An example of negative kind is: "There is no flower garden in the sky because we can't perceive any."
Is this classification also found in the balagtasan? We find that inference by causality is there, but in a slightly different form. We find more inference by causality, little on inference by analysis and almost nothing in inference by negation.
In 103 the ill-effects of plucking a fruit while green, or the result of using green bamboo for making tools (111), or of eating too soon a hot dish (109) definitely show inference by causality.
The metaphors of wealth compared to an abundant spring (09) or a luxuriant tree (08) are examples of a combination of inference by causality and inference by analysis.
We have seen how Filipinos think as illustrated in the use of proverbs and in the balagtasan. These two instances show that Filipinos think less deductively than inductively.
The examples show that induction prevails. In some cases of the balagtasan, both deduction and induction are found. In deduction, the different examples illustrate the major premise which is often the topic of the debate. But in general induction prevails as the form of argumentation.
The induction type of reasoning uses poetry. This poetic use is much against the spirit of deductive thinking, which is semantic. In other words, semantic or deductive thinking degenerates into hair-splitting regarding the nuances of terms in the major and minor premises of the syllogism. As poetic, the basis of reasoning is on metaphors which do not have always a one-to-one correspondence. In other words, they are geometric, not algebraic. Since Filipino thought is geometric, it is not dualistic like Western thought.
Can poetry be logical? Very much so. Through the concrete and the poetic, the mind can equally reach the truth.43 Poetic symbols can serve as paradigms for intuition. Thus mature bamboo as used in the construction of houses can be a paradigm for mature marriage. Likewise a healthy tree or an abundant spring can serve as paradigm for wealth.
How can what is concrete lead to universal truth? Induction is based on the principle of the uniformity of nature. Pollsters can predict outcomes through a sampling, of respondents, they do not have to interview the entire population; physicists also need only a sampling to make general conclusions.
Furthermore, induction also infers general conclusions through the principle of causality. By causality is often meant the four Aristotelian categories of efficient, final, material and formal causes,44 but the Filipino has a different notion of causality.45
That the Filipino thinks inductively perhaps may have to do with his brain. Scientists have pointed out that some people use more their left brain, while others use the right brain. The left brain emphasizes language, mathematical formulas, logic, numbers, sequence, lineality, analysis, and the words of a song. On the other hand, the right brain emphasizes forms and patterns, spatial manipulation, rhythm and musical appreciation, images/pictures, daydreaming, dimensions, and tune of a song.
Does the Filipino think like the Japanese? In 1978, Dr. Tadanobu of Tokyo Medical and Dental University's Medical Research Institute published The Japanese Brain46 after 20 years of research. He contends that the distribution of functions in the left and right brain is different for the Japanese than for the Westerner. While the left side of the Western brain handles consonants and calculations, the left side of the Japanese brain handles emotions, vowels and consonants, human and animal sounds, traditional music and calculation. While the right side of the Western brain processes emotions, human and animal sounds, vowels, mechanical sounds and all sorts of music, the Japanese counterpart processes consonants and calculation.
Scientists have pointed out that left brain people tend to have linear thinking in logic while right brain people have non-linear or lateral thinking. Lateral thinking people see more connections in things which seem to puzzle linear-thinking people.
Since all the music and mechanical noises for the western brain are processed on the right side,
a Westerner might miss the sound of a rippling water or a chirping cicada, while the Japanese will like hear it quite distinctly. . . . This close relationship between natural and verbal sound perception accounts for many of the unique features of Japanese culture, particularly its intimacy with nature. Thus, he says, the Japanese naturally give priority to sentiment and duty, while Westerners stress logic and ethics.47
This theory, Dr. Tsunoda contends, has nothing to do with race or genetics because "second and third generation Japanese brought up overseas show the Western brain pattern [while] Caucasians raised in Japan mirror the Japanese."48
Does Filipino logic follow lateral thinking? Scientists will have to find out, but we are inclined to suspect that lateral thinking is the answer. Both induction and deduction are complementary ways of arriving at the same truth. The Filipino way of looking at the truth illustrates his intersubjective way of thinking. Polanyi has shown through various disciplines that there is no such thing as true, impersonal knowledge. He says that "complete objectivity as usually attributed to the exact sciences is a delusion and is in fact a false ideal."49 He contends that pure objectivism, which has been the ideal of many western philosophers, is wrong.
Objectivism has totally falsified our conception of truth, by exalting what we can know and prove, while covering up with ambiguous utterances all that know and cannot prove, even though the latter knowledge underlies, and must ultimately set its seal to, all that we can prove. In trying to restrict our minds to the few things that are demonstrable, and therefore explicitly dubitable, it has overlooked the a-critical choices which determine the whole being of our minds and has rendered us incapable of acknowledging these vital choices.50
THE OBJECTIVE AND THE SUBJECTIVE
As we have seen above, Western thought is based chiefly on the either/or thinking. Things are either good or bad, right or wrong, and so forth. As part and parcel of the Platonic dualism, people are considered to have two components (body and soul) which often are in conflict. If it were not both/and things would not be either-or but would allow for a middle possibility. Whereas if this dualistic or either/or thinking is pushed further and applied to theology, God is either immanent or transcendent, personal or impersonal, spirit or body.51
René Descartes pushed further the subject-object dichotomy. His cogito-ergo-sum philosophy separated humans from their environment and enabled them to examine the animal and mineral world from the vantage-point of scientific objectivity.
We have seen above that Filipinos employ a geometric logic. If that is the case, do Filipinos also have the object-subject dichotomy? We suspect that the answer is no. The reason is that as an oriental, the Filipino shares the world view of many of his Asian neighbors. One example is Chinese philosophy, which is dominated by the spirit of harmony, and in which there is no dichotomy between object and subject. Chinese thought has three elements: the object (pin, originally meaning guest), the subject (chu, originally meaning host) and the environment (ching, environment or things in vision).
Taking the subject as host, the object is the guest who is invited and loved by the host (this symbolizes the object's immanence in the subject), and also respected and sent out by the host (this symbolizes the object's transcendence to the subject). On the other hand, the world can be seen also by the poets and philosophers as host, and then the man (or I as an individual) is guest of the world and is entertained by the hospitality of the world. It is quite clear that there is no dualism between host and guest. This metaphor is the best symbol for Chinese thought about the relation of the subjective individual and the objective world as mutually immanent and transcendent in an ultimate harmony.52
Here there are three elements: subject or ego, object or guest, and the environment or things in vision. Are there also three elements in Filipino thought?
While Western thought also contrasts body and soul, the same is not true for Filipino thinking. As explained in Chapter I, the Filipino sees the person as composed not of two principles, but three, namely, body, soul and spirit, all in a spirit of harmony. This trichotomy is similar other oriental philosophies, including Jewish thought as reflected in the Bible.
Covar also discovers three elements in the Filipino personality, namely, labas (exterior), loob (interior) and lalim (depth).53 He draws an analogy from the earthen jar, which has an exterior, an interior, and depth. Each dimension has its corresponding elements. Three, however, is not a fixed number. We said above that sentences in Philippine languages can have as much as four components.
Furthermore, Philippine language also offers tips on how Filipinos think. We have shown elsewhere that Philippines sentences do not have the linking verb "to be".54 Instead of the tense, more emphasis is given to the mode or focus of a sentence as to who does the action (actor), the action, the goal of the act, the location, and the beneficiary of the act. Besides the subject and the object, there is this third element of mode or focus which is the environment or "house" of the interaction between the object and subject. This interaction is in the context of the Filipino's harmonious world view. This harmony or non-dualism is between the object and the subject in the "house" of mode or of focus.
We may end this chapter on how the Filipino thinks with a Tagalog proverb. It sums up the law of life where our actions have consequences, like having debts.
Ang buhay ay gayon lamang
Ang ugali't kalakaran
Magbayad ang may utang
Life is just like that
The behavior and path
Give and take is the reason
He who has a debt pays
To whoever he is indebted.
1. Leonardo N. Mercado, Elements of Filipino Philosophy (Tacloban City: Divine Word University Publications, 1974), pp. 73-91.
2. Celestine N. Bittle, The Science of Correct thinking (Milwaukee: Bruce, 1950), p. 297.
3. Mercado, Elements of Filipino Philosophy, p. 75.
4. Ter Ellington-Waugh, "Algebraic and Geometric Logic", Philosophy East and West, 24 (1974), 23-40.
5. Ibid., p. 26.
6. Franklin Fearing, "An Examination of the Conceptions of Benjamin Whorf in the Light of Theories of Perception and Cognition," in Language in Culture, ed. by Harry Hoijer (Chicago: University of Chicago, 1954), p. 71.
7. Florentino T. Timbreza, Claro R. Ceniza, and Andrew Gonzales, FSC, "Filipino Logic: A Preliminary Analysis," Karunungan, 6 (1989), 71-100.
8. We shall use here the findings of Michelle Z. Rosaldo, Knowledge and Passion, Ilongot Notions of Self and Social Life (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1980).
9. Ibid., p. 188.
10. Loc. cit.
11. Ibid., p. 189.
12. Ibid., p. 198.
13. Ibid., p. 198.
14. Ibid., p. 202.
15. Ibid., p. 195.
16. Subnanen is the correct term for Subanun. See Fausto M. Lingating, "A Subanen Comment," in Filipino Religious Experience and Nonbiblical Revelation, ed. by Leonardo N. Mercado (Manila: Divine Word Publications, 1992), p. 150.
17. Charles A. Frake, "How to Ask for a Drink in Subanun," in Language and Cultural Description (Standford, California: Standford University Press, 1980), pp. 166-173.
18. Ibid., p. 172.
19. Cantius J. Kobak, "Ancient Bisayan Literature, Music and Dances: in Alzina's Historia de las Islas e Indios de Bisayas . . . 1668", Leyte-Samar Studies, 11 (1977), 35.
20. Loc. cit.
21. Antoon Postma (ed. and trans.), Treasure of a Minority, the Ambahan: a poetic expression of the Mangyans of Southern Mindoro, Philippines, rev. ed. (Manila: Arnoldus Press, Inc., 1972).
22. An example of pamalaye (verses for negotiating a marriage) is found in Cebuano Poetry/Sugboanong Balak, trans. by Resil B. Mojares (Cebu City: Cebuano Studies Center, 1988), pp. 52-57.
23. An example of kulilisi is found in Cebuano Poetry, pp. 30-47. For a commentary, see Ma. Lelani P. Echavez, "A Study of the Three Kulilisis as Literature," M.A. thesis, St. Theresa's College, Cebu City, November 1966.
24. Ibid., pp. 34-47.
25. Leothiny S. Clavel, "Folklore and Communication," Asian Studies, 8 (1970), 218-247.
26. Ibid., p. 221.
27. Loc. cit.
28. Ibid., p. 226.
29. Quoted in Damiana L. Eugenio (comp. and ed.), The Proverbs, Philippine Folk Literature Series, vol. 6 (Quezon City: The U.P. Folklorists, Inc., 1972), p. vii.
30. Ibid., p. xl.
31. Ibid., p. xxix.
32. Ibid., p. xxxix.
33. Ibid., p. xlviii.
34. Loc. cit.
35. Ibid., p. 222.
36. Ibid., p. 225.
37. Pablo Reyna Libiran, Balagtasan, Noon at Ngayon (Manila: National Book Store, 1985).
38. Ibid., pp. 5-7.
39. Ibid., p. 6.
40. "Bukanegan a Nagrurpirran da Mariano N. Gaerlan, Godofredo S. Reyes, Leon F. Pichay." Naipabuya Ditoy Manila, April, 1954.
41. Marcelino A. Foronda, Jr., Philippine Poetry in Iloko, 19211971 (Manila: De la Salle University, 1976), p. 10.
42. F. Th. Stcherbatsky, Buddhist Logic, vol. 1 (New York: Dover Publications, Inc., 1962), p. 305.
43. Mercado, Elements of Filipino Philosophy, p. 85-85.
44. Bittle, The Science of Correct Thinking, pp. 305-313.
45. Mercado, Elements of Filipino Philosophy, pp. 131-141.
46. Reported in Asiaweek, April 11, 1980, p. 35.
47. Loc. cit.
48. Loc. cit.
49. Michael Polanyi, Personal Knowledge, Towards a Post-Critical Philosophy (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1969), p. 18.
50. Ibid., p. 286.
51. For more details on this subject, see Jung Young Lee, "The Yin Yang Way of Thinking, A Possible Method for Ecumenical Theology," International Review of Mission, 60 (July 191), 363-370.
