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July 4, 1998 Amyloid Can Trigger Brain Damage
By N. Seppa
Autopsies of Alzheimer's patients show waxy plaques of a protein called beta-amyloid littering the brain like shrapnel on a battlefield. Yet researchers have failed to establish whether beta-amyloid actually causes the disease.
Now, a study of monkeys shows that beta-amyloid can indeed damage nerve cells, or neurons, in the brain, especially in older animals.
Some researchers have suggested that an accumulation of amyloid plaques over many years contributes to Alzheimer's disease, which would help explain why the condition usually strikes the elderly. The new study, however, shows that equal amounts of beta-amyloid inserted into the brains of young and old monkeys are far more destructive in the old ones. The work appears in the July Nature Medicine.
"This animal model shows that beta-amyloid introduced into the brain at levels similar to that in Alzheimer's disease can actually cause brain cell death," says coauthor Bruce A. Yankner, a neurologist at Harvard Medical School and Children's Hospital in Boston.
The study suggests a "two-hit" pattern in Alzheimer's disease in which plaque accumulation combines with "some other age-related process that is poorly defined as of yet," says Ted M. Dawson, a neurologist at Johns Hopkins Medical Institutions in Baltimore. "It's an interesting paper."
Alzheimer's disease is the most common form of neurological impairment in the elderly, affecting about 4 million people in the United States. Short-term memory and attention often falter first, followed by language, abstract reasoning, judgment, and insight.
"I think certain protective factors [against beta-amyloid plaque] that we have as young adults gradually vanish with middle age and old age," Yankner says. These traits don't always endure into old age in the population because they would not impart any selective evolutionary advantage, he speculates.
Some Down's syndrome patients develop plaques early in life but suffer no significant neuronal loss and cognitive decline from them until middle age. The finding that beta-amyloid unleashes its toxicity only in aged brains could explain this observation, Yankner says.
To assess how the effect of beta-amyloid varies with age, the researchers placed small amounts of the protein into the brains of rhesus monkeys, marmoset monkeys, and rats. After 11 days, they looked for three kinds of damage: destruction of neurons; harmful proliferation of microglia, small cells that act as part of the brain's support structure; and chemical changes in tau protein, which can contribute to the tangles typically found in Alzheimer's patients' brains (SN: 6/20/98, p. 389).
Postmortem examinations showed that four rhesus monkeys aged 25 to 28 years each incurred much more of all three forms of brain damage than either of two 5-year-olds. All five older marmosets tested, aged 8 to 10 years, also showed considerable neuronal damage, compared with five other marmosets only 2 or 3 years old.
Moreover, the old rhesus monkeys experienced considerably more brain damage than the old marmosets. By contrast, the old rats in this study, aged 24 to 26 months, were largely unaffected by beta-amyloid, Yankner says. Rats rarely live more than 3 years.
While the findings establish that beta- amyloid is toxic to aged but not young primates' brains, they also suggest that animals with long life spans may be at greater risk from the protein than those that lead short lives.
Scientists have puzzled over earlier research in which rodents didn't experience brain damage from beta-amyloid plaque. Such results had cast doubt on the idea that the plaques cause the dementia associated with Alzheimer's disease in humans. The new study establishes that the dangers of beta-amyloid are species-specific, very weak in rats but strong in primates, particularly higher ones.
From Science News, Vol. 154, No. 1, July 4, 1998, p. 4.
Copyright Ó 1998 by Science Service.
Geula, C. . . .B.A. Yankner. 1998. Aging renders the brain vulnerable to amyloid b -protein neurotoxicity. Nature Medicine 4(July):827.
1998. Amyloid and Alzheimer disease. Nature Medicine 4(July):745.
Kisilevsky, R. 1998. Amyloid b threads in the fabric of Alzheimer's disease. Nature Medicine 4(July):772.
Lambert,M.P., et al. 1998. Diffusible, nonfibrillar ligands derived from Ab 1-42 are potent central nervous system neurotoxins. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 95(May):6448.
Pennisi, E. 1994. A molecular whodunit. Science News 145(Jan. 1):8.
Pitschke, M., et al. 1998. Detection of single amyloid b protein aggregates in the cerebrospinal fluid of Alzheimer's patients by fluorescence correlation spectrascopy. Nature Medicine 4:832.
Seppa, N. 1998. Unveiling the tau of neurodegeneration. Science News 153(June 20):389.
Soto, C., et al. 1998. b -sheet breaker peptides inhibit fibrillogenesis in a rat model of amyloidosis: Potential Alzheimer's therapy. Nature Medicine 4:822.
Travis, J. 1997. New lesion found in Alzheimer brains. Science News 152(July 5):4.
Ted M. Dawson
Johns Hopkins Medical Institutions
600 N. Wolfe Street
Baltimore, MD 21287
300 Longwood Avenue
Boston, MA 02115
copyright 1998 ScienceService
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Following a major disaster, first responders who provide fire and medical services will not be able to meet the demand for these services. Factors such as number of victims, communication failures and road blockages will prevent people from accessing emergency services they have come to expect at a moment's notice through 911. People will have to rely on each other for help in order to meet their immediate life saving and life sustaining needs.
One also expects that under these kinds of conditions, family members, fellow employees and neighbors will spontaneously try to help each other. This was the case following the Mexico City earthquake where untrained, spontaneous volunteers saved 800 people. However, 100 people lost their lives while attempting to save others. This is a high price to pay and is preventable through training.
If we can predict that emergency services will not meet immediate needs following a major disaster, especially if there is no warning as in an earthquake and people will spontaneously volunteer, what can government do to prepare citizens for this eventuality?
First, present citizens the facts about what to expect following a major disaster in terms of immediate services. Second, give the message about their responsibility for mitigation and preparedness. Third, train them in needed life saving skills with emphasis on decision making skills, rescuer safety and doing the greatest good for the greatest number. Fourth, organize teams so that they are an extension of first responder services offering immediate help to victims until professional services arrive.
The Community Emergency Response Team (CERT) concept was developed and implemented by the Los Angeles City Fire Department (LAFD) in 1985. The Whittier Narrows earthquake in 1987 underscored the area-wide threat of a major disaster in California. Further, it confirmed the need for training civilians to meet their immediate needs. As a result, the LAFD created the Disaster Preparedness Division with the purpose of training citizens and private and government employees.
The training program that LAFD initiated makes good sense and furthers the process of citizens understanding their responsibility in preparing for disaster. It also increases their ability to safely help themselves, their family and their neighbors. The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) recognizes the importance of preparing citizens. The Emergency Management Institute (EMI) and the National Fire Academy adopted and expanded the CERT materials believing them applicable to all hazards.
The CERT course will benefit any citizen who takes it. This individual will be better prepared to respond to and cope with the aftermath of a disaster. Additionally, if a community wants to supplement its response capability after a disaster, civilians can be recruited and trained as neighborhood, business and government teams that, in essence, will be auxiliary responders. These groups can provide immediate assistance to victims in their area, organize spontaneous volunteers who have not had the training and collect disaster intelligence that will assist professional responders with prioritization and allocation of resources following a disaster. Since 1993 when this training was made available nationally by FEMA, communities in 28 states and Puerto Rico have conducted CERT training.
We recommend a number of steps to start a CERT:
Identify the program goals that CERT will meet and the resources available to conduct the program in your area.
Gain approval from appointed and elected officials to use CERT as a means to prepare citizens to care for themselves during a disaster when services may not be adequate. This is an excellent opportunity for the government to be proactive in working with its constituency.
Identify and recruit potential participants. Naturals for CERT are community groups, business and industry workers and local government workers.
Train CERT instructor cadre.
Conduct CERT sessions.
Conduct refresher training and exercises with CERTs.
The CERT course is delivered in the community by a team of first responders who have the requisite knowledge and skills to instruct the sessions. It is suggested that the instructors complete a CERT Train-the-Trainer (TTT) course conducted by their State Training Office for Emergency Management or the Emergency Management Institute in order to learn the training techniques that are used successfully by the LAFD.
The CERT training for community groups is usually delivered in 2 1/2 hour sessions, one evening a week over a 7 week period. The training consists of the following:
Session I, DISASTER PREPAREDNESS: Addresses hazards to which people are vulnerable in their community. Materials cover actions that participants and their families take before, during and after a disaster. As the session progresses, the instructor begins to explore an expanded response role for civilians in that they should begin to consider themselves disaster workers. Since they will want to help their family members and neighbors, this training can help them operate in a safe and appropriate manner. The CERT concept and organization are discussed as well as applicable laws governing volunteers in that jurisdiction.
Session II, DISASTER FIRE SUPPRESSION: Briefly covers fire chemistry, hazardous materials, fire hazards and fire suppression strategies. However, the thrust of this session is the safe use of fire extinguishers, sizing up the situation, controlling utilities and extinguishing a small fire.
Session III, DISASTER MEDICAL OPERATIONS PART I: Participants practice diagnosing and treating airway obstruction, bleeding and shock by using simple triage and rapid treatment techniques.
Session IV, DISASTER MEDICAL OPERATIONS, PART II: Covers evaluating patients by doing a head to toe assessment, establishing a medical treatment area, performing basic first aid and practicing in a safe and sanitary manner.
Session V, LIGHT SEARCH AND RESCUE OPERATIONS: Participants learn about search and rescue planning, size-up, search techniques, rescue techniques and, most important, rescuer safety.
Session VI, DISASTER PSYCHOLOGY AND TEAM ORGANIZATION: Covers signs and symptoms that might be experienced by the disaster victim and worker. It addresses CERT organization and management principles and the need for documentation.
Session VII, COURSE REVIEW AND DISASTER SIMULATION: Participants review their answers from a take home examination. Finally, they practice the skills that they have learned during the previous six sessions in disaster activity.
During each session participants are required to bring safety equipment (gloves, goggles, mask) and disaster supplies (bandages, flashlight, dressings) which will be used during the session. By doing this for each session, participants are building a disaster response kit of items that they will need during a disaster.
When participants have completed this training, it is important to keep them involved and practiced in their skills. Trainers should offer periodic refresher sessions to reinforce the basic training. CERT teams can sponsor events such as drills, picnics, neighborhood clean up and disaster education fairs which will keep them involved and trained.
CERT members should receive recognition for completing their training. Communities may issue ID cards, vests and helmets to graduates.
First responders need to be educated about the CERT and their value to the community. Using CERT as a component of the response system when there are exercises for potential disasters can reinforce this idea.
FEMA supports CERT by conducting or sponsoring Train-the-Trainer and Program Manager courses for members of the fire, medical and emergency management community. The objectives of the TTT are to prepare attendees to promote this training in their community, conduct TTT's at their location, conduct training sessions for neighborhood, business and industry and government groups and organize teams with which first responders can interface following a major disaster.
CERT is about readiness, people helping people, rescuer safety and doing the greatest good for the greatest number. CERT is a positive and realistic approach to emergency and disaster situations where citizens will be initially on their own and their actions can make a difference. Through training, citizens can manage utilities and put out small fires; treat the three killers by opening airways, controlling bleeding, and treating for shock; provide basic medical aid; search for and rescue victims safely and organize themselves and spontaneous volunteers to be effective.
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On This Day - 17 October 1916
Theatre definitions: Western Front comprises the Franco-German-Belgian front and any military action in Great Britain, Switzerland, Scandinavia and Holland. Eastern Front comprises the German-Russian, Austro-Russian and Austro-Romanian fronts. Southern Front comprises the Austro-Italian and Balkan (including Bulgaro-Romanian) fronts, and Dardanelles. Asiatic and Egyptian Theatres comprises Egypt, Tripoli, the Sudan, Asia Minor (including Transcaucasia), Arabia, Mesopotamia, Syria, Persia, Afghanistan, Turkestan, China, India, etc. Naval and Overseas Operations comprises operations on the seas (except where carried out in combination with troops on land) and in Colonial and Overseas theatres, America, etc. Political, etc. comprises political and internal events in all countries, including Notes, speeches, diplomatic, financial, economic and domestic matters. Source: Chronology of the War (1914-18, London; copyright expired)
French gain new group of houses in Sailly-Saillisel.
Romanians maintain positions at Rucar, but retreat in the Gyimes Pass (Mold.); enemy penetrate eight miles into Romania and reach Agas.
North of Korytnitsa (24 miles W.S.W. of Lutsk), obstinate fighting, Germans claim trenches and 1,900 prisoners.
Fighting in Dobropolye region (north of Kaymakchlan).
Italians capture Tooth of Pasubio (Trentino).
Asiatic and Egyptian Theatres
British raid and take Dakhla oasis (175 miles south-west of Assiut).
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Richard Dawkins’ The Blind Watchmaker, first published in 19861, was written to counter arguments made in favour of creationism by the eighteenth century theology William Paley’s Natural Theology, published in 1902.
Paley is perhaps best remembered today for his watchmaker analogy, intended as an argument in favour of the existence of an intelligent designer, or god. This was first seriously challenged by Charles Darwin’s theory of natural selection (the consequence of, or process by which “favourable” traits become prevalent and “unfavourable” traits become rarer), made well known in his The Origin Of Species first published in 1859. Dawkins further decimates Paley’s theory, arguing instead for a “blind” watchmaker, as highly complex systems can be produced by a series of small, cumulative – yet naturally selected – steps, rather than relying on a supernatural designer.
If you walk up and down a pebbly beach, you will notice that the pebbles are not arranged at random. The smaller pebbles typically tend to be found in segregated zones running along the length of the beach, the larger ones in different zones or stripes. The pebbles have been sorted, arranged, selected. A tribe living near the shore might wonder at this evidence of sorting or arrangement in the world, and might develop a myth to account for it, perhaps attributing it to a Great Spirit in the sky with a tidy mind and a sense of order. We might give a superior smile at such a superstitious notion, and explain that the arranging was really done by the blind forces of physics, in this case the action of the waves. The waves have no purposes and no intentions, no tidy mind, no mind at all. They just energetically throw pebbles around, and big pebbles and small pebbles respond differently to this treatment so they end up at different levels of the beach. A small amount of order has come out of disorder, and no mind planned it.2
Dawkins explains that, of course, “[s]imple sieving, on its own, is obviously nowhere near capable of generating the amount of order in a living being”; however it serves well as an example of non-random selection. He then goes on to make the essential distinction between single-step and cumulative selection, writing that in “single-step selection the entities selected or sorted, pebbles or whatever they are, are sorted once and for all. In cumulative selection, on the other hand, they ‘reproduce’; or in some other way the results of one sieving process are fed into a subsequent sieving, which is fed into…, and so on. The entities are subjected to selection or sorting over many ‘generations’ in succession. The end-product of one generation of selection is the starting point for the next generation of selection, and so on for many generations.”3
Self-replication is defined as the property which is the “basic ingredient of cumulative selection”4, and the mechanistic manner in which this replication manifests is emphasized. Dawkins characterizes the difference between self-replication in living versus non-living organisms as follows:
What is special [about living things] is that these molecules are put together in much more complicated patterns than the molecules of non-living things, and this putting together is done by following programs, sets of instructions for how to develop, which the organisms carry around inside themselves. Maybe they do vibrate and throb and pulsate with ‘irritability’, and glow with ‘living’ warmth, but these properties all emerge incidentally. What lies at the heart of every living thing is not fire, not warm breath, not a ‘spark of life’. It is information, words, instructions. If you want a metaphor, don’t think of fires and sparks and breath. Think, instead, of a billion discrete, digital characters carved in tablets of crystal. If you want to understand life, don’t think about vibrant, throbbing gels and oozes, think about information technology.5
Yet this copying is not “perfect”, he writes: “Evolution occurs because, in successive generations, there are slight differences in embryonic development. These differences come about because of changes (mutations)…in the genes controlling development.”6
A few theories are offered for the ultimate origin of life, the timescales involved are explained in detail, but the basic idea can be summarized as follows:
After many generations of cumulative selection in a particular place, the local animals and plants become well fitted to the conditions, for instance the weather conditions, in that place. If it is cold the animals come to have thick coats of hair, or feathers. If it is dry they evolve leathery or waxy waterproof skins to conserve what little water there is. The adaptations to local conditions affect every party of the body, its shape, and colour, its internal organs, its behaviour, and the chemistry in its cells.7
The animals which “come to have” these thick coats do so because the ones which first displayed this mutation are naturally better adapted to survive the colder conditions: they are more likely to endure longer than those with thinner coats who die of exposure, thus they breed and pass on the gene “for” thicker coats to their offspring, who in turn keep warmer than those who survived with thinner coats, and so on. He stresses that the “timescale over which significant improvement might be detected is…likely to be far longer than could be detected by comparing one generation with its predecessor”.
It is made clear that “natural selection doesn’t choose genes directly, it chooses the effects that genes have on bodies”.8 There is no sentient decision to evolve “toward” a certain state, evolution does not have goals, it’s a descriptive term for cumulative, adaptive change. Evaluations over whether or not a given mutation was beneficial can only be determined after the fact. Indeed, “‘improvement’… is far from continuous. It is a fitful affair, stagnating or even sometimes going ‘backwards’, rather than moving solidly ‘forwards’ in the direction suggested [by an arms-race]. Changes in conditions, changes in the inanimate forces…are likely to swamp the slow and erratic trends of the arms race…as far as any observer on the ground could be aware.”9
Similarly, when we talk about memetic changes in an evolutionary sense, we can only evaluate the success of a given meme by its survival; any additional judgements or observations might be considered independent, but supporting memes.10
There are patterns of information that can thrive only in brains or the artificially manufactured products of brains – books, computers, and so on. But, given that brains, books and computers exist, these new replicators, which I called memes to distinguish them from genes, can propagate themselves…As they propagate they can change – mutate. And perhaps ‘mutant’ memes can exert the kinds of influence that I am here calling ‘replicator power’. Remember that this means any kind of influence affecting their own likelihood of being propagated. Evolution under the influence of the new replicators – memetic evolution – is in its infancy. It is manifested in the phenomena that we call cultural evolution. Cultural evolution is many orders of magnitude faster than DNA-based evolution, which sets one even more to thinking of the idea of ‘takeover’.11
As with genetic evolution, memes require a habitable environment in which to propagate themselves. In the absence of a suitable environment they eventually become extinct.
First published on Plutonica.net, “On evolution“, on February 09, 2008.
- My copy is a revised edition released in 2006. [↩]
- p. 43 [↩]
- p. 45 [↩]
- p. 128 [↩]
- p. 112 [↩]
- p. 50-51 [↩]
- p. 178 [↩]
- p. 60 [↩]
- p. 181 [↩]
- When consciously mutated, we might instead define a new memetic species which can’t properly be identified as being the same as the original meme, except in a tangential sense (think of gross capitalism versus the more specific anarcho-capitalism, for example). [↩]
- p. 158 [↩]
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Using this photo and referring to it is encouraged, and please use it in presentations, web pages, newspapers, blogs and reports.
For any form of publication, please include th link to this page and give the photographer credit (in this case Peter Prokosch)
Imperial Shag (Phalacrocorax Atriceps), Antarctic Peninsula
The Imperial Shag, otherwise known as the Imperial Cormorant, hunts in 'rafts', or large groups of hundreds which dive down together in "pursuit-diving" of fish, at up to 25 metres depth.
Given that the Imperial Shag has a small range and is usually found in small populations, pollution or chance extreme weather events can threaten a whole colony.
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Photograph by Jim Richardson, National Geographic
Published August 14, 2012
The night sky may glow bluer as yellow-orange streetlights are gradually replaced by whiter, energy-saving lights, a new study says.
Light-emitting diodes, or LEDs, cast a bluish glow in the sky and are about 20 percent more efficient than industry-standard streetlamps, which generate red-colored light pollution.
With LED efficiency expected to double to 40 percent in a few years, it's inevitable that governments worldwide will opt to save energy by switching to LEDs, which also last longer and require less maintenance, experts say.
Yet it's uncertain how much the color of light pollution will change as LEDs take over, experts say. Also unknown are effects of blue light pollution on nocturnal wildlife, such as sea turtles, which can be confused by artificial lights when coming ashore to lay their eggs.
"The likely worldwide transition to increased LED street lighting may have an effect on research topics as diverse" as disruptions of animals' circadian rhythms and air pollution, the study authors write.
Long-term monitoring of skyglow—as light pollution is called—"should start before the transition is well underway," according to the study, led by physicist Cristopher Kyba of the Free University in Berlin.
For the study, the researchers built an inexpensive device to monitor light pollution on a Berlin rooftop. That city uses mostly yellow-orange lights but has swapped many of them for LEDs.
The instrument used five identical light-measuring devices, each tuned to a different function: One to measure brightness; three to measure red, blue, or green wavelengths; and a light meter to calibrate the others. A laptop inside a weatherproof box recorded the data.
Several months' worth of data revealed that cloudy nights reflected twice the intensity of red light than blue light.
When skies were clear, however, blue light illuminated the sky more readily, according to the study, published in August in the Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society.
This means that an increase in bluish LEDs could increase sky brightness on clear nights—the same way skies scatter blue light better on a sunny day.
Of Mice and Elephants
Biophysicist and lighting researcher Mark Rea said that, while he's "fully against light pollution," there's a far bigger issue than the color of light pollution: its brightness.
"It's like the size difference between an elephant and mouse," said Rea, of Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in New York State.
"Your elephant is light output, and the mouse is the color of the light's spectrum. I care most about the elephant."
Rea and colleagues have already created a measurement scale to help governments and companies evaluate any wastefulness in their lighting.
For instance, shooting light upward causes light pollution, but directing it downward better achieves its intended function: helping people see at night.
"I'm always in favor of measurements," Rea said. "But in terms of resource allocation, the color is not as big of a deal as managing the lighting [we] already have."
These six scientists were snubbed for awards or robbed of credit for discoveries … because they were women.
Scientists say they've learned why penguin wings, now used for swimming, no longer get the birds off the ground.
A boulder-size meteor slammed into the moon in March, igniting an explosion so bright that anyone looking up at right moment might have spotted it.
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BRIEF HISTORY OF UTAH
Ron Rood and Linda Thatcher
Utah's thousands of years of prehistory and its centuries of known recorded history are so distinctive and complex that a summary can only hint at the state's rich heritage. The synopsis offered here follows major themes in Utah history and includes some of the significant dates, events, and individuals.
Utah presents an unusually varied landscape with three major physiographic provinces extending into the state. The Rocky Mountain Province takes up a V-shaped section of northeastern Utah and includes the Uinta and Wasatch mountains. The Colorado Plateau Province dominates east central and southeastern Utah from the Uinta Basin south to Canyonlands and the high plateau country. Western Utah lies in the Basin and Range Province, an area of deserts as well as mountain ranges separated by broad valleys. Within these three provinces, Utah ranges in elevation from 2,350 feet above sea level in the southwest corner of the state to 13,528 feet on Kings Peak in the Uinta Mountains. Five major life zones, each with a distinctive community of plants, are found within that elevation range, from the sagebrush and juniper typical of the Sonoran desert to the meadow grass and moss of the alpine tundra.
Utah's temperatures vary greatly with changing altitude and latitude. The mountains and elevated valleys are cooler, while the lower elevations and southern parts of the state have higher temperatures. The highest temperature officially recorded was July 5, 1985, in St. George, Utah 117 F. The lowest was recorded on February 1, 1985, at the uninhabited Peter's Sink in Logan Canyon -69 F.
Precipitation in Utah varies from an average of less than five inches in the Great Salt Lake Desert to more than 60 inches in the Wasatch Mountains. The average annual precipitation is between 10-15 inches per year.
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Each time there is a short-term shortage of oil or the price begins to rise, there is talk of running out of affordable oil, an idea captured by the concept of Peak Oil. Peak Oil is the theoretical point when the maximum rate of oil production is reached and after that time enters into a terminal decline. There is a lot of debate surrounding the Peak Oil theory, with some observers predicting rapid decline in oil production with serious implications for our entire economy and society.
No name is more closely associated with the concept of Peak Oil than geologist Marion King Hubbert. Hubbert was a research geologist for Shell Oil Company and later the US Geological Service. Hubbert is credited with developing a quantitative technique (Logistic Growth Curve) now commonly referred to as the Hubbert Curve, which he suggested could be used to predict the remaining oil supplies (or any other finite resource like gas, copper, etc.) and the time of eventual depletion.
In the 1956 meeting of the American Petroleum Institute in San Antonio, Texas, Hubbert presented a paper titled Nuclear Energy and Fossil Fuels where he suggested that overall petroleum production would peak in the United States between the late 1960s and the early 1970s. Since US oil production did indeed appear to peak in 1970, many Peak Oil advocates acclaim Hubbert as a prophet. However, an apparent peak in production does not necessarily represent a peak in oil availability, especially in a global market—something that Peak Oil advocates tend to overlook. In fact, a “peak” may just be one of many “spikes”.
Another point of confusion in the debate over the ultimate availability of oil and gas supplies is the question of “unconventional” fossil fuel sources like tar sands, oil shales, heavy oils, and shale oil. Hubbert did not include these other energy types in his estimates and many of the proponents of Peak Oil today tend to ignore these hydro-carbon sources. However, since there is vastly more oil (and gas) found in these “unconventional” sources compared to “conventional” crude oil and traditional gas sources, the exclusion of them from any policy debate over oil’s demise leads to serious misrepresentation of our ultimate fossil fuel availability.
As Hubbert wrote in his paper, “if we knew the quantity (of some resource) initially present, we could draw a family of possible production curves, all of which would exhibit the common property of beginning and ending at zero, and encompassing an area equal to or less than the initial quantity.” In theory, Hubbert’s basic concept is sound. As a way of thinking about and approaching the issue of declining finite resources, Hubbert was a pioneer. But that does not mean his predictions were accurate.
The problem for anyone trying to predict future resource availability is discerning the initial starting amount of a resource such as oil when one cannot readily see or gauge accurately the resource. This lack of transparency presents huge opportunities for error, in particular, erring on the side of under estimation of the total resource. And time has consistently shown that under estimation of total resource is the most common error, and as we shall see this is exactly the error that Hubbert made with regards to his estimates of our remaining oil and gas reserves. Hubbert can be forgiven because new technology can make previously unavailable resources accessible, even less expensive to exploit. In fact, he even anticipated this to a degree in his paper, another point that Hubbert’s admirers today tend to overlook.
Few that credit Hubbert with a successful prediction have apparently actually read his paper. A reading of his presentation demonstrates that Hubbert grossly underestimated total oil supplies, and thus his predicted high point of the bell curve deviates significantly from reality. Indeed, there is good evidence we haven’t even reached the top of the bell curve, much less past it in 1970. He did not anticipate things like the discovery of oil in Alaska’s Prudhoe Bay or shale oil like the North Dakota Bakken Formation, among many other oil discoveries that have significantly changed total oil supplies.
And because US oil production did peak in 1970, the same time period which Hubbert suggested oil reserves would reach their half-way point and start an inevitable decline, few bothered to ask whether the observed decline in US production might have any other explanation other than declining geological petroleum stocks as Peak Oil advocates suggest.
Predicting future oil and gas supplies is fraught with dangers. Many factors influence oil extraction other than geological limits. A rapid shift to renewable energy, a decline in global economies, new technological innovation, energy conservation, a high oil price that dampens consumer demand, political instability and wars all significantly affect energy production, thus when and how “peak” is achieved. Many believe a more realistic model rather than a bell curve is a rapid run up in production to a spike or series of spikes followed by a long drawn out plateau and production decline with ultimately more oil production occurring after the apparent peak, but less rapidly than prior to the “peak” which of course wouldn’t really be a peak in the traditional sense of the word.