52. T'ang Chuen-i, "The Individual and the World in Chinese Methodology," in The Status of the Individual in East and West, ed. by Charles A Moore (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1968), p. 116.
53. Prospero R. Covar, "Kaalamang Bayang Dalumat ng Pagkatong Pilipino," lekturang propesoryal, Marso 3, 1993, Bulwagang Rizal, U.P. Diliman, Lunsod Quezon (QC: Dr. Jose Cuyekng Memorial Library and Information Center, 1993).
54. Mercado, Elements of Filipino Philosophy, pp. 73-74.
01 Sa nangalilimping mga panauhin
ako'y nagpupugay nang buong paggiliw;
inihahandog kong taos na damdamin
itong sa balagtasang itatanghal namin.
To all valued listeners
my wholehearted respect to you all;
I offer with all my heart
this poetic debate that we'll present.
02 Ang tungkulin ko'y pagkalakambini
ang papel ng inang batis ng mapagkasi;
sa isang tahana'y siya ang babae
na sa mga bunso'y tagapagkandili.
My function is that of a lakambini
The role of a mother, spring of love;
In the household she is a woman
And to her children she nurtures.
03 Sa bawat sandali ang laman ng isip
ay ang mga bunsong supling ng pag-ibig;
Kanyang inaakay sa dakilang nais,
kanyang hinuhubog sa mabuting hilig.
Every time the content of her mind
is her children the fruit of love
that she leads to what is ought
and moulds them to what is good.
04 At pagkat ako nga'y ina ng tahanan
ang apat kong bunso'y ibig kong tawagan;
sa kanilang labi'y nais kong malaman
ang kanilang hilig at hangad sa buhay.
And because I am the mother of the house
To my four children I want to call;
From their lips I want to hear
Their plans and dreams in life.
05 Ibig kong malama't lubos na matatap
sa apat na bagay kung alin ang dapat
ang Dunong ng isip, o ang Yamang pilak,
ang Kagandahan ba, o kaya'y ang Sipag?
I want to know and fully understand
which of the four things is right
The Knowledge of the mind or the Wealth of silver,
Is it Beauty or Diligence that matters?
06 Aking mga bunso, ngayon ay isulit
ang laman ng puso't pag-iisip;
pagkat apat kayo'y ang sa yamang panig
ang ngayo'y ibig kong maulinig.
My children now you speak
The content of your heart and your mind;
because you are four, the side of wealth
I now want to hear.
07 Inang ko, kung ako ay pamimiliin,
ay ang yaman na po ang aking kukunin;
kung tayo'y mayaman, ang bawat hilahil
kailanman, inang, ay di-sasaatin.
My mother if I am the one asked to choose,
Wealth is that I will get;
If we are wealthy, all suffering from hardship
never, mother, will be ours.
08 Sa atin ay hindi dadalaw ang gutom,
hindi mahuhubdan kahit may linggatong;
tayo ay katulad ng punong mayabong,
sa ulan at araw'y may bunga't may dahon.
For us hunger will not come,
We will not be in want even if there is scarcity;
We are like a luxuriant tree which
In rainy and sunny days has always fruit and leaves.
09 Tayo'y matutulad sa bukal ng batis
na dinadaluyang lagi na ng tubig;
sa bayan, sa nayon, o kaya'y sa bukid,
tayo'y maligaya at laging may awit.
We become like a source or spring
in which water continually flows;
in the town, in the barrio, or even in the farm,
we are happy and always with a song.
10 Kahit na dumating ang kapighatian
tayo ay hindi na mangangailangan;
tayo ay maraming mga kaibigan,
at kung magtabisi'y hindi magkukulang.
Even if hardships come
we won't need assistance;
we have a lot of friends,
and when together are always not in want.
11. Sa akin po naman ang ibig ko'y dunong,
ito po'y puhunang hindi natatapon;
ito kahit saa'y aking mababaon,
at di mananakaw hanggang sa kabaong.
And for me it is wisdom that I want,
it is an investment that can never be thrown;
it is that which I can bring wherever I go,
nobody can steal it until my death.
12 Mag-isa man ako, saan man sumapit;
ang dunong ay aking laging magagamit;
paano'y taglay ko sa sariling isip,
hindi mauubos, hindi mapupunit.
Even if I am alone, and wherever I am
Wisdom it is that I can always use;
because it always in my mind remains,
it never will end and can't be torn.
13 Sa piling ng aking mga kapwa-tao,
ako'y maaring makapanagano;
ang aking sarili'y maiwawasto ko
at matutulungan ang kahit na sino.
At the side of my friends,
I can explain things out;
I can prove myself right
and can extend my help to all who need.
14 Hindi nanganganib na ito'y pumanaw
samantalang ako'y may diwa't may buhay;
ako'y mangunguna, saan mang lipunan,
ako'y itatangi, ako'y igagalang.
I am not afraid that it will go
as long as I have life and soul;
I will be at the head in any society,
I will be honored, I will be respected.
15 Naiiba naman, yaring aking nais,
pagkat kasipagan ang lagi kong ibig;
ang taong masipag, saan man sumapit
ay di magugutom, hindi mananangis.
What I want is different,
because diligence is what I love;
wherever a diligent person goes
he never becomes hungry and in want.
16 Ang taong masipag saan man tumungo
maluwag ang buhay at makapwa-tao;
paano'y karamay ang kahit na sino
kasama sa tuwa't sa dusa'y kasalo.
Wherever a diligent person goes
he will always be well-off and close to others;
because he is a companion in everything
be it happiness and sadness.
17 Ang awa ng Diyos sa lupa'y laganap,
may buhay sa bukid, may buhay sa dagat;
sa bayan at nayon ay di maghihirap
ang kahit na sinong may puhunang sipag.
God's mercy on earth is full,
there is life in the mountains and life in the oceans;
In town or in the barrios will never be in want
for those who are diligent.
18 Ako nama'y iba ang paniniwala,
nasa kagandahan ang lalong dakila;
sapagkat ang ganda'y galing kay Bathala
ligaya ng tao sa balat ng lupa.
I, on the other hand, believe differently,
in beauty is more nobility;
because beauty comes from God
the happiness of man in the face of the earth.
19 Ang ano mang bagay kailanma't pangit
sa tao't sa Diyos ay nakabubuwisit;
ngunit sa maganda ay kaakit-akit
nasisiyahan kang tumanaw, lumapit.
Anything that is ugly
in the eyes of God and man is misfortune;
but for the beautiful and attractive
you will be glad to look and come close.
20 Ang ganda ay isang magandang puhunan
ang pakikisama't pagkakaibigan;
subalit ang pangit, sa iyong pagtulog
ay nagiging sanhi ng iyong bangungot.
Beauty is a good investment
in relating with others and in friendship;
but the ugly, in your sleep
becomes the cause of your nightmare.
Ina (Mother): Lakambini (Muse)
21 Kung kayo'y mayroong ibig ipahayag,
ang tatlong nauna'y aking tinatawag;
ang Dunong at Yaman, gayundin ang Sipag,
sa inyong katwiray bigyan ng liwanag.
If you have somthing to say,
the first three that I called up;
Wisdom and Wealth and also Diligence,
In your thought give more light.
22 Ang anumang dunong ay di matatamo
pag hindi ginamitan ng Kayamanan ko;
ang Ganda'y hindi rin gaganda, pag ito,
sa pilak at ginto 'y inilayo ninyo.
Whatever knowledge you can never attain
if my Wealth you won't use;
Beauty will never become beautiful,
if in silver and gold you will deprive.
23 Ang Sipag gayundi'y di magtatagumpay
Kung walang salapi at hungkag ang tiyan;
kung wala kang bigas, palayok at kalan,
ang pagsasaing mo'y di magagampanan.
Diligence will never succeed
if you have no money and your stomach is empty;
if you have no rice, pot, and stove,
your cooking cannot be done.
24 Sa panahong ito'y buhay ang salapi,
kailangang bilhin pati lunggati;
ang damit, pagkain at kubo mang munti,
kapag may pilak ka'y madaling madali.
At this time wealth is life
you have to buy even your fervent wish;
clothes, food and a small hut
if you have money, they are easy to get.
25 Ang kanyang matuwid ay di-natutumpak,
ang katotohana'y kanyang binaliktad;
ang pilak at ginto kaya lang lumabas,
ay dahil sa Dunong na siyang tumuklas!
His reasoning is not correct at all,
he inverted the truth;
silver and gold only come out,
because of Wisdom that discovered them!
26 Ang sipag at ganda ay walang katuturan
kapag sa Dunong ko'y mapapahiwalay;
kahit masipag ka, kung ikaw ay mangmang
ang kamangmangan mo, sa iyo'y papatay.
Diligence and Beauty have no meaning
if separate from my Wisdom;
even if you are diligent but ignorant
your ignorance itself will kill you.
27 Ang hindi marunong gumamit ng Ganda
ay asahan ninyong lalong papangit pa;
saka ang karikta'y malimit magdala
sa pagkariwara ng puri't kaluluwa.
Those who don't know how to use Beauty
expectedly will appear more ugly;
and charm always brings
the destruction of soul and of integrity.
28 Lalong hindi tumpak ang iyong matuwid,
ang katotohana'y iyong tinumbalik;
ang yama'y sa Sipag kaya nakakamit,
ang tamad na tao'y siyang laging said.
It is more false what you think is true
you inverted the truth you seek;
Wealth is attained through Diligence,
the idle person is always in want.
29 Kahit ka marunong kung ikaw ay tamad,
ikaw'y namamatay na ang mata'y dilat;
nalalaman mo man kung saan lilipad
pag di ka kumilos, ikaw ay babagsak.
Even if you are wise but lazy,
you will die with your eyes open;
even if you know where to fly
if you won't move, you will fall.
30 Kung ang gagawin nama'y laging magpaganda
at masasawi pati kaluluwa;
sapagkat sa takot na marumihan ka,
pati ng paggawa ay tatanggihan na.
If what you do is always how to appear beautiful
and in the process lose even your soul;
because of fear of getting dirty,
even work you will abhor.
31 Itong tatlong ito'y pawang nasisinsay
sa kanikanilang katwira't palagay;
kayo ba'y mayroon nang nakitang kariktan
na saan mang dako'y hindi kinalugdan?
These three persons here are troubled
in their thoughts and reasoning;
have you seen a charm
that has never been praised in any place?
32 Wala ka mang Dunong, pag ikaw'y maganda
ang kagandahan mo'y nagbibigay sigla;
kung ikaw ay pangit kahit mayaman ka
ay dahil sa yaman pag ikaw'y sininta.
You might not have wisdom but if you are beautiful
your beauty gives life;
if you are ugly even if you are rich
it is because of wealth that you are loved.
33 At kung sa sipag lang kayo'y mamahalin
alila't utusan ang iyong daratnin;
subalit pag kayo'y may kariktang angkin,
kahit saang dako, kayo'y sasambahin.
If you are loved because you are diligent
a servant and a maid you will become;
But if you have charm
wherever you are, you are always loved.
34 Ngunit ang mayaman at hindi hikahos
saan man dumating ay di kinakapos;
ang dukhang marunong ay utusang lubos
ng kahit na mangmang ay di naman dahop.
But the wealthy and not the poor
will always have something wherever he goes;
a wise destitute becomes a servant
One may be ignorant but never in want.
35 Ang masipag nama'y mauutusan din
at ang kagandaha'y kaya ring bilhin;
Anupa't ang yaman, saan man dumating,
kahit saang dako'y papanginoonin.
The diligent can also be a servant
and beauty through money can be bought;
if you have wealth, wherever you go
in any place you are always revered.
36 Ang isang mayama'y laging nagtatanong
ng kanyang gagawin sa pantas at sulong!
Ako'y sanggunian saan man pumaro'n
at sa inyong lahat ay handang magtanggol!
A rich person always asks questions
of all that he does and in every challenge!
To me he asks advice whatever he takes
and you all I am ready to protect.
37 Ang Sipag ay usok pag ako'y nawala,
at ang Ganda nama'y babasaging bula;
ang Yaman ay yagit ang makakamukha
kapag ang may-ari'y mangmang at tulala.
Diligence is like smoke without me
and Beauty also is nothing;
and Wealth is empty
if the person is ignorant and nescient.
38 Sukat nang ang tao'y may Sipag na angkin,
ay di mabibigo sa bawat gagawin;
ang Dunong ay isang bingaw na patalim
kapag itong Sipag ay di gagamitin.
It is enough that a person has Diligence,
he will never be frustrated in all that he does;
Wisdom is a blunt sword
if Diligence is left unused.
39 At ang Yaman nama'y mauubos kaagad
sa tamad na tao, batugan, bulagsak;
pati kagandaha'y malalantang ganap
kapag ang sino ma'y nanatiling tamad.
And Wealth can easily be spent
for an idle person, slothful and careless;
even beauty withers away
if someone remains lazy.
40 Ang Dunong at Sipag, saka ang Salapi
ay mitsa ng buhay ng pangit na budhi;
kapootan ka't buhay mo ay iigsi
kapag ang asal mo, ay masamang lagi.
Wisdom, Diligence and also Wealth
would be a cause of misfortune to the wicked;
you will be hated and your life shortened
if your character is always abhorrent.
41 Ngunit pag maganda ang kaasalan mo,
ang lahat-lahat na'y gagalang sa iyo;
kaya naman lubos ang pananalig ko
na ang kagandahan ay higit sa mundo.
But if your conduct is good and pleasant
all people will respect you;
that is why I am fully convinced
that beauty is more important in the world.
42 Nilikha ng Diyos ang yaman sa lupa
nang upang ang tao'y di maging kawawa;
sapagkat ang tao pag laging sagana,
ay di-magtitikim ng pait at luha.
God created wealth on earth
so that people won't live in misery;
if man has always abundance
he can never experience the bitterness of poverty.
43 Ngunit nilikha rin itong karunungan
upang itong tao'y matutong mabuhay;
ang yaman sa lupa'y hindi mahuhukay
kung di gagamitin ang katalinuhan.
But wisdom is also created
so that man learns how to live;
wealth can't be dug under the ground
if wisdom is not used and found.
44 Hindi naman ninyo dapat na limutin,
na ang kasipagan ay inihabilin;
sinabi ng Diyos: ang iyong kakanin
sa pawis ng iyong mukha manggagaling!
And forget it not
that diligence is God-given;
God says: what you will eat
should come from the sweat of your brow.
45 Kung diyan hahangga itong pag-uusap,
itong kagandaha'y sa Diyos nagbuhat;
ang langit, ang lupa, ang bukid, ang dagat,
masdan at sa ganda ay nagliliwanag!
If you want that this discussion ends in God
then this beauty also comes from God;
heaven and earth, the mountains and the seas
behold and in beauty they are shining!
46 Ngayo'y narinig ko ang inyong katwiran,
ganito ang aking ibig namang turan;
ang DUNONG, ang GANDA, ng SIPAG, ang YAMAN,
sa buhay ng tao ay pawang kailangan.
Now that I know your thoughts,
this is what I emphasize and say;
Wisdom, Beauty, Diligence, and Wealth
in the life of man are all important.
47 Ang mangmang na tao'y daling mapahamak,
sa pangit ang asal, daming lumilibak,
nagiging apihin ang salat sa pilak,
at laging palaboy ang hindi masipag.
An ignorant person can easily fall into problems
to an ill-mannered man; many will mock
and those who are greedy in wealth become easily manipulated
Those who are lazy are always at large.
48 Hanggang dito't ngayo'y tinatapos namin
itong Balagtasang hiniling sa amin;
kung sakaling kayo'y may sukat pulutin,
pulutin ang wasto't ang mali'y limutin.
Until here we shall end
this poetic debate that we present;
if you want to learn something
learn from what is good and forget what is bad.
Reference: Pablo Reyna Libiran, Balagtasan, Noon at Ngayon (Manila:
National Bookstore, 1985), pp. 22-28. English translation by Maxwell Felicilda and Adeodato Malabanan.
100 Bilang isang lakandiwa, nagpupugay muna ako
Tuloy itong balagtasan, ngayo'y muling bubuksan ko;
Sa naritong si Elena at batikang si Pablito
Na kapwa na hinangaan ng maraming mga tao
Ang nais ko ngayong gabi ay muling mapagsino
Ang tunay na mambibigkas at may diwang matalino.
As a Lakandiwa, I am first paying respect.
I now will open this poetic-debate;
To Elena who is here and to well-seasoned Pablito,
Who both are admired by many people.
My aim tonight is again to know
The real declaimer and who has wise ideas.
101 Mauuna sa tindiga'y ang panig na maghahayag,
Bago muna mag-asawa'y magpagulang ang marapat;
Kaya naman ang samo ko, kay Elenang isang dilag,
Sa kislap ng katwira'y palitawin ang liwanag;
Narito na si Elenang sa pingkia'y magbubukas.
Salubungin sana ninyo ng matunog na palakpak!
The first to stand is the side who will declare
That maturity first is necessary before marrying.
Therefore my earnest request to beautiful Elena,
Let the truth appear in the brilliance of reasoning.
Here now is Elena who will open the debate.
I wish you welcome her with a loud applause.
Elena (di dapat)
102 Akong abang lingkod ninyo na Hagunoy ang nag-atas,
Ay muling palalaot sa larangan ng pagbigkas;
Ang tinig kong mataginting na hindi nga kumukupas,
Sasainyong pakikinig sa himpila'y nagbubuhat;
Sa indayog ng tulaing hinabi ko sa pangarap,
Kayong mga tagahanga'y aaliwing walang liyag.
I, your, humble servant, from Hagunoy,
Will again sail in the arena of declamation;
My sonorous voice that truly does not wane
From the stage comes to your hearing from this very stage;
In the rhythm of poems woven from a dream,
You, my admirers, will be cheered without delay.
103 Ang panig kong titindigan sa napili ngayong paksa,
Karapatang mag-asawa, kung gumulang o tumanda;
Kung agad na mag-asawa, habang mura't batambata,
Halaghag pa ang isipa't hindi alam umunawa;
Bungangkahoy ang katulad nang pitasi'y murang mura,
Kaya tuloy nang mahinog, maasim ding mawiwika.
The side that I will defend is the topic now chosen,
The right to marry when mature in age or old;
If married at once while immature and young,
The mind is still care-free and can hardly understand,
It's like the fruit when plucked very young;
The fruit is said to be sour even if ripe it becomes.
104 Ang gawaing mag-asawa'y hindi isang pagbibiro
At di gaya niyang kaning iluluwa kung mapaso;
Ang sino mang magpakasal ay dapat na mapagkuro,
Nakahanda sa pasaning ligaya ma't pagkabigo;
Kaya bago mag-asawa'y pagulangin iyang puso
Nang sa hirap at tiisi'y di karakang magugupo.
Getting married is not a matter of joke,
And not like food when hot is thrown out of the mouth.
Whoever marries must be made to ponder,
Ready to assume the burden of joy and even frustration;
Thus before marriage have the heart mature
That in hardships and sufferings will not succumb at once.
105 Kung sa palagay ay batid kong sa bigkasin na talino,
Ay may angking karunungan ang makatang si Pablito;
Ngunit ngayon sa panig niya'y nangangamba ang puso ko,
Higpit iyang daraanan kung ito ay ipanalo;
Upang aking masubok nga'y narito na si Pablito,
Habang siya'y papalapit, palakpakan sana ninyo!
Of course, I know that in intelligent declamation
Poet Pablito has inborn talent;
But now about his side my heart is afraid,
Tight is the road he has to pass if this he will win;
So that I can really test here now is Pablito,
As he comes please applaud him.
106 Kahit ako ay binatang wala pa ngang hustong gulang,
Sa edad kong ito ngayo'y ibig ko ng magpakasal
Ngayon pa bang natagpuan ang babaing minamahal,
Bakit ako magtiis ng mahabang paghihintay?
Sa buhay ng isang tao'y hindi talos ang hangganan,
Ang sa ngayo'y magagawa, di na dapat ipaliban.
Although I am a bachelor and really not old enough,
At this my age I already want to marry
Now that I have found the girl I love,
Why should I suffer the long waiting?
In the life of a man the end is unknown
What can be done today must not be postponed anymore.
107 Kung ikaw ma'y maliligo, sa tubig daw ay aagap
At nang hindi ka abutin noong tabsing nasa dagat;
Kung sinagot ng dalagang inibig nang buong tapat,
Pagtataling puso ninyo'y hindi dapat na magluwat;
Pagkat baka ang mangyari, ang lunggati't hinahangad,
Maging isang panaginip kung panaho'y makalipas.
If you are taking a swim, in water, though, be careful,
So that you won't catch a sea cold;
If the proposal is accepted by the woman you love most,
The binding of your two hearts, should not lie in wait;
Lest it will happen that the ambition you wish,
Will become a dream through the lapse of time.
108 Mabuti ring masasabi ang maagang mag-asawa,
Malakas pa ang magulang, may apo nang makikita;
Kung tayo ay magpatanda na binata at dalaga,
Pakasal ma'y walang sarap ang gagawing pagsasama;
Di tulad nang kung bata pang magtatalik sa ligaya
Marami mang maging anak, magpalaki'y maginhawa.
It can also be said that getting married early is good,
Parents are still strong they already can see grandchildren;
If we wait to be old bachelors and maid
Even if we get married living together won't be sweet;
Not like together in happiness when still young.
Although there may be many children to bring them up will be easy.
109 Ang naritong katunggali, mata ko mang pagwariin,
Sa taglay na kasabiha'y nagahaman ang pagkain
Kaya tuloy yaong sabaw na mainit nang ihain,
Ay napaso yaong bibig nang ito nga ay higupin.
Pati ulam na ginisa, di nakuha na lasahin,
Ubos na nga ng sabihing matabang at walang asin.
The opponent who is here, however seriously I think about,
According to common saying became greedy for food;
That is why the soup that was hot when served,
Burnt the mouth when he did sip it.
Also the fried viand he was not able to taste,
Already the food was consumed when tasteless and
without salt he said.
110 Kaya ikaw katalo ko'y huwag sanang magmadali,
Upang hindi ka magsisi kung ikaw ay mapalungi;
Kung nais mong magpakasal sa babaing itinangi,
Ikaw muna ay magsilbi, sa magulang kumandili;
Ang maagang mag-asawa, baka di mo nawawari,
Karaniwang kahinatnan ay magdusa't mamighati.
That is why you, my opponent, please do not hurry,
So that you do not regret if you fall into misery;
If you want to get married to the woman you regard as special,
First serve the parents who took care of you;
To marry early you might not have thought seriously,
The usual consequence is suffering and profound sorrow.
111 Ang kawayang pinutol ng bata pa't murang-mura,
Kung gamiting kasangkapan ay madaling nasisira;
Ngunit kapag gumulang na at sa puno ay tumanda,
Asahan mo at matibay, habang ito ay naluluma;
Kagaya rin nating tao sa ibabaw nitong lupa,
Ang matagal mag-asawa'y malayong mapariwara.
A bamboo that is cut when still young and very tender,
If used as a tool is easily destroyed;
But when it has already become mature and the tree has become old
You can rely upon it while it is getting old;
Like us men also on this earth,
He who waits long before marrying is far from misfortune.
112 Ito palang katalo ko'y sadyang kapos ang isipan,
Pinipilit akong tumanda pa at gumulang;
Kung ako ba'y magpapalamig, sa pag-ibig ay kupasan,
Baka kahit sa pindangga, akoy hindi na tibukan;
Dulo tuloy ang masapit ang tumanda nang hukluban
At kung ako ay humina, walang anak na aakay.
So this my opponent is no doubt short in mind,
Insisting that I become old yet and mature;
If I cool passion, in love lose potency,
Maybe in fetching water I will have no more feeling;
The end consequence is an old decrepit man,
And when I become weak no child to lead me by the hand.
113 Kung ikaw ay nasasabik makapitas niyang bunga
Ng gusto mong punongkahoy, magtanim ka nang maaga.
Kung agad na magpakasal sa hilig na mag-asawa,
Ang supling na hinahangad ay madaling makikita.
Kung malaki na ang anak , habang ikaw ay bata pa,
Tulong ninyo't pagkalinga'y lubos nilang madarama.
If you are eager to pluck the fruit
Of the tree you like, plant early;
If in your inclination to marry right away you get married,
The child that you desire will easily be realized;
When the child is already big (grown up) while you are still young,
Your help and support he will feel completely.
114 Eh, kung ikaw'y magpatanda't saka ka pa magkaanak,
Sasabihing apo mo na ang kilik mo't iyong hawak;
Sa paano'y uso ngayon ang bata pa'y may kabiyak,
Pagkat singaw ng panahon sadyang hindi maaawat;
Kayat hanggang maaga pa'y mag-asawa, kabalagtas,
Nang hindi ka nahuhuli at abutin niyang kunat!