The first problem with Hubbert’s prediction is that his estimates of total oil and gas reserves are far too low. If the starting amount of reserves are low, then the top of the bell curve is reached much sooner than if there are greater amounts of oil–assuming that a bell curve actually represents what is occurring–which many people dispute. Some suggest Hubbert just drew the curve to fit his assumptions.
In his paper, Hubbert estimated that the “ultimate potential reserve of 150 billion barrels of crude oil for both the land and offshore areas of the United States.” Hubbert’s estimate was based on the crude oil “initially present which are producible by methods now in use.” Using the 150 billion barrel estimate he predicted US Peak Oil occurring in 1965. But to be cautious, he also used a slightly higher figure of 200 billion barrels which produced a peak in oil production around 1970—the figure that Hubbert advocates like to use to demonstrate that Hubbert was prophetic in his predictions. However, by 2006 the Department of Energy estimated that domestic oil resources still in the ground (in-place) total 1,124 billion barrels. Of this large in-place resource, 400 billon barrels is estimated to be technically recoverable with current technology.
This estimate was produced before horizontal drilling and hydraulic fracturing or fracking techniques were widely adopted which most authorities believe will yield considerably more oil than was thought to be recoverable in 2006.
Going back to Hubbert’s paper we find that he predicted that by 1970 the US should have consumed half or about 100 million barrels of oil of the original endowment of 150-200 billion barrels of recoverable oil. And by his own chart on page 32 of his paper if we use the assumption of 200 billion barrels as the total potential oil reserves of the US we should be completely out of oil by now. According to his curve and graph, by year 2000 we should have had only around 27 billion or so barrels of oil left in the US and fallen to zero sometime in the mid-2000s.
Yet the US government estimates as of 2007 that our remaining technically recoverable reserves are 198 billion barrels, excluding oil that may be found in area that are off limits to drilling (i.e. like most of the Continental Shelf).
And there are another 400 billion barrels that some suggest could be recovered with new methods (which itself is a subset of total in place oil which future technology may make available at an affordable price).
Obviously if Hubbert were correct, and we had reached Peak Oil in 1970 (point where we had consumed half of our oil) and we started out with only 200 billion, we could not have nearly 200-400 billion still left to extract—and total resources are likely even higher than this figure.
It’s also important to keep in mind that “technologically recoverable” resources are not the “total” amount of oil thought to exist in the US, so the total in-place reserves are much, much larger. It does not take a lot of imagination to predict that many of these oil resources will eventually be unlocked with yet newer technological innovation and thus added to the total “proven reserves.”
Another example of his under-estimation of oil is US off-shore oil. In his 1956 paper, Hubbert suggests we had 15 billion total barrels, but the US government now estimates there is closer to 90 billion barrels of oil left off-shore–and we have already extracted quite a bit. (I’m not sure if that figure is just for off -shore currently open to exploration or all off shore–since oil exploration is banned on 83% of the US coastline. If this figure refers only to those areas currently available to drill–then the number may be quite a bit higher if all off shore areas were opened to oil extraction).
Hubbert was even farther off in his estimate for global oil reserves, which is not surprising since in 1956 very few parts of the world had been adequately studied. In his 1956 paper Hubbert wrote that there was “about 1250 billion barrels for the ultimate potential reserves of crude oil of the whole world.” In his paper he estimated that the entire Middle East including Egypt had no more than 375 billion barrels of oil. Yet by 2010, the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) estimated that just the “proven reserves” in Saudi Arabia alone totaled 262.6 billion barrels. Similarly in his paper Hubbert uses an estimate of 80 billion barrels for all of South America, yet Venezuela has 296 billion barrels of proven reserves.
By 2000, the point when Hubbert estimated that we would reach global Peak Oil we would have only around 625 billion barrels of oil left. Just the 558 billion barrels of proven reserves known to exist in Saudi Arabia and Venezuela alone (and a lot more in-place resources) is nearly equal the total global oil supplies that Hubbert estimated would remain in global reserves. Obviously once again Hubbert’s global estimates were way too low.
The world has already burned through more than a trillion barrels of oil, clearly demonstrating how far off his prediction of oil supplies were. The estimated “proven reserves” left globally are today more than 1.3 trillion for the top 17 oil producing countries alone.
PROVEN RESERVES Vs. TOTAL RESOURCES
Part of the confusion in the Peak Oil debate is that people, agencies and organizations use different definitions and accounting methods that are often not explicitly acknowledged. For instance, most Peak Oil advocates rely upon “proven reserve” numbers to argue we have limited oil supplies remaining. However, it is important to note the term “proven reserves” has a very precise meaning that only includes oil that has a 90% certainty that the oil can be extracted using current technology at current price. It does not represent total oil that may over time be produced. The total estimated amount of oil in an oil reservoir, including both producible and non-producible oil, is called various terms including oil in place. Due to technological, political and other limitations, only a small percentage of the total “in place” oil can be extracted at the present time. However, proven reserves are the bare minimum amount of oil that reasonably can be expected to be extracted over time.
One of the wild cards in predicting oil reserves is the recovery factor. Recovery factors vary greatly among oil fields. Most oil fields to this point have only given up a fraction of their potential oil holdings—between 20-40%. By 2009 the average Texas oil field had only about a third of its oil extracted, leaving two-thirds still in the ground. Using Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR) techniques, many of them not even available when Hubbert wrote his paper, recovery can often be boosted to 40-60%. In essence if EOR were applied to many of the larger US oil fields, we could effectively double the oil extracted, hence “proven reserves.”
Even Hubbert recognized that we may eventually extract more oil from existing fields, though he still underestimated the effect of new discoveries and new technology. Hubbert wrote:
”… only about a third of the oil underground is being recovered. The reserve figures cited are for oil capable of being extracted by present techniques. However, secondary recovery techniques are gradually being improved so that ultimately a somewhat larger but still unknown fraction of the oil underground should be extracted than is now the case. Because of the slowness of the secondary recovery process, however, it appears unlikely that any improvement that can be made within the next 10 or 15 years can have any significant effect upon the date of culmination. A more probable effect of improved recovery will be to reduce the rate of decline after culmination…”
While no one realistically believes it’s possible to get every last drop of oil from an oil reservoir, new technologies are often able to get significantly more oil from existing fields than was possible in the past. The important fact is that the recovery factor often changes over time due to changes in technology and economics. Since the bulk of global oil still remains in the ground, and any shift upward in price and improvement in technology suddenly makes it profitable to exploit reserves that were previously not included in the “proven reserves” estimate. Thus proven reserve estimates are a minimum, not the maximum amount of oil available.
To demonstrate how technology and price can affect “proven reserves” estimates, just a few years ago Canada’s “proven reserves” of oil were only 5 billion barrels. Today, due to higher prices and improved technology that makes tar sands production economically feasible; Canada now has “proven” reserves of 175 billion barrels of oil. Nothing changed other than the price of oil and the technology used to extract it. Oil companies knew there was a lot of oil in the tar sands, but it took a change in technology and price to move it into the “proven reserves” category. Even more telling is that the total minimum estimate of in place oil for the tar sands exceeds 1.3 trillion barrels of oil. Keep in mind that 1.3 trillion barrels is more oil than Hubbert thought existed in the entire world when he presented his 1956 paper.
People knew all along there were tremendous amounts of oil locked in Alberta’s tar sands. But it took a change in price, along with some technological innovation to make it profitable for extraction. So proven reserves are not a static figure based on geology, rather it reflects economics and technology. Unfortunately too many writing about the presumed Peak of oil in the United States appear to ignore the distinction, and regularly use the “proven reserves” figure as if it were the ultimate geological limit on oil and/or gas supplies.
Although the major point of his paper was the potential depletion of traditional oil and gas reservoirs, he did mention “unconventional oil.” Unconventional oil reserves are oil or hydrocarbons found in geological formations other than a traditional oil reservoir. Examples of unconventional oil include Alberta’s tar sands, oil shales of the Green River Basin of Colorado, Utah, and Wyoming, the heavy oils of Venezuela, and other non-traditional hydrocarbons. There are far more of hydro-carbons in these formations than traditional oil reservoirs—a fact that many Peak Oil advocates frequently ignore. Or if they acknowledge their existence, they [misleadingly] dismiss them as uneconomical or technologically impossible to exploit and therefore will never make a significant contribution to global energy supplies.
Hubbert failed to appreciate the potential contribution of these unconventional sources of synthetic oil. For instance, he put the total for US oil shales at around a trillion barrels of oil equivalent. Recently the USGS estimated that the Green River drainage area of Colorado, Wyoming and Utah may contain as much as 4.2 trillion barrels of in place oil equivalent in oil shale deposits. To put this into context, the US currently consumes around 24 billion barrels of oil in 2010, so even if a fraction of these oil shales are exploited it will significantly increase available energy to the US.
With unconventional oils like tar sands, oil shales, heavy oils, etc. included, it seems we have huge amounts of potential energy–even acknowledging that much of that oil may not be extracted until some future date due to cost and/or lack of technology.
NATURAL GAS ESTIMATES
As he did with his estimates of oil, Hubbert also appears to have underestimated natural gas supplies as well. He put total natural gas supplies to be around 850 trillion cubic feet (TCF) and maximum US production would be 14 TCF annually. The Energy Information Agency (EIA) estimates that shale gas reserve alone total 750 TCF and shale gas is only one source of natural gas.Total natural gas reserves are increasing. Estimates vary about total gas reserves, but they run between 1400 to 2000 TFC. I see no reason to doubt these estimates.
If correct, then his estimate of natural gas was also a vast underestimate. This link shows that gas supplies are increasing well into the future. And new estimates for gas hydrates (methane locked in frozen ice) suggests there may be twice as much energy locked in these resources than all the coal, oil, and traditional natural gas supplies combined. One estimate suggests there may be a 3000 plus year supply of natural gas in gas hydrates. Whatever the ultimate number may be, the important point is that we are not in any danger of running out of fossil fuels in the near future.
OTHER EXPLANATIONS FOR US PEAK OIL PRODUCTION
Was it just coincidence and luck that Hubbert picked 1970 as one of the possible peaks in US oil production even though his starting numbers were way too low?
This raises the question whether declining US production since 1970 is due to depletion of oil fields as asserted by Peak Oil advocates or whether economics explains it better. (This is not to deny that at some point we will see declining production due to real limits–the question of importance however is when that will occur).
Another explanation requires looking beyond the US. Keep in mind that oil is a commodity. Just because we may see a decline in production of some commodity does not mean we are running out of that substance or resource. The Northeast US was once the major producer of timber in the US. Today if you buy lumber in New England, there’s a good chance it was cut and shipped from the Pacific Northwest, not because there are no trees to cut in New England. Rather due to climate, vegetation, and infrastructure factors, it’s less expensive to cut trees in Oregon or British Columbia than to log New England forests. It would be wrong to conclude that because New England imports most of its lumber that there are not enough trees left to provide wood locally.
Similarly attributing declining US oil production to geological depletion ignores the effect of global oil production. Immediately after WWII the US was easily the global leader in oil production. This dominance of global oil markets by US production and companies continued throughout the 1950s and 1960s. Then in the late 1960s and early 1970s oil production in other parts of the world began to increase substantially. In particular, Middle East oil production improved dramatically due to foreign investment and technology. For a variety of factors, once the oil infrastructure (pipelines, tanker ports, oil fields,) was built in these places, it became less expensive to import oil from Saudi Arabia, for example, than to build a new oil field in Wyoming or Texas. Indeed in some cases producing oil wells in the US were capped and retired even though they were perfectly capable of producing more oil. Not only was oil production increasing in Saudi Arabia, but all over the world at this time including Venezuela, Mexico, and the Soviet Union. All of these new fields were producing lower cost oil than one could get from most US oil fields at the time. So could it be that US producers just decided it was a better business plan to invest in and/or buy oil from other oil producing countries? Did this low cost oil cause oil companies to import oil rather than invest in US oil production?
Worse for US producers, except for a few manufactured shortages like the 1973 oil crisis created by OPEC in response to US support for Israel or the War in Iraq, the abundance of relatively inexpensive oil kept oil prices depressed throughout the 1970s, 1980s, 1990s and into the early 2000s, discouraging new investment in US oil production.
It takes up to a decade or more to bring a new oil field on line, especially if the field is not located near other infrastructure. For instance, Alaska’s Prudhoe Bay Oil field was discovered in 1968 and it wasn’t until 1978 before the first oil was sent to market. Oil companies will only invest in major new production if they are certain that the prices are stable and will remain at a specific break-even point into the future. This lag time between changes in price or technology and significant production is why the oil industry cannot rapidly respond to short term price increases or politically created shortages.
Peak Oil advocates continuously point to the rise in oil prices during the latter part of the 2000s and suggest that an apparent lack of significant new oil production is due to depletion. However, there is a time lag before higher prices result in a noteworthy increase in oil production. Given the huge investments needed to bring on line new oil production, companies have to first wait for quite a number of years after an oil price hike before they start any new development to make sure that higher prices are going to stabilize, not rise and then fall suddenly as happened in 2008 when oil reached $145 a barrel then crashed to $30 a barrel. Such volatility does not lead to greater oil production.
Nevertheless, higher oil prices in the past few years have started to spur new development in the US and around the globe. The US, for instance, has reduced its import of foreign oil from 60% to 45% due to higher production at home as well as greater efficiency spurred by higher fuel prices. These trends point to continued reduction in imports. However, because of the long delay between start up and full production, there is no quick relief. This is one reason why “Drill, Baby, Drill” is a foolish response to any oil price increase.
From the oil producer’s perspective, there is no advantage in increasing spare production capacity. All this will do is flood the market (global market) with cheap energy. What company wants to reduce its profits by over production? So far global oil production has largely been able to meet all demand, except for short term shortages as a result of political change, wars, and/or price speculation. But none of these reflect a true geological short-fall or serious effect of depletion.
Despite Hubbert’s prediction that we would be just about out of oil by now, the US oil production (and gas) have both gone up in recent years. This is in response to higher prices and new technologies. But according to Hubbert this could not be occurring because we are long past our Peak and indeed, very near our bottom line for oil.
There is no doubt that a finite resource such as oil will continue to decline, and demand will likely grow at least into the foreseeable future, both of which should lead to higher fuel costs. But whether this leads to long term chronic shortages that cause major economic disruption or even the collapse of civilization as some predict is subject to more uncertainty than perhaps some like to admit. For one thing there is far more oil on the planet than most people recognize, and new technologies combined with rising price for fuels is spurring development of new oil supplies. Rising prices also spurs shifts to other energy sources, as well as greater efficiency and conservation of energy.
Rather than running out of oil and/or gas any time soon, I think the bigger danger is that we have more than enough oil and other fossil fuel energy resources to sustain us for quite a few decades if not centuries. Any efficiency and/or conservation of energy, combined with some replacement of fossil fuel energy with renewables, will extend hydrocarbon resources quite a few additional decades.
George Wuerthner is an ecologist. He is currently working on a book about energy.
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BRITISH ECONOMY AND UNION MEMBERSHIP GROW
In the period 1960-79, the British trade union movement seemed to most observers and active members to be in robust good health. In 1968, the TUC celebrated its centenary with due pomp and ceremony. Its leaders had no doubt that they were an important British public institution. They did not, however, rest on their historical laurels. In common with the rest of Britain, the trade union movement was affected by the currents of cultural and social change which gathered force during the 1960s. They responded with sincere, and often successful, initiatives to adapt the culture of trade unionism to take account of the changes. Examples are shown on the website of how unions were extending their reach towards the second wave of feminism and youth culture. There were also determined attempts to address issues of racism at the workplace and inside trade unions.
Growth in Trade Union Membership
Membership density not only remained at the record peacetime level of the late 1940s, hovering around 44%, during the late 1960s it began to increase steadily. In 1979, union density was 55.4%; there were 13 million union members, in contrast to the 9-10 million members in 1951-60 (1). Non-trade unionists were impressed by the improving wages and working conditions in the traditional centres of trade unionism - manual workers in large factories, shipyards, coalmining and railways. White collar and technical unions were successfully recruiting clerical and technical workers in the offices and drawing offices attached to these industries, where manual workers' lay representatives and officials provided important support to their sister unions' attempts to gain bargaining rights and recognition. Thus, when the National Association of Local Government Officers first affiliated to the TUC in 1964, it became the sixth biggest union; in 1979 it was the fourth largest, followed by NUPE, which had moved from tenth to fifth place.
Women's organisation also improved, from 2 millions in 1960 to just under 4 millions in 1979. Between 1950 and 1970, the number of women members in NUPE increased by 332.5%, from 40,000 to 173,000. In the decade between 1968-78, NUPE's women members increased by 236.3% to 457,500, thus becoming the union with the largest number of women members (followed by NALGO, GMWU, TGWU, each with around 318,000 members, having registered an increase of 141.3%, 59.2% and 63.3% respectively.)(2)
Smaller unions organising manual workers in the National Health Service and local government took advantage of this favourable atmosphere and began to recruit members more energetically. They frequently hired union activists from the engineering industry to be full-time officials, judging that their experience would make them effective agents to propagate the culture and habits of union solidarity and collective bargaining in hospitals and depots. Large professional associations in teaching and local government affiliated to the TUC, e.g. NALGO in 1964 and the National Union of Teachers (NUT) in 1970. Previously, their members had considered themselves to be not only superior to manual workers in status, but also in their bargaining position. Now, their union executives and officials sought to revise these pre-conceptions and persuaded their members that lining up alongside manual unions did not diminish their professional prestige (The British Medical Association and the Royal College of Nursing felt strong enough to remain ostentatiously separate). A contributory factor in persuading the leadership of professional associations there were real material advantages to be gained from TUC affiliation was the evolution of a formal, close relationship between it and the Government. Since their membership was overwhelmingly concentrated in the public sector, these leaders judged that they would significantly increase their influence by operating inside the TUC.
Law in the Workplace
This period is indeed remarkable for the extent to which successive governments became involved in legislating and regulating terms and conditions of employment. In 1963, under the Conservative government of Harold Macmillan, the Contracts of Employment Act was passed, requiring employers to give workers a minimum period of notice when terminating their contracts and to give written particulars of any verbal contract when a written contract was not provided. One of the first pieces of legislation enacted by Harold Wilson's 1964-70 Labour government was the Redundancy Payments Act 1965, requiring employers to consult unions at the workplace in advance of decisions to terminate workers' contracts on account of redundancy. Employees were also given a statutory right to both notice of redundancy and substantial financial compensation.
The Labour government also fulfilled the long-standing ambition of the trade union movement by enacting the Equal Pay Act 1970, requiring employers to pay women the same wage as men for the same work. Though more narrowly drawn than many trade unionists had lobbied for, the Act nevertheless established an important principle, which was supplemented and broadened through collective bargaining and strike action in which women proved notably determined and were well supported by their male colleagues and union officials, e.g. the strikes of women sewing machinists at Ford's Dagenham and of workers at Trico's windscreen wiper factory in West London. This Act, together with the Race Relations Act 1968 and the Sex Discrimination Act 1975, provided the foundation of positive rights for women (and men) workers of all ethnic origins to be treated equally at work, both by employers and their fellow workers.
An additional factor drawing government and trade unions closer was the changing leadership in both. In 1960, the TUC's new general secretary, George Woodcock, was notably more inclined to enter into a public, formal relationship with government than his immediate predecessor, Vincent Tewson. In 1962, Woodcock persuaded the more conservative members of the TUC General Council to take part in the National Economic Development Council (NEDC), a body designed to discuss matters of national economic policy with representatives of interested organisations including the TUC, CBI, nationalised industries, the Bank of England, etc. It was very much Macmillan's initiative, in which he persisted, despite scepticism from the Ministry of Labour, where the established convention was that union leaders preferred to get on with their own jobs free from government hindrance. The General Council firmly declined, however, to co-operate with Macmillan's other initiative, the National Incomes Commission (NIC), despite a strong government campaign to persuade the voting public and trade union movement that their plans to establish a voluntary incomes policy were in good faith, i.e. not a ruse to increase employers' profits and shareholders' dividends at the expense of working people's standard of living. Despite the clear indications that British industry was unable to compete in the world market, the General Council was unwilling to contemplate making what would have been seen as a significant political concession, agreeing publicly with a Conservative government that both employers and unions had good reason to co-operate to maintain Britain's position as a significant exporter of manufactured commodities. The Labour Party leadership encouraged the General Council's perfunctory refusal to be drawn into the NIC. It was Harold Wilson's view (and Hugh Gaitskell's before him) that the TUC should be encouraged in their negative attitude. They considered it an important electoral advantage to claim that incomes policies could only be successfully implemented by a Labour government.
Nevertheless, Labour's grand offensive to launch a prices and incomes policy in 1964 with the establishment of the National Board for Prices and Incomes (1965-1971) proved to be as damp a squib as Macmillan's. Further initiatives to launch a workable incomes policy were undertaken by the succeeding three governments, the Conservative Heath government of 1970-4, the minority Wilson administration of February-October 1974, followed by the Labour government of 1974-9 led briefly by Wilson and then by James Callaghan. They all failed, foundering on similar factors to those which had determined the failure of Macmillan's and Brown's bold plans.
Professor Nina Fishman, Senior Lecturer, History, University of Westminster, School of Social Sciences, Humanities and Languages
(1) J.McIlroy, N.Fishman, A. Campbell, (eds), 'British Trade Unions and Industrial Politics', 1999, vol. 1, p.103, and A. Campbell, N. Fishman and J. McIlroy (eds.), 'British Trade Unions and Industrial Politics', 1999, vol. 2, p.120
(2) Chris Wrigley, 'Women in the Labour Market and in the Unions', Campbell et al, vol. 2, p.66
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Deep in southwest Mongolia, in the arid shadow of the Altai Nuruu Mountains, a little-known bear ekes out a perilous existence. The Gobi Desert has a host of endangered wildlife, but today the Gobi bear -- a subspecies of the Brown bear known to scientists as Ursus arctos gobiensis -- is one of the most threatened animals in the world. Scientists estimate only 22 to 30 of the bears are left, all in the wild where they face shrinking water supplies thanks to global warming.
Slightly smaller than the Brown bear, the Gobi bear -- or Mazaalai, as they are called in Mongolian -- are the only bears adapted to a desert climate, says Harry Reynolds, an American bear expert who started the joint Mongolian-American Gobi Bear Project research program in 2005. "Gobi bears are special because they can live in an environment no other bear can. Brown bears from almost any other place could not live here and survive," says Reynolds, a retired wildlife biologist and former president of the International Association for Bear Research and Management.
Unlike other Brown bears, Gobi bears are chiefly vegetarian, relying on a diet of wild rhubarb roots, berries, wild onion and other desert flora. Though similar in size, the scant food supply usually means they weigh much less. Otherwise, due to their reclusive nature, small numbers, and the sheer immensity of their inhospitable home terrain, very little is known about the Mazaalai.
"No foreigner had ever heard about the Gobi bear until the 1920s, when the first Russian expedition from the State Geographical Society of the Soviet Union went in search of the bear," recounts Luvsamjamba Amgalan, a scientist at the Institute of Biology of the Mongolian Academy of Sciences. That expedition turned up empty-handed, “except for oral accounts from locals.”
In 1943, a Mongolian-Russian team confirmed their first sightings. By 1953, local scientists had carried out a few studies and successfully lobbied a hunting ban. Boosting biodiversity in the region, Ulaanbaatar declared a 52,000 square kilometers national park in 1975 -- which it remains today as the Great Gobi Strictly Protected Area (GGSPA). Even so, many species living in the Gobi, Asia's largest desert, are tottering on the brink of extinction.
"Annual precipitation is only about 50 millimeters. Shrinking water sources because of climate change have a huge influence and cause shortages of food and nutrition for wild animals," says GGSPA Director Batmunkh Mijiddorj.
Scientists disagree whether humans or climate change have caused the bear to retreat further into the desert in recent years. Sightings are now limited to a few scattered mountain ranges near the Chinese border. But evidence suggests water supplies are quickly vanishing.
"One of the indications there could have been more water in the past is the presence of trees along drainages and near some of the springs. Some of those places have no young trees,” says Reynolds, who believes disappearing water is the biggest threat facing animals in the Gobi.
Budget constraints and extreme conditions in the Gobi are the chief challenges to research and efforts to establish a concrete conservation plan. But a supplementary government feeding program, launched in the 1980s, has been critical: The bears are highly dependent on the food troughs when they come out of hibernation in spring, before their natural food has grown, say researchers and park rangers monitoring the bear habitats. Feeding points now serve researchers who collect data with remote cameras and fur traps.
"The least we can do at this point is to provide better quality forage for the bears so they can retain their fat for breeding, and to rehabilitate the springs and make them better available to the animals," says Reynolds, who opposes attempts to breed the animals in captivity, a desperate measure promoted by officials from the National Commission for Conservation of Endangered Species.
"The first rule is to do no harm. The bears are in such a balance right now that one little thing could tip them over to extinction and removing a viable breeding population from the wild could be it," he argues.
Given the odds and the rare sightings, scientists have been skeptical about the bear's chances for survival. In 1998, one researcher predicted the Mazaalai would be extinct by 2010. But enthusiasts are keen to defy the skeptics.
"We're better off living with hope than no hope. The Gobi bears have shown themselves very resilient in adapting to a harsh environment and if they continue to do so with just a little bit of help -- that's what we're after," says Reynolds.
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UNMC obesity expert develops school design guidelines to promote healthy eatingRecommendations could become part of national strategy to reduce childhood obesity
Recommendations could become part of national strategy to reduce childhood obesity
Since kids spend much of their day at school, obesity experts think school design can impact student health.
A University of Nebraska Medical Center obesity expert is the main author of a report – Healthy Eating Design Guidelines for School Architecture (HEDG) – which was released today in the journal Preventing Chronic Disease published by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
Merging architecture with public health, it details how cafeterias, water fountains, gardens and signage play a key role in establishing a healthy environment.
“We know there is a direct link between student performance and student health. What we want to do is develop evidence-based principles of school design that optimize healthy eating and health practices,” said Terry Huang, Ph.D., chairman and professor of health promotion, social and behavioral health in the UNMC College of Public Health.
The guidelines were incorporated into the Buckingham County Primary and Elementary School in a rural, ethnically diverse school in central Virginia. The school district embraced the goal of creating an optimized ‘healthy eating’ learning environment in addition to the goal of creating an energy-efficient building.
Some of the design principles incorporated include:
- A food lab where kids can learn how to prepare healthy foods;
- A cafeteria which facilitates fresh food production;
- A school garden for kids to grow food for the school cafeteria and burn a few calories;
- A lower-stress environment to address light, noise levels, air quality and crowding; and
- Layouts that encourage more movement and the use of attractive water fountains.
“Our goal is to provide fresh, healthy food choices and support school spaces which promote healthy nutrition and health habits,” said Dr. Huang.
Researchers add that even simple changes like providing healthy grab-and-go meal options, avoiding deep-fat fryers and a library of health information and nutrition are improvements that schools can use to promote optimal health.
Dr. Huang and his collaborators hope these guidelines will become part of a national strategy to prevent and reduce childhood obesity.
In 2012, Dr. Huang along with Matthew Trowbridge, M.D., M.P.H., at the University of Virginia and VMDO Architects received the Design Research and Scholarship at the Virginia Society of the American Institutes of Architects annual meeting in Richmond. The group also was recognized as one of the winners in the Childhood Obesity Challenge from the American Journal of Preventive Medicine/Robert Wood Johnson Foundation.
Through world-class research and patient care, UNMC generates breakthroughs that make life better for people throughout Nebraska and beyond. Its education programs train more health professionals than any other institution in the state. Learn more at unmc.edu.