If you waited to be old and then only have a child,
They will say the child you are holding is your grandchild;
Because it is now the fashion for the young to have a wife,
Because the traits of the time can surely not be stopped;
That is why while still young get married opponent,
That you are not being left behind and hardy become.
115 Sa halama't punongkahoy ang ginamit na batayan,
Ng katalong si Pablito tila waring nalabuan;
Hindi niya napag-isip na sa mga bunga ng halaman,
Pinipili sa pagpitas, mga hinog at magulang;
Ang kahoy nang pinutol na gagawing kasangkapan,
Ay magulang at matanda ang matigas at matibay.
Garden and tree were used as basis
By Pablito my opponent who seemed perplexed;
He has not thought that from the fruits of the garden,
The ones chosen to be plucked are the mature and ripened;
The tree that was to be made into a tool when it was cut
Was mature and old the hard and strong.
116 Sa maraming kabataang humarap na sa dambana,
Wala pa ngang isang buwan, malimit na ang kasira;
Palibhasa'y murang isip sa ligaya'y hindi sawa,
Hinahanap ang sarili'y dating layaw at paggala;
Kaya pati ama't ina'y nagsisi na ring kusa
Kung bakit ang anak nila'y nag-asawang batang-bata.
Of the many young who already got married,
Not one month is over quarrels are already frequent
Because young in mind in pleasure not satisfied,
They miss very much the absence of the
former life in comfort and going places;
That is why the father and mother no doubt are sorry
Why their child got married very early.
117 Lalong hirap sa magulang, kung anak ay magkasupling,
Na di alam mag-alaga at sa sanggol ay tumingin;
Asahan mo't yaong apo ay sa nunong aturgahin,
Bantay na nga araw-gabi'y tagalaba pa ng lampin;
Kayat iyang kabataan, nararapat na alamin,
Mabuti ng magpagulang, bago puso'y pagtaliin.
The harder it is for parents when their daughter begets a child,
Who does not know how to care and look after the baby;
Be sure that the grandparents will take care of the grandchild,
Babysitters by day and night, and diaper-washers;
That is why it is proper that the young should know,
It is good to wait for mature age before the hearts are tied together.
118 Katalo kong binibini dapat sanang maunawa
Na maraming nagagawa ang maagang magsimula
Iyang taong nag-asawa kung kailan pa tumanda,
Isa pa lang iyang anak, kumakalog na ang baba.
Ang maagang mag-asawa'y nagtatamo niyang pala
Pagkat agad na tumupad sa utos mga ni Bathala.
I wish that my maiden opponent should understand,
That early starters can accomplish many things;
One who marries after waiting till he is old,
With only one child, yet his chin is already wobbly.
One who marries early receives a blessing,
Because he immediately does God's will.
119 Sa magulang kong ito ngayo'y katamtaman na kasalin,
Magkaanak man ng sampu, ang magula'y bata pa rin;
Mag-aral man nang matagal, panganay na maging supling,
Nagagawang maituga kung hangad na pagtuluyin;
Ligaya nang mga anak, kung magulang tumitingin,
Ay bata pa at malakas, hanggang silay pagtapusin.
My age now is just the right time to get married,
Even if I get ten children, I'll still be strong;
Even if it takes long for my eldest to study,
Can succeed somehow if helped to achieve his goal;
Children are happy when parents are looking
Still young and strong until they are able to have their
120 Kung gulang mo ay tatlumpo, saka lamang pakakasal,
Maliit pa iyang anak, ulyanin ka nang magulang;
Sa halip na iyang supling ay matuto kung mag-aral,
Sa tumandang ama't ay magsilbing taga-akay;
Kaya't iyang mag-asawa nang maaga ay mainam
Hindi tulad ni Elenang ang gusto pa ay gumulang.
When you are thirty and only then you marry,
Your child is still small, you are already a senile parent;
Instead that the child learns if he studies,
Will be a guide to his aged father;
That is why to marry early is good,
Not like Elena who still wants to become old.
121 Hindi pala nababatid nitong aking kabalagtas,
Kung nais na mag-asawa'y may tuntunin tayong batas;
Kung wala kang hustong gulang at menor pang tinatawag
Hindi puwedeng magpakasal, kahit ikaw ay magbayad;
Kailanga'y pahintulot ng magulang ay igawad,
Kung ibig na ang kasalan ay matuloy at matupad.
My opponent here does not understand,
If one wants to marry, there are laws to follow;
If you do not have the sufficient age, and said to be a minor,
You can't be married even if you pay;
Consent of the parents is necessary,
If you want the marriage to proceed and be celebrated.
122 Pagkat yaong mga anak, ay wala pang karapatan,
Magpasiyang mag-asawa, kung wala sa hustong gulang;
Tayo pa ri'y nasasaklaw nang tangkilik ng magulang,
Hanggang tayo ay tumanggap ng magandang mga aral;
Pagkat tayo kung malihis sa landas ng kabutihan,
Magulang ang sisihi't bagsakan ng kasal-anan.
Because the children do not yet have the right,
To decide to marry if the age is not right;
We still are under the protection of the parents,
Until we get good instruction,
Because if we deviate from the path of goodness,
Parents will be blamed and guilt attributed to them.
123 Kaya naman ang magulang, sa anak ay may tungkulin,
Bago muna mag-asawa ay turuan sa gawain;
Upang anak sa asawa, kung sumama't makapiling
Ay hindi nga mapintasan ng sino mang kasamahin;
Kaya't ikaw Mang Pablitong katalo ko sa bigkasin,
Umayon ka sa panig ko nang matumpak ng landasin.
That is why the parents have the duty to their children
To teach them skills before they marry;
So that when the daughter lives with her husband
Is not criticized by whosoever she lives with;
That is why you, Mr. Pablito, my declamation opponent,
Should agree with me so that you be on the right path.
124 Tila ibig palitawin ng katalong binibini
Kung di agad mag-asawa ay tiyak na napabuti;
Bakit yaong mga magulang ko, hindi naman sa pagpupuri,
Nang kasali'y batang-bata sa edad lang na tigkinse;
Hindi sila nagkaroon ng alitang sinasabi,
Hanggang kami'y mapag-aral at tuluyang mapalaki.
It seems my maiden opponent wants it to appear
That not to marry early at once is certainly better;
Why is it that my parents, not to praise them,
When they married very young at the age of fifteen;
They did not have the said quarrels,
Until we finished our studies and have fully grown.
125 Kung iyo ngang makikita ang tatay ko't ang nanay ko
Sasabihing mga bata't para lamang kapatid ko;
Kung sila ba nang kasali'y sa edad na trenta'y singko,
Marahil nga kung sa ngayon ay para nang lola't lolo;
Palibhasa'y murang puso sa ligaya nang magsalo,
Kahit na ang apo'y hindi pa rin nagbabago.
If you will really see my father and my mother,
You will say that they are young as if my brother and sister;
If they had been married at the age of thirty-five,
Maybe by now they'd look like a grandfather and grandmother to me;
Because they were young when in happiness they shared,
Even as grandparents they have not really changed.
126 Ang isa pang kabutihan ng maagang pag-aasawa
Ay mistulang pulo't gata sa tamis nang pagsasama;
Di tulad ng matandang sa suyuan ay bantad na,
Kaya tuloy kung makasal sa lambinga'y malagana
Hanggat di mag-kaanak ang tahana'y walang sigla,
Pagka't kapwa mga laos sa larangan ng pagsinta.
One more good thing in marrying early,
Is the honeymoon, the sweetness of living together;
Not like the old who, pleasing each other, are already bored,
Who when married have no interest in expressing fondness;
As long as they have no children the home is not alive,
Because both are exhausted of potency in the matter of love.
127 Payag akong walang sigla at malamig sa suyuan
Kaysa iyong mainit nga'y lagi naman ang bakbakan;
Kung busog nga sa ligaya't humpak naman iyang tiyan,
Sagana lang sa pagkain, mawala na ang lambingan;
Hindi kaya nagpakasal ang hangad ay kasiyahan,
Kundi upang magtulungan sa tumpak na pamumuhay.
I agree there is no enthusiasm and the love affair cold,
But it's better than those hot but always quarreling;
Even if full of pleasure the stomach however is empty,
If only food is abundant, never mind the caressing;
One does not marry only for pleasure
Rather that they help each other in right living.
128 Kailan ma't ang nagsama'y kapwa bata't murang isip,
Mahirap na masansala sa bisyo at mga hilig;
Gusto'y laging namamasyal, iba't-iba iyang damit,
Kaya't walang natitipon kahit na nga isang beles;
Parang hindi alintana ang panahon ay sasapit,
Kung sahaling magkasupling, sila rin ang nagigipit.
Whenever those who lived together were young and immature,
From vices and evil inclination will be hard to deter;
They like always promenading, always with new clothes,
And so nothing is being saved, not even a small coin;
As if they do not care a time will come,
In case they will have children, when they will be in financial need.
129 Ang magulang, pag babae ang anak na nililiyag,
Tutol silang mag-asawa kung bata pa siyang hamak;
Sa paano sa gawain, walang alam, walang muwak,
Nahihiyang ipisan nga sa biyena't mga hipag;
Kaya't ako kabalagtas sa panig mo'y di papayag
Na agad mag-asawa't magkaresponsibilidad!
If the child they love is a girl, the parents
Will object that she gets married while young;
Because in work she knows nothing, has no understanding,
They are ashamed to let her live with the parents-in-law
and with sisters-in-law,
That is why, my opponent, I won't agree with your side
On early marriage and irresponsibility.
130 Kung tayo ba aking Lena ay bata pang pakakasal,
Ano't ikaw'y mahihiya kung wala mang nalalaman?
Kahit ka na isang musmos at reyna nang katamaran,
Pagkat kita ay inibig, walang dapat pangambahan;
Magulang ko ay payag ding maging ikaw ang manugang,
Kaya't ikaw'y liligaya sa piling ko't pagmamahal.
If we, my Lena, will marry while still young
Why should be ashamed if you know nothing?
Even if you were an infant and the queen of laziness,
Because I love you, you have nothing to fear;
My parents too agree that you be their daughter-in-law,
That is why you will be happy beside me and in my love.
131 Bakit mo nga sasabihin na madalas ang kagalit?
Sa dalawang mag-asawa na kapwa nga murang isip?
Kung mayro'n ma'y tampuhan man sa pagsuyo at pag-ibig;
Na lalo pang tumitimyas ang tamis ng pagtatalik,
Kapag wala ang tampuhan, ang pagsinta'y walang init;
Bulaklak na walang bango ang kapara at kawangis.
Why will you say quarrels are frequent?
For the couple that are both immature in mind?
Even if there is the sulking of love and of ungrateful act,
The sweetness of being close to each other becomes more genuine;
If there is no sulking there is no warmth in love,
It is like a flower deprived of fragrance.
132 Ang panahon natin ngayo'y di katulad ng lumipas,
Na ang puso'y sumusunod sa isipang nag-aatas;
Ngunit ngayo'y naghahari mga pusong lumiliyag
Na di kayang mahadlangan sa dakilang paghahangad;
Kung agad na mag-asawa'y maaaga ring magkaanak,
Sa utang mo sa magulang ay madaling makabayad.
Our time now is different from the past,
When the heart followed the command of the mind;
But now reign the hearts that are in love,
That cannot be prevented from the noble desire;
If you marry early, early also you will have children,
The debts to parents you can easily repay.
133 Magbayad ka, Mang Pablito ng utang mo sa magulang,
Bago muna magpakasal sa mutya mong minamahal;
Ngayong ikaw'y mapalaki't mapalakas ang katawan,
Ang magulang na naghirap, agad mo nang iiwanan;
Kung hindi mo lilingunin iyang iyong pinagmulan,
Baka di rin makasapit sa anumang pupuntahan.
Pay, Mr. Pablito, your debts to your parents,
Before you marry the darling you love;
Now that you are grown up and strong in body,
The parents who sacrificed for you will leave already;
If you do not look back to where you passed,
You might not also reach wherever you are going.
134 Kung ikaw nga katalo ko sa magulang magsisilbi
Sa tungkuli'y gagampana'y matututo nang malaki;
At kung ikaw'y makatagpo hanapbuhay na mabuti,
Saka mo na pakasalan ang dalagang kinakasi.
Kung ito ay magawa mo, hindi ka nga magsisisi,
Kumuha man ng asawa't handa ka nang magsarili.
If you, my opponent, will serve your parents,
From the duty you will perform and learn plenty;
And if you find a good job,
Then you marry your sweetheart.
If you can do this, you won't be sorry,
When you get married you are prepared to be independent.
135 Sarili ko'y nakahandang sa tungkulin ay tumupad,
Kung ako man ay maagang nagkaroon ng kabiyak;
Ligaya ng aking pusong makamit ko ang pangarap,
Bahala na si Bathalang tumanglaw sa aming landas;
Kung hindi ko masusunod ang layuning hinahangad,
Sa wagas na pag-big ko'y ako na rin ang humamak.
I myself am ready to do my responsibility,
Even if early I had a better-half in life;
It is happiness of my heart to realize what I dreamed,
It is up to God to light our path;
If I will not be able to follow the goal I desired,
The love that is pure I myself despised.
136 Mabuti na ang maaga, kaysa ako ay mahuli,
At lubugan pa ng araw ang pag-asa ng sarili;
Kung ako pa'y magpabaya't di pakasal aking Leni
Ay magdamdam at magtampo ang irog ko't aking kasi;
Kaya hanggang maaga pa'y mag-asawa ang mabuti,
Nang hindi ko mapagsapit na ako pa ay magsisi.
It is better to be early than I be late,
That the sun sets on the hope of myself;
If I still be negligent and do not get married my Leni,
My darling and sweetheart will feel offended and show displeasure;
That is why it is better to marry while still early,
That I do not end up with myself being sorry.
137 Magsisi ka nga, Pablo kung ikaw ay makatagpo
Ng babaing di maalam na maglaba at magluto;
Karamihan sa maagang pinagtatali yaong puso
Ay bulagsak ang babae't ang lalaki nama'y dungo;
Kaya't itong sasabihi'y itanim sa diwa't kuro
Huwag ka agad mag-asawa't nang hindi ka nabibigo.
You will indeed be sorry, Pablo, if you meet,
A woman who does not know how to wash and cook;
Many of those who have their hearts tied early,
The woman is wasteful and the man is shy;
Therefore keep in your heart and mind what I will say,
Do not marry in a hurry that you be not disappointed.
138 Mabibigo ako Lena kapag iyong pipilitin
Na ako ay magpagulang bago puso'y pagtaliin;
Ang matapat na ibigan, kung amin pang patagalin,
Ay matulad sa sinaing na sunog na ng hanguin;
Ang maagang mag-asawa ang mabuti at magaling
Na panig kong itinampok ngayong gabi sa tulain.
I will be disappointed, Lena, if you will compel me,
That I wait till I am old enough before I get married;
The sincere love for each other if still prolonged,
Is like to the rice being cooked that is already burned
when removed from the stove;
To marry early is the better and wise,
Which my side presented in the poetry contest tonight.
139 Kung sa bunga ng halaman, itong paksa'y itutulad,
Huwag agad pipitasin sa laki ng paghahangad;
Ang kawayang kailanga't sa bahay mo isasangkap,
Kapag wala sa panahon, pulutin mo'y hindi dapat;
Mag-asawa'y hindi biro at laruang matatawag
Na kaya pang mailuwa kung mapaso ka mang ganap.
If the topic tonight be compared to the fruit of the plant,
Do not pluck it at once in your eager desire;
The bamboo you need and will use in your house,
If not yet mature you must not cut down;
To marry is not a joke and be called a toy,
That you can throw out if the mouth is burned.
140 Ang nais kong palitawin sa may pusong nagsumpaan,
Magpagulang muna kayo, bago sana magpakasal;
Kung kayo ay padadala sa init ng pagmamahal,
Ang mabigat na tunkuli'y hindi ninyo mapapasan;
Kaya naman ang hatol ko, ang panalo'y ibibigay,
Sa magandang si Elenang sa Hagunoy isinilang.
What I want to say to those who are engaged,
Wait till you are mature before you get married;
If you will allow yourselves to be swept by warmth of love,
Its heavy responsibility you will not be able to bear;
That is why in my verdict the victory will be given
To beautiful Elena who was born in Hagonoy.
Source: Pablo Reyna Libiran, Balagtasan Noon at Ngayon, pp. 116-125.
Translators: Maxwell Felicilda and Adeodato Malabanan
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A single copy of this article may be reprinted for personal, noncommercial use only.
Cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR): First aidBy Mayo Clinic staff
Original Article: http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/first-aid-cpr/FA00061
Cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) is a lifesaving technique useful in many emergencies, including heart attack or near drowning, in which someone's breathing or heartbeat has stopped. The American Heart Association recommends that everyone — untrained bystanders and medical personnel alike — begin CPR with chest compressions.
It's far better to do something than to do nothing at all if you're fearful that your knowledge or abilities aren't 100 percent complete. Remember, the difference between your doing something and doing nothing could be someone's life.
Here's advice from the American Heart Association:
- Untrained. If you're not trained in CPR, then provide hands-only CPR. That means uninterrupted chest compressions of about 100 a minute until paramedics arrive (described in more detail below). You don't need to try rescue breathing.
- Trained, and ready to go. If you're well trained and confident in your ability, begin with chest compressions instead of first checking the airway and doing rescue breathing. Start CPR with 30 chest compressions before checking the airway and giving rescue breaths.
- Trained, but rusty. If you've previously received CPR training but you're not confident in your abilities, then just do chest compressions at a rate of about 100 a minute. (Details described below.)
The above advice applies to adults, children and infants needing CPR, but not newborns.
CPR can keep oxygenated blood flowing to the brain and other vital organs until more definitive medical treatment can restore a normal heart rhythm.
When the heart stops, the lack of oxygenated blood can cause brain damage in only a few minutes. A person may die within eight to 10 minutes.
To learn CPR properly, take an accredited first-aid training course, including CPR and how to use an automatic external defibrillator (AED).
Before you begin
Before starting CPR, check:
- Is the person conscious or unconscious?
- If the person appears unconscious, tap or shake his or her shoulder and ask loudly, "Are you OK?"
- If the person doesn't respond and two people are available, one should call 911 or the local emergency number and one should begin CPR. If you are alone and have immediate access to a telephone, call 911 before beginning CPR — unless you think the person has become unresponsive because of suffocation (such as from drowning). In this special case, begin CPR for one minute and then call 911 or the local emergency number.
- If an AED is immediately available, deliver one shock if instructed by the device, then begin CPR.
Remember to spell C-A-B
The American Heart Association uses the acronym of CAB — circulation, airway, breathing — to help people remember the order to perform the steps of CPR.
Circulation: Restore blood circulation with chest compressions
- Put the person on his or her back on a firm surface.
- Kneel next to the person's neck and shoulders.
- Place the heel of one hand over the center of the person's chest, between the nipples. Place your other hand on top of the first hand. Keep your elbows straight and position your shoulders directly above your hands.
- Use your upper body weight (not just your arms) as you push straight down on (compress) the chest at least 2 inches (approximately 5 centimeters). Push hard at a rate of about 100 compressions a minute.
- If you haven't been trained in CPR, continue chest compressions until there are signs of movement or until emergency medical personnel take over. If you have been trained in CPR, go on to checking the airway and rescue breathing.
Airway: Clear the airway
- If you're trained in CPR and you've performed 30 chest compressions, open the person's airway using the head-tilt, chin-lift maneuver. Put your palm on the person's forehead and gently tilt the head back. Then with the other hand, gently lift the chin forward to open the airway.
- Check for normal breathing, taking no more than five or 10 seconds. Look for chest motion, listen for normal breath sounds, and feel for the person's breath on your cheek and ear. Gasping is not considered to be normal breathing. If the person isn't breathing normally and you are trained in CPR, begin mouth-to-mouth breathing. If you believe the person is unconscious from a heart attack and you haven't been trained in emergency procedures, skip mouth-to-mouth rescue breathing and continue chest compressions.
Breathing: Breathe for the person
Rescue breathing can be mouth-to-mouth breathing or mouth-to-nose breathing if the mouth is seriously injured or can't be opened.
- With the airway open (using the head-tilt, chin-lift maneuver), pinch the nostrils shut for mouth-to-mouth breathing and cover the person's mouth with yours, making a seal.
- Prepare to give two rescue breaths. Give the first rescue breath — lasting one second — and watch to see if the chest rises. If it does rise, give the second breath. If the chest doesn't rise, repeat the head-tilt, chin-lift maneuver and then give the second breath. Thirty chest compressions followed by two rescue breaths is considered one cycle.
- Resume chest compressions to restore circulation.
- If the person has not begun moving after five cycles (about two minutes) and an automatic external defibrillator (AED) is available, apply it and follow the prompts. Administer one shock, then resume CPR — starting with chest compressions — for two more minutes before administering a second shock. If you're not trained to use an AED, a 911 or other emergency medical operator may be able to guide you in its use. Use pediatric pads, if available, for children ages 1 through 8. Do not use an AED for babies younger than age 1. If an AED isn't available, go to step 5 below.
- Continue CPR until there are signs of movement or emergency medical personnel take over.
To perform CPR on a child
The procedure for giving CPR to a child age 1 through 8 is essentially the same as that for an adult. The differences are as follows:
- If you're alone, perform five cycles of compressions and breaths on the child — this should take about two minutes — before calling 911 or your local emergency number or using an AED.
- Use only one hand to perform heart compressions.
- Breathe more gently.
- Use the same compression-breath rate as is used for adults: 30 compressions followed by two breaths. This is one cycle. Following the two breaths, immediately begin the next cycle of compressions and breaths.
- After five cycles (about two minutes) of CPR, if there is no response and an AED is available, apply it and follow the prompts. Use pediatric pads if available. If pediatric pads aren't available, use adult pads.
Continue until the child moves or help arrives.
To perform CPR on a baby
Most cardiac arrests in babies occur from lack of oxygen, such as from drowning or choking. If you know the baby has an airway obstruction, perform first aid for choking. If you don't know why the baby isn't breathing, perform CPR.
To begin, examine the situation. Stroke the baby and watch for a response, such as movement, but don't shake the baby.
If there's no response, follow the CAB procedures below and time the call for help as follows:
- If you're the only rescuer and CPR is needed, do CPR for two minutes — about five cycles — before calling 911 or your local emergency number.
- If another person is available, have that person call for help immediately while you attend to the baby.
Circulation: Restore blood circulation
- Place the baby on his or her back on a firm, flat surface, such as a table. The floor or ground also will do.
- Imagine a horizontal line drawn between the baby's nipples. Place two fingers of one hand just below this line, in the center of the chest.
- Gently compress the chest about 1.5 inches (about 4 cm).
- Count aloud as you pump in a fairly rapid rhythm. You should pump at a rate of 100 compressions a minute.
Airway: Clear the airway
- After 30 compressions, gently tip the head back by lifting the chin with one hand and pushing down on the forehead with the other hand.
- In no more than 10 seconds, put your ear near the baby's mouth and check for breathing: Look for chest motion, listen for breath sounds, and feel for breath on your cheek and ear.
Breathing: Breathe for the infant
- Cover the baby's mouth and nose with your mouth.
- Prepare to give two rescue breaths. Use the strength of your cheeks to deliver gentle puffs of air (instead of deep breaths from your lungs) to slowly breathe into the baby's mouth one time, taking one second for the breath. Watch to see if the baby's chest rises. If it does, give a second rescue breath. If the chest does not rise, repeat the head-tilt, chin-lift maneuver and then give the second breath.
- If the baby's chest still doesn't rise, examine the mouth to make sure no foreign material is inside. If the object is seen, sweep it out with your finger. If the airway seems blocked, perform first aid for a choking baby.
- Give two breaths after every 30 chest compressions.
- Perform CPR for about two minutes before calling for help unless someone else can make the call while you attend to the baby.
- Continue CPR until you see signs of life or until medical personnel arrive.
- Field JM, et al. Part 1: Executive summary — 2010 American Heart Association guidelines for cardiopulmonary resuscitation and emergency cardiovascular care. Circulation. 2010;122(suppl):S640.
- Rea TD, et al. CPR with chest compressions alone or with rescue breathing. New England Journal of Medicine. 2010;363:423.
- Ward KR, et al. Adult resuscitation. In: Marx JA, et al. Rosen's Emergency Medicine: Concepts and Clinical Practice. 7th ed. Philadelphia, Pa.: Mosby Elsevier; 2010. http://www.mdconsult.com/books/about.do?about=true&eid=4-u1.0-B978-0-323-05472-0..X0001-1--TOP&isbn=978-0-323-05472-0&uniqId=230100505-57. Accessed Nov. 2, 2011.