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The history of social, economic and environmental development presented in Chapter 1 demonstrates that African countries have risen to the challenge of environmental degradation. They have developed a collective will to address environmental and related issues, and have created institutions to translate that will into concrete results. Some milestones in this process are recapitulated below.
In addition to the regional and sub-regional initiatives mentioned above, there have also been country level efforts, a summary of which is presented in Annex 1. In their efforts to address environmental degradation, African countries have focused on a range of policy responses. These are examined individually below. Some failures and weaknesses in their implementation are analysed in Annex 2.
Governments use policies to influence the structure and operation of economies, with the aim of attaining goals and targets for development and economic growth. To do this, they use economic, financial, legal and institutional instruments to encourage or to discourage particular types of economic activities at macroeconomic or sectoral levels (Mogaka and others 2001). For example, macroeconomic policies are used throughout Eastern and Southern Africa to manipulate exchange rates, money supply and interest rates in order to achieve economic growth, to stimulate employment and investment, and to generate foreign exchange. Agricultural policies in the sub-regions, on the other hand, have long made use of combinations of subsidies, taxes and credit arrangements to promote the goals of food security, increased export earnings and rural income generation (Mogaka and others 2001).
African states have endorsed poverty reduction as a priority goal, the foundation of which is sound macroeconomic policies and strategies, ensuring both sustainable broad-based economic growth and macroeconomic stability. They have also become more outward-looking and have put in place trade liberalization policies, structural reforms in agriculture, and monetary policies that aim at maintaining low inflation, a stable exchange rate, lower interest rates and fully convertible currencies. Collectively, these responses are aimed at making Africa a part of the global village. The perceived benefit of greater globalization is the reduction of poverty in Africa.
Food insecurity is a measure of poverty. Table 5.2 shows that many countries have improved their daily per capita calorie intake, although some sub-Saharan countries have done the opposite. The situation is similar for per capita protein and fat supply, further strengthening the argument for greater attention to poverty reduction.
|Table 5.2 Food security and nutrition|
|Source: UNDP (2000)|
|Box 5.3: Macroeconomic policy impacts on the forest sector in Tanzania-the case of structural adjustment and the agricultural sector|
|Source: Shechambo, 1999|
Industrial sector activity is often accompanied by risks to the environment.
Some macroeconomic policies have had negative effects,
exacerbating poverty instead of reducing it. For example, during the 1980s,
most of the countries of Eastern and Southern Africa faced economic stagnation,
declining growth, and increasing public sector and trade deficits. These worsening
economic conditions, and the economic stabilization and structural adjustment
measures introduced in the 1990s to overcome them, resulted in considerable
contraction of the economy, a decline in rural living standards, and a fall
in income and employment (Mogaka and others 2001). As is often the case, increased
poverty made people more reliant on natural resources to meet their daily needs
or to generate income, and this increased pressure led to overexploitation of
resources. In other words, macroeconomic policies exacerbated poverty in the
two sub-regions and contributed to further environmental degradation. This was
certainly the case in Tanzania, where structural adjustments had a negative
impact on the forest sector (see Box 5.3).
In addition to macroeconomic policies, African states have introduced sectoral policies aimed at stimulating output, employment and income and, hence, poverty reduction. However, using economic instruments to stimulate sectors can be accompanied by risks to the environment. There are incidences of this in Africa, including promotion of the energy sector and urban development, with a risk of overexploitation of forest resources; promotion of the agriculture, mining and infrastructure sectors, leading to woodland and forest clearance; and promotion of industrial and manufacturing sectors, which generate wastes and pollutants that undermine environmental quality. Table 5.3 illustrates sectoral economic policy incentives and disincentives for sustainable forest utilization and management in Zambia.
Economic instruments in support of agricultural policy goals are, arguably, those that have had the most detrimental effect on the environment. Agriculture has long been promoted as a key sector for development and growth in Africa, and for pursuit of national goals of food security, rural income generation and export earnings. The range of economic instruments used in support of the sector is well-documented, and has mostly involved manipulating of fiscal, financial, price and market mechanisms. Examples are: imposition of relatively lower tax rates on agricultural land uses (Barnes and de Jager 1995); subsidies to inputs; government intervention in marketing; preferential credit arrangements; relief on taxes and duties; and high spending on research, extension, development and marketing (Mogaka and others 2001). Use of such mechanisms has led to an artificial inflation of the profitability of agriculture and has often encouraged the spread of farming activities at the expense of the environment (Mogaka and others 2001).
|Table 5.3 Sectoral economic policy incentives and disincentives for sustainable forest utilization and management in Zambia|
|Source: PFAP (1998)|
Use of such mechanisms- subsidies to inputs, perferential credit arrangements, etc.- has led to an artificial inflation of the profitability of agriculture and has often encouraged the spread of farming activities at the expense of the environment.
Therefore, when African states introduce macroeconomic and sectoral policies aimed at reducing poverty, they must take care to ensure that none of the planned improvements in economic growth are at the expense of the environment. This is particularly relevant as African governments embark on the modernization of agriculture as a means of reducing poverty and for overall modernization of their economies.
Apart from macroeconomic and sectoral economic policies, social policies can also have significant consequences for environmental management. For example, the underlying cause of much of Africa's widespread poverty is the high rate of population growth, and it is poverty that forces people to overexploit their natural resources and thus degrade their environment. Social policies that tackle the underlying cause of poverty therefore indirectly support environmental improvement. Family planning and other population growth control strategies have been introduced in some African countries and are beginning to yield positive results (UNDP 2000). Better education can also provide a way out of the poverty trap, and there are efforts in African countries to ensure 'free education' for the young to attain the goal of universal literacy.
In some countries, the health policies introduced have emphasized preventive rather than curative strategies. Figure 5.1 and Figure 5.2 show the impacts of policy responses that improve accessibility to safe water and sanitation services. In both cases, there is a direct inverse relationship between infant mortality and the increasing percentage of the population that has access to safe water and sanitation. Removing unhealthy environmental conditions can therefore contribute to reducing vulnerability to disease (see Chapter 3).
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The practice and study of medicine in Persia has a long and prolific history. The Iranian academic centers like Jundishapur University (3rd century AD) were a breeding ground for the union among great scientists from different civilizations. These centers successfully followed their predecessors’ theories and greatly extended their scientific research through history.
In recent years, some experimental studies have indeed evaluated medieval Iranian medical remedies using modern scientific methods. These studies raised the possibility of revival of traditional treatments on the basis of evidence-based medicine.
The medical history of ancient Persia can be divided into three distinct periods. The sixth book of Zend-Avesta contains some of the earliest records of history of ancient Iranian medicine. The Vendidad in fact devotes most of the last chapters to medicine.
The Vendidad, one of the surviving texts of the Zend-Avesta, distinguishes three kinds of medicine: medicine by the knife (surgery), medicine by herbs, and medicine by divine words; and the best medicine was, according to the Vendidad, healing by divine words:
Of all the healers O Spitama Zarathustra, namely those who heal with the knife, with herbs, and with sacred incantations, the last one is the most potent as he heals from the very source of diseases.—Ardibesht Yasht
The second epoch covers the era of what is known as Pahlavi literature, where the entire subject of medicine was systematically treated in an interesting tractate incorporated in the encyclopedic work of Dinkart, which listed in altered form some 4333 diseases.
The third era begins with the Achaemenid dynasty, and covers the period of Darius I of Persia, whose interest in medicine was said to be so great that he re-established the school of medicine in Sais, Egypt, which previously had been destroyed, restoring its books and equipment.
The first teaching hospital was the Academy of Gundishapur in the Persian Empire. Some experts go so far as to claim that, "to a very large extent, the credit for the whole hospital system must be given to Persia".
According to the Vendidad, physicians, to prove proficiency, had to cure three patients from the followers of Divyasnan; if they failed, they could not practice medicine. At first glance, this recommendation may appear discriminant and based on human experimentation. But some authors have construed this to mean that, from the beginning, physicians were taught to remove the mental barrier and to treat adversaries as well as friends. Interestingly, physician’s fee for service was based on the patient’s income.
The Iranian science was interrupted by the Arab invasion (630 A.D.). Many schools, universities, and libraries were destroyed, books burned, and scholars killed. Nevertheless, the science of Persia resurfaced during the Islamic period. To save the books from Arab carnage, many Pahlavi scripts were translated into the Arabic, and Iran produced physicians and scientists such as Abū ʿAlī al-Ḥusayn ibn ʿAbd Allāh ibn Sīnā and Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi as well as mathematicians such as Kharazmi and Omar Khayyám. They collected and systematically expanded the Greek, Indian, and Persian ancient medical heritage and made further discoveries.
One of the main roles played by medieval Iranian scholars in the scientific field was the conservation, consolidation, coordination and development of ideas and knowledge in ancient civilizations. Some Iranian Hakim (practitioners) such as Muhammad ibn Zakariya ar-Razi, known to the West as Rhazes, and Ibn Sina, better known as Avicenna, were not only responsible for accumulating all the existing information on medicine of the time, but adding to this knowledge by their own astute observations, experimentation and skills. "Qanoon fel teb of Avicenna" ("The Canon") and "Kitab al-hawi of Razi" ("Continens") were among the central texts in Western medical education from the 13th to the 18th centuries.
In the 14th century, the Persian language medical work Tashrih al-badan (Anatomy of the body), by Mansur ibn Ilyas (c. 1390), contained comprehensive diagrams of the body's structural, nervous and circulatory systems.
Evidence of surgery dates to the 3rd century BC, when the first cranial surgery was performed in the Shahr-e-Sukhteh (Burnt City) in south-eastern Iran. The archaeological studies on the skull of a 13-year-old girl suffering from hydrocephaly indicated that she had undergone cranial surgery to take a part of her skull bone and the girl lived for at least about 6 months after the surgery.
Several documents still exist from which the definitions and treatments of the headache in medieval Persia can be ascertained. These documents give detailed and precise clinical information on the different types of headaches. The medieval physicians listed various signs and symptoms, apparent causes, and hygienic and dietary rules for prevention of headaches. The medieval writings are both accurate and vivid, and they provide long lists of substances used in the treatment of headaches. Many of the approaches of physicians in medieval Persia are accepted today; however, still more of them could be of use to modern medicine.
An antiepileptic drug-therapy plan in medieval Iranian medicine is individualized, given different single and combined drug-therapy with a dosing schedule for each of those. Physicians stress the importance of dose, and route of administration and define a schedule for drug administration. Recent animal experiments confirm the anticonvulsant potency of some of the compounds which are recommended by Medieval Iranian practitioners in epilepsy treatment.
In The Canon of Medicine (c. 1025), Avicenna described numerous mental conditions, including hallucination, insomnia, mania, nightmare, melancholia, dementia, epilepsy, paralysis, stroke, vertigo and tremor.
In the 10th century work of Shahnama, Ferdowsi describes a Caesarean section performed on Rudaba, during which a special wine agent was prepared by a Zoroastrian priest and used as an anesthetic to produce unconsciousness for the operation. Although largely mythical in content, the passage illustrates working knowledge of anesthesia in ancient Persia.
Here you can share your comments or contribute with more information, content, resources or links about this topic.
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Strategically placed shade trees—a minimum of three large trees around your home—can reduce air conditioning costs up to 30 percent. Plant deciduous trees, which shed their leaves during the winter, on the south and west sides of buildings. These trees provide shade and block heat during hotter months. By dropping their leaves in the fall they admit sunlight in the colder months.
- Shade all hard surfaces such as driveways, patios and sidewalks to minimize landscape heat load.
Plant evergreen trees, which retain their leaves/needles yearlong, in a planned pattern. They will serve as windbreaks to save from 10 to 50 percent in energy used for heating. Evergreens offer the best benefits when you:
- Usually place them on the north side of your home to intercept and slow winter winds.
- Do not plant them on the south or west side of your home, because they will block warming sunlight during the winter. These trees also provide some shading benefits during summer.
Get professional assistance to assure correct selection of species and their placement to maximize energy savings.
With contributions courtesy of the USDA Forest Service
Program at a Glance
Program Title: How to Maximize Energy Savings with Trees
Providing Agency: District Department of Transportation
Office: Urban Forestry Administration (UFA)
Type: Outreach and Education
To help residents use trees to save energy and money.
No Related Partners
DDOT Tree Programs
No Related Projects
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No Related News
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Bodies of Palestinians killed in Sabra refugee camp in September 1982
With Egypt a treaty partner and Syria and Jordan quiet, Israel turned its attention to the Palestinian guerrillas. Many of them had grouped in Lebanon after being expelled from Jordan by King Hussein, and began attacking Israel from there.
The Palestinians, led by Yasser Arafat and his Palestine Liberation Organisation, would not recognise Israel and Israel would not support a Palestinian state.
In 1982, Prime Minister Begin launched "Operation Peace for Galilee", which was an invasion of Lebanon, taking the Israelis right up to and into Beirut.
Yasser Arafat and his fighters were forced to depart for Tunisia. But the operation went wrong for Israel. It was condemned by world - and much of its own - opinion when Christian fighters massacred hundreds of Palestinian civilians as the Israeli army stood by, and it failed to make a political agreement with the Christians stick. It pulled back to an enclave north of their border.
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A British company, Checkmate Seaenergy Ltd, has demonstrated a new wave energy device known as "Anaconda"..
Its inventors claim the key to its success lies in its simplicity: Anaconda is little more than a length of rubber tubing filled with water. Waves in the water create bulges which travel along the tubing gathering energy. In effect, the bulge surfs the front of the wave. At the end of the tube, the surge of energy drives a turbine that generates electricity.
The company has been testing a small-scale, 8 metre long prototype in a wave tank in Gosport, Hampshire, and is now looking to raise funds from investors to build a larger version to test at sea.
The co-inventor of the device, Professor Rod Rainey, said: "The beauty of wave energy is its consistency. However, the problem holding back wave energy machines is that devices tend to deteriorate over time in the harsh marine environment. Anaconda is non-mechanical. It is mainly rubber, a natural material with a natural resilience, and so has very few moving parts to maintain."
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Operating Nuclear Power Reactors (by Location or Name)
A power reactor is a facility that makes electricity by the continuous splitting of uranium atoms (i.e., a nuclear reaction). This facility is often referred to as a nuclear power plant. To find information about a particular operating nuclear power reactor that NRC regulates, select that reactor from the map below, or from the Alphabetical List of Operating Nuclear Power Reactors by Name.
|Licensed to Operate (104)|
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Mark Witton / U. of Portsmouth via JHU
|Giant pterosaurs were about the
size of a modern-day giraffe.
How did a giant flying reptile get off the ground? It's not a simple question: A computerized analysis of pterosaur fossils and modern-day bird bones shows that the biggest pterosaurs couldn't simply lift off into the air like a bird, because their hind legs were too weak.
The researcher behind the analysis says the forelimbs were much stronger - so much stronger, in fact, that the creatures must have used their "arms" as well as their legs to propel their leap into flight. But will that claim fly with other experts? That remains to be seen.
Pterosaurs died off 65 million years ago in the same cataclysm that killed off the dinosaurs on land and plesiosaurs at sea. So how can anyone possibly know how they took off? Michael Habib, a researcher at the medical school's Center for Functional Anatomy and Evolution, came up with a computerized model for pterosaur flight dynamics by comparing data about bone strength for three pterosaur species (Dorygnathus, Zhejiangopterus and Anhanguera ... small, medium and large) with readings from 155 bird limb specimens.
Birds are built to leap into the air using their legs, and then flap their wings for takeoff. But Habib found that pterosaurs were built differently.
"The difference between pterosaurs and birds with regard to critical mechanical properties is very, very large, especially when you're talking about the big pterosaurs," he said in the news release. "As the size gets bigger, the difference gets bigger, too."
The model indicated that Anhanguera couldn't possibly launch itself using its hind legs alone. That led Habib to suspect that the biggest pterosaurs folded their wings and balanced on their "knuckles" to walk as well as to push themselves off for flight. He envisioned the takeoff procedure as a leap-frogging long jump. "Then, with wings snapping out, off they'd fly."
"Using all four legs, it takes less than a second to get off of flat ground, no wind, no cliffs," he said. "This was a good thing to be able to do if you lived in the late Cretaceous period and there were hungry tyrannosaurs wandering around."
Unraveling the mysteries of pterosaur flight isn't merely an academic exercise: Texas Tech paleontologist Sankar Chatterjee has been working with aerodynamics experts to incorporate the critters' flying techniques into next-generation aircraft. So he was interested to hear about the newly published research.
"There are lots of pterosaur footprints which suggest that they walked around on four legs," Chatterjee told me. But when it came to flying, Chatterjee said giant pterosaur wings were so long that he doubted they could be unfurled fast enough after a four-footed takeoff.
"The earlier it can clear off from the ground, the better," he said. For that reason, he favors the idea that the biggest pterosaurs became airborne the way hang gliders do: by jumping off a cliff or running down an incline ... on two legs.
Habib insists that his hypothesis is more flightworthy. Detailed studies of bird takeoffs have shown that most of the power comes not from the flapping wings, but from the initial leap. "Even in the most extreme cases, they'll leap first, and then fly second," he told me.
No one can prove how pterosaurs took off, Habib said, but his findings indicate that the pterosaurs should have been able to get their wings unfolded and flapping quickly enough to keep them in the air. "I can definitively demonstrate that it's plausible that they can flap," he said.
Mark Witton, a paleontologist at the University of Portsmouth who recently identified a whole new genus of giant pterosaurs, said he sided with Habib. Here's what he told me today in an e-mail:
"The idea that pterosaurs were weather- or topography-dependent for takeoff and that they weren't strong flapping fliers - being essentially giant gliders - just doesn't make any sense. For one thing, the biggest pterosaurs, like the 500-pound critters Mike's been playing with, are often found miles and miles and miles from the nearest cliff: They occur in sediments deposited on floodplains and rivers well inland. These places also have extremely variable topography, so you can't guarantee the presence of a convenient downward slope, either.
"No, I'm in firm agreement with Mike: Being quadrupeds, pterosaurs have the capability for forelimb-assisted launch and, seeing as their most powerful muscles were associated with the forelimb, it makes sense that they would use them for takeoff if they could. In fact, Mike's research was a big relief to me: My own research was pointing to the very controversial conclusion that some of the biggest pterosaurs were massing in the 250-kilogram / 500-pound ballpark, so when he told me that he'd found a way to get such a critter into the air I was very happy.
"These animals need to be this heavy: When you're the size of a giraffe, it's just impossible that you could weigh as much as an undersize man and still function as an organism. There's simply not enough mass to allocate to the bone, muscle and other tissues. Mike's approach of thinking outside the box is absolutely correct: While it's useful to have birds and bats as modern pterosaur analogues, it's important to remember that pterosaurs are not either of these. Some aspects of their flight will be totally unique - possibly including their takeoff strategies."
You may be asking why anyone should care how pterosaurs took off. That's exactly what I asked Witton, and here's his response:
"As for its influence on the bigger pterosaur picture, this launch strategy may at least partially explain why pterosaurs managed to get so stupidly big while birds have remained comparatively small: Birds can only use their comparatively weak hindlimbs for launching, which may cap their overall size. There are other influences on the size of an animal, of course, but you can obviously only grow as large as your locomotory apparatus will allow. I guess it probably didn't have much influence on their extinction: Unique and sexy though quadrupedal launching may be, it obviously wasn't sexy enough to get pterosaurs across the Cretaceous boundary. Pterosaur extinction was therefore clearly influenced by other factors - but that's probably a whole other story (and one we don't know much about, really)."
We do know some things, however: For example, despite what you may have seen in the movies, pterosaurs probably weren't built to pluck their prey from the water as they flew. For more ptales about the pterosaurs, just click here.
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Fish and Wildlife Service 2000-1113
FOR IMMEDIATE RELEASE
Contact: George Lisles
Wild Atlantic salmon in Maine rivers are at an all-time low and face a number of threats that could drive them to extinction. As a result, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and the National Marine Fisheries Service today announced they are listing the species as endangered under the Endangered Species Act.
The listing covers the wild population of Atlantic salmon found in rivers and streams in Maine from the lower Kennebec River north to the U.S.-Canada border. These include the Dennys, East Machias, Machias, Pleasant, Narraguagus, Ducktrap, and Sheepscot rivers and Cove Brook.
Although significant progress has been made under the state of Maine's conservation plan, disease and other threats remain, and the Act's protection is critical to ensure the survival of these salmon, said Jamie Rappaport Clark, director of the Fish and Wildlife Service, and Penny Dalton, administrator of the National Marine Fisheries Service.
"Less than 10 percent of the fish needed for the long-term survival of wild Atlantic salmon are returning to Maine rivers," Clark said. "Without the protection and recovery programs afforded by the Endangered Species Act, chances are this population will die out completely."
Federal biologists have found that small numbers of adult salmon are returning to spawn, and young salmon in Gulf of Maine rivers are surviving at a lower rate than expected. Spawning stocks of Atlantic salmon remain low throughout much of their northern Atlantic range and are not expected to improve rapidly.
"The Services have a responsibility to extend Endangered Species Act protection to Maine's wild salmon," Dalton said. "The State of Maine Conservation Plan provides a foundation for the recovery effort, and, together with the act's protection, will assist recovery of this Atlantic salmon population."
The State of Maine Atlantic Salmon Commission halted salmon fishing nearly a year ago in response to the low number of adult fish returning to Maine rivers.
"Today's decision to protect the Gulf of Maine Atlantic salmon as an endangered species acknowledges the seriousness of the salmon's status and our concern for its future," added Dalton.
Three fish diseases threaten recovery efforts.
Biologists have discovered the salmon swimbladder sarcoma virus
in Atlantic salmon raised at North Attleboro National Fish Hatchery
in Massachusetts. Biologists were forced to destroy some of the
broodstock to stop the potential spread of the disease. Additionally,
infectious salmon anemia, though not yet detected in U.S. waters,
could spread to the Maine population from nearby Canadian waters.
Finally, coldwater disease, a bacterial disease, has recently
been found to be a potentially serious problem for
Interbreeding with and competition from escaped farm-raised salmon from Maine's aquaculture industry also threaten the wild salmon population in the Gulf of Maine. The industry has expanded its use of European salmon strains. In addition to the continuing escape of sub-adult salmon from sea pens near the mouths of wild salmon rivers, there is evidence that farm-raised juvenile salmon have escaped from private hatcheries located on rivers supporting the wild salmon population.
The Services proposed to list the Atlantic
salmon as endangered in November 1999, after a biological study,
the "Status Review for Anadromous Atlantic Salmon in the
United States," concluded that Atlantic salmon in several
Gulf of Maine rivers the last known
Protection under the act means it is now a federal violation to take salmon in the eight rivers. "Take" means to harass, harm, pursue, trap, capture and collect. While the Services expect the listing to have an overall minimal impact on most Maine residents, they will continue to work closely with those affected by this decision.
The wild population of Atlantic salmon found in the eight rivers in Maine are referred to as the Gulf of Maine "distinct population segment." The act permits listing of a population segment if it is discrete and significant, and found to be endangered or threatened.
The act directs federal agencies to protect and promote the recovery of listed species. Proposed federal projects and actions, including activities on non-federal lands that involve federal funding or permitting, require review by the services to ensure they will not jeopardize the survival and recovery of listed species. Once a species is listed, all protective measures authorized by the act apply to the species.
The services will develop a recovery plan to rebuild the wild Atlantic salmon population so the species no longer needs Endangered Species Act protection. The recovery plan will address threats such as disease, competition from or interbreeding with aquaculture escapees (especially non-North American farmed fish), predation, and modification to salmon habitat.
"We expect the recovery plan to grow out of the existing State of Maine Conservation Plan," Clark said. "It will be developed in partnership with state officials, Native American tribal officials, watershed councils, conservation organizations, Maine industries, and others in Maine who have an interest in the fish and the rivers. While the recovery plan is being developed, we will continue to work with state, tribal and local experts on a variety of salmon recovery strategies."
Additional information is available on the Internet at this site: http://www.nero.nmfs.gov/atsalmon/
The final decision to protect the DPS of Atlantic salmon, including public comments and responses, will be published in the "Federal Register," available at http://www.access.gpo.gov/su_docs/access/access140.html or by writing to one of the addresses below. It takes effect 30 days from the date of publication.
Chief, Division of Endangered Species
Endangered Species Program Coordinator
The National Marine Fisheries Service is the principal steward of the nation's living marine resources, protecting marine and anadromous species under the Endangered Species Act and the Marine Mammals Protection Act. NOAA Fisheries develops and implements conservation and recovery plans and works to prevent species from becoming threatened or endangered. NOAA Fisheries also regulates the nation's commercial and recreational fisheries and manages species under the Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act throughout federal waters that extend 200 miles from the U.S. coastline. Using the tools provided by the Magnuson-Stevens Act, NOAA Fisheries assesses and predicts the status of fish stocks, ensures compliance with fisheries regulations, and works to reduce wasteful fishing practices. NOAA Fisheries is an agency of the Commerce Department's National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. NOAA warns of dangerous weather, charts our seas and skies, guides our use and protection of ocean and coastal resources, and conducts research to improve our understanding and stewardship of the environment which sustains us.
The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service is the
principal federal agency responsible for conserving, protecting
and enhancing fish, wildlife and plants and their habitats for
the continuing benefit of the American people. The service manages
the 93-million-acre National
Wildlife Refuge System which encompasses more than 530 national
wildlife refuges, thousands of small wetlands and other special
management areas. It also operates 66 national fish hatcheries,
64 fishery resource offices and 78 ecological services field
stations. The agency enforces federal wildlife laws, administers
the Endangered Species Act, manages migratory bird populations,
restores nationally significant fisheries, conserves and restores
wildlife habitat such as wetlands, and helps foreign governments
with their conservation efforts. It also oversees the federal
aid program that distributes hundreds of millions of dollars
in excise taxes on fishing and hunting equipment to state fish
and wildlife agencies.
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This week’s Newberry Notes is promoting tobacco education, prevention and cessation. Tobacco use remains the leading preventable cause of disease in South Carolina and the United States. It is the leading risk factor for the three leading causes of death, cancer, heart disease and stroke.
Sharon Biggers, director, Division of Tobacco Prevention and Control, South Carolina Department of Health and Environmental Control will join me to discuss the statistics, highlights from 2012 U.S. Surgeon General’s Report, and promotion of cessation.
Biggers reports that there are five overall conclusions from the Surgeon General’s 2012 report:
• Every day, more than 1,200 people in this country die due to smoking. For each of those deaths, at least two youth or young adults become regular smokers each day. Almost 90 percent of those replacement smokers smoke their first cigarette by age 18.
• Rates of smokeless tobacco use are no longer declining, and they appear to be increasing among some groups. Among S.C. high school boys, 22 percent use smokeless tobacco.
• Cigars, especially the cigarette-sized known as “little cigars”, are popular with youth. One out of five high school males smokes cigars, and cigar use appears to be increasing among other groups.
• Use of multiple tobacco products—including cigarettes, cigars, and smokeless tobacco—is common among young people.
• Prevention efforts must focus on young adults ages 18-25. Almost no one starts smoking after 25. Nearly 9 out of 10 smokers started smoking by age 18.
Tobacco use by youth and young adults causes both immediate and long-term damage. One of the most serious health effects is nicotine addiction, which prolongs use and can lead to severe health consequences. Among youth who persist in smoking, one third will die prematurely from smoking.
South Carolinians have access to a range of tobacco treatment services through the S.C. Tobacco Quitline, the only statewide evidence-based telephone cessation program. DHEC has taken a lead role in assuring that trained facilitators are provided in local communities for the state’s Quitline best practices, CESSATION.
There were 7,254 tobacco users served by the S.C. Tobacco Quitline in 2010-11. Services are available 8 a.m. to 3 p.m., seven days a week for all inbound callers. After the initial call, participants work with their quit coaches to schedule subsequent sessions as needed. The quit coach will then call the participant at agreed-upon times and dates. Participants are free to call between scheduled sessions if they need extra support. Call for information at 1-800-784-8669.
Smoking kills more people than alcohol, AIDS, car crashes, illegal drugs, murders, and suicides combined—thousands more die from other tobacco-related causes—such as fires caused by smoking (more than 1,000 deaths/year nationwide).
Deaths in South Carolina from smoking (updated June 18, 2012)
High school students: 48,500
Kids exposed to second-hand smoke at home: 240,000
Packs bought by kids each year: 12.2 million
Kids under 18 who become daily smokers each year: 5,900
Adults in SC who smoke: 744,400
Tobacco companies spend more than a million dollars an hour in this country alone to market their products. Through the use of advertising and promotional activities, packaging, and product design encourages the myth that smoking makes you thin, especially for young girls.
The annual tobacco industry marketing expenditures nationwide: $10.5 billion. The estimated portion spent for South Carolina marketing each year: $23.9 million.
Smoking has caused monetary costs in South Carolina
Annual health costs directly caused by smoking: $1.09 billion. Portion covered by Medicare program: $393 million. Residents’ state and federal tax burden from smoking-caused government expenditures: $555 per household. Smoking-caused productivity losses: $1.94 billion.
Comprehensive, sustained, multi-component programs can cut youth tobacco use in half in six years. South Carolina DHEC sponsors Raze Against Haze for 13 – 17 year olds who want to make a difference in their communities. It empowers teens with confidence and knowledge so they might become influences of their generation, spreading the tobacco message from peer to peer through South Carolina. Thirty five schools have adopted model tobacco free policies.
The best practices against secondhand smoke is the Smoke-Free Workplace Ordinance in S.C. communities. 49 cities, towns and counties in South Carolina have adopted smoke-free Workplace Ordinance protecting 38 percent of the state’s population from secondhand smoke exposure.
Successful multi-component programs prevent young people from starting to use tobacco in the first place and more than pay for themselves in lives and health care dollars saved. Strategies that comprise successful comprehensive tobacco control programs include mass media campaigns, higher tobacco prices, smoke-free laws and policies, evidence-based school programs and sustained community-wide efforts.
For further information, call Biggers at 803-545-4461.
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What happens when your communication network goes into oblivion. Yes oblivion. You’ll need to communicate somehow, right?
"Everything was knocked out," she says. "You had everybody with their devices, but they couldn’t use them. These devices are capable of communicating with other nearby devices, so they’re capable of conveying information across an entire ad hoc network. But there was no ad hoc network set up. There was no software to do that." The "killer app" that would persuade people to open up their phones to direct transmissions from their neighbors may not have emerged yet. But the enthusiasm greeting Apple’s announcement that future versions of the iPhone might be able to serve as wireless base stations suggests that the idea could have market potential. (Source)
High schools in the US and Australia can apply for the 2012-2013 pilot phase of the Big History Project here. Check out the application and good luck.
Everything has a history: each person, plant, animal and object, our planet, and the entire universe.
Each history offers valuable insights. Together, they reveal even more. Big history weaves evidence and insights from many scientific and historical disciplines into a single, accessible origin story - one that explores who we are, how we got here, how we are connected to everything around us, and where we may be heading.
The Big History Project is dedicated to fostering a greater love and capacity for learning among high school students. Started by Bill Gates and David Christian our goal is to get big history taught to as many students around the world as possible.
Richard Hamming, transcription of the Bell Communications Research Colloquium Seminar 7 March 1986:
Now self-delusion in humans is very, very common. There are enumerable ways of you changing a thing and kidding yourself and making it look some other way. When you ask, "Why didn’t you do such and such," the person has a thousand alibis. If you look at the history of science, usually these days there are 10 people right there ready, and we pay off for the person who is there first. The other nine fellows say, "Well, I had the idea but I didn’t do it and so on and so on." There are so many alibis. Why weren’t you first? Why didn’t you do it right? Don’t try an alibi. Don’t try and kid yourself. You can tell other people all the alibis you want. I don’t mind. But to yourself try to be honest.
If you really want to be a first-class scientist you need to know yourself, your weaknesses, your strengths, and your bad faults, like my egotism. How can you convert a fault to an asset? How can you convert a situation where you haven’t got enough manpower to move into a direction when that’s exactly what you need to do? I say again that I have seen, as I studied the history, the successful scientist changed the viewpoint and what was a defect became an asset.
I claim that some of the reasons why so many people who have greatness within their grasp don’t succeed are: they don’t work on important problems, they don’t become emotionally involved, they don’t try and change what is difficult to some other situation which is easily done but is still important, and they keep giving themselves alibis why they don’t. They keep saying that it is a matter of luck. I’ve told you how easy it is; furthermore I’ve told you how to reform. Therefore, go forth and become great scientists!
Longboard Skateboarding 101 and Mend Your Life: Pragmatic and Expressive Sweater Darning (Class Full) are some of the classes offered for this term, check out the schedule!
Stanford professor Robert Sapolsky gave the opening lecture of the course entitled Human Behavioral Biology and explains the basic premise of the course and how he aims to avoid categorical thinking.
When Gov. Rick Perry challenged the state’s public institutions of higher learning this week to develop bachelor’s degree programs costing no more than $10,000, including textbooks, Mike McKinney was stumped.
"My answer is I have no idea how," McKinney, chancellor of the Texas A&M University System, told the Senate Finance Committee. "I’m not going to say that it can’t be done."
Tuition, fees and books for four years average $31,696 at public universities in Texas, according to the Higher Education Coordinating Board. Sul Ross State University Rio Grande College is the cheapest, at $17,532. (Source)
Since the days of Darwin, the "tree of life" has been the preeminent metaphor for the process of evolution, reflecting the gradual branching and changing of individual species.
The discovery that a large cluster of genes appears to have jumped directly from one species of fungus to another, however, significantly strengthens the argument that a different metaphor, such as a mosaic, may be more appropriate.
"The fungi are telling us something important about evolution … something we didn't know," saidAAntonis Rokas, assistant professor of biological sciences at Vanderbilt. He and research associateAJason Slotreported their discovery in the Jan. 25 issue of the journalACurrent Biology.
What follows is based on actual occurrences. Although much has been changed for rhetorical purposes, it must be regarded in its essence as fact. However, it should in no way be associated with that great body of factual information relating to orthodox Zen Buddhist practice. It's not very factual on motorcycles, either.
And what is good, Phaedrus,
And what is not good…
Need we ask anyone to tell us these things?
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September 9, 2012 - Fires and smoke in central South America
Hundreds of fires burned throughout central South America, sending a blanket of smoke across the region. The Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) acquired this true-color image on September 6, 2012. The countries captured in this image are Bolivia (upper left), Brazil (upper right), Paraguay, and Argentina (lower left).
The fire season in South America is generally considered to be from July to October, and coincides with agricultural burning. Unfortunately, in hot, dry weather, agricultural fires can easily escape control, creating wildfires which can do considerable damage. In times of drought, which the region is currently experiencing, and in dry, hot weather, conditions become ripe for devastating fires.
On September 8, the Latin America Herald-Tribune reported that fires set to clear land for crops or pasture, but which got out of control, had burned more than 2 million hectares (5 million acres) in the Amazon region. They also reported that bureau of land and forest management statistics stated that the number of individual fires fell from more than 35,300 on September 1-2, to 34,700 on September 3, after a cold front arrived in Bolivia with rain and thunderstorms in Pando, Beni and Santa Cruz, the provinces most affected by the fires. Despite the respite of the rains, conditions remain favorable for ignition of new fires and the expansion of the current fires.
Smoke, too, is a danger in such conditions. In this image, plumes of smoke pour from many of the fires, and are blown to the south. As the smoke accumulates, the land is completely obscured from view. It appears some of the smoke may be mixing with a cloud bank in the southwest.
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Nepal is located in South Asia between China in the north and India in the south, east and west. While the total land area is 147,181 sq. km including water area of the country that is 3,830 sq. km. The geographical coordinates are 28°00′N 84°00′E. Nepal falls in the temperate zone north of the Tropic of Cancer.Nepal’s ecological zones run east to west about 800 km along its Himalayan axis, 150 to 250 km north to south, and is vertically intersected by the river systems. The country can be divided into three main geographical regions: Himalayan region, mid hill region and Terai region. The highest point in the country is Mt. Everest (8,848 m) while the lowest point is in the Terai plains of Kechana Kalan in Jhapa (60 m).
The Terai region, with width of ranging 26 to 32 km and altitude ranging from 60 -305 m, occupies about 17 percent of total land area of the country. Kechana Kalan, the lowest point of the country with an altitude of 60 m, lies in Jhapa district of the eastern Terai.The southern lowland Terai continues to the Bhabar belt covered with the Char Kose Jhadi forests known for rich wildlife. Further north, the Siwalik zone (700 – 1,500 m) and the Mahabharat range (1,500 – 2,700 m) give way to the Duns (valleys), such as Trijuga, Sindhuli, Chitwan, Dang and Surkhet. The Midlands (600 – 3,500 m), north of the Mahabharat range is where the two beautiful valleys of Kathmandu and Pokhara lie covered in terraced rice fields, and surrounded by forested watersheds.
The Himalayas (above 3,000 m) comprises mountains, alpine pastures and temperate forests limited by the tree-line (4,000 m) and snow line (5,500 m). Eight of the 14 eight-thousanders of the world lie in Nepal: Sagarmatha or Mount Everest (8,848 m), Kanchenjunga (8,586 m), Lhotse (8,516 m), Makalu (8,463 m), Cho Oyu (8,201m), Dhaulagiri (8,167 m), Manaslu (8,163 m) and Annapurna (8,091 m). The inner Himalayan valley (above 3,600 m) such as Mustang and Dolpa are cold deserts sharing topographical characteristics with the Tibetan plateau.Nepal holds the so called “waters towers of South Asia” with its 6,000 rivers which are snow-fed or dependent on rain. The perennial rivers include Mahakali, Karnali, Narayani and Koshi rivers originating in the Himalayas. Medium-sized rivers like Babai, West Rapti, Bagmati, Kamla, Kankai and Mechi originate in the Midlands and Mahabharat range. A large number of seasonal streams, mostly originating in Siwaliks, flow across the Terai.
Of 163 wetlands documented, the nine globally recognized Ramsar sites are: Koshi Tappu Wildlife Reserve, Beeshazarital (Chitwan), Jagdishpur Reservoir (Kapilvastu) Ghodaghodi Tal (Kailali) in the Terai, and Gokyo (Solukhumbu), Phoksundo (Dolpa), Rara (Mugu) and Mai Pokhari (Ilam) in the mountain region.There are more than 30 natural caves in the country out of which only a few are accessible by road. Maratika Cave (also known as Haleshi) is a pilgrimage site associated with Buddhism and Hinduism. Siddha Cave is near Bimalnagar along the Kathmandu-Pokhara highway. Pokhara is also known for caves namely Bats’ shed, Batulechar, Gupteswar, Patale Chhango. The numerous caves around Lo Manthang in Mustang include Luri and Tashi Kabum which house ancient murals and chhortens dating back to the 13th century.
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|Monday Melange: Black Walnut|
|Written by Heleigh Bostwick Monday, 02 November 2009|
Native to the eastern US, black walnut (Juglans nigra), also known as American walnut and eastern black walnut, is a deciduous tree whose range extends from Quebec and northern New England, south to Florida and across to Texas and Missouri. It is hardy between USDA zones 4 and 9. Black walnut is a member of the Juglandaceae or walnut plant family.
Black walnut is a large tree, typically growing between 75 and 100 feet tall. It prefers full sun and thrives in rich, alluvial soils adjacent to rivers and streams. The large leaves (up to 24 inches long) are pinnately-compound, the bark is dark gray to blackish in color and deeply fissured and furrowed. The yellow-green flowers appear in late spring.
The edible nuts are encased in green husks (with a not unpleasant, but distinct “walnut” odor) that are fairly large, about 2 inches in diameter and appear in late summer. As the nuts mature they fall to the ground and the husks turn black. The husks will stain hands and clothing and can be used to make a brownish-black dye. The wood of the black walnut is very dense and is prized in furniture making.
Black walnut is not a tree for a small lot; however, for a large property or farmstead, particularly one with some woodland trees adjacent to a stream, it is ideal. One other thing that readers should be aware of is that black walnuts are allelopathic plants. What this means is that they secrete a chemical that inhibts the establishment and growth of other plants around them. In other words, don't bother trying to grow a groundcover under a black walnut. It won't work! Learn more about allelopathy and biochemical plant competition.
Photo source: www.mobot.org
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Scientists are looking at whether an appetite-suppressing chewing gum could be used to tackle obesity.
One in five adults in the UK is obese
The Imperial College London team are developing a drug based on a natural gut hormone that mimics the body's "feeling full" response.
An injectible treatment could be available in five to eight years, but the long-term goal is to produce a form that can be absorbed in the mouth.
One in five adults are obese, but that could rise to one in three by 2010.
The hormone in question is called pancreatic polypeptide (PP), which the body produces after every meal to ensure eating does not run out of control.
There is evidence that some people have more of the hormone than others, and becoming overweight reduces the levels produced.
A vicious circle then results, causing appetite to increase, an inability to resist the temptation of food, and further increases in weight.
Early tests have shown moderate doses of the hormone, pancreatic polypeptide (PP), can reduce the amount of food eaten by healthy volunteers by 15% to 20%.
The team have now been given funding of £2.2m from the Wellcome Trust to take it forward.
As well as chewing gum, they believe it could be incorporated in a nasal spray.
Lead researcher Professor Steve Bloom said: "We have got a problem and we don't know what to do about it.
"We hit on the idea of a chewing gum because obese people like chewing."
Professor Bloom's team first noted the effect of the hormone in a group of patients with a particular pancreatic tumour that causes them to generate more PP.
Their bodies were kept permanently thin for long periods of time, yet they appeared to suffer no ill effects from the hormone.
Professor Bloom's team has not yet been able to study obese patients, but has tested the hormone out on a small group of 35 mildly overweight but otherwise healthy volunteers.
Participants were given injections of either PP or an inactive salt solution without knowing what they were receiving.
They were then offered a large buffet meal and invited to eat as much as they liked.
At the same time they were asked to answer questions about how hungry they felt.
Those given the treatment felt less hungry and ate between 15% and 25% less - than those who received the placebo.
A real treatment would aim at cutting food intake by 5% to 10% initially, and thereafter maintain control over appetite with a small reduction of about 1%.
Dr Ted Bianco, of the Wellcome Trust, said: "Over 30,000 deaths a year are caused by obesity in England alone, so there is a clear need to develop a treatment to tackle this problem.
"Yet this need for effective anti-obesity therapies is currently unmet. We believe that Professor Bloom's research holds great promise and, with our support, can be translated into tangible benefits to health."
Diabetes UK care adviser Libby Dowling said: "Although trials have shown that this drug can help reduce appetite, it has only been trialled on people who already have a relatively healthy weight.
"We would continue to recommend eating a healthy diet and doing regular physical activity as the first and best step to losing weight."
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Bursitis is inflammation of the fluid filled sacs, bursa, that cushion areas of pressure between joints, muscles, and tendons. Bursitis is due to overuse or repetative actions around the joints of the body. This inflammation results in pain that is experienced during movement or pressure.
Bursitis most commonly occurs around the shoulder, elbow, and hip joints.
Symptoms of bursitis include:
Pain with movement or pressure
Swelling of the joint region
Joint aching or stiffness
Management of bursitis involves several treatment combinations. Rest and immobilization of the affected area is important in the early stages of treatment. Applying ice to the inflammed bursa is also important. Non steroidal anti-inflammatory medications can also assist in decreasing pain and swelling. Gentle stretching and physical therapy can help bursitis from reoccuring.
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Saturday 25 May
Black stork (Ciconia nigra)
What’s the World’s Favourite Species?Find out here.
Black stork fact file
- Find out more
- Print factsheet
Black stork description
The black stork is a large but fairly secretive bird. The black head, upperparts, wings, tail and long neck have a conspicuous green or purple gloss, contrasting with the white belly, undertail and ‘armpits’. The long legs and long, straight beak are bright scarlet in adults, especially during the breeding season, and a patch of scarlet skin also surrounds the eye (2) (3) (5) (6). The male and female black stork are similar in appearance, though the male may be slightly larger (2) (3), while the juvenile has slightly browner, duller, less glossy plumage, and a pale olive-green beak and legs (2) (3) (5) (6). The black stork uses a range of calls, including a loud, ‘whinnying’ call at the nest, hoarse gasping, and beak-clapping (5) (6).
- Cigogne noire.
Black stork biology
The black stork feeds mainly on fish, although it may also take insects, amphibians, snails, crabs, and small reptiles, mammals and birds (2) (7). Most foraging takes place in shallow water, where the black stork stalks its prey, catching it with a quick stab of the beak (2). The black stork is capable of long periods of sustained flight, and may undertake migrations of up to 7,000 kilometres or more, often making long sea crossings that other species avoid (12) (13). The migration patterns and routes taken by the species have been well studied (12) (14), with European populations thought to take either a short western route south into Africa, through the Strait of Gibraltar, or a longer eastern route through the Strait of Bosphorus (12) (13). However, an unknown percentage travel only as far as the Iberian Peninsula (9) and Israel (10) (11). The Siberian population are known to migrate towards south-western Asia (Afghanistan, Kazakhstan, Pakistan and south-west China), to the northern Indian subcontinent (15), while birds from Mongolia migrate through China to South East Asia. Southern African populations, in contrast, make mainly local, altitudinal movements after breeding (2) (7).
Although it may travel in small groups during migration, and may form groups of up to 30 individuals on its wintering grounds, the black stork is a solitary nester (2) (7). Breeding usually starts in spring in the Palaearctic and in South Africa, and mostly in the cool dry season further north in Africa (2). The nest is a large structure, up to 1.5 metres in diameter, and is usually built high in a large forest tree, or on a cliff. The structure is built with sticks and is lined with moss, grass and leaves, cemented together with earth. The same nest may be used year after year, or the breeding pair may take over the nest of another species, such as a large bird of prey or a hamerkop (Scopus umbretta) (2) (7). An average of three to four eggs are laid, and hatch after an incubation period of between 32 and 38 days. The chicks fledge at 63 to 71 days, and may take up to three years to reach maturity. The black stork is reported to live to at least 18 years old in the wild and up to 31 years in captivity (2).Top
Black stork range
The black stork has the most extensive breeding range of any stork (2). It breeds across the Palaearctic, being a widespread summer visitor across much of central and eastern Europe, with a patchier distribution in western Europe and a partly resident population in Spain and Portugal (2) (7). In addition, the black stork breeds in southern Africa, in Zambia, Namibia, Malawi and South Africa, as well as in South and South East Asia (2) (7) (8), although less is known about the species from these regions. The black stork overwinters in the Iberian Peninsula (9), Middle East (10) (11), Africa, and also from western Pakistan, through northern India, to South East Asia and eastern China (2) (7) (12).Top
Black stork habitat
Throughout its widespread distribution across three continents, the black stork occupies a range of different habitats. However, it generally prefers old, undisturbed, open forest and woodland, at elevations of up to 2,000 to 2,500 metres. Foraging occurs in streams, pools, marshes, riverbanks, swampy patches, damp meadows and occasionally in grasslands, but the black stork usually avoids large bodies of water or areas of dense forest (2) (7). Birds often overwinter in estuaries and lagoons in South Africa (6) (7), and in rice fields in Europe during the non-breeding season (9).Top
Black stork statusTop
Black stork threats
Although not considered globally threatened, and still having a wide range and large global population, the black stork has generally declined throughout its range, particularly in western Europe (2) (7). The species disappeared from Belgium, Denmark, Sweden and parts of Germany during the first half of the last century (2), although more recently it has been making a comeback in parts of its former range (16). The main threat to the black stork is habitat loss, though deforestation, development, agriculture, draining and conversion of wetlands, and pollution. The use of pesticides is thought to have worsened the situation, and the building of dams and draining of lakes for irrigation and hydroelectric schemes have further reduced the species’ habitat (2) (7). For example, the building of the Alqueva dam in Portugal is estimated to have submerged the nesting sites of ten percent of the country’s breeding pairs of black storks (17).
Hunting and shooting in southern Europe, Africa and Asia have also contributed to population declines (2) (7). Black storks are occasionally killed by collision with powerlines and overhead cables (7), and are often disturbed at breeding sites by human activities, including angling, hiking, and the construction and use of new tracks and roads (17).Top
Black stork conservation
The black stork is listed on Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES), meaning that international trade in the species should be carefully controlled (4). It is also on Appendix II of the Convention on Migratory Species (CMS), which aims to conserve migratory species throughout their range (18), and is listed under the African-Eurasian Waterbird Agreement (AEWA), which calls upon parties to undertake conservation actions to help protect and conserve bird species that are dependent on wetlands for at least part of their annual cycle (19).
Other conservation measures proposed include managing river quality around breeding sites, protecting and managing feeding habitats, protecting large areas of forests, and improving food resources by establishing artificial pools (7) (14). It may also be important to retain large nesting trees during forest management (7) (20), and to limit disturbances during the breeding season, as well as to raise public awareness (20). In recent years, the black stork has been the focus of satellite-tracking projects, namely the African Odyssey and New Odyssey projects, and the ‘Flying Over Natura 2000’ project (12) (15) (21) (22). These have not only provided more information on the stork’s migration patterns, but have also helped raise public awareness both of the black stork and of the ‘Natura 2000’ protected areas, a network of European protected areas which contain a large proportion of the black stork’s breeding sites (17) (21) (22).Top
Find out more
To find out more about the black stork and its migration, see:
Estonian Black Stork Migration:
Black Stork Protection Germany (Schwarzstorchschutz Deutschland) (in German):
For more information on this and other bird species please see:
- BirdLife International:
Authenticated (31/03/10) by Luis Santiago Cano Alonso, Vertebrate Biology and Conservation Research Group, Department of Zoology and Physical Anthropology, Faculty of Biology, Cumplutense University of Madrid (Spain).
- The act of incubating eggs, that is, keeping them warm so that development is possible.
- Palaearctic region
- The region that includes Europe, the part of Asia to the north of the Himalayan-Tibetan barrier, North Africa and most of Arabia.
IUCN Red List (February, 2009)
- del Hoyo, J., Elliott, A. and Sargatal, J. (1992) Handbook of the Birds of the World. Volume 1: Ostrich to Ducks. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona.
- Erritzoe, J. (1993) The Birds of CITES and How to Identify Them. The Lutterworth Press, Cambridge.
CITES (February 2009)
- Peterson, R.T., Mountfort, G. and Hollom, P.A.D. (1993) Collins Field Guide: Birds of Britain and Europe. HarperCollins Publishers, London.
- Sinclair, I. and Davidson, I. (2006) Sasol Southern African Birds: A Photographic Guide. Struik, Cape Town.
BirdLife International (February, 2009)
- Cano Alonso, L.S. (2008) An Approach to the Black Stork (Ciconia nigra) Status in Indochina. V International Conference on Black Stork (Ciconia nigra). Uzlina-Romania.
- Cano Alonso, L.S. (2006) An approach to wintering of Black Stork Ciconia nigra in the Iberian Peninsula. Biota, 7: 7-13.
- Van Den Bossche, W. (1996) Wintering of the Black Stork in Israel. II International Conference on Black Stork (Ciconia nigra). Trujillo, Spain.
Black Stork Protection Germany (Schwarzstorchschutz Deutschland) (March, 2010)
- Bobek, M., Hampl, R., Peške, L., Pojer, F., Šimek, J. and Bureš, S. (2008) African Odyssey project - satellite tracking of black storks Ciconia nigra breeding at a migratory divide. Journal of Avian Biology, 39(5): 500-506.
- Elphick, J. (2007) The Atlas of Bird Migration. Struik, Cape Town.
- Jiguet, F. and Villarubias, S. (2004) Satellite tracking of breeding black storks Ciconia nigra: new incomes for spatial conservation issues. Biological Conservation, 120(2): 153-160.
New Odyssey (February, 2009)
The Independent: After 70 years in exile, the black stork returns to Europe’s forests (February, 2009)
- Cano Alonso, L.S., Franco, C., Pacheco, C., Reis, S., Rosa, G. and Fernández-García, M. (2006) The breeding population of black stork Ciconia nigra in the Iberian Peninsula. Biota, 7: 15-23.
Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (February 2009)
African-Eurasian Waterbird Agreement (February, 2009)
Ciconia nigra (February, 2009)
Flying Over Natura 2000 in Spain (February, 2009)
Flying Over Europe (February, 2009)
More »Related species
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February/march 1982 | Volume 33, Issue 2
George Washington’s Narrow Escapes
Upon at least five occasions when in great danger from gunfire George Washington remained unscathed. His hat was shot off his head; his clothes were torn; horses were killed beneath him, but the hero was never so much as scratched by a bullet. For this immunity he thanked “Providence.” He also wrote himself down as lucky.
The problem was never the modern one of attempted assassination. When in the spring of 1791 the first President undertook an official tour through the Southern states (Washington had never been south of Virginia), Secretary of State Jefferson was, it is true, worried for his safety. The President planned to travel in a light carriage drawn by four horses, and Jefferson knew that the roads were very bad. The President should lower the hang of his carriage and replace a coachman, who sat some distance behind the horses, with postillions riding on one of each pair.
Washington brushed these suggestions aside and had no other worries about his safety. Except for servants to attend to the nine horses he took with him, the entourage of the President of the United States on a 1,887-mile journey consisted only of a secretary and a valet.
The close escapes Washington experienced all belong to the military part of his career. The first happened when he was nineteen. A militia officer with important connections and considerable wilderness experience, Washington was appointed official representative of the British Crown to warn French invaders off land claimed by George II. His mission required that he travel from backwoods. Virginia through primeval wilderness to French forts close to Lake Erie and then back again—some five hundred miles. Moving at the head of his little party to the forts proved neither particularly arduous nor hazardous; the conference during which the French denied the British claim was carried out with scrupulous protocol and courtesy; the problem was that by the time Washington was ready to return, it was midwinter. All watercourses were frozen beyond hope of navigation. Along the trail, the legs of Washington’s horses sank deep in snowdrifts to be cut at the ankles by crusts of ice. Progress slowed almost to a standstill, and Washington felt urgency in carrying to the Virginia governor warnings of France’s bellicose intentions. Finally he left the slow-moving cavalcade behind and advanced on foot. This was also proving torturously slow when, at an Indian village named Murthering Town, a strange Indian offered to lead him along a shortcut. Despite misgivings, the eager young man agreed.
Turning off all trails, they advanced through the icecovered wilderness which glowed in daytime like a hall of mirrors—but dimly, since the tremendous trees shut out the sun. Suddenly they emerged into a clearing where sunlight dazzled. The Indian ran ahead a few paces, raised his gun, and fired at Washington. The bullet moved through emptiness without changing the history of the world.
Washington’s next—and almost miraculous—escape took place in the full eye of history. The French and Indian War was under way, and the British Crown had sent to America two regular regiments under the command of General Edward Braddock. Braddock’s mission was to march from Virginia through the wilderness to the falls of the Ohio (now Pittsburgh) and capture the French Fort Duquesne from which Indian raids on the Virginia and Maryland frontiers were being staged. As a volunteer aide to Braddock, Washington contended that it would be madness to fight Indians who skulked behind trees with the wide and deep blocks of soldiers that moved ponderously but effectively on the open fields of Europe. Braddock enjoyed arguing with the bumptious young provincial (Washington was now twentytwo) but paid no attention to what the youth advised.