- Berg MD, et al. Pediatric resuscitation. In: Marx JA, et al. Rosen's Emergency Medicine: Concepts and Clinical Practice. 7th ed. Philadelphia, Pa.: Mosby Elsevier; 2010. http://www.mdconsult.com/books/about.do?about=true&eid=4-u1.0-B978-0-323-05472-0..X0001-1--TOP&isbn=978-0-323-05472-0&uniqId=230100505-57. Accessed Nov. 2, 2011.
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A name applied to the dioceses nearest Rome, viz. Albano, Frascati (Tusculum), Palestrina, Sabina, Ostia and Velletri, Porto and S. Rufina, the bishops of which form the order of cardinal bishops. The See of Albano ( Albanensis ) has its cathedral, on the site of a basilica built by Constantine, on the Appian Way, about ten miles from Rome. The name corresponds to the Latin ager Albanus which commemorated the ancient city of Alba Longa, famous in Roman history. The diocese now comprises twelve parishes, and has a population of 41,000. Frascati, the ancient Tusculum, is in the Alban Hills, twelve miles from Rome. The diocese ( Tusculana ) contains eight parishes and has a population of 16,000; within its limits is the famous Basilian Abbey of Grottaferrata. The capital of the Diocese of Palestrina ( Praenestinensis ) is the ancient Praeneste, on the Via Labicana. The diocese, divided into twenty-four parishes, has a population of 45,700. The Diocese of Sabina ( Sabinensis ) was formed out of three oldest dioceses : S. Maria in Vescovio, Corese, and Mentana. Corese is the ancient Cures, which was, in remote ages, the Sabina capital; hence, obviously, the name Sabina . This, the largest of the suburbicarian dioceses, contains some 55,000 inhabitants, in thirty-five parishes. Ostia and Velletri ( Ostiensis et Veliternensis ) was formed in the twelfth century by the union of the Diocese of Velletri (the ancient Velitrae of the Volscians) with that of Ostia. The latter place was the seaport of ancient Rome. This diocese has sixteen parishes with 34,000 inhabitants. Porto, opposite Ostia at the mouth of the Tiber, was the Roman port ( portus ) constructed by the Emperor Claudius. The Basilica of Sts. Rufina and Secundus, about fourteen miles from Rome, on the Via Aureliana, having become the see of a bishop in the fifth century, this see was eventually united with that of Ostia. The diocese ( Portuensis et S. Rufinae ) has eighteen parishes with a population of about 5000.
The term suburbicarius is taken from Roman public law, the expression regiones or provinciae suburbicariae meaning the districts adjacent to Rome. The term ecclesiae suburbicariae occurs first in Rufinus [Hist. eccl., I (x), 6], where he refers to the sixth canon of Nicaea treating of the extension of the patriarchal power of Rome. Rufinus certainly uses the words in the sense of "all the Churches de facto subject to the episcopus urbicus , that is, of Rome ", meaning all the Churches of the West. The so-called Old ( prisca ) Version of the Nicene canons says that the jurisdiction of Rome extends over "suburbicaria loca et omnem provinciam suam", where suburbicarius is certainly more restricted in meaning than in the passage from Rufinus, and so must have been employed as it was used in Roman public law. In fairly recent times the expression was used synonymously with suburbanus , that is "in the immediate vicinity of Rome ", to signify the above-mentioned dioceses.
Naturally these dioceses had a certain importance in the Church of Rome. Some authorities have suggested that the bishops were mere auxiliaries of the pope with jurisdiction, subject, however, to his. Certainly they had some prerogatives. For instance, the Bishop of Ostia, in the fourth century and probably in the third, consecrated the pope ; in the sixth century the Bishop of Albano recited the second prayer in the consecration ceremony, and the Bishop of Porto the third. In the eighth century we read (Vita Stephani, III) of the most ancient custom in virtue of which seven of these bishops, called hebdomadarii , celebrated Mass in turn in place of the pope and were called episcopi cardinales , from being permanently attached to the cardo , that is the cathedral church of Rome ; but we are not told who they were. In the eleventh century there were seven (six after the union of Porto and Silva Candida). Besides the titles episcopi hebdomadarii (twelfth century) and cardinales Romanae Sedis they were also known as Vicarii and Cooperatores papae and episcopi romani . The last title must have had a wider signification, as it was used of other bishops besides the seven, like the bishops of Tivoli, Gabii (united later with Palestrina ), Lavicum (united with Tusculum), Velletri, Nepi, and Segni. In addition to the districts already mentioned these bishops had others. For instance the Bishop of Porto had ordinary delegated jurisdiction in Trastevere, and the Bishop of Silva Candida in the Leonine city and also in the Basilica of St. Peter. Both had residence on the Tiber island, and the Bishop of Albano had an episcopal residence near the Lateran. Probably as early as the eleventh century these bishops had the right of participating in the election of the pope ; the Constitution of Nicholas II (1059), which fixed the right of electing the pope as belonging exclusively to the bishops and cardinal clerics of Rome, supposes that the former already enjoyed the right.
As the cardinal-bishops are largely absorbed in the business of the Curia, some of them, in particular the Bishops of Sabina and Velletri, have for centuries had auxiliary bishops. Pius X, in his Constitution "Apostolicae Romanorum" (1910), ordained that there should be suffragan bishops for all the suburbicarian dioceses. The Constitution decrees that:
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The Catholic Encyclopedia is the most comprehensive resource on Catholic teaching, history, and information ever gathered in all of human history. This easy-to-search online version was originally printed in fifteen hardcopy volumes.
Designed to present its readers with the full body of Catholic teaching, the Encyclopedia contains not only precise statements of what the Church has defined, but also an impartial record of different views of acknowledged authority on all disputed questions, national, political or factional. In the determination of the truth the most recent and acknowledged scientific methods are employed, and the results of the latest research in theology, philosophy, history, apologetics, archaeology, and other sciences are given careful consideration.
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Copyright © Catholic Encyclopedia. Robert Appleton Company New York, NY. Volume 1: 1907; Volume 2: 1907; Volume 3: 1908; Volume 4: 1908; Volume 5: 1909; Volume 6: 1909; Volume 7: 1910; Volume 8: 1910; Volume 9: 1910; Volume 10: 1911; Volume 11: - 1911; Volume 12: - 1911; Volume 13: - 1912; Volume 14: 1912; Volume 15: 1912
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It is commonly known that students learn by doing—by practicing, rather than simply soaking in, the information that is taught them in the classroom. But it is also commonly known that anyone can obtain information; the internet is chock-full of the stuff; all one has to do is type in a few key words and hit search. The reality is that formal education, aka the classroom, can no longer be, and no longer is, just one side of this perceived divorce in education: the acquisition of knowledge versus the practice of it.
Open education acknowledges that information is abundant, and that it takes someone to organize, interpret, and make it meaningful. This is one value that formal and higher education still offers the net generation, those bred on Google and Wikipedia. The culling of data becomes the responsibility of professionals, their peers, and their students—the results of which are high quality educational resources available to the rest of the world.
The Chemical Engineering Department at the University of Michigan has taken this idea of synthesis and run with it. They have integrated the practice of knowledge into class curriculum, by requiring students to contribute to an open textbook in wiki format—Chemical Process Dynamics and Controls. Since 2006, senior chemical engineering students have been developing this resource, building off of the preceding year’s work. The result is a comprehensive and dynamic textbook, available for free on the web, that is both high quality and openly licensed under CC BY. Though you must be a member of the class to directly edit the wiki text, nothing prevents the rest of the world from copying and deriving it for their own uses—even republishing it and distributing it at a low cost in concrete form is possible.
Originally conceptualized by Peter Woolf (Assistant Professor of Chemical Engineering and Biomedical Engineering) with help from Leeann Fu, the system of textbook creation is anything but haphazard. Each week, a team of students is selected to become “experts” on a particular topic. The students research and present on the topic, adding the relevant text and diagrams to the wiki. The wiki’s content is further vetted by “the faculty and Graduate Student Instructors (GSIs)” who “act as managing editors, selecting broad threads for the text and suggesting references.” They also check for copyright issues, and the students are encouraged to re-use public domain materials.
“In contrast to other courses, the students take an active role in their education by selecting which material in their assigned section is most useful and decide on the presentation approach. Furthermore, students create example problems that they present in poster sessions during class to help the other students master the material.”
In addition, full class lectures in video format and powerpoint presentations are available on the wiki, also under CC BY. CC BY is the most appropriate license for educational materials, since all one has to do is attribute the original authors. The freedoms to copy, adapt, remix, and redistribute are crucial to advancing progress in education.1 Comment »
BitTorrent, a peer-to-peer file sharing protocol, has been embraced by Stanford University in distributing its online engineering courses. Stanford Engineering Everywhere (SEE) launched back in September, offering its open courseware under CC BY-NC-SA. Thanks to Ernesto at TorrentFreak for the tip:
“While some universities restrict the use of BitTorrent clients, others embrace the popular flilesharing protocol and use it to spread knowledge. Stanford University is one of the few to realize that BitTorrent does not equal piracy. They use BitTorrent to give away some of their engineering courses, with some success.”
Why does BitTorrent make sense for Stanford Engineering courses? Because unlike some of their OCW (Open CourseWare) counterparts, SEE offers more than just video lectures; Stanford Engineering Everywhere “provides downloads of full course materials including syllabi, handouts, homework and exams. Online study sessions through Facebook and other social sites are encouraged” (Stanford News Service). In addition to BitTorrent, the courses are also available via iTunes and YouTube.
You, too, can learn robotics!No Comments »
A long-standing provider of open courseware, MITOpenCourseWare reached a million visit milestone yesterday for two of their online courses: 8.01 Physics I: Classical Mechanics and 18.06 Linear Algebra. The courses are two of MIT’s most popular to date, taught by renowned professors Walter Lewin and Gilbert Strang. From MIT’s media coverage on Lewin:
“Professor Lewin is an international webstar. He is well-known at MIT and beyond for his dynamic, inspiring and engaging lecture style. His courses are also among the most downloaded at iTunes U. 8.01 Physics I: Classical Mechanics explains the basic concepts of Newtonian mechanics, fluid mechanics, and kinetic gas theory, and a variety of interesting topics such as binary stars, neutron stars, and black holes.”
“Strang is a 50-year mathematics veteran whose teaching style is recognized internationally. Linear Algebra introduces mathematical concepts that include matrix theory, systems of equations, vector spaces, and positive definite matrices. “Everyone has the capacity to learn mathematics,” says Strang. “If you can offer a little guidance, and some examples, viewers discover that a whole world is open.”
8.01 Physics I: Classical Mechanics offers lecture notes, exams with solutions, complete videotaped lectures and their accompanying transcripts under CC BY-NC-SA. 18.06 Linear Algebra offers (interactive) Java applets with sound in addition to video lectures and translations into Chinese, Portuguese, and Spanish, also under CC BY-NC-SA. CC BY-NC-SA allows for these kinds of adaptations and derivations of material—and translation is a crucial step in broadening access to a global audience.
There are other and more interesting ways to adapt material, however, and we are curious to know how the visitors constituting the 1,000,000+ hits of these two courses (and others) have actually used the materials. Since educational needs vary contextually, it would be beneficial to know what types of adaptations are being made beyond translation. Of the 600 visits per day that these courses average, how many of them result in derivations? These, and other questions (such as visitor demographic, global reach, etc.) are things to consider as the OCW project continues to expand and evolve. The future impact of OER lie in the ways information is conceptualized, organized, and related; simply offering up free content on the web is no longer enough—remember David Wiley’s quote from OpenEd 08: “If my students can Google it, I don’t have to teach it.” As progressive models of OER develop and evolve, it will be interesting to see how OCW’s scope and impact also grows.No Comments »
Emulating MIT and a host of other OCW institutions, the Stanford School of Engineering has jumped on the OER bandwagon by releasing ten of its courses online in multiple formats. The pilot open courseware portal, known as Stanford Engineering Everywhere (SEE), is Stanford’s first move towards offering full-length course videos and other materials online for free and open use. SEE’s current ten course offerings consist of “instruction videos, reading lists and materials and class assignments” in three subject areas: computer science, artificial intelligence, and linear systems and optimization.No Comments »
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Geography 222 The Power of Maps
...to Geog 222 Main Page and Course
...to Geog 222 Syllabus
...to Geog 222 Course Schedule
...to Geog 222 Exercises
Geog 222 Exercise 6: Census Atlas of Home
- ASSIGNED in class Monday March 28
- DUE: Decision on scale of data and maps Monday March 28
- DUE: in class Wednesday April 20 (w/required discussion) at 9:00 am
This exercise involves making and interpreting choropleth maps of U.S. Census
data in the area around your U.S. home.