The British engineers cut a continuous twelve-foot-wide clearing through the wilderness down which the troops could march in formation. They had penetrated to within a few miles of Fort Duquesne when multiple shots sounded from the flanking woods. No enemy could be seen, but in bloody contortions the redcoats were falling. The British regulars could conceive of no way to fight except in formation, and thus the officers tried desperately to keep their men lined up under the rain of fire. Indignantly, Braddock refused Washington’s request that he be allowed to lead the provincial troops into the woods “and engage the enemy in their own way.”
The slaughter was terrific, and the officers, towering on horseback above the melee, were for the Indians the best targets. One after another they went down. Washington’s horse was shot from under him. He leaped on another. Bullets tore his coat. Braddock toppled over, Washington’s second horse crumbled. His hat was shot off. However, as he wrote later, “The miraculous care of Providence … protected me beyond all human expectations.” He survived unscratched to lead the remnant of Braddock’s army away from the pile of bloody bodies and into comparative safety.
The next effort to capture Fort Duquesne was made three years later under the command of the British general, John Forbes. He was to lead between six and seven thousand men, three times Braddock’s force. Much had been learned since the great defeat; diplomatic efforts were undertaken with the Indians, and the value of provincial troops, fighting in the Indian manner, was recognized. Temporarily designated a brigadier general, Washington was given command of the advanced brigade, made up of local troops.
The army was encamped along the route when scouts reported that a large enemy force was within three miles. Forbes ordered Washington to send out five hundred of his Virginians. Listening to “hot firing” and judging that the Americans were falling back, Washington received Forbes’s permission to go to the rescue with a group of volunteers. As they advanced through thick woods in deepening twilight, they saw facing them armed men lurking behind trees. The two groups were quick to fire at each other. Finally, the cacophony of gunshots sank to a moment of silence and Washington could hear an order being shouted to the opposing force. It was in a familiar voice! Washington’s men were firing at each other.
Washington, as he remembered, ran between the lines of firing men, “knocking up with his sword the presented pieces.” Bullets sped around him. Before the two bloodied groups could be made to understand, fourteen had been killed and twenty-six wounded. Washington commented when the Revolutionary War was behind him that his life had been “in as much jeopardy as it has ever been before or since. ” He was not touched.
After Forbes had successfully captured Fort Duquesne, Virginia’s role in the French and Indian War, and with it Washington’s active participation, came to an end. Our narrative must thus jump ahead twelve years to what took place on September 15, 1776, within sight of the hilltop where the New York Public Library now stands.
Washington was trying to hold Manhattan Island, and with it New York City, against a greatly superior British military and naval force. He had hoped to seal off the rivers that surrounded Manhattan. However, the Battle of Brooklyn Heights, the first confrontation between the Continental Army and true British power, had been a humiliating defeat. Brooklyn and with it the power to operate on the East River fell into British hands. The now endangered Manhattan shore was flatly inviting and too extensive to be held in force. Washington’s strategy was to line the river front with troops and trenches just strong enough to delay an invasion until powerful reserves could be brought to bear. Saving New York City depended on preventing the British from establishing a beachhead.
After a terrifying naval barrage, the British landed at Kip’s Bay, an indentation between the present Thirty-second and Thirty-eighth streets that penetrated almost to Second Avenue. The raw militia who were stationed there were too frightened by the banging of the naval guns to make a stand. Arriving at a gallop, Washington, “to [his] surprise and mortification,” found himself surrounded with fleeing men. Then to his relief he saw reserves coming up: two brigades marching in good order. But when a small British force appeared over the crest of the slope, the reserves took one look, jettisoned their guns, and ran.
Washington threw his hat on the ground and cried out. “Are these the men with whom I am to defend America?” And again, “Good God, have I got such troops as these?”
By now, he was alone. He saw some fifty of the enemy only about eighty yards away and advancing at a run. He stared at them blankly. The enemy were preparing to fire when some of Washington’s aides appeared, grabbed his horse’s bridle, and pulled him back. According to General Nathanael Greene, Washington was “so vexed at the infamous conduct of his troops that he sought death rather than life.” But death was otherwise engaged.
The following year saw the nadir of the American cause. New York City had become a British base. The Continental Army was defeated at White Plains. Forts Washington and Lee fell with great losses of men and supplies. Washington’s Continental Army fled ignominiously across New Jersey, while the terrified inhabitants scrambled to swear renewed allegiance to the crown. Then, during a blizzard, Washington made a midnight crossing of the Delaware to overwhelm the Hessians at Trenton. This might have been considered no more than an audacious raid had it not been followed by the beating up of three British regiments at Princeton.
At the outskirts of the town, the British regulars had drawn up in their famous line, against which Washington’s soldiers had never been able to stand. The Americans who faced them were wavering in confusion when a big man on a white horse appeared at a gallop. “Parade with us, my brave fellows!” Washington shouted. “There is but a handful of enemy and we shall have them directly.” His troops obediently got into a line of their own, facing the enemy. Then Washington galloped in front of his troops, to the very center. He waved his men forward, and as they advanced, he continued to move before them. The enemy were ever closer. Now Washington and his followers were mounting a rise and came within musket range. Although most of the enemy held their fire, a few bullets zinged around the tall target on horseback. Within thirty yards of the British line, Washington shouted, “Halt,” and gave the order to fire. Both sides fired simultaneously, with Washington between them.
His aide, Colonel Edward Fitzgerald, covered his face with his hat, for he could not bear to see the commander in chief killed. When all the guns had been emptied, the firing ceased. Fitzgerald lowered his hat. Around him, many men lay writhing. But Washington sat on his horse, untouched.
The enemy broke and fled. Now, at long last, Washington had a chance to chase regulars across an open field. Shouting, “It’s a fine fox chase, my boys!” he started after the enemy on his powerful charger so unexpectedly and so quickly that no one followed him before he disappeared from sight. As time passed and he did not return, anxiety mounted among his fellow generals and his aides. It is hardly prudent military practice to have your commander chasing around after the enemy all by himself on a battlefield. Had Washington been hit? But of course not. The general was preserved, then as always, to serve his two terms as President and to die in bed.
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The Responsive Education Framework was developed in response to the Arlington Public Schools 2005-2011 Strategic Plan, GOAL 3: RESPONSIVE EDUCATION--Prepare each student to succeed in a diverse, changing world through instruction and other school experiences responsive to each student’s talents, interests, and challenges.
Objective 3.1: Inventory instructional approaches (e.g., differentiated instruction, Understanding by Design, teaching for meaning) that are responsive to students’ talents, interests, and challenges, and create a framework that systematically expands opportunities.
Indicator: 2005-2006--Inventory completed, 2006-2007-- Framework developedWhat is a framework? A framework is a theoretical construct or perspective that forms the basis of a theory in science, politics or philosophy. It provides a structure on which ideas can be linked. The APS Responsive Education Framework is the conceptualization of the connections of the important components of instruction and learning.
The framework was developed with two Enduring Understandings in mind:
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KDL Recommends For Kids > PLAY-GROW-READ! - Books for Early Literacy > Katie L. Talks: Books that Invite Participation
Shout! Shout It Out!
Title: Shout! Shout It Out!
Author: Denise Fleming
CONCEPT E FLEMING
Mouse invites the reader to shout out what he or she knows as they review numbers, letters, and easy words.
Kids are often told to sit still and be quiet. But Denise Fleming encourages them to shout, shout it out! By taking basic learning concepts like numbers, letters, and colors and putting them on display, she asks kids to shout out what they know—and her readers will be happy to oblige.
With bold colors and her unique handmade paper art, Denise Fleming makes learning into a game. Long-time fans and sharp-eyed newcomers will be happy to see that Mouse returns on every page, shouting along with the crowd!
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Optical computing moves forward
Feb 26, 1999
Another next step towards an all-optical computer has been taken with the development of a prototype optical memory chip. Previously it was thought that light could be not be trapped for long enough to store data. Now Achim Wixforth and colleagues of the Technical University of Munich and the Lugwig- Maximilians University in Munich have shown that photons can be stored by converting them into electron-hole pairs in a semiconductor. The electron-hole pairs can be trapped in a quantum well. To read the data the electron and hole are allowed to "recombine" and produce a photon (Science 283 1292).
The pairs are created by illuminating a semiconductor quantum well with a pulsed laser diode. A slight voltage difference on the semiconductor keeps the electron and the hole in separate levels inside the quantum well. When the voltage is switched off, the electron-hole pair move together under Coulomb attraction and radiatively recombine - producing a photon. So far the researchers have been able to 'store' a photon for 35 microseconds - five times longer than its natural lifetime and long enough for such a memory chip to work in an optical computer.
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Mahalo piha for visiting my blog throughout the year; I hope you found them to be helpful! Below are some suggestions for reading over summer break to prevent the dreaded “summer slump.” Research shows that if students do not read over summer break, they can lose up to 60% of their skills, hence the “summer slump.” Research also shows that reading as little as five books during the summer will keep those skills from falling.
12 Tips to Prevent “Summer Slump”
- Get a library card to your local library and visit often!
- Set aside reading time each day.
- Read aloud to your child.
- Choose reading material that is connected to summer activities.
- Allow your child to choose reading materials. (Make sure it is the appropriate level)
- Remember there is more to read than just books — magazines, newspapers, riddle or joke books, recipes, directions, etc.
- Take books with you on trips.
- Encourage writing as well.
- Read a book then watch the movie.
- Be sure not to use reading as a punishment.
- Read books from different genres (mysteries, poems, historical fiction, biographies, non-fiction, etc.)
- Be a reading role model.
Stay tuned for summer reading lists!
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Consensus is a group process where the input of everyone is carefully considered and an outcome is crafted that best meets the needs of the group. It is a process of synthesizing the wisdom of all the participants into the best decision possible at the time. The root of consensus is the word consent, which means to give permission to. When you consent to a decision, you are giving your permission to the group to go ahead with the decision. You may disagree with the decision, but based on listening to everyone else’s input, all the individuals agree to let the decision go forward, because the decision is the best one the entire group can achieve at the current time.
The heart of consensus is a cooperative intent, where the members are willing to work together to find the solution that meets the needs of the group. The cooperative nature of consensus is different mindset from the competitive nature of majority voting. In a consensus process the members come together to find or create the best solutions by working together. Key attributes to successfully participation include humility, willingness to listen to others and see their perspectives, and willingness to share your own ideas but not insist they are the best ones.
It is not unanimous agreement. Participants may consent to an decision they disagree with, but recognize meets the needs of the group and therefore give permission to.
Within every member of any group there is a lifetime of experiences and knowledge. Consensus is a way to tap the collective knowledge of the group to craft the best decision possible.
In a consensus process, people extend their relationships to each other as part of the listening and talking process. Consensus takes time and effort, honest communication and a willingness to trust the relationship. The communication of ideas and feelings, and the empathetic listening, builds trust and bonds between group members. By encouraging shared leadership and participation, consensus empowers all the members of a group to make the best decision. By working together to clarify ideas and proposals, the members build trust and communication skills that continue to grow and expand as the group works together. The longer the group works together, the better they get. The synergy of building collaborative agreements also builds a strong sense of commitment to the group and its mission, and a sense of belonging and commitment among the members.
In the process of defining individual boundaries and issues within the group context, individual desires and boundaries are tested against the best interests of the group. The key element of making consensus work is a commitment by each individual to honor the best interests of the group. As people work through issues, they have their own needs reflected back to them against the context of the larger group needs. This encourages them to consider other interests beyond just their own.
Once an agreement is made, and everyone gives their consent to it, the agreement is backed by the relationship. If you honor your relationship to the group, your respect for the agreements which you participated in guides you to follow the agreement. Agreements made by consensus are self enforced and rarely require anything more than a reminder of the agreement to ensure compliance. Consensus means everyone has given permission for the agreement to go ahead, and by not following through on the agreement, you jeopardize your relationship and your sense of community. If the desire for community relationship is strong, then the decisions made by the groups consensus will also be strong. There is no subgroup of angry, outvoted participants that will work to undermine the decision or ignore it.
Some of the group members have an understanding and the skills for running a consensus process.
Participants understand the process.
The participants have a basic understanding of what consensus is, how the group applies it, and what the expectations of the group are.
Group members need to be present for the discussion part of the decision so your ideas can be shared, and you hear the other perspectives and ideas.
A willingness among the participants to trust the wisdom of the group and to cooperate.
A safe place to talk about the decision at hand.
The group environment needs to be comfortable so that individuals will freely share their ideas and thoughts, fears, opinions and experiences.
Ideas are heard and acknowledged.
Each participant feels that their contributions are considered. They might not be part of the final solution but the ideas were fairly and equally considered.
When the group agrees, the agreement is captured in writing so the group can refer to it later.
At some interval, the decision process is evaluated. Meeting elements and decision processes that are working are identified to be continued. Things which are not working well are examined and changed.
Consensus decision process typically goes through three stages: Discussion, Proposal, Modification.
The discussion stage is where the group meets and the topic is widely discussed. People freely share thoughts, opinions, feelings, ideas and react to each others contributions. This is the heart of consensus, because it is where you come together and synthesize all the thoughts. This is also where your opinions, if you have any, are subject to change as you listen and hear other perspectives. When a person misses this stage, they are seriously handicapped in their ability to help the group, because they did not hear any other perspectives to help them modify their own thinking, thus they are limited to only their own perspective.
The proposal stage comes after the discussion stage. The thoughts and ideas are synthesized into one or more proposal statements. This is where a good facilitator adds a great value, because they look for the common areas of understanding and agreement and bring those out and summarize them for the group. As the common ground emerges from the discussion, or as common ground is created, it is captured in writing.
The modification stage is where the summary proposal is tested and modified to meet the needs of the group. In some cases this is done at the same meeting, by adjusting the working draft of the proposal by including, removing, or modifying the language of the proposal. In other situations this is done weeks or months after the meeting, as the decision is implemented and new things are learned from the experiences, and so the decision is reviewed and amended as new information becomes available. Or in larger groups, a small group takes the discussion information, creates proposals and comes back at a later time with a proposal for modification.
When all the participants give permission for the proposal to go ahead, consensus is reached. Typically the facilitator will ask the group for an affirmation of the proposal and at that time everyone signals their consent.
After the modification stage, if the final solution is not acceptable as being the best interest for the group, then it is the duty of the participants to not give permission to the group to move forward at this time. If the modification process is done well, blocking is almost never used. The facilitator should clarify with the blocker, how the group interests is not being served by moving ahead with the proposal.
One of the key elements here, is that blocking is done for the best interests of the group, not to serve personal likes and dislikes. Remember, even if you disagree with a decision, you can give permission to the group to proceed in order for the group to learn things. Often a group must make decisions with out all the information needed or all issues resolved. Moving forward is sometimes the way to understand what will happen as you implement a decision.
A common problem in consensus groups is where there is a values clash between personal and group values. For example, say it is a personal value of some group members to honor all life, but this value is not held by the group as whole. This value comes up during a discussion about vegetarianism at meals. In this case, since the groups stated values are not supporting the personal values, rather than expecting the whole group to become vegetarian to support a personal value, the person stands aside and does not participate in the activity that they find offensive to their values. Often personal values can be included in a solution that works for the group. Where it can’t, the values are respected by allowing the individual to stand aside. Stand asides should be noted in the minutes so it is clear that the person standing aside should not be asked to implement or participate in the decision due to their values.
For consensus to work, a large majority of the membership, ideally a minimum of 80%, needs to be present for the discussion phase of the decision. Those not present during this phase need to be brought up to speed. Some consensus groups sign up to be buddies for those not present, and the buddies job is to convey the perspectives of the meeting to the person not present. When half or less of a group participates, the group misses too much perspectives and decisions end up poorly made, and often unsupported by those that missed the discussion.
When people miss the discussion, and its perspectives, they may bring up the same conversations and points that the rest of the group has already been through. If this occurs regularly, people may become resentful of those that don’t participate in the discussions, or may even stop coming to meetings because they end up rehashing the same discussions over and over again. Many consensus groups do not allow those not present for the discussion stage to be part of the proposal and modification stages, or have special considerations for those that did not participate in the discussion. Participation in the full cycle of the consensus process is a important for a successful consensus decision.
If there is a lot of cross talking, or loud rebuttals, or sarcastic tones it will keep some people from sharing their ideas. In the worse cases people are personally insulted, belittled, or laughed at. It is unlikely in such an environment people would feel good about being part of the process and willingly contribute ideas that might add value but run counter to the ideas of others in the group. If there is a strong hierarchy in the group, for example a dominate person such as a supervisor, it can affect peoples willingness to bring up all the ideas, especially those that might run counter to the bosses opinions.
If you don’t know when or where the meeting is, you can’t attend. If you don’t hear about the agenda of the meeting, you have no time to think about it before the meeting. Some people do need time to get think, they don’t do well having to process ideas and information immediately.
A decision is reached, everyone consents to it, but it never gets done. This occurs when the during the modification stage of the proposal, the “who will do this work” question does not get asked or resolved. At the end of the modification process a plan can be added for who does the work and how they will be held accountable for the work.
An individual inappropriately uses blocking
The groups interests are not being served by a block, for example a person blocks a decision from their own preferences or as a power play over the group. Or a personal threatens to block even before the discussion phase is held. This is where the facilitator needs to help the group negotiate by defining what is the real issue. Often there are hidden issues unresolved which are driving the individual to block. In the final case, a majority vote can override an inappropriate use of blocking.
How to be an effective member of a collaborative process
Every person in a collaborative process effects the process. Think about how you impact the group. What assets do you bring? What liabilities? Think about how you might work to keep your liabilities in check as the group works together. How can you remind yourself not to do that behavior that causes problems?
Every person has a Personality style. In it’s simplest form you can examine whether you are task or feelings oriented. Do you want to get things done, or do you want to hear about how people feel about it? Maybe you don’t know and so you might ask how others perceive you. How you relate and react to people that have opposite needs than you has a great impact on the groups work.
Hot buttons are those things that get an instant angry response. They often come from events in our lives that shaped our values and are not often things we can control. What kinds of things make you mad? Remember, a skillful antagonist might be able to manipulate you by pushing your hot buttons to get you to react. Know them and be aware of your response when those issues come up.
When you are hungry do you get irritable? If you are tired do you have less patience than normal? If you have an injury or soreness that is hurting you does it change how you react to others? You can defuse this often just by admitting it out loud to the group. “When I get hungry I get cranky. I am sorry if I am not working well right now, but its right before lunch which is my worse time”
When something is causing you distress you are in an abnormal emotional state and like the physical factors, this may cause atypical behaviors. When you can do so, alert the group to your distress and warn them of potential consequences. “I am feeling sad today because my dad is really sick and I was up late last night worrying about him. I apologize if I am less patient than usual for today’s meeting”
How you see the world may not be how it really is. The way you do things, is not necessarily the right way, even if that’s how your momma taught you. It is often difficult for us to see in our viewpoints and judgments in the many things we believe or take for granted because of cultural and family indoctrinations which have saturated us since our earliest childhoods. A classic example of this can be found in how clean people are about their houses or personal spaces. Some folks spend lots of time cleaning and putting their processions in a very specific order. Other folks are much less orderly and spend little time cleaning. Most often this comes from the way your family lived and how you were raised. This difference is often a source of conflict as each cleanliness perspective views itself as being the “right way”. If you view yourself as being right then those not like you must be wrong. This right and wrong judgmental thinking is often the root of conflicts within groups.
Identify your closures
What things are you closed about? What ideas are you simply not going to accept? This closed mindedness comes from your personal values and its good to identify these and understand them. When these things become out of sync with the group you are in, it is very hard to continue working in that group. For example, a person that believes that all animal life is sacred, will not succeed well on a farm that slaughters its livestock.
A key element to making consensus work is personal humility. By recognizing the limits of your own experiences you open the way to learn new things.
Over generalizing experiences
It is easy to over generalize from experiences, for example, because you once had problems with a Ford brand of car, all Ford cars are lemons. This kind of over generalizing from experience inhibits your ability to see that experiences are not always repeated in the same way, with the same outcomes.
A perspectives test
A good test for how open you are to another perspective is how well you can explain it to someone else with fairness and without making judgmental remarks or using negative tones.
There are several behaviors which have been shown to be helpful to many collaborative groups. Each of these behaviors can be learned, practiced and form skill sets which members can be trained to excel at. It can be helpful to adopt these, and other helpful behaviors as group ground rules and post them to remind yourselves to follow them. A good facilitator can use such ground rules to intervene and help the group succeed.
Listen carefully and ask for clarification, especially about why people think or feel as they do. Never interrupt. Ask questions to clarify what the issue is and why is it an issue.
Don’t just criticize, suggest solutions and ideas for solving problems. Be sure to state the problem clearly as you can before trying to apply solutions.
Sometimes the wrong set of people spend a lot of time trying to solve a problem that is outside their scope of experience or expertise. Maybe a small group of experts might be better than the large group.
Look fairly and equally at all the pros and cons of all ideas. Don’t come with “THE PLAN” come with “ an idea”. Then see where the group expands it and be open to the change. Don’t own ideas, give them away to the group. Don’t lobby your idea, encourage the group to look at all the pros and cons. Don’t set unnecessary limits.
Think out what you are going to say before you say it and then be brief. Don’t ramble, don’t repeat what others have said. If you think the same as someone else who has already spoken, then simply say, “ I agree with __”.
Others may need more time to understand, or need more information. Consensus is NOT a fast decision making process. Be willing to let others have the time they need.
The answer that suits your needs does not mean it’s the best answer for everyone, or that what meets your needs meets the needs of others. Learn to say to yourself: I might be wrong. Be willing to learn what lessons the group can teach you. Even if you are the expert.
If you feel unhappy, or uncomfortable say so and try to pinpoint why. Also don’t forget to say you are happy or grateful as well.
Many decisions and proposals are learning experiences for things you have not yet done. If it does not work, you can change it later. Try things out. Experiment. Be willing to try on new ideas and processes. This is an adventure to be explored.
Many things a group decides can be redone later. Don't get hung up on small details, let the decision go forward and then examine it later to see if your misgivings were justified or not.
When you have things you want or need, tell the group what they are by using I statements such as “ I need covered parking because I have an old car that leaks”.
Whenever you state an opinion, you can add valuable information by giving others the reasons for your opinion. Be open to questions and comments about your opinions.
Ask for feedback
Ask others to tell you what they think. Invite others to offer ideas and suggestions. Encourage folks to talk with you about things that you do that bother them.
When you say the wrong thing, or act in a way that hurts, angers or alienates others, talk later to discuss what happened and why with those who were affected.
Even if you are not the facilitator, if you notice something is going well, complement the group or person. If things are not going right, try to state what you perceive to be happening and ask for feedback. “ It seems when ever we start talking about childcare, I hear angry tones in peoples statements” Does anybody else sense this?” Can we process this emotion to find out what’s behind it?”
Don’t wait until the meeting to get or give information. Call people, hold small gatherings, etc. Read everything you are given closely and think about it before the meeting.
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Potato Fun Facts
Potato Size Standards
The Healthy Red River Valley Red Potato Nutritional Information
Let's face it; many people think potatoes aren't nutritious. Back in 2004 at the height of the low-carb diet craze, 35% of Americans thought potatoes were fattening. Today that number has dropped to 18%. American consumers are getting smarter, and for good reason. Here are the hard facts. A medium size potato has only 110 calories with no fat or cholesterol. And potatoes are a great source of fiber, potassium, and Vitamin C. But there's more! Like protein, Vitamin B, calcium, thiamin, folate, phosphorus, magnesium, riboflavin,zinc, and iron. So next time you have a potato, enjoy it, and know you are eating one of nature's healthiest foods!
You Need Carbs!
Carbohydrates are your body’s best source of fuel. They are so important that your body will actually break down muscle and vital organs to make carbohydrates if they are not in your diet.
Potatoes eaten with skin are an excellent source of potassium, which is great for cardiovascular health. In fact, potatoes qualify for a health claim approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration, which states: Diets containing foods that are a good source of potassium and that are low in sodium may reduce the risk of high blood pressure and stroke. Just one potato offers 21% of the Daily Value for potassium. Potassium also helps retain calcium, which is important to build strong bones.
One medium potato (5.3 ounces) with skin contains 3 grams, or 12 percent of the recommended daily intake for fiber. Preliminary studies show that fiber is beneficial for a healthy digestive system and may help reduce the risk of some cancers and possibly heart disease. According to researcher at Pennsylvania State University, consuming adequate fiber and water helps increase satiety between meals.
For vitamin C, don’t just think oranges - think potatoes! Potatoes are one of the leading sources of vitamin C in the American diet. One medium potato contains 45% of your recommended daily intake! This vitamin is a potent antioxidant that helps stabilize free radicals, which may prevent cellular damage. Vitamin C also produces the collagen that helps hold bone tissue together.
Glycemic Index (GI)
The Glycemic Index (GI) is a system that assigns a number to foods, particularly carbohydrates such as bread, pasta and potatoes, based on their ability to increase blood glucose. The higher the GI, the more the food’s ability to raise blood glucose levels. Several studies have examined the effects of the GI on appetite, but to date there have been no well-controlled, long-term human studies to examine the effects of GI on body weight regulation. In addition, there is no conclusive evidence that eating high GI foods will lead to obesity.
The practicality of the GI of individual foods in diet planning is controversial because combinations of foods can alter the total GI of a meal. In the case of potatoes, for example, common toppings such as cheese, broccoli, butter, vinegar, or salsa may lower the combined GI.
Some of the foods that score high on the GI such as potatoes, also score high on the satiety index (SI). The higher the SI of a food, the more satisfied a person is between meals. More research is needed before health and nutrition professionals will recommend using the GI as a tool to help plan meals and snacks.
As always, it is recommended that you talk with your doctor or registered dietitian before starting any new diet or meal plan.
Check out these helpful links for more valuable nutrition information:
USPB Potato Nutrition Handbook (59 page pdf document)
University of Minnesota
North Dakota State University
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Though mention of their names would draw blank expressions from most people, we all owe a great debt to Tommie Smith and John Carlos. The American sprinters made history when they mounted the Olympic victory stand and thrust their clenched, black-gloved fists into the night sky over Mexico City, on October 16 1968. Their "Black Power" protest produced front page headlines around the world. Not to mention one of the top 10 iconic poster images of the last century.
Perversely, however, the raw iconography of the gesture has helped to obscure its impact and significance. For starters, while the gesture was redolent of the militant Black Panthers, it was actually a plaintive cry for civil rights. Indeed, the athletes were figurehead members of the Olympic Project for Human Rights, a non-violent student organisation that transposed racism in sport into the civil rights agenda.
Even so, Smith and Carlos's quiet act of defiance resonated every bit as much as the litany of violent interludes which marked 1968 as an apocalyptic year – the assassinations of Robert Kennedy and Martin Luther King, the Tet offensive, student riots in Paris, and the massacre of hundreds of Mexican student protesters a few weeks before the games.
At the international level, their demonstration gave the lie to the idealistic notion that politics and sports should not mix. It also exposed the hypocrisy inherent in the American administration's racist policies towards black people. Until then, the white political elite had expected black athletes to deliver national glory abroad while regarding them as little more than "fast niggers" at home. Indeed, when OPHR still cherished hopes of organising a black Olympic boycott, its mantra was: "Why run in Mexico only to crawl at home?"
Smith and Carlos's stand was one of several similar black protests at the games. Collectively, these displays pushed the issue of black athletes' rights onto the agenda of the United States Olympic Committee. They forced the athletic authorities to meet OPHR's demands for the employment of black coaches and officials. Ironically, the first black person appointed to the Usoc executive was the legendary Olympian Jesse Owens, who was quickly dispatched to quell any repetition of Smith and Carlos's protest. But his meeting with the remaining black athletes – Smith and Carlos having been sent home in disgrace – culminated in his being branded an "Uncle Tom" and sent away in tears.
Smith and Carlos's legacy is a proud one. All the same, it is one that cost them dearly. Although they were deified by black America, they were equally vilified by white America. Smith's activism before the games had already cost his job washing cars. But both struggled to find work to feed their young families when they returned home from Mexico. Smith's marriage collapsed, Carlos's wife committed suicide. Worse, the threat of retaliatory white violence haunted them. They received regular death threats. Carlos's dog was butchered and left on his porch.
Smith and Carlos had to wait until the 1980s to see their reputations rehabilitated. The Reagan administration's boycott of the 1980 Moscow Olympics provided a crucial catalyst in their fortunes, proving, after all, that politics and sport are indeed compatible bedfellows. In 2005, Smith and Carlos's return to respectable society was crowned by the unveiling of a statue of their iconic protest on the campus at San Jose State University, their alma mater and the birthplace of OPHR.
The magnetism of that monumental moment continues to captivate and intrigue. For actor and playwright Kwame Kwei-Armah, it is "one of the most definitive expressions of manhood, of service" he has ever seen. And this notion of "service" makes Smith and Carlos's victory stand as relevant today as it was 40 years ago. From Athens to San Francisco, the run-up to this year's Olympic Games in Beijing has witnessed a series of embarrassing anti-China protests. British Olympic team athletes have refused to sign contracts that include "gagging clauses" that stifle their right to protest.
The world today bears little resemblance to the one occupied by Smith and Carlos four decades ago. But one feature that has not changed is injustice and our sensitivity to it. The time is ripe for the next generation of Smiths and Carloses. But only time will tell whether the current crop possesses the political will to use the Beijing stage to carry the baton.
• Geoff Small is the director of Black Power Salute, which will be televised on BBC Four tonight at 9pm
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Jean-Marie Tarascon: Video
Li-ion Technology: The Challenges for the Years to Come
Get the Flash Player to see this video.
Energy storage technological advancements are not moving forward at a very fast rate. Lithium ion technology is the most attractive technology. The next generation of batteries is a sustainable, safe, high-energy battery. This ideal battery would have a low life cycle cost and minimum environmental footprint. There are promising methods of making this next generation battery by using old chemical methods of using oxocarbons to make a battery from organic materials.
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- For the moth genus, see Idia (moth).
was the mother of Esigie
, the Oba of Benin
who ruled from 1504 to 1550. She played a very significant role in the rise and reign of her son. She was a strong warrior who fought relentlessly before and during her son's reign as the Oba (king
) of the Edo
people. When Oba Ozolua
died, he left behind two powerful sons to dispute over who would become Oba. His son Esigie controlled Benin City
while another son, Arhuaran, was based in the equally important city of Udo about twenty miles away. Idia mobilised an army around Esigie, which successfully defeated Arhuaran, and Oba Esigie became the 16th king.
Subsequently, the neighboring Igala peoples sent warriors across the Benue River to wrest control of Benin's northern territories. Esigie conquered the Igala, reestablishing the unity and military strength of the kingdom. His mother Idia received much of the credit for these victories as her political counsel, together with her magical powers and medicinal knowledge, were viewed as critical elements of Esigie's success on the battlefield.
Idia became the first Iyoba (Queen Mother) of Benin when Esigie conferred upon her the title and the Eguae-Iyoba (Palace of the Queen Mother).
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More than 20 years ago, climate scientists led by the renowned Carl Sagan coined the term “nuclear winter” to describe the global ecological destruction that would result from a massive nuclear exchange between the US and the former Soviet Union. Applying climate model simulations available to them at the time, the scientists concluded that smoke and dust produced by a catastrophic nuclear war would cause rapid drops in temperature and precipitation, block sunlight, and threaten agriculture worldwide for at least a year.
Using sophisticated, modern climate models that have been developed to study global warming, some of these same scientists and their colleagues have recently returned to the question of nuclear winter and have reexamined the climate consequences of a range of nuclear wars. These new studies have reconfirmed that a nuclear war involving the large arsenals of the US and Russia would result in a nuclear winter even more long lasting than previously thought.
The scientists looked at the effects over a 10-year period of two different scenarios that are possible today—a nuclear war injecting 150 teragrams [Tg] of smoke into the upper troposphere over a one-week period, and one producing 50 Tg of smoke. One important difference between now and 20 years ago, which they looked at closely, has been the growth of cities and, consequently, larger smoke emissions from the same targets.
They calculated that roughly 150 Tg of smoke would be emitted by the use of the entire current global nuclear arsenal with a yield of 5,000 megatons. If one-third of the current arsenal were used, 50 Tg of smoke would be emitted.
In the 150 Tg scenario, black carbon particles spread quickly across the upper stratosphere and produce “a long-lasting climate forcing” that would last for more than a decade and affect both the Northern and Southern hemispheres. Among the effects would be a 45% global average reduction in precipitation and a global average surface cooling of –7°C to -8°C, which would persist for years. By comparison, the scientists remind us, “the global average cooling at the depth of the last ice age 18,000 years ago was about 5°C,” which would be “a climate change unprecedented in speed and amplitude in the history of the human race.” At the extremes, people in North America and Eurasia would experience cooling of more than -20°C and -30°C respectively.
The reductions in temperature and precipitation in the 50 Tg scenario were about half those for 150 Tg, over the same timescale. While not cold enough to be classified as “nuclear winter,” according to the scientists, such climate forcing would still be “severe and unprecedented.”
Perhaps the most extreme and lethal impact would be the collapse of agriculture. The earlier nuclear winter studies concluded that food production would cease entirely around the world for at least a year, leading to death by starvation for most of the human population. The results of the new studies paint an even grimmer picture: “this period of no food production needs to be extended by many years, making the impacts of nuclear winter even worse than previously thought.”
Nuclear winter revisited with a modern climate model and current nuclear arsenals: Still catastrophic consequences. Alan Robock, Luke Oman, George. L. Stenchikov. 2008. Journal Of Geophysical Research 2008;112 [www.pnas.org/content/105/14/5307].
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This article is written at a definitional level only. Authors wishing to improve this entry are inivited to expand the present treatment, which additions will be peer reviewed prior to publication of any expansion.
The Aland Sea and the Aland Archipelago, at the east of the sea, occupy a strategic position at the mouth of the Gulf of Bothnia; however, the Aland Archipelago is an autonomous demilitarised part of Finland.
Earliest of evidence of human habitation on the perimeter of the Aland Sea was on the Aland islands, dated to approximately 6000 years before present.
The Åland Archipelago comprises somewhat less than 300 habitable islands, of which only approximately 80 are actually inhabited; the remainder of the archipelago topographic features are around 6400 large rocks or skerries. The Aland Archipelago is approximately 38 to 40 kilometers from the Swedish mainland; thus that is the effective width of the Aland Sea.
The Aland Islands of Orrdalsklint and Långbergen in Saltvik represent the highest topographic points in the Aland Archipelago, but these elements only began to emerge above the sea near the beginning of the Holocene.
The earliest evidence of Homo sapiens on the archipelago is linked to the Comb-Ceramic Culture dating to an era of about 6000 years before present (BP). These dates are somewhat later than man was evident in mesolithic cultures on the island of Oland (notably at Alby on the east coast of Oland), somewhat further to the south in the Baltic Sea. Approximately 4500 years BP pitted ware artifacts started appearing in Åland. From around 3800 BP, elements of the Kiukainen culture become evident.
- C.Michael Hogan. 2006. Prehistory of the Alby people, Oland, Sweden. Lumina Technologies.
- Pauli Virrankoski. 2001. Suomen historia. Ensimmäinen osa. SKS. .
- Marek Zvelebil. 2004. Pitted Ware and related cultures of Neolithic Northern Europe, in P. Bogucki and P.J. Crabtree (eds.), Ancient Europe 8000 BC–AD 1000: Encyclopaedia of the Barbarian World, Vol. I The Mesolithic to Copper Age (c. 8000-2000 B.C.)
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When a cockroach scuttles into a dark corner as we flip on the kitchen light, we feel revulsion, not kinship. But a new study reveals that most humans
share a basic trait with Kafka's creepy creatures: right-handedness. Researchers released roaches into a Y-shaped tube, where scents of
vanilla or ethanol enticed the insects to venture past the tube's splitting point. The researchers then recorded which direction the bugs turned.
Cockroaches with intact antennae preferred the tube's right fork 57% of the time. This right-side bias persisted even after the scientists chopped off
one of the bugs' sensitive antennae, used to sense touch and smells. The finding, which will be published in an upcoming issue of the Journal of Insect Behavior, adds to a
growing body of evidence that even the tiniest brains show side-preference. The insight could aid bioengineers who hope to control cockroaches for
search and rescue missions or pest control.
See more ScienceShots.
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http://news.sciencemag.org/sciencenow/2010/12/scienceshot-cockroaches-prefer.html?rss=1
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2013-05-21T17:44:08Z
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Slavery and the Law in Virginia
SLAVE LAWS PASSED IN VIRGINIA:
1640-1660: The Critical Period: Custom to Law when Status Changed to "Servant for Life"1660-1680: Slave Laws Further Restrict Freedom of Blacks and Legalize Different Treatment for Blacks and Whites
- 1639/40 -- Blacks excluded from the requirement of possessing arms.
- 1642 -- Black women counted as tithables (taxable).
- 1662 -- Possibility of life servitude for Blacks.1680-1705: Slave Laws Reflect Racism and the Deliberate Separation of Blacks and Whites. Color becomes the Determining Factor. Conscious Efforts to Rigidly Police Slave Conduct.
- 1667 -- Baptism does not bring freedom to Blacks.
- 1669 -- An act about the "casual killing of slaves" establishes that "if any slave resist his master and by the extremity of the correction should chance to die, that his death not be accompted Felony."
- 1670 -- Servant for life: the "normal" condition judged for Blacks.
- 1670 -- Forbade free Blacks and Native Americans, "though baptised," to own Christian servants.
- 1680 -- Prescription of thirty lashes on the bare back "if any negroe or other slave shall presume to lift up his hand against any Christian."
- 1680s -- Development of a separate legal code providing distinct trial procedures and harsher punishments for negroes.
- 1680s -- Status of the child is determined by the status or condition of the mother.
- 1680s -- Severe punishment prescribed for slaves who leave their master's property or for hiding or resisting capture.
- 1691 -- Banishment for any white person married to a negroe or mulatto and a systematic plan to capture "outlying slaves" is approved.
- 1705 -- All negro, mulatto, and Indian slaves are considered real estate.
- 1705 -- Dismemberment of unruly slaves is made legal.
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Asthma in Teens and Adults
The goal is to reduce the number, length, and severity of asthma attacks. Start by avoiding your asthma Reference triggers. Also be sure to:
- Get a flu vaccine every year. Have your family members get one too.
- Get the pneumococcal vaccine. The vaccine may not prevent pneumonia, but it can prevent some of the serious complications of pneumonia.
- Avoid taking aspirin, ibuprofen, or other similar medicines if they increase your asthma symptoms. Think about using acetaminophen (Tylenol) instead. (Do not give aspirin to anyone younger than 20 because of the risk of Reference Reye syndrome Opens New Window, a rare but serious problem.)
- Be alert to foods that may cause asthma symptoms. Some people have symptoms after eating processed potatoes, shrimp, nuts, and dried fruit, or after drinking beer or wine. These foods and liquids contain sulfites, which may cause asthma symptoms.
Irritants in the air
Common irritants in the air, such as tobacco smoke and air pollution, can trigger asthma attacks in some people. They include:
- Some household cleaning products. If a cleaning product seems to trigger your asthma, stop using it. Or use another product that doesn't cause symptoms.
- Air pollution. Consider staying inside when air pollution levels are high. Avoid indoor irritants in the air (such as fumes from gas, oil, or kerosene or wood-burning stoves).
- Tobacco smoke. If you have asthma, try to avoid being around others who are smoking, and ask people not to smoke in your house. This helps children, too, since exposing young children to secondhand tobacco smoke makes them more likely to get asthma.
Exercise is an asthma trigger for some people. If you often have asthma attacks when you exercise, use your inhaler 10 to 30 minutes before you start the activity so you can avoid an attack.
Avoid exercising outdoors in cold weather. If you are outdoors in cold weather, wear a scarf around your face and breathe through your nose.
|By:||Reference Healthwise Staff||Last Revised: Reference October 22, 2012|
|Medical Review:||Reference E. Gregory Thompson, MD - Internal Medicine
Reference Rohit K Katial, MD - Allergy and Immunology
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http://www.pamf.org/health/healthinfo/index.cfm?A=C&type=info&hwid=hw271348§ion=aa34017
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2013-05-22T07:21:48Z
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The Astronomy Picture of the Day is a wonderful web site that puts up a different astronomy-related picture every day. However, the site does not have an RSS feed. This page fixes that deficiency.
Updated: 3 hours 14 min ago
Lunar Corona over Cochem Castle This bat-like apparition does not shine on clouds passing over Gotham city. Instead, the cloud bank in silhouette against a colorful lunar corona was spotted on the evening of May 18 over Cochem, Germany from the banks of the river Mossele. The lunar corona is formed as bright moonlight is diffracted by water droplets in thin clouds drifting in front of the lunar disk. Below it lies the region's historic Cochem Castle dating from the 11th century, and not Wayne Manor. Still, regardless of your location on planet Earth it is well worth scanning the evening skies this weekend, as a Full Moon rises and bright planets gather in the west.
Caterpillar Moon A close series of consecutive exposures are combined in this intriguing composite of the Full Moon slowly crawling, across the sky. Beginning on the upper right at 19:42 UT and ending at 22:14 UT on April 25, the sequence follows the Moon from Germany as it passes through Earth's shadow in a partial lunar eclipse. Near the top, the Moon just grazes the southern edge of Earth's dark central shadow, or umbra. But the decreased brightness in the darker part of the outer shadow region, the penumbra, is also apparent on the lunar disk. In fact, the relative size and shape of the Earth's shadow regions and the Moon are easier to see along the segments of this lunar caterpillar. Nearly impossible to follow with the eye though, a penumbral lunar eclipse, the Full Moon passing only through the pale outer penumbral shadow, will begin on May 25.
Messier 109 Beautiful barred spiral galaxy M109, 109th entry in Charles Messier's famous catalog of bright Nebulae and Star Clusters, is found just below the Big Dipper's bowl in the northern constellation Ursa Major. In telescopic views, its striking central bar gives the galaxy the appearance of the Greek letter "theta", θ, a common mathematical symbol representing an angle. Of course M109 spans a very small angle in planet Earth's sky, about 7 arcminutes or 0.12 degrees. But that small angle corresponds to an enormous 120,000 light-year diameter at the galaxy's estimated 60 million light-year distance. The brightest member of the now recognized Ursa Major galaxy cluster, M109 (aka NGC 3992) is joined by three spiky foreground stars strung out across this frame. The three small, fuzzy bluish galaxies also on the scene, identified left to right as UGC 6969, UGC 6940 and UGC 6923, are possibly satellite galaxies of the larger M109.
Comet PanSTARRS Anti-Tail Once the famous sunset comet, PanSTARRS (C/2011 L4) is now visible all night from much of the northern hemisphere, bound for the outer solar system as it climbs high above the ecliptic plane. Dimmer and fading, the comet's broad dust tail is still growing, though. This widefield telescopic image was taken against the starry background of the constellation Cepheus on May 15. It shows the comet has developed an extensive anti-tail, dust trailing along the comet's orbit (to the left of the coma), stretching more than 3 degrees across the frame. Since the comet is just over 1.6 astronomical units from planet Earth, that corresponds to a distance of over 12 million kilometers. In late May Comet PanSTARRS will pass within a few degrees of the north celestial pole.
The Waterfall and the World at Night Above this boreal landscape, the arc of the Milky Way and shimmering aurorae flow through the night. Like an echo, below them lies Iceland's spectacular Godafoss, the Waterfall of the Gods. Shining just below the Milky Way, bright Jupiter is included in the panoramic nightscape recorded on March 9. Faint and diffuse, the Andromeda Galaxy (M31) appears immersed in the auroral glow. The digital stitch of four frames is a first place winner in the 2013 International Earth and Sky Photo Contest on Dark Skies Importance organized by The World at Night. An evocative record of the beauty of planet Earth's night sky, all the contest's winning entries are featured in this video.
Four X-class Flares Swinging around the Sun's eastern limb on Monday, a group of sunspots labeled active region AR1748 has produced the first four X-class solar flares of 2013 in less than 48 hours. In time sequence clockwise from the top left, flashes from the four were captured in extreme ultraviolet images from the Solar Dynamics Observatory. Ranked according to their peak brightness in X-rays, X-class flares are the most powerful class and are frequently accompanied by coronal mass ejections (CMEs), massive clouds of high energy plasma launched into space. But CMEs from the first three flares were not Earth-directed, while one associated with the fourth flare may deliver a glancing blow to the Earth's magnetic field on May 18. Also causing temporary radio blackouts, AR1748 is likely not finished. Still forecast to have a significant chance of producing strong flares, the active region is rotating into more direct view across the Sun's nearside.
Cape York Annular Eclipse This week the shadow of the New Moon fell on planet Earth, crossing Queensland's Cape York in northern Australia ... for the second time in six months. On the morning of May 10, the Moon's apparent size was too small to completely cover the Sun though, revealing a "ring of fire" along the central path of the annular solar eclipse. Near mid-eclipse from Coen, Australia, a webcast team captured this telescopic snapshot of the annular phase. Taken with a hydrogen-alpha filter, the dramatic image finds the Moon's silhouette just within the solar disk, and the limb of the active Sun spiked with solar prominences. Still, after hosting back-to-back solar eclipses, northern Australia will miss the next and final solar eclipse of 2013. This November, a rare hybrid eclipse will track across the North Atlantic and equatorial Africa.
Messier 77 Face-on spiral galaxy M77 lies a mere 47 million light-years away toward the aquatic constellation Cetus. At that estimated distance, the gorgeous island universe is about 100 thousand light-years across. Also known as NGC 1068, its compact and very bright core is well studied by astronomers exploring the mysteries of supermassive black holes in active Seyfert galaxies. M77 is also seen at x-ray, ultraviolet, infrared, and radio wavelengths. But this sharp visible light image based on Hubble data follows its winding spiral arms traced by obscuring dust clouds and red-tinted star forming regions close in to the galaxy's luminous core.
Ring of Fire over Monument Valley As the New Moon continues this season's celestial shadow play, an annular solar eclipse track begins in western Australia at 22:30 UT on May 9 -- near sunrise on May 10 local time. Because the eclipse occurs within a few days of lunar apogee, the Moon's silhouette does not quite cover the Sun during mid-eclipse, momentarily creating a spectacular ring of fire. While a larger region witnesses a partial eclipse, the annular mid-eclipse phase is visible along a shadow track only about 200 kilometers wide but 13,000 kilometers long, extending across the central Pacific. For given locations along it, the ring of fire lasts from 4 to 6 minutes. Near the horizon, the appearance of the May 9/10 annular eclipse (online viewing) is suggested by this dramatic composite from May of 2012. The timelapse sequence depicts an annular eclipse in progress before sunset over Monument Valley in the southwestern United States.
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Press Release 10-213
New Research Finds Number Talk Is Important Before Preschool
Psychologist says young children's math skills improve when parents talk frequently about numbers
November 9, 2010
View a video with University of Chicago psychologist Susan Levine.
The amount of time parents spend talking about numbers has a much bigger impact on how young children learn mathematics than was previously known, researchers at the University of Chicago have found.
For example, children whose parents talked more about numbers were much more likely to understand the cardinal number principle--which states that the size of a set of objects is determined by the last number reached when counting the set (e.g., a set of 10 items is larger than a set of seven items).
"By the time children enter preschool, there are marked individual differences in their mathematical knowledge, as shown by their performance on standardized tests," said University of Chicago psychologist Susan Levine, the Stella M. Rowley Professor in Psychology and the leader of the study. Other studies have shown that the level of mathematics knowledge entering school predicts future success.
The results of the study were published in the article, "What Counts in the Development of Young Children's Number Knowledge?" in the current issue of Developmental Psychology. Joining lead author Levine in the study were four other scholars.
"The findings underscore the important role that caregivers can play in children's early mathematical learning," said Soo-Siang Lim, program director for the National Science Foundation's Science of Learning Centers Program. NSF partially funded the research.
"The frequency with which parents' talk with their toddlers about numbers, such as counting the number of objects in spatial arrays and labeling these set sizes, predicts their children's understanding of numbers," said Lim.
"These findings suggest that encouraging parents to talk about numbers with their children, and providing them with effective ways to do so, may positively impact children's school achievement," said Levine.
Although other researchers have examined early mathematics learning, the University of Chicago team is the first to record parent-child interactions in the home and to analyze the connections between parents' number talk and subsequent performance.
Parents often point to objects and say there are three blocks on the floor, for instance. Children can repeat a string of numbers from an early age, but saying "one, two, three" is not the same as actually knowing that the words relate to set size, which is an abstraction.
Frequent use of number words is important, even if the child doesn't seem to pick up on the meanings of the number words right away, Levine said. Children who hear number words in everyday conversation have a clear advantage in understanding how the count words refer to set size. To perform the study, team members made five home visits and videotaped interactions between 44 youngsters and their parents. The taping sessions lasted for 90 minutes and were made at four-month intervals, when the youngsters were between the ages of 14 and 30 months.
The variation in number words was startling for researchers as they reviewed tapes of the 44 youngsters interacting with their parents in everyday activities. Some parents produced as few as four number words during the entire period they were studied, while others produced as many as 257.
"This amount of variation would amount to a range of approximately 28 to 1,799 number-related words in a week," said Levine.
Those differences were shown to have a big impact at the end of the study, when the children were asked to connect the words for numbers with sets of squares presented on sheets of paper. For example, those children who heard a lot of number talk were more likely to respond correctly when shown a set of five squares and four squares and asked to "point to five."
Joining Levine in the study were Linda Whealton Suriyakham, now at the Roger Williams University Center for Counseling and Student Development, Massachusetts School of Professional Psychology; Meredith Rowe, assistant professor of human development at the University of Maryland; Janellen Huttenlocher, the William S. Gray Professor Emeritus of Psychology at the University of Chicago; and Elizabeth Gunderson, a graduate student in psychology at the University of Chicago.
In addition to NSF, this research was supported by the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development and the Spatial Intelligence and Learning Center.
Bobbie Mixon, NSF (703) 292-8485 firstname.lastname@example.org
William Harms, University of Chicago (773) 702-8356 email@example.com
Soo-Siang Lim, NSF (703) 292-7878 firstname.lastname@example.org
Susan Levine, University of Chicago (773) 702-8844 email@example.com
The National Science Foundation (NSF) is an independent federal agency that supports fundamental research and education across all fields of science and engineering. In fiscal year (FY) 2012, its budget was $7.0 billion. NSF funds reach all 50 states through grants to nearly 2,000 colleges, universities and other institutions. Each year, NSF receives about 50,000 competitive requests for funding, and makes about 11,500 new funding awards. NSF also awards about $593 million in professional and service contracts yearly.
Get News Updates by Email
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|Home > Facts > Fiber|
...fiber diet is a diet in which the individual con
Diverticular Disease Diet
...fiber to recommended levels. Origins Diverticu
Irritable Bowel Syndrome Diet
...fiber/low-fat IBS diet Dietary fiber is t
...fiber Other causes include: little physical exe
...fiber diet. Description Foods that are high in
...fiber-rich foods to achieve satiety, the feeling
...fiber. Starch and glycogen are digestible forms
...fiber foods have also been advocated as appetite
...fiber diet. Gastroparesis is most often caused b
...fiber—also known as roughage or bulk. Ins
Highlight any text in the article to look up more information!
Fiber is found only in foods of plant origin. It occurs in the skins, seeds, leaves and roots of fruits and vegetables, and in the germ and bran layers of grains. Pectins, lignans, cellulose, gums and mucilages are all different forms of fiber found in these foods. Because humans lack the digestive enzymes to break down fiber, it passes through the digestive tract largely unchanged.
Depending on the type, fiber may either slow down or speed up the passage of food through the digestive tract. It contributes to stool bulk and stimulates the colon walls to contract. Foods rich in soluble fiber are often recommended to help improve blood glucose and cholesterol levels, while diets containing high amounts of insoluble fiber are known to contribute to bowel regularity and the prevention of diverticular disease. Since high-fiber diets tend to be satisfying but relatively low in calories, they are often promoted for weight management.
Dietary fiber belongs to one of two types, depending on whether or not it is able to dissolve in water Fiber that dissolves in water is called soluble, while fiber that cannot be dissolved in water is known as insoluble Upon ingestion, soluble fiber dissolves in the fluids secreted by the digestive tract, forming a gel. This gel moves slowly through the digestive tract, thus slowing the rate of digestion and absorption. Diets containing large amounts of soluble fiber have been shown to stabilize blood sugar levels in people with diabetes, and have been shown to reduce blood levels of unhealthy (LDL) cholesterol. Foods high in soluble fiber include beans, lentils, oats, psyllium, citrus fruits, barley and apples. In contrast, insoluble fiber acts as roughage. It contributes to stool bulk and promotes regularity. Foods rich in insoluble fiber include wheat bran, whole grains, dried beans, nuts, seeds, and those fruits and vegetables with an edible outer skin or seeds.
In 2001, the Food and Nutrition Board of the Institute of Medicine established its first recommendations for fiber intake. The recommendations are based on the findings of numerous studies showing a reduced risk of heart disease and type 2 diabetes with a daily fiber intake of approximately 14 grams for every 1,000 calories consumed. For adults who are 50 years
(Illustration by GGS Information Services/Thomson Gale.)
of age and younger, the recommended fiber intake is 38 g/day for men and 25 g/day for women. For adults over 50 years of age, the recommendation is 30 g/day for men and 21 g/day for women.
On average, North Americans consume less than 50% of the dietary fiber recommended for good health.
Fiber supplements such as psyllium may reduce the absorption of certain medications when taken at the same time. In general, medications should be taken at least one hour before or two hours after fiber supplements.
Saturday Evening Post278 (March-April 2006):74-79.
Ward, Elizabeth. “The Incredible Bulk: Fiber is a Nutritional Scouring Pad. Here are 31 Ways to Keep it From Tasting Like One.” Men’s Health18(June 2003):102-103.