You will draw upon past lecture material about data classification and
color symbolization (in the
Cartographic Abstraction Lecture Notes) to complete this exercise.
You will also be expected to interpret the patterns you see on the maps
you create, based on what you know about your home.
Basic Information about the U.S. Census
The U.S. Census provides data aggregated to many different sized areas, the smallest
area being the block level - usually an area about the size of a city block. In
rural areas these "blocks" are larger in area (but they contain about the same amount of
people as a city block). Some, but not all Census data is available at the block level.
Different data is available at the Census Block Group level (the data from numerous
blocks are aggregated into a larger area). The following graphics illustrate the
hierarchy of census geographic entities, and are taken from the U.S. Census Geographic Reference Manual which
has much more information about U.S. Census Geography if you are interested (which of
course you are).
You already used the U.S. Census Bureau's American Factfinder
to locate some quick facts about your home county, in exercise 4. We will use
some more advanced mapping features of this site to create detailed maps of
2000 U.S. Census data in your home neighborhood. Unfortunately, the Census has not yet
managed to get the new 2010 Census data into this mapping system.
Goals: You will map eight different Census data variables, around
your home, and provide basic map
reading, analysis, and interpretation of patterns on these choropleth maps.
If the Census mapping site is not working it may be because you have
your browser set to block pop-up windows. Turn that feature off for this exercise!
Go to the
Thematic Maps page at the US Census Bureau.
You should see a map of the US by state with Persons Per Square Mile: 2000 data.
You need to change the geographic area on the American
Factfinder site: zoom into the area around your home. Changes in
the area you are viewing and scale are called Geography.
1) The American Factfinder site offers different ways to change scale.
For now do this...
- from the list of links after You are here select Geography:
- A new page (as below) allows you to set the area you want the Factfinder to map.
- Please select County Subdivision (as below).
- Please set State, County, and Geographic Area to your home
(the following shows selections for my home):
- Hit Show Result
- You should see a map of the area you just selected as below, which is of
my 'home'. The
map should have basic Geography (roads, boundaries, rivers, etc.)
and should also have basic population data mapped out (the Thematic
data) at a Census Tract level.
- If the area covered by the thematic data is not the area around your
home, you need to repeat this step and select the correct Geography. You
may need to select something other than county subdivision. If you are having
trouble at this stage you must ask to your instructor for help.
2) Change the level of detail of the Census geography and data. From the pop-up menu
near the top center of the page:
3) Change the scale, adjust the center of the map, or identify a particular census block:
- ...select Block and you should see something like this: a map of
the area around you home:
- Block level data is the most detailed. The patterns are similar
to the patterns on the Census Tract but with more detail. Most of you will
use Block level data for the rest of your exercise. If you are from a
large city, you may have to use less detailed data, at the Block Group or
Census Tract scale. If you are having difficulty at this state, please
consult your kindly instructor.
You need to select a scale (such as 7 miles across) and level of detail (block
level data) and create each of your eight maps at that scale and level of detail.
- To change scale (zoom in or out) select the + (zoom in) or -
(zoom out) button and click on the map, or select a scale from the zoom bar on the
left. This is zoomed in a bit from the map above:
- The Census site has a limited number of scales, so you may not be able to get
the perfect scale for your map. Don't zoom in
too much: you want to be able to see the variation in the data you map around
your home, not only the data in your home block.
- To adjust the center of the map, use the hand tool.
- To find out details about a particular block, select the i tool, which
stands for identify and click on a particular block.
Please show the instructor your decision on the scale and detail
(block level in most cases) of your map prior to proceeding with this exercise!
Now that you know how to change the geographic area shown on the American
Factfinder site, you need to learn how to look at the different data variables
the US Census collects. These data variables are called Themes.
3) The American Factfinder site offers different ways to change data
themes. For now do this...
- from the list of links after You are here select Theme:
- You will arrive at a page like the one below: a list of all Census 'Themes'
you can map out:
- Review the list of Themes. There are many of them! Select one that
seems interesting to you and then Show Result. I selected the Percent
of Persons under 18 Years: 2000 and got this map:
- You will eventually select EIGHT different themes and, in essence,
make a Census Atlas of Home using the American Factfinder
site and the U.S. Census 2000 data. All of the maps should be the
same scale. You may find that a map that is 7 miles across gives you
a bit broader perspective on variations of Census social data around your
home than a map that is 2.8 miles across. Keep in mind that the point here is
to find geographic patterns, not to identify the specific details of the
Census block your home is in.
Now that you know how to change the theme and geographic area shown on the American
Factfinder site, you need to learn how to adjust the Data Classification and
what features are shown on your map. This can be accomplished by adjusting the
4) Click once on the word Data Classes on the upper left side of the screen. A
new smaller window should pop up.
- You can adjust how the data is classified here. If you make
changes, click Update to apply the changes to your map:
- Number of Classes: 5 is a good default, but you can
select 2 to 7 classes.
- Color Scheme: select what you like best.
- Classing Method: Review the notes from class (in the Cartographic Abstraction
Lecture Notes). Also, select Explain Classing Methods
on the pop-up page for on-line information. Briefly:
- Natural Breaks: best default: statistically determines natural
'gaps' in the data and places the class divisions at those places.
- Equal Interval: Same numeric interval for each class.
- Quantile: equal number of data values in each class.
- You can also adjust which features are mapped by selecting the
Features tab and checking the features you want displayed. If you make
changes, click Update to apply the changes to your map:
- Finally, the Title tab allows you to change the title of the
map if you so choose.
You now know how to change the theme and geographic area shown on the American
Factfinder site, as well as how to adjust how your data is classified and
what features are shown on your map. The American Factfinder site does
more than this, but these are the basics you need to complete this exercise.
The ultimate goal of this exercise is to make a Census Atlas of Home using
the American Factfinder site and the U.S. Census 2000 data. Before you
begin this task, please do the following:
- Double check that you have selected an appropriate scale for your
maps. Prepare to show the instructor your choice of scale and detail before
you proceed with the exercise. If you
are zoomed in too much you will not get a good sense of how the data you are
looking at varies around your home; if you are zoomed out too much you will
not get a good sense of the details of the data you are viewing close to
- Think about how you select a classification scheme and number of classes:
recall the problems with quantiles and equal interval schemes.
Be prepared to defend the classification scheme you select.
- Make sure you select interesting data themes to map. Don't just choose
the first eight on the list. Think about interesting characteristics
of your 'home' and look at those variables. Explore more than eight themes and
select the one's that have interesting variations or that raise questions in
your mind. If little variation is evident when you map out a variable, select
another variable. Boring maps lose points.
- Use one map to explain another: You may find that blocks with a higher
number of children also are blocks with a higher number of owner-occupied homes.
Or you may find that blocks with more of a particular racial group are also blocks
with more children, or fewer owner-occupied homes. Fascinating!
5) Generate 8 different maps of 8 Census themes for your
Census Atlas of Home. Each should have the same scale and US Census
data level (eg., Blocks) and each should have the same features (roads, rivers,
- Save each map and associated legend. The map won't make sense
without the legend. You can save the map and legend separately and insert them in your
exercise, or use a screen capture that includes both in one image.
6) Finally: do some basic map reading, analysis, and interpretation for each
map. This should be easy for most of you to do as you are familiar with the place - home -
you have mapped.
Format your work like the following example (you should be able to fit each map with its
associated reading, analysis, and interpretation on one page):
Percent Persons under 18 Yrs Old, U.S. Census, 2000
Map reading: process of determining what the map maker has depicted
- ex) A choropleth map of the city of Waukesha, Wisconsin, showing the
Percent of Persons under 18 years old, in 5 classes, classified by natural
Map analysis: process of seeing spatial patterns on the map
- ex) In general, the further you move away from downtown
Waukesha, the higher the percent of people under 18. Distinct
low areas in the north-central part of town, and in a few blocks
in the extreme south part of town, and directly south of downtown.
Distinct high areas in the west, south-east, and north-east areas
away from downtown. Mid-level areas in many of the areas surrounding
downtown. The particular block where my parents live has a mid-level
of persons under 18 years old.
Map interpretation: explaining the patterns noticed in the map
analysis; note low areas, medium areas, and high areas; note things that
surprised you and explain patterns based on what you know about your home.
- ex) These patterns are explained in several ways. The general
pattern of a higher percentage of people over 18 living in the areas
away from downtown is easy to explain: more families with children
live in the suburban areas of town, than live downtown. Specific very
low blocks are areas that are not residential: some low blocks downtown
are largely commercial and have few houses or apartments; some low
blocks to the south of town are industrial parks, again with few places
for anyone to live (looking at a map of general population in the area
shows that few people live in these areas). High areas are explained
by several factors: some are new subdivisions, which appeal to families
with children. Also, the Census blocks around the three high schools in
town have higher percentages of people under 18 - people with kids live
near schools. I was surprised that there were relatively low numbers of
under 18 persons in many of the older residential areas of Waukesha.
This is probably because many of the homes in these areas - built in
the 1960s - are owned by couples who's children, like myself, no longer
live at home: empty nesters. It may be the case that these folks will
sell their homes to young couples before the next Census, and these
areas will show higher percentages of people under 18 in the 2010
Census as a result.
What is Due
Please turn in the following:
- Eight maps of eight U.S. Census Variables each with a legend
- each map should have a paragraph of map reading, a paragraph of map
analysis, and a paragraph of map interpretation (3 paragraphs total;
the reading and analysis paragraphs can be briefer and the interpretation
paragraph should be a bit longer).
- Go to the Census Bureau's Quick Facts page for your home state and county, and
check out the population change since the 2000 census. If there is a significant
change, your 2000 maps (the only data available on the Census mapping site) may
be not so reliable. If the change is low, then your maps may still be relevant.
Review the Quick Facts for your county and discuss, in a paragraph, if you think
the now 10 year old data you are mapping has much relevance, based on what you
know of your place.
- on the U.S. Census main page, select your state from the "Find an Area
Profile with Quick Facts" pop up menu. Select your county or city from that page.
Remember that we will take some class time to discuss the results of this exercise
on the day it is due. You will use these maps in your take home final exam.
...back to krygier top page.
...to krygier teaching page.
...to geography 222 exercise page.
Geology and Geography Home
|
<urn:uuid:7496718d-8db5-48e3-a2dc-6dab7597047f>
|
CC-MAIN-2013-20
|
http://go.owu.edu/~jbkrygie/krygier_html/geog_222/geog_222_exer/06_222_exer06.html
|
2013-05-24T01:36:33Z
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704132298/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516113532-00053-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.907133
| 3,210
|
Chapter 2: Spanish San Diego
8. What evidence is there that the missions mistreated the Indians?
Consider the following table, drawn from historical records:
|1778||Conspiracy to armed resistance||Death (4 persons)|
|1782||Fugitivism||Imprisonment and hard labor|
|1782||Stock stealing||Flogging, 25 lashes|
|1800||Murder of non-neophytes||Flogging, 25 lashes 27 times (3 persons)|
|1805||Striking a missionary||Flogging, 25 lashes 9 times|
|1811||Assault on missionary||Imprisonment and hard labor|
|1811||Robbery||Imprisonment, 4 years hard labor and flogging 20 lashes 4 times (8 persons)|
|1815||Assault||Imprisonment, 4 years hard labor|
|1815||Adultery||Flogging, 25 lashes|
|1829||Conducting Medicine Dances||Imprisonment, hard labor for one year and flogging,25 lashes|
Taken from Sherburne F. Cook, The Conflict between the California Indian and White Civilization. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1976. Table 5, pp.116-121.
As can be gathered by reading the offenses and punishments, life at the mission was not entirely idyllic and resentments over these and many unrecorded punishments served to make people want to run away. Large numbers of neophytes ran away from the restrictive controls of the padres. Usually they required that unmarried men and women in their charge be segregated at all times and that the single women be locked up at night. Attendance at mass and at work details was obligatory. Up to 1817 San Diego had 316 runaways, the second largest number in the system, topped only by Mission San Gabriel with 595. Running away was often provoked by hunger and by punishments that were regularly inflicted by the mayordomos under the direction of the padres.
Note: The audio files require software to play them.
Download the free Quicktime Player
|
<urn:uuid:d011c95c-1f75-4449-912e-8f2960355d80>
|
CC-MAIN-2013-20
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http://aztlan.sdsu.edu/chicanohistory/chapter02/c02s08.html
|
2013-05-18T19:02:56Z
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|
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| 0.911127
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Developing coping strategies
Taking care of yourself
"I always used to lay the table at mealtimes but I started to get mixed up with the cutlery. So now I clear the table after the meal instead. I think it helps a bit." (Hector)
"My friends say that I have developed a very philosophical attitude towards life. I think that it was necessary for me in order to cope." (Janice)
Once people with dementia and carers have got over the initial shock of learning the diagnosis and started to organise help, they will probably find that they have already started to develop coping strategies. People use a variety of strategies, but as different things work for different people, it is up to each person to find out what works best for them. On the whole, worrying or blaming yourself doesn’t help as much as confronting the problem or seeking information and social support
Some strategies involve trying to manipulate the situation in order to reduce the problem or prevent it from happening in the first place. This might include organising practical help, rearranging the home, creating routines or changing the way you do things. If this involves leaving notes all over the house or making other visible changes, try not to be too house proud. Above all, it is important to set yourself realistic targets, acknowledge what you have achieved and try different solutions until you find one that works. As the disease progresses, carers will gradually learn how to handle different situations, sometimes by trial and error. This may involve changing or adapting their technique.
Another coping strategy is to change how you think about yourself and others, the problem and the consequences it has on you. Making a conscious decision to see something in a particular way can really help e.g. trying to see the funny side of a situation or looking for something positive in the situation. Some people tell themselves that there is always someone worse off than themselves. People with philosophical or religious beliefs may find some support in their religion or philosophy of life. Basically, you should try to find out what works best for you and then take one day at a time.
For the person with dementia
Adopt a positive attitude and approach
- Keep a sense of humour.
- Try to make the best of things and get on with your life.
- Maintain contact with people.
- Accept practical and emotional support from others.
- Think about joining a support group.
- Try something new.
- If you can, find a good book or watch something interesting on television.
- Be prepared for changes to occur over time. When this happens, try to adapt to the new situation/state of affairs.
- Try to adapt your targets and standards of achievement to your current abilities. If necessary, lower your expectations a little.
- Remember that dementia is a disease. It is the effects of the disease which interfere with your ability to do things not your intelligence or skills.
Devise a coping strategy
- “Use it or lose it” i.e. exercise your brain with reading, puzzles or crosswords etc.
- Decide what you can still do safely.
- If necessary, ask someone to do a risk assessment on what you can safely do.
- If you cannot do something you used to be able to do, don’t despair. You may find that there are other things or parts of tasks that you can manage.
- Give yourself more time.
- Take things in stages.
- Develop a routine in your life.
- Take frequent breaks as you may have to concentrate hard to do something and this can be tiring.
- Make use of calendars, lists, notes, labels, “post-it” stickers, colour codes, alarms and images etc. if you need to.
For the carer
Devise a problem solving strategy:
- Define the problem, explore possible causes and think about ways to overcome/deal with it.
- Use your own knowledge/experience and ask other people for advice.
- Collect as much information as you can and then set realistic goals.
- Try different solutions in order to find the one that works best for you.
- Try to prevent the problem from occurring by planning ahead.
- Do a risk assessment on what the person with dementia can safely do (if necessary consult someone qualified).
- Try to adapt to the changing needs of the person with dementia.
- Assist when needed and discuss things together if you can.
- Be calm and patient when handling problems.
- Stimulate and encourage the person with dementia to remain active.
- Take them out for a drive or encourage them to accompany you to different places e.g. a walk, a visit to the gym or the local library.
Develop a positive outlook:
- Avoid catastrophic thinking (e.g. I lost my wife in the supermarket for five minutes so I am totally useless or I should never take her out of the house again).
- Remember the good times you had together.
- Remember that the disease is the problem and not the person with dementia.
- Remind yourself of things you do well (particularly when something goes wrong!).
- Remember that nobody is perfect and don’t be too hard on yourself.
Last Updated: vendredi 11 septembre 2009
|
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CC-MAIN-2013-20
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http://www.alzheimer-europe.org/FR%D0%B1%20%20%D0%B0%20/Living-with-dementia/After-diagnosis-What-next/Taking-care-of-yourself/Developing-coping-strategies
|
2013-05-18T17:28:02Z
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|
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| 0.932473
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Bill Anders: The Right Stuff
Frame the Apollo program using the Cold War as a backdrop.Bill Anders: A lot of people think, because NASA pushed the thought, that Apollo was a program of exploration. And yet, as Frank Borman is fond of saying, it was just another battle in the Cold War. To many people who weren’t born or old enough to absorb what the Cold War was about, it is hard to imagine the U.S. and Soviet Union poised on the brink of mutual annihilation. And that things like the missile gap, who got into space first, whose education system was better, were such strong political drivers of the 1950s.
President [John] Kennedy, with the suggestion of [Vice President] Lyndon Johnson, were grasping at ideas to show the world that America wasn’t a second-rate country, that capitalism wasn’t a flawed theory. That was the main motivation for Apollo. It was not exploration, more a jingoistic program demonstrating national technological preeminence that would catch the imagination of the American public.
So when Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin planted the flag on the moon, in a sense Apollo was over. The momentum kept rolling for a while but it became apparent to the Nixon Administration, where I was working at the time, that risks associated with further lunar flights didn’t equal the return of a few more lunar rocks. Personally, I was very interested in the exploration part, but most of the American public weren’t -- and still aren’t.
Your Apollo 8 mission wasn’t originally scheduled to go to the moon, just orbit the earth. Why was it moved up?BA: We were in a race with the Soviets, and the moon happened to be the line that Kennedy had drawn in the sand. When it looked like, from the CIA’s perspective, the Soviets would launch a capsule around the moon, George Low had insight in thinking that if the Soviets did that they’d get 90% of the PR value of landing just by orbiting. So there was a change, this bold move -- NASA couldn’t do it today because they have so much oversight they’d tangle in their underwear -- to leapfrog our flight over the one in front of us, and go on the Saturn 5 manned for the first time to the moon.
It’s important to note that I believe the Russians never thought they were in a race to the moon. Kennedy was the one who said we were, and I think it caught the Russians by surprise. They, with a certain amount of intellectual justification, figured maybe we ought to focus on going around the earth initially, not try a stunt. But it turned out they did have a modification of their Earth orbit program with a more powerful rocket that could make a big figure 8 around the moon.
How did you feel personally about the flight change?BA: I frankly was disappointed. I wanted to land on the moon. Neil Armstrong and I had been teamed up in Gemini. After the [Apollo 1] fire, he and I were the first two to check out in the Lunar Landing Training Vehicle and I thought, with a certain amount of justification, that we would be a lunar crew. I don’t think Deke [Slayton] had picked out yet who would be first on the moon, but his obvious favorites -- you could tell by body English -- were Borman, Armstrong, [James] McDivitt. They were considered good leaders, and I thought that with me assigned to the Lunar Module in earth orbit I would turn around and get on the 4th or 5th lunar landing flight later.
But when Apollo 8 was moved up and my Lunar Module taken away with the “battlefield promotion” to Command Module pilot, it screwed me for landing on the moon. And it didn’t take long to realize I was in the Command Module rut. I mean, can you name all the guys who flew in the Command Module around the moon not getting to land while their colleagues, in some cases juniors like me, bounced around on the surface? Who was the Command Module guy on the last lunar landing flight? I’m not sure I can tell you.
In retrospect, being first around the moon, taking the “Earthrise” picture and all that is like being a Viking voyager or somebody who went to the new world but didn’t go ashore. We did cross the ocean, so it wasn’t a bad gig. But I would have been a lot happier to swap Apollo 8 for a lunar landing on Apollo 15 or something like that.
|
<urn:uuid:8f2d7483-57c2-4815-b2a4-6424f204aff6>
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CC-MAIN-2013-20
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http://www.askmen.com/celebs/interview_400/461_bill-anders-the-right-stuff.html
|
2013-05-22T08:19:55Z
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s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368701508530/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516105148-00051-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz
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It has been nearly a century since the luxury cruise ship RMS Titanic struck an iceberg and sank in the North Atlantic, killing hundreds of people. In the disaster's aftermath, important changes were made in laws intended to keep ship passengers safe.
Is that necessary as a result of the deadly fiasco involving the Italian cruise ship Costa Concordia?
More than a dozen people were killed when the ship hit a reef, then ran aground and nearly capsized. The magnitude of what happened to the Costa Concordia is virtually insignificant compared to the Titanic tragedy.
But the potential for enormous loss of life existed. More than 4,200 people were aboard the Italian liner when it crashed. Had the accident occurred farther out to sea, even more people might have perished.
It is alleged that the ship's captain, Francesco Schettino, caused the wreck by steering a course dangerously close to a reef. Then, Schettino reportedly abandoned his vessel while passengers were still struggling to save themselves, although he claims he fell into the water.
Some survivors said the ship's crew adopted an "every man for himself" attitude and did little to rescue passengers.
What is especially worrisome about the accident is that cruise ships are much, much safer than they were during the Titanic era. The public has - or had, prior to the Costa Concordia - come to view ship travel as virtually risk-free.
Clearly, it is not. At the very least, that calls for governments where cruise ships are registered to re-examine regulations and their enforcement.
|
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CC-MAIN-2013-20
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http://www.altoonamirror.com/page/content.detail/id/557525/Examine-cruise-ship-rules.html?nav=728
|
2013-05-19T18:26:43Z
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697974692/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516095254-00051-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
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What are the different types of modems?
Modems are distinguished from one another by their architecture, that is, where the processing takes place: in the modem or in the PC. A hardware modem is a "Controller-based" modem, and it does all of the work. This type of modem provides the best power and performance, and it does not utilize the PC's processing power. All three components (MCU, DPU, and DAA) are in the modem itself. It can work with many operating systems, and functionality may be upgradeable through ROM uploads.
Controllerless or Winmodems
Controllerless modems (or Winmodems), as the name implies, do not have an onboard Microcontroller. As a result, data compression and the generation of AT commands are performed by the PC. Since most PCs sold today run the Windows operating system, the microcontroller program is usually written specifically for Windows, hence the name "Winmodem." They are useful in laptops, as they tend to use less power. Winmodems are usually software upgradeable.
Softmodems are, quite simply, Software Modems. All processing is done by the PC, and the "modem" is little more than an interface to plug in the phone jack. These modems require the PC to do all of the work, and they will only run in the Windows Operating System. Many PC makers put Softmodems in the PCs that they sell to consumers, as they are extremely inexpensive. They are upgradeable.
What kind of modems are available?
|
<urn:uuid:008d8c9f-a4f0-4c3b-aa4b-fcda2ff5163d>
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CC-MAIN-2013-20
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http://www.usr-emea.com/education/modem2.asp?loc=span
|
2013-05-24T15:28:45Z
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704713110/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516114513-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.946389
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|
In late 2008, the United States economy was caught in the midst of what proved to be its longest and deepest recession since the end of World War II. Frightened by steep and self-reinforcing declines in output and employment, both the Federal Reserve and the federal government responded quickly and boldly. The Federal Reserve dropped the federal funds rate to near zero, where it remains today, and began its controversial “quantitative easing” purchases of long-term government securities to contain long-term interest rates.
Perspectives from expert contributors.
Fueled by the 2009 federal stimulus package, discretionary fiscal policy was also expansionary in 2009-10, adding to growth during the first year of the recovery at roughly the same pace that fiscal policy had achieved during previous recoveries.
Then, in a sharp break with history, fiscal policy became a drag on growth in the second year of recovery, and since then the drag has intensified. What explains the premature and counterproductive turn toward fiscal austerity despite the high unemployment rate and the large gap between actual and potential output?
Before the Great Recession, there was a near consensus among economists that monetary policy by itself could stabilize aggregate demand and keep the economy on its potential growth path. Under normal economic conditions, countercyclical fiscal policy was thought to be unnecessary. It was also thought to be both ill timed, because of lags in Congressional decision-making, and wasteful, because choices among fiscal measures were driven by politics and rent-seeking rather than cost-benefit considerations.
Most economists also believed that changes in discretionary fiscal policy would have small effects on aggregate demand and output — that the multipliers for such changes were small — and this belief was supported by empirical research based on “normal economic conditions.”
|
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CC-MAIN-2013-20
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http://economix.blogs.nytimes.com/tag/federal-reserve-system/
|
2013-05-21T11:01:36Z
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368699899882/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516102459-00001-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz
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