American Dietetic Association.120 South Riverside Plaza,Suite 2000, Chicago, IL 60606-6995. (800) 877-1600.<http://www.eatright.org>
American Heart Association. 7272 Greenville Avenue,Dallas, TX 75231. (800) 242-8721. <http://www.americanheart.org>
Jackson Gastroenterology. High Fiber Diet <http://www.gicare.com/pated/edtgs01.htm>
Linus Pauling Institute. Micronutrient Information Center(Fiber) <http://lpi.oregonstate.edu/infocenter/phyto chemicals/fiber/>
Mayo Clinic. Dietary Fiber: An Essential Part of a Healthy Diet <http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/fiber/NU00033>
Medline Plus. Dietary Fiber <http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/dietaryfiber.html>
Marie Fortin, M.Ed., RD
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||This article needs additional citations for verification. (October 2007)|
Agricultural biodiversity is a sub-set of general biodiversity. It includes all forms of life directly relevant to agriculture: rare seed varieties and animal breeds (farm biodiversity), but also many other organisms such as soil fauna, weeds, pests, predators, and all of the native plants and animals (wild biodiversity) existing on and flowing through the farm. However, most attention in this field is given to crop varieties and to crop wild relatives. Cultivated varieties can be broadly classified into “modern varieties” and “farmer’s or traditional varieties”. Modern varieties are the outcome of formal breeding and are often characterized as 'high yielding'. For example the short straw wheat and rice varieties of the Green Revolution. In contrast, farmer’s varieties (also known as landraces) are the product of (breeding and) selection carried out by farmers. Together, these varieties represent high levels of genetic diversity and are therefore the focus of most crop genetic resources conservation efforts. Agricultural biodiversity is the basis of our agricultural food chain, developed and safeguarded by farmers, livestock breeders, forest workers, fishermen and indigenous peoples throughout the world. The use of agricultural biodiversity (as opposed to non diverse production methods) can contribute to food security and livelihood security.
Although the term agricultural biodiversity is relatively new - it has come into wide use in recent years as evidenced by bibliographic references - the concept itself is quite old. It is the result of the careful selection and inventive developments of farmers, herders and fishers over millennia. Agricultural biodiversity is a vital sub-set of biodiversity. It is a use of life, i.e. ancillary biotechnologies, by Mankind whose food and livelihood security depend on the sustained management of those diverse biological resources that are important for food and agriculture. As for everything, agricultural biodiversity can be used, not used, misused and even abused. Agricultural biodiversity includes:
- Domesticated crop and 'wild' plants (called: crop wild relatives), including woody perennials (see: forest genetic resources) and aquatic plants (used for food and other natural resources based products), domestic and wild animals (used for food, fibre, milk, hides, furs, power, organic fertilizer), fish and other aquatic animals, within field, forest, rangeland and aquatic ecosystems
- Domesticated livestock species and their wild relatives (http://www.fao.org/dad-is)
- Non-harvested species within production agroecosystems that support food provision, including soil micro-biota, pollinators and so on
- Non-harvested species in the wider environment that support food production agroecosystems (agricultural, pastoral, forest and aquatic ecosystems)
However, agricultural biodiversity, sometimes called Agrobiodiversity, "encompasses the variety and variability of animals, plants and micro-organisms which are necessary to sustain key functions of the agroecosystem, its structure and processes for, and in support of, food production and food security". It further "comprises genetic, population, species, community, ecosystem, and landscape components and human interactions with all these."
Aquatic diversity is also an important component of agricultural biodiversity. The conservation and sustainable use of local aquatic ecosystems, ponds, rivers, coastal commons by artisanal fisherfolk and smallholder farmers is important to the survival of both humans and the environment. Since aquatic organisms, including fish, provide much of our food supply as well as underpinning the income of coastal peoples, it is critical that fisherfolk and smallholder farmers have genetic reserves and sustainable ecosystems to draw upon as aquaculture and marine fisheries management continue to evolve.
Genetic erosion in Agricultural and livestock biodiversity
Genetic erosion in agricultural and livestock biodiversity is the loss of genetic diversity, including the loss of individual genes, and the loss of particular combinations of genes (or gene complexes) such as those manifested in locally adapted landraces or breeds. The term genetic erosion is sometimes used in a narrow sense, such as for the loss of alleles or genes, as well as more broadly, referring to the loss of varieties or even species. The major driving forces behind genetic erosion in crops are: variety replacement, land clearing, overexploitation of species, population pressure, environmental degradation, overgrazing, policy and changing agricultural systems.
The main factor, however, is the replacement of local varieties by high yielding or exotic varieties or species. A large number of varieties can also often be dramatically reduced when commercial varieties (including GMOs) are introduced into traditional farming systems. Many researchers believe that the main problem related to agro-ecosystem management is the general tendency towards genetic and ecological uniformity imposed by the development of modern agriculture. Pressures for that ecological uniformity on farmers and breeders is caused by the food industry demand for more and more raw materials consistency.
Agricultural biodiversity is not only the result of human activity but human life is dependent on it not just for the immediate provision of food and other natural resources based goods, but for the maintenance of areas of land and waters that will sustain production and maintain agroecosystems and the wider biological and environmental services (biosphere).
Agricultural Biodiversity provides:
- Sustainable production of food and other agricultural products emphasising both strengthening sustainability in production systems at all levels of intensity and improving the conservation, sustainable use and enhancement of the diversity of all genetic resources for food and agriculture, especially plant and animal genetic resources, in all types of production systems
- Biological or life support to production emphasising conservation, sustainable use and enhancement of the biological resources that support sustainable production systems, particularly soil biota, pollinators and predators
- Ecological and social services provided by agro-ecosystems such as landscape and wildlife protection, soil protection and health (fertility, structure and function), water cycle and water quality, air quality, CO2 sequestration, etc.
Comparisons of Cropping Systems
The general trend noticed by the analysis of biodiversity present in different cropping systems (e.g., industrial agriculture and organic farming) was that a greater the diversity of crops (temporally and spacially) resulted in a greater overall biodiversity of the agroecosystem, though this is not always the case. A meta-analysis of studies comparing biodiversity noted that, when compared to organic cropping systems, conventional systems had significantly lower species richness and abundance (30% greater richness and 50% greater abundance in organic systems, on average), though 16% of studies did find a greater level of species richness in conventional systems. Another study found that cropping systems that required heavy use of chemical amendments (e.g., the widespread broadcasting of pesticides and glyphosate, a practice ubiquitously found throughout the United States and Canada) had significantly greater levels of pollination deficits, whereas organic fields of the same crop (Canola) witnessed no pollination deficits. Other cropping systems like permaculture have undergone little study to determine relative levels of biodiversity compared to other cropping systems, but because they continue to reinforce the goals of increasing overall crop biodiversity, it can be extrapolated that an even greater level of biodiversity would be observed.
Agroecosystems vs natural ecosystems
Agricultural biodiversity has spatial, temporal and scale dimensions especially at agroecosystem levels. These agroecosystems - ecosystems that are used for agriculture - are determined by three sets of factors: the genetic resources (biodiversity), the physical environment and the human management practices. There are not many ecosystems in the world that are "natural" in the sense of having escaped human influence. Most ecosystems have been to some extent modified or cultivated by human activity for the production of food and income and for livelihood security. However, most agricultural areas can be returned to their natural landscape after subsequent generations.
Notes and references
- FAO, (1996). Global Plan of Action for the Conservation and Sustainable Utilization of Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, http://www.fao.org/ag/AGP/AGPS/GpaEN/gpatoc.htm
- FAO : SD Dimensions : Environment : Environmental conventions and agreements
- Jackson, L., Bawa, K., Pascual, U., and Perrings, C. (2005).agroBIODIVERSITY: A new science agenda for biodiversity in support of sustainable agroecosystems. DIVERSITAS Report N°4. 40 pp.
- FAO, (1997). The State of the World’s Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, http://www.fao.org/WAICENT/FAOINFO/AGRICULT/AGP/AGPS/Pgrfa/pdf/swrfull.pdf
- Gao, L.Z., (2003). The conservation of rice biodiversity in China: significance, genetic erosion, ethnobotany and prospect. Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution, 50: 17-32.
- Guarino, L., (1995). Assessing the threat of genetic erosion. In: Collecting Plant Genetic Diversity: Technical Guidelines (eds. Guarino L, Rao VR, Reid R) pp. 67-74. CAB International, Wallingford.
- Bengtsoon, J., et al. (2005). The effects of organic agriculture on biodiversity and abundance: a metaanalysis. Journal of Applied Ecology, 42: 261–269.
- Morandin, Lora A., and Mark L. Winston. (2005). WILD BEE ABUNDANCE AND SEED PRODUCTION IN CONVENTIONAL, ORGANIC, AND GENETICALLY MODIFIED CANOLA. Ecological Applications, 15:871–881.
- Imhoff, Daniel and Jo Ann Baumgartner eds. (2006). Farming and the Fate of Wild Nature: Essays in Conservation-Based Agriculture. Watershed Media. Healdsburg, California. 106 p.
- IPGRI (now Bioversity International), Future Harvest (2004). Why genetic diversity matters. IPGRI, Future Harvest. Rome. 20 p.
- GFU, IPGRI (now Bioversity International), M.S. Swaminathan Research Foundation (2005). 'Agricultural Biodiversity and Elimination of Hunger and Poverty'. UN Millennium Development Goals, Five years later. The Chennai Platform for Action. GFU, IPGRI, M.S. Swaminathan Research Foundation. Rome. 5 p.
- Agricultural Research Service
- Commission on Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture
- LinKS, a FAO project on biodiversity, gender and knowledge
- FAO Corporate Document Repository: What is agrobiodiversity?
- Facilitating Mechanism for the Implementation of the Global Plan of Action for the Conservation and Sustainable Utilization of Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (GPA)
- European Cooperative Programme for Crop Genetic Resources Network
- Bioversity International
- Crops for the Future (CFF)
- International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture
- European Crop Wild Relative Diversity Assessment and Conservation Forum
- DIVERSEEDS - Networking on conservation and sustainable use of plant genetic resources in Europe and Asia
- Herbicide-resistant plants and agro-biodiversity: Efficient weed control leads to decline in biodiversity
- COHAB Initiative: Cooperation on Health and Biodiversity - Information about health aspects of agricultural biodiversity
- Platform for Agrobiodiversity Research (PAR)
- Agricultural Biodiversity weblog
- European Learning Network on Functional AgroBiodiversity
- agroBIODIVERSITY, a cross-cutting research network of DIVERSITAS
- The Web Portal for Indian Ocean Agriculture and Biodiversity
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en
| 0.882965
| 2,478
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• How do I respond critically to what we read?
• How do I use various reading strategies to comprehend different genres?
• How do I choose texts at my own reading level?
•How do I gain enjoyment through reading?
•How do I gain enjoyment through being read to?
*Shows an ability to construct meaning by integrating knowledge of:
-text structure (such as: letter, narrative, report, recount, procedure)
-text organization: (such as: paragraphs, chapters, introduction, conclusion, contents, page, index)
-language features (such as: descriptive language connectives such as because, therefore, if...then)
-subject specific language (such as: the language of reporting in science and the language of a journalistic report)
*Can retell and discuss texts by providing information relating to plot and character, including a main idea and supporting details
*Recognizes generalizations in texts, such as: a mother looking after her children at home, a prince rescuing a maiden from her evil stepmother, and discusses their implications
*Selects appropriate material and adjusts reading strategies for different texts and different purposes, such as: skimming to locate specific information
*Is becoming efficient in the use of the following word identification strategies for constructing meaning:
-sounds-out to decode words
-uses initial letters as a cue to decoding
-uses known parts of words to make sense of the whole word
-uses blending to decode words
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en
| 0.897595
| 305
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May dates in Virginia history
May 4, 1961
Two busloads of Freedom Riders leave Washington, D.C., and
head through Virginia, where they encounter some resistance and arrests
while trying to use segregated bus station facilities.
May 9, 1926
Richard Evelyn Byrd,
a Virginia native, becomes the first person to fly to the North Pole. Some scholars will later question the validity of Byrd's claim.
May 10, 1863
Thomas Jonathan "Stonewall" Jackson dies,
eight days after being accidentally shot by his own troops at the battle of Chancellorsville. The former
Virginia Military Institute professor is buried in Lexington.
May 14, 1607
Jamestown is officially established. The settlement and
the adjacent river are named in honor of the English king, James I.
May 18, 1623
Captain William Tucker concludes peace negotiations with a
Powhatan village by proposing a toast using drinks laced with poison
prepared by Dr. John Potts. Two hundred Powhatans die instantly and
another fifty are massacred by the English.
May 18, 1968
About 450 marchers cross the Robert E. Lee bridge in
Richmond to join caravans en route to Washington, D.C., for the Poor
People's March. The march was organized by Martin Luther King Jr.
before his assassination and was carried out by Ralph Abernathy.
May 19, 1879
Nancy Langhorne is born in Danville. She later marries
Waldorf Astor, a member of British Parliament. Nancy Langhorne Astor
becomes the first female member of the British House of Commons when she
takes her husband's seat upon his elevation to the House of Lords.
May 22, 1865
Jefferson Davis is jailed at Fort Monroe, following the
conclusion of the Civil War in April. He is imprisoned for a total of
720 days before his release.
May 23, 1609
King James I issues the second charter to the Virginia
Company of London. The charter grants Virginia a 400-mile-wide swath of
land between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, across territory of which
the English had little practical knowledge.
May 24, 1624
King James I dissolves the charter for the Virginia
Company of London. This places Virginia under control of the crown as
the first royal colony in English history.
May 25, 1878
Bill "Bojangles" Robinson, tapdance pioneer and actor, is
born in Richmond.
May 28, 1754
The French and Indian War begins in North America when
George Washington and his men attack a small French detachment near the
current site of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.
• View dates in other months
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en
| 0.940561
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The Black Speech was the language of Mordor. Sauron created the Black Speech, to be the unifying language of all the servants of Mordor, used along with different varieties of Orkish and other languages used by his servants.
The Black Speech was likely based entirely on Valarin, as Morgoth and his Maiar (all of whom would have spoken Valarin) minions did not possess the Secret Fire, but were only able to corrupt things to their service. It may have also been based on Quenya.
Tolkien describes the language as existing in two forms, the ancient "pure" forms used by Sauron himself, the Nazgûl, and the Olog-hai, and the more "debased" form used by the soldiery of the Barad-dûr at the end of the Third Age. The only example given of "pure" Black Speech is the inscription upon the One Ring:
- Ash nazg durbatulûk, ash nazg gimbatul,
- ash nazg thrakatulûk, agh burzum ishi krimpatul.
When translated into English, these words form the lines:
- One Ring to rule them all, One Ring to find them,
- One Ring to bring them all and in the darkness bind them.
These are the first two lines from the end of a verse about the Rings of Power.
It is notable that the letter "e" is totally absent from the Black Speech. It was omitted on purpose for being a favourite letter of the Elves, and for forming a smile when uttering it.
Many Orkish dialects had adopted words from the Black Speech. One Orc from the band that took Merry and Pippin prisoners utters a tirade of curses at one point that is presumably Orkish, but apparently contains at least some elements of Black Speech.
In real life, J. R. R. Tolkien created this language with the intention of making it harsh and ugly, although people who speak the European languages that he emulated may disagree with his methods. The Black Speech is unfortunately one of the more incomplete languages in Tolkien's novels, because the forces of good refuse to utter it, as it attracts the attention of the Eye of Sauron. Unlike Elvish, there are no poems or songs written in it (apart from the Ring's inscription), and because Tolkien designed it to be unpleasant in his own eyes (or ears?), he did not enjoy writing in it; according to Tolkien, he once received a goblet from a fan with the Ring inscription on it in Black Speech, and Tolkien, finding it distasteful, never drank from it and used it only as an ashtray. The result is a random collection of words that are hard to actually use in day-to-day conversation. We learn from the text in the ring and its translation that the Black Speech is a strongly agglutinating language.
Russian historian Alexander Nemirovski identified an ergative case in durbatuluk and thrakatuluk according to a common suffix -tuluk meanning "them all", relating to the verb's object rather then to its subject. This was found as a similarity to other ergative(-absolutive) languages such as an ancient Mesopotamian language, Hurrian.
Translations; Black Speech to EnglishEdit
- ash - one
- mau - warrior
- -atul - them (as a direct object)
- hai - folk
- nazg - ring
- olog - troll
- ûk - all
- gûl - wraith
- uruk - orc
- burzum - darkness
- lug - tower
- gor - hard / tough
- bag - feces
- ronk - pit (bagronk, as muttered in the Uruk-hai chapter of the 2nd book, means a dung-pit, of Orthanc, in that case.)
- goth - lord
- ghash - fire
- mog - voice
- sharku - old / old man
Portrayal in adaptationsEdit
For The Lord of the Rings movie trilogy, the linguist David Salo used what little is known of the Black Speech to create enough of a language for use in the movies. This is usually referred to by Tolkienists as neo-Black Speech. A vocabulary list of unattested neo-Black Speech could be found at the LOTR Fanatics Plaza. Another good source for Neo-Black Speech is The Land of Shadow .
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en
| 0.949005
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Some 3.5 billion years ago, a single-celled organism now named LUCA (for the Last Universal Common Ancestor of all life on Earth) developed the ability to pull oxygen out of its environment. Although LUCA is long gone, University of Hawaii microbiologist Maqsudul Alam has taken a step toward understanding the secret behind this world-changing feat of chemical engineering.
LUCA evolved in an oxygen-free, or anaerobic, environment. But as oxygen levels rose in the ocean and atmosphere, the cell had to develop a way to neutralize what was, in essence, a poison. Alam hit on that defense while studying archaea—another type of primitive, single-celled creature. Alam studied two species of archaea, one aerobic and the other anaerobic. He isolated a crucial compound called protoglobin that protects anaerobic species of archaea from the toxic effects of oxygen. “Protoglobin is the nose and the hand of the archaea,” he says. “It senses oxygen, binds it, and removes it from the cell before it can do any harm.” Protoglobin, or something much like it, apparently provided a similar defense for LUCA. But that is only half of the story. When Alam purified the protoglobin to study its structure, he saw that the molecule looks surprisingly like diluted blood. In fact, protoglobin binds and releases oxygen the same way that hemoglobin does as it transports oxygen through blood. Alam believes that while LUCA initially evolved protoglobin for protection from oxygen, the organism’s descendants developed a variant of the molecule—hemoglobin—that transformed oxygen from a poison into a nutrient. That innovation enabled life to expand into new environments and set the stage for all oxygen-breathing organisms, Alam says.
The next step is to create a computer model that will explain how protoglobin works. Alam hopes such a model will allow him to unravel the genetic changes that transformed protoglobin and answer what he calls the $64 million question: How did protoglobin evolve to transport oxygen through the bodies of multicellular organisms?
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en
| 0.927491
| 432
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Women Sailors and Sailors' Women: An Untold Maritime History
By David Cordingly
Thorndike Press - Large Print, (2001)
Reviewed by Rochelle Caviness - February 28, 2002
It has been a long-standing myth that women are bad luck on a sailing vessel. Yet despite this tradition, women have a long-standing tradition of voyaging on the sea. They have served as crew members, traveled as passengers, and many women 'shipped out' with their husbands or lovers. In Women Sailors & Sailors' Women David Cordingly explores the ofttimes overlooked history of women who went to sea, as well as the history of those women who waited on shore, never knowing if the men they were waiting for would ever return.
Cordingly's narrative concentrated upon the period known as The Great Age of Sail, This is the period when the great sailing ships plied the waters, without the modern conveniences of diesel motors, radios, satellite navigation aids, advanced weather forecast, and often, without the benefit of life boats! Not surprisingly, many ships never returned from their voyages. And even when they did return, those on shore often found that the ship's company had been thinned, often due to accidents or disease. Life onboard a sailing ship was hard. The hours long, and the food and sanitary conditions often primitive. In addition, military ships were liable to be engaged in battle, and merchant ships faced the danger of being captured by pirates. Yet many women willingly entered this masculine, seedy, and dangerous world.
In this marvelously written history, Cordingly recounts the tales of various women who served as sailors on a variety of British and American sailing vessels. As women were not allowed to become sailors, these women had to resort to subterfuge, dressing and acting as men. Despite the cramped conditions found on board the ships, the sex of many of these women where only discovered after they had died or where injured. And in a few cases, even after their true gender was discovered, they were allowed to continue as sailors. Besides discussing how these women managed to become sailors, the duties they carried out, and what their day to day life was like onboard the ships, Cordingly also investigates the various factors that ennobled many women to seek out a sailor's life. Most of the women who went to sea as sailors served on military and merchant ships. However, there are a few recorded instances where women became pirates. The stories of these female pirates are expediently interesting, and Cordingly explores their lives in detail.
In addition to women serving as seamen, Cordingly also explores the history of those women who accompanied their husbands and lovers to sea, at times even taking their children along on long voyages. Life for a proper lady aboard a ship was very restrictive. Often they were relegated spending the entire voyage in or around their cabin and they were not allowed to walk the ship. Why would a woman cut herself off from her friends and family for years on end to lead an ofttimes lonely existence onboard ship? Cordingly explains why in exquisite detail that not only allows you to get a glimpse what motivated these women to go to sea, but also how they spent their days and what happened to them when their husbands died, leaving them alone on a ship full of men...
In addition to the women who went to sea, this history also chronicles the history of the women who waited on shore. These sailors' women ranged from prostitutes to wives, and Cordingly discusses each in turn. He chronicles what their lives were like, how they felt being left alone for long periods, and how life changed when their 'man' came home. Also discussed are the roles women have played as lighthouse keepers, and the image of women as mermaids and sirens.
Women Sailors & Sailors' Women has been meticulously researched. Cordingly, a maritime museum curator, studied a wide range of primary sources while researching this book, including ships' logs, Captain's journals, diaries, letters, and military records. His prose is fluid, fast paced, and he weaves a riveting tale. In all, this is an eminently readable book that will be of interest to scholars, students, and just about anyone looking for a thrilling book to read about the golden age of the great sailing ships. For those with a scholarly bent, this book is well indexed, has a bibliography that will keep you reading for years, and the text contains detailed end notes. As an added plus, this book also contains a 'glossary of sea terms'.
Combat Nurse, by Eric Taylor.
During World War II, numerous women volunteered to serve as military nurses. Often their jobs placed them at grave risk of injury or capture by the enemy, and all too often they met their deaths while doing their duty. In Combat Nurse, Eric Taylor has woven a riveting book that describes what is it was like to be a British nurse, serving in combat areas, during World War II. (Large Print)
The Life and Times of Horatio Hornblower, by C. Northcote Parkinson
This fictional biography of the great Royal Navy hero, Horatio Hornblower, will have you asking yourself, "Was Hornblower really just a work of fiction, or did he really exist?" (Large Print)
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en
| 0.984064
| 1,108
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Mudumalai wildlife reserve is an extension of the Bandipur National Park. The Moyar River which runs along the boundary of Karnataka and Tamilnadu divides these two parks. The Ooty-Mysore highway passes through the wildlife sanctuary. Mudumalai reserve was declared the first wildlife sanctuary in southern India in 1940. The topography is tremendously diverse with mountains, ravines, valleys, waterways and swamps. The plants including of tropical wet deciduous jungles, dry deciduous jungles and scrub jungles. In-comparison to the other nearby wildlife reserves, the climate here is little warmer in Mudumalai Bird Sanctuary.
The vegetation in Mudumalai reserve is very diverse. The mountainous territory of the Western Ghats, dressed in thick varied and wet deciduous jungles, creates Mudumalai (the very old mountains) a most beautiful wildlife sanctuary of South India. Few of the flora of Mudumalai are Aredesia, Solanancea, Bamboos (Bambusa Arundinacea), flowering plants as Indian Labumusum, Natural teak (Tectona Grandis), Terminalia, Crenulata, Anogeissus latifolia, and Grewia etc.
The major animals of Mudumalai park are Elephants, Banner, Gaur, Macaque, Tigers, Leopards, Common Langur, Chital, Sloth Bear, Panther, Python, Four Horned Antelope, Barking Deer, Otter, Giant Flying Squirrel, Crocodiles (Mugger), Sambar, Wild Dog, Hyena, Wild Boar, Spotted Deer, Mouse Deer, Jackal, Porcupine, Hare and Mongoose.
Mudumalai is a paradise for bird watchers. Some of the important birds of Mudumalai Bird Sanctuary are Peacock- the National bird of India, Grey Jungle Fowl, Grey Partridge Quails, Red Spur Fowl, Goggle Eyed Plower, Large, Malabar Whistling Thrush, Racket-Tailed Dronge, Spotted Babbler, The Magpie-robin, Small Green Barbet, Brown Dove, Green Pigeons, Malabar Grey Hornbill, Mynahs and Bulbuls etc. Mudumalai also attracts few migratory birds. Some predominant birds are prey, Hawks, Eagles, Buzzards, Falcons, Harriers and King Vulture.
Air: Coimbatore airport is 160 KMS away from Mudumalai
Rail: Ooty 64 KMS, Mysore 95 KMS
Road: Gudalur 16 KMS
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en
| 0.863836
| 569
|
The bill is a polearm weapon used by infantry in medieval Europe. The bill is similar in size, function and appearance to the halberd, differing mainly in the hooked blade form. Other terms for the bill include English bill, bill hook or bill-guisarme.
Derived originally from the agricultural billhook, the bill consisted of a hooked chopping blade with several pointed projections mounted on a staff. The end of the cutting blade curves forward to form a hook, which is the bill's distinguishing characteristic. In addition, the blade almost universally had one pronounced spike straight off the top like a spear head, and also a hook or spike mounted on the 'reverse' side of the blade. There were many types of bill. English bills tended to be relatively short, with broad chopping heads, while Italian bills (ronche) often had very long thrusting points. The English distinguished between several varieties of bill, including the black, brown, and forest bills, but the differences between them are currently not fully understood.
George Silver, writing in 1599, stated that the (military) black bill should be 5 or 6 feet (1.5 or 1.8 m) long, while the (possibly civilian) forest bill should be 8 or 9 feet (2.4 or 2.7 m) long.
One advantage that it had over other polearms was that while it had the stopping power of a spear and the power of an axe, it also had the addition of a pronounced hook. If the sheer power of a swing did not fell the horse or its rider, the bill's hook was excellent at finding a chink in the plate armour of cavalrymen at the time, dragging the unlucky horseman off his mount to be finished off with either a sword, spear or the bill itself. These characteristics also made it effective against heavily armoured infantry, dragging them into the melee or exploiting the weak points in their armour. The small point found on the trailing edge of some bills was useful for puncturing armour as well—concentrating the force of the blow onto the point.
During the 16th century when most European states were adopting the pike and arquebus, the English preferred to stick with the combination of bill and English longbow. Even in the Elizabethan period, bills were still common with levies sent to fight the Scots. The Battle of Flodden Field (1513) was a classic match between Continental-style Pikes formations (Scots) and Billmen (English).
The shorthanded bills were used by the army of historic India as well, mainly by infantrymen of Bengal. Nowadays smaller versions are used as agricultural tools and as kitchen appliances.
An agricultural version, commonly known as either a brush-ax or bush-ax, is readily available in rural hardware and farm-supply stores in the United States today. It has a 4-foot-long (1.2 m) handle, and a 16-inch (41 cm) head. It is extremely useful for clearing undergrowth and unwanted hedgerows. Both the concave and convex edges may be sharpened edges, but spear-points and back-hooks are not available. Expertly used, the brush-ax can fell a 3-inch (7.6 cm) tree with a single blow. Inexpertly used, it can pose a grave danger of accidental maiming to those standing nearby.
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en
| 0.965474
| 701
|
Among the early words you teach your tot are "thank you." Young children need prompts like, "What do you say to Aunt Becky?" Hopefully, over time, it becomes an automatic response. But parents need to continue teaching an attitude of thanks even to teenagers. As you celebrate the busy holiday season, utilize every moment as an opportunity to nurture thankfulness in your child. Incorporate these free and simple ways into your family life:
Live the Lesson
It has been said that we're always teaching; sometimes we use words. Remember to say "thank you" to others, but more importantly, live a life of appreciation. Your children are watching their first and most influential teacher!
Encourage your child to appreciate the inspiration that surrounds him. Marvel at the power of the wind, the immensity of the ocean, the perfection of a snowflake, the night sky, or the rugged beauty of a mountain range. I've reminded my girls of the saying of Goethe, "Nature is the living, visible garment of God."
Convert Attitude into Action
A small gesture, such as a smile, can lighten the day of the waitress who hands your child a glass of milk or a hug for the teacher is always welcome. When a child empties the dishwasher, it is an action of appreciation for home and food. Thankfulness is also expressed through homemade cards and drawings. To appreciate their classroom teachers, my girls and I always made little gifts for them at the holidays.
Discover Dictionary Descriptions
Although we have our own terms to explain thankfulness, it helps to see new definitions. Go to the library and see what a variety of dictionaries say about the word. I like what The Webster's Dictionary says, "Impressed with a sense of kindness received," because it takes the focus off a material possession and puts it on an attitude.
In researching for this article, I found websites that offer all types of quotes. A humorous one about thanks comes from Woody Allen, "I am thankful for laughter, except when milk comes out of my nose."
Contrast Your Family with Folks Less Fortunate
Help your child see that there are those in your community who aren't as blessed: families without homes, people who are sad and living alone, or those who must go to food kitchens to eat. When my daughters were young, one of our family traditions was to serve a meal to the homeless. My husband, two daughters, and I spent one evening at a rescue mission every Autumn. After seeing the faces of those accepting a plate of food and their expressions of thanks, my daughters quickly appreciated going back home to their safe, cozy bedrooms.
Make a Medley of Thankfulness
Grab a pile of old magazines. Encourage your child to look through the pages and cut out pictures of things for which they are thankful. Glue these on one page, overlapping pictures. Soon your child will have a visual reminder of the blessings in his life.
Pen a Poem of Thankfulness
Together with your child, try to write words that rhyme with thanks, gratitude or thankful. This can be a fun, language learning time also.
Practice Gratitude Permanently
Showing thanks and appreciation need not end with this time of year. I believe letter writing is becoming a lost art. Help your child write thank you notes for their Christmas gifts. Preschoolers can dictate to you their gratitude or express thanks by drawing a picture of their appreciation for their gift-giver. Find opportunities during this upcoming year to reinforce your lesson. For more ideas on teaching children about good manners and attitudes go to mannersoftheheart.com.
As a parent, I hope my children learn to be thankful by the way I live my life before them. After all, as William Bennett said in his book, The Moral Compass: Stories for a Life's Journey , "Sometimes we need to remind ourselves that thankfulness is indeed a virtue."
As a parenting speaker, educator, and author Brenda Nixon desires to build stronger families through parent empowerment. For free tips, articles, her books, tapes, and speaking topics go to brendanixon.com
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en
| 0.944562
| 987
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Cancer research today is as imperative as ever, and new research at the University of Calgary is helping shed light on prevention and treatment of the disease. Professor of biochemistry Hans Vogel is researching a protein called lactoferrin that may boost immunity and gives insight into cancer treatment and prevention.
The Canadian Cancer Society released their 2012 Canadian Cancer Statistics report revealing an expected 186,400 new diagnoses of cancer in Canada this year. This number falls in line with the increasing cancer incidence rate for the past 30 years.
Vogel began researching lactoferrin in the 1990s. His research began as an investigation into the protein's iron-binding properties. Lactoferrin is naturally produced in breast milk, and is believed to be important for infants in obtaining mineral iron while nursing.
Vogel came across research describing lactoferrin's unique ability to split into a peptide that can kill bacteria and act like an antibiotic. This prompted him to look into the structure of the peptide.
"We were very interested in that because we thought it was a unique mode of action," said Vogel.
Lactoferrin is also present in white blood cells, indicating that this protein plays a role in boosting immunity. The protein has anti-microbial, anti-viral, anti-fungal and anti-cancer roles.
"One of the main things that the protein does is that it actually has a strong immunostimulating effect, and that is why it can probably do so many different things well," said Vogel.
Vogel is part of a research team that collaborates with a research group in Norway to focus on lactoferrin's cancer fighting properties.
Vogel's Norwegian colleagues have treated grafted tumours in animals with lactoferrin-derived peptides. Cancer cell line research using lactoferrin has also been done.
The studies have found that cancer cells will take up lactoferrin and change their gene expression.
"Lactoferrin can be added on the outside of the cell," said Vogel. "The cell goes into a slightly different state, which is probably a healthier state."
Companies have also performed human trials where human lactoferrin genes are cloned and administered to cancer patients. Although the research is still in its trial stage, researchers have found that lactoferrin is effective against some forms of lung and kidney cancer.
According to the Canadian Cancer Statistics report, lung cancer has the highest incidence rate, causing 27 per cent of all cancer deaths in Canada. Among the other most prevalent forms of cancer are kidney, prostate and breast cancer.
"What is unique about this is you can actually take the protein orally," said Vogel. "The protein stimulates the immune system in such a way that helps to actually beat back the cancer."
Vogel said this course of research has taken some unexpected turns.
"We started thinking about metal ions some 15 years ago, and now we are thinking maybe about treating cancer," said Vogel. "We could not have predicted that when we started."
Vogel is currently studying variants of the peptides derived from lactoferrin which may lead to a more potent product than whole lactoferrin.
Vogel hopes this research will help people affected by cancer and develop other positive outcomes with immunity and health.
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– Discover more great advice with our Parents' Education Guide
We all need our own bit of private space at home. But when it comes to learning this is essential. A comfortable, well-organised and well-equipped study area can have a major impact on your child's ability to learn.
The most obvious location is their bedroom. But some fundamentals should be considered.
First off, it should be established from the off that this is their space to work - not wherever they choose around the house. It puts them in the right state of mind every time they close the door.
A good desk is fundamental, especially for those in secondary school. If you can squeeze in a proper, solid office desk all the better – it looks business-like and will have adequate storage, including a file drawer. Ensure there is good quality light with an additional desk lamp to avoid eyestrain.
Creating plenty of storage and shelving space around the desk makes it easy to organise books by subject and find material for reference. A corkboard and plenty of stickies are useful, although there are good digital versions of these.
Don't overlook the chair. Just because they're young doesn't mean children don't need a proper, ergonomically-balanced seat. They're going to be spending a long time in it and the last thing you want is for them to start struggling with RSI issues at such a young age.
Explain the rules about sitting up straight (not easy for teens, it has to be said) and have the monitor at arms length and the top close to the eye line.
Teenagers are notorious for clutter and mess – it's how they're wired at that age - but you have to convince them that it's not acceptable around their workspace. Throwing clothes on the floor is one thing, losing your revision notes in piles of paper is another.
Hammer home the idea of organisation. It makes life so much easier and they'll come to their senses eventually. The chaos in my son's room slowly subsided as he grew older but the message still has to be conveyed sometimes.
Having said this, try to avoid setting too many rules – especially when it comes to their work environment. Not everyone works well in total silence. Listening to music can be conducive to learning (assuming the volume isn't at stadium volume) whereas having the television on is a distraction.
Encourage them to decorate the room to their own taste – it's a home study not an office. Colours, posters, hanging mobiles all make the statement that this is their personal haven.
Computer equipment is an essential part of the learning process today. However it's important you establish that there is a difference between the PC, laptop and games console.
The temptations of games and social media are potentially huge – but a computer provides a wealth of knowledge and the ability to arrange information impressively. Just as you rarely use pen and paper at work now, so is the case with you son or daughter at school.
Ensure all hardware is correctly set up, that the computer has enough memory and runs at good speed. It's possible to obtain discounts through schools on software such as Office that they will be expected to master for presentation purposes.
Encourage them to back up their work and make sure there aren’t wires trailing everywhere - never mind health and safety, it's just asking for a plug to get ripped out at the wrong moment mid-essay.
Just remember though: if their study space ticks all these boxes you won't be able to complain if they spend all their time in their bedroom.
– Enter a prize draw to win an Inspiron 14z Ultrabook from Dell
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Essential Point, 1805
Page 1 of 2
Clark's Seminar at Fort Mandan
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he map assembled for Lewis and Clark by Nicholas King in 1803, the one that purportedly contained the most accurate information the best cartographers had in 1802-3 concerning the Northwest, showed two forks identified as the "Missesouri" and "Lesser Missesouri" flowing more or less directly eastward out of a single range "Shining Mountains" between the "Boar's Tooth," in the vicinity of Helena, Montana, and Glacier National Park, near the present Canadian border. That is, between the 45th and 50th parallels. It showed most of the dozen or so headwaters as being known within a short distance of the Rocky Mountain Front, but showed them as conjectural from there almost to the Knife River Villages.
By the close of the winter of 1804-05, however, Clark and Lewis had a different picture of where they and the Corps were headed. Collating what they had learned from traders and travelers in the vicinity of St. Louis, and the lessons from their informal seminars with Canadian traders and especially with Indian informants such as Sheheke and Black Cat, Clark concluded that the Missouri River flowed northward first, then eastward. He was led to the conjecture that, in his terms, those sources lay between 40° and 41° North Latitude. (In fact, the source of the Missouri is in the vicinity of 45°04' North.) Clark's estimate was nearly 300 miles too far south, however (one degree of latitude equals approximately 69 miles), and if that wasn't just a simple miscalculation or a rough generalization, it may have reflected an effort to make his map conform to the then-current theory that the Missouri began on a "height of land" near the sources of the Platte and Rio del Norte.
Still later, in his final map of the Northwest (1814), Clark estimated the sources of all three rivers at about 44° North, not more than a few miles from reality, considering that he never saw any of them. In fact, the Jefferson begins in the Red Rock Lakes area at near 44 degrees 37 minutes 20 seconds north, 111-30-45 W. The Madison called the Firehole River where it rises in Yellowstone National Park is at 44°21' North, 110°52' West. The Gallatin begins at 44°51'20" North, 110°53' West. On the same map (1814), he located the confluence of the headwaters at about 45° North and 110° West. At present, the Missouri River "officially" begins at the confluence of the Jefferson and Madison Rivers, which is at 45°55'37" North, 111°30'24" West.1
The astonishing thing is that the two explorers managed to figure out ways of asking questions of their various informants, and of interpreting answers, in concepts that bridged major cultural and intellectual chasms linguistic, mathematic, geometric, and geographic to arrive at the mutually agreeable, if temporary, conclusions Clark recorded in his 1805 map.
t was a worrisome time, that ten-day stretch between reloading the canoes above the Falls, and reaching the headwaters of the Missouri. On July 24, Lewis fretted over the possibility they might still "meet with some considerable falls or obstruction in the river notwithstanding the information of the Indian woman to the contrary." He could "scarcely form an idea of a river runing to great extent through such a rough mountainous country without having it's stream intersepted by some difficult and gangerous [dangerous] rappids or falls."
Since passing Dearborn's River on July 18, Lewis had had complete command over the six dugout canoes, proceeding by means of the cord and setting poles "the oars scarcely ever being used except to pass the river in order to take advantage of the shore and current" while Clark and a small detail of men hurried ahead, overland. All were "anxious . . . to meet with the Sosonees or snake Indians as soon as possible in order to obtain information relative to the geography of the country." Their hope was for the advance party to make the first contact with them lest the natives be frightened away by the sounds of the hunters' guns. Clark and his detail paid a great price in sore feet because of the sharp, flinty rock they walked on while tracing their route through and around the "Gates of the Mountains." It was a wide Indian road that appeared to have been dug out of the mountainsides in many places. Perhaps Clark and his men were following a branch of the historic Old North Trail that followed the fringes of the Rocky Mountain Front.
Thursday, July 25, dawned on "a fine morning." Clark, with Frazer, the Field brothers, and Charbonneau,
proceeded on a fiew miles to the three forks of the Missouri those three forks are nearly of a size, the North fork appears to have the most water and must be Considered as the one best calculated for us to assend. The South fork is about 70 yds wide & falls in about 500 yards below the midle fork. those forks appear to be verry2 rapid & Contain Some timber in their bottoms which is verry extincive.
Scarcely pausing, and even though wracked with chills, high fever, and "constant aking pains in all his mustles" perhaps symptoms of the first recorded case of Colorado tick fever Clark proceeded on in search of Shoshones. He went up the Jefferson a ways, climbed to the top of a mountain "with great dificuelty & much fatigue" to gain a view of the valleys and mountains ahead, then turned east as far as the Madison River, and followed it back to the rendezvous point. Meanwhile, he left a note for Lewis at the confluence of the "S. W. and Middle forks,"
informing [Lewis] of his intended rout, and that he would rejoin me at this place provided he did not fall in with any fresh sighn of Indians, in which case he intended to pursue untill he over took them calculating on my taking the S. W. for, which I most certainly prefer as it's direction is much more promising than any other.
Lewis and his canoes slowly approached the forks, "the current still so rapid that the men are in a continual state of their utmost exertion to get on, and they begin to weaken fast from this continual state of violent exertion." He explored and described the "extensive and beatifull plains and meadows." He halted the party for breakfeast, and himself "walked up the S. E. fork [the Gallatin] about 1/2 a mile and ascended the point of a high limestone clift from whence I commanded amost perfect view of the neighbouring country." From that point he could look up the Gallatin valley about 7 miles, which suggests he may have climbed some 250 feet to the top of "Lewis's Overlook."
elieving this to be "an essential point in the geography of this western part of the Continent," Lewis determined to remain long enough to record the necessary data for fixing its latitude and longitude. He took note of the surrounding mountain ranges, as well as "a handsom site for a fortification," consisting of "a limestone rock of an oblong form; its sizes perpendicular and about 25 ft high except at the extremity towards the middle fork where it ascends agradually and like to top is covered with a fine terf of greenswoard. the top is level and contains about 2 Acres. the rock [r]ises from the level plain as if it had been designed for some such purpose."
The next morning, the 28th, Lewis dispatched two men up the S. E. Fork to examine the river, and then he and Clark summarized their conclusions:
|Both Capt. C. and myself corrisponded in opinion with rispect to the impropriety of calling either of these streams the Missouri and accordingly agreed to name them after the President of the United States and the Secretairies of the Treasury and state having previously named one river in honour of the Secretaries of War (Dearborn's River) and Navy (Smith's River). In pursuance of this resolution we called the S. W. fork, that which we meant to ascend, Jefferson's River in honor of Thomas Jefferson. [Nicholas Biddle?: the author of our enterprise.] the Middle fork we called Madison's River in honor of James Madison, and the S. E. Fork we called Gallitin's River in honor of Albert Gallatin. the two first are 90 yards wide and the last is 70 yards. all of the run with great valocity and throw out large bodies of water. Gallitin's River is reather more rapid than either of the others, is not quite as deep but from all appearances may be navigated to a considerable distance. Capt. C. who came down madison's river yesterday and has also seen Jefferson's some distance thinks Madison's reather the most rapid, but is not as much so by any means as Gallatin's. the beds of all these streams are formed of smooth pebble and gravel, and their waters perfectly transparent; in short they are three noble streams. |
there is timber enough here to support an establishment3, provided it be erected with brick or stone either of which would be much cheaper than wood as all the materials for such a work are immediately at the spot. there are several small sand-bars along along the shores at no great distance of very pure sand and the earth appears as if it would make good brick....
I observe large quantities of the sand rush in these bottoms which grow in many places as high a man's breast and stand as thick as the stalks of wheat usually do. this affords one of the best winter pastures on earth for horses or cows, and of course will be much in favour of an establishment should it ever be thought necessary to fix one at this place. the grass is also luxouriant and would afford a fine swarth of hay at this time in parsels of ma[n]ly acres together.
Our present camp is precisely on the spot that the Snake Indians were encamped at the time the Minnetares of the Knife R. first came in sight of them five years since. from hence they retreated about three miles up Jeffersons river and concealed themselves in the woods, the Minnetares pursued, attacked them, killed 4 men 4 women and a number of boys, and mad presoners of all the females and four boys. Sah-cah-gar-we-ah o[u]r Indian woman was one of the female prisoners taken at that time; tho' I cannot discover that she shews any immotion of sorrow in recollecting this event, or of joy in being again restored to her native country; if she had enough to eat and a few trinkets to wear I beleive she would be perfectly content anywhere.
The following day. Monday, the men were "busily engaged all day in dising [dressing?] skins and making them into various garments[;] all are leather dressers and taylors." Meanwhile, exploration and observation of all things, great and small, continued at the usual pace: "There is also in these plains a large ant with a redish brown body and legs, and a black head and abdomen; they construct little perimids of small gravel in a conic shape, about 10 or 12 inches high without a mixture of sticks and with but little earth." Judging from Lewis's description, it was perhaps the Western harvester ant.
On the 30th the entire party set out up the Jefferson's River, with Clark again in command of the canoes. It was an arduous day for the men, who made good time an estimated 12.5 miles despite having to make 29 changes of course. Lewis proceeded overland, alone.
The Three Forks, 2006
View south from above the confluence.
Pass cursor over image to read details.
arallel lines of latitude and longitude, made visible by the roads and highways that trace them, impose the basic design of the Rectangular Survey System upon the random sinuous patterns of watercourses and a few hills. Modern high-speed highways such as U.S. 287 begun in 1939 and completed in 1965, connecting Port Arthur, Texas, with Choteau, Montana are routed and graded for optimum efficiency, without regard for the constraints inherent in the Rectangular Survey System.
Essential Infrastructure of the West
o certain did it seem in 1867 that this was destined to be the heart of Montana Territory, that the location of an "Initial Point" for the required rectangular land survey grid was officially established by the Territorial Legislature in that year. The first choice was the highest point on Beaverhead Rock, but it appeared that agricultural settlement was going to begin farther north, in the Gallatin valley near the Three Forks of the Missouri. For that reason the Initial Point the intersection of a designated "Principal Meridian" with a designated "Base Line was officially established about one mile west and three miles south of the town of Willow Creek, on the summit of a foothill rising some 500 feet above the nearby mouth of Willow Creek.4 Specifically, that elevation was determined to lie at 45°47'13" North Latitude, and 111°39'33" West Longitude.
That particular point was chosen was because agricultural settlement was quickly expanding into the rich Gallatin valley, and farmers needed to establish their claims by legal, professional surveys. (Of course, a few unprincipled settlers merely squatted on some prime land and declared they were occupying mining claims.) The location of the Principal Meridian was important because of clear visibility from there, and the ease with which survey lines could be extended in all directions.
Beginning at the Initial Point in 1867, surveyors carefully calculated latitudes and longitudes by celestial observations and intricate formulas in spherical trigonometry, and proceeded to mark off six-mile squares called Townships in the valley. Each Township was divided into thirty-six square-mile Sections. The four corners of each section were marked by permanent "monuments" originally of native stone with the description of the corner chiseled into them. Each section was divided into four 160-acre quarter-sections. Each acre contains 4,850 square yards or 43,560 square feet.5
The purpose of the Rectangular Survey System, which had been initiated by the Continental Congress at Thomas Jefferson's instigation in 1785, was to facilitate the transfer of land from government to individual ownership in a more orderly way than was possible under the ancient "metes-and-bounds" literally, "points and lines" system, in which land ownership was based on irregularly-shaped plots defined by selected natural features.6 There was resistance to Jefferson's Land Ordinance on the part of prospective landowners because through the older principle a speculator or landowner could place the best land in a given area within an irregularly shaped boundary, and to Hell with the hindmost. Before the Initial Point was established in Montana, some of the largest cattle ranches had already been claimed by merely staking out generally desirable limits and grandly expansive dimensions, and thereupon declaring "right of possession." The rectangular system was more equitable, both for fair distribution of land ownership and for taxation purposes.
--Joseph Mussulman, with Robert N. Bergantino, rev. 10/2010
1. The length of a degree of longitude at latitude 45°N is almost exactly 49 statute miles; a degree of latitude between 44°30' and 45°30' North is 69.05 statute miles.
2. The journalists, especially Clark, spelled this ordinary and typically overused adverb with 2 rs about half the time. That was one of the old spellings of the word, to be sure; Lewis, with the better education, most often used just one r. But also the double-r spelling may have invoked a common inflection or phonetic convention that emphasized a shade of meaning synonymous with "extremely," as in "verry foggy this morning" (Lewis) or, in this instance, a verry rapid stream. That "verry fine morning" soon deteriorated into a "verry" hot day. It may also have been a local or regional convention, like the monosyllable "few" sounded like a two-syllable word when uttered by a rural Kentuckian such as Clark "fiew" (fee-oo). Later on the same day, July 25, Clark climbed a mountain with great "dificuelty." Pronounce that slowly, exactly as spelled, and speed it up until it feels natural, and see if it isn't a perfectly logical spelling for the sound of an adult rural Kentuckian who has some "dificuelty" with spelling.
3. Clark's list of prospective trading posts (Moulton, Journals, 3:479-80) did not include one at the Three Forks of the Missouri. Pierre Mιnard and Andrew Henry of the Missouri Fur Company built a post there in 1810, but the Blackfeet soon drove them out.
4. When settlement began in the valleys south of the Three Forks in 1864 amid the distractions of a nearby gold rush, no one thought to consult Clark's 1814 map to see if the captains had already given it a name. They had. On July 25, 1805, they named it Philosophy River, in observance of one of the virtues upheld by the fellowship of Freemasonry, soon adding the Philanthropy River (now the Ruby), and the Wisdom (Big Hole). The sources of the Philosophy River/Willow Creek are high on the west slopes of the Tobacco Root Mountains.
5. The entire State of Montana has never been completely divided into Townships, Ranges and Sections by on-the-ground surveys. Instead, the U.S. Bureau of Land Management has "protracted" the survey lines into the un-surveyed areas by cartographic techniques.
6. Jefferson's Act was modeled on British surveys of India in the mid-18th century, which comprised an elaborate census of all aspects of geography in order to more efficiently extend control over the colony. The six-mile-square British section was based on the French 10-kilometer military grid; 10 km = 6.25 miles.
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Conservation Easements: a Good Investment for the U.S. South
With forests being converted at a rapid pace in the South, conservation easements are one of the most promising approaches to conserve and sustainably manage them. A conservation easement is a voluntary agreement in which a landowner agrees to sell or donate the development rights to his or her land. In contrast to some traditional approaches to forest conservation, conservation easements can prevent forest loss while still allowing landowners to own their land. This has made conservation easements an increasingly popular land conservation tool in the United States. While the use of conservation easements continues to grow nationally, adoption lags behind in the South (Figure 1).
WRI’s new issue brief, “Gaining Ground: Increasing Conservation Easements in the U.S. South,” released today jointly with the American Forest Foundation, aims to increase the use of conservation easements in the South by helping landowners, conservation professionals, and conservation funders understand the unique benefits that conservation easements provide, key barriers to their implementation, and how to best address those barriers.
Benefits of Conservation Easements
Conservation easements are particularly suited for private landowners and provide them with five major benefits:
They allow private landowners to retain ownership of their land. The land, even though conserved, does not become the property of the government or land trust.
They provide flexibility. Agreements are individually negotiated and can be tailored to meet the needs of the landowner while at the same time achieving specific conservation goals.
They do not necessarily “lock up” the land from being used. For example, working forest conservation easements allow landowners to harvest timber from their land if they follow a forest stewardship plan.
They offer financial benefits. Landowners who donate or sell a conservation easement at a bargain rate, meaning lower than market rate, can be entitled to a number of tax benefits.
They open the door for access to revenue from other ecosystem service markets. For instance, landowners can earn money for carbon sequestration that requires a guarantee (known as “permanence”) that land will not be developed.
Funders, like foundations, and conservation organizations can also benefit from conservation easements. For instance, easements offer a cost-effective way to place land into some form of protected status, which is useful to meet particular conservation goals. Furthermore, acre per acre, an easement typically costs 40 percent less than buying the land “fee simple” (through an outright purchase).
How to Increase Conservation Easements in the U.S. South
Despite the advantages, conservation easements have been relatively slow to expand across the South. For instance, although the South constitutes approximately 37 percent of the private land area in the United States, it accounts for only 18 percent of the country’s total conservation easement lands. However, there are several strategies that can help turn this trend around:
1. Increase financial resources and capabilities of land trusts. Land trusts in the South need greater and more timely access to capital and other resources (such as an increase in staff) to be able to more effectively purchase conservation easements. Some steps that would help address these constraints include:
Increase flexible dollars for easement purchase. High net worth individuals, foundations, and other institutions could increase grants or loan capital to land trusts so that the latter could more proactively—and quickly—purchase conservation easements or cover costs to accept donated conservation easements.
Increase the number of conservation-related ballot measures. Conservation groups could continue working to increase the number of state or county conservation easement-related ballot measures, which can be designed to raise funds to purchase conservation easements or cover transaction costs on donated easements. From 1988-2010, conservation-related ballot measures raised approximately $7.5 billion for conservation.
2. Strengthen landowner education to correct misconceptions about conservation easements. Land conservation organizations and other professionals can help improve landowner education about what easements are, their benefits, and their implications. This information is critical for dispelling misconceptions and achieving greater enrollment in conservation easement programs. Some “best practices” for strengthening education include:
Providing direct and personal contact. Although prospective landowners can be reached through a variety of means, most landowners prefer to speak with an individual directly and are most receptive to information that is provided by other landowners or by their local representatives.
Be clear on the benefits of the terms and conditions of the conservation easement.
Flexibility. Emphasize the flexibility associated with conservation easements and that landowners can prioritize terms and conditions most important to them, such as wildlife habitat management or timber management.
Continued land management. Articulate that economic activity on the land, such as sustainable timber harvesting, does not necessarily stop simply because the development rights are sold or retired as part of the conservation easement.
Financial terms. Clearly outline the tax and other financial benefits provided by a conservation easement. Likewise, be clear on how the level of restrictions in the easement can determine the price at which one can sell the development rights.
3. Increase financial benefits and contract length flexibility. Several strategies exist for increasing the financial benefits of placing land under conservation easement, including:
Bridge financing. Revolving loan programs allow land trusts to provide cash advances, low-interest loans, or no-interest loans to help landowners with the costs associated with preparing a conservation easement for sale or donation.
State tax credits. State income tax credits for easements1, sometimes called “conservation credits,” complement federal tax incentives and can provide an additional financial incentive to landowners. To-date only 5 of the 13 southern states have dedicated tax credits for conservation easements: Florida, Georgia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Virginia.
Transferable tax credits. Transferable tax credits for conservation easements allow landowners who have little or no taxable income to transfer tax credits from a conservation easement to another party (for money) who has more taxable income, and can therefore benefit more from a tax break. Only 3 of the 13 southern states offer a transferrable tax credit program: South Carolina, Georgia, and Virginia.
Conservation easements are one of the most promising approaches for conserving southern forests and ensuring they are managed to provide a variety of ecosystem services, such as erosion control and water flow regulation.
The challenge for conservation organizations and their funders going forward is to address the resource and awareness obstacles that easements face, on both the demand and supply side. By doing so, the South can better realize the potential of conservation easements to conserve forests and other ecosystems.
To access this brief and other issue briefs in the Southern Forests for the Future Incentives Series, and to learn more about southern U.S. forests, visit: www.SeeSouthernForests.org. Developed by WRI with support from Toyota, this interactive site provides a wide range of information about southern forests, including current and historic satellite images that allow users to zoom in on areas of interest, overlay maps showing selected forest features and drivers of change, historic forest photos, and case studies of innovative approaches for sustaining forests in the region. To order free hard copies of this issue brief, and other briefs in the Southern Forests for the Future Incentives Series, please contact us.
A Conservation Credit is an income tax credit available to landowners who voluntarily preserve their land through the donation of a conservation easement and/or fee title. The donation must protect conservation values (as defined by individual states), and must be made to an entity qualified to hold such property interest by the terms of the legislation creating the credit, such as state and local governments or 501 (c) (3) land conservation organizations. Most states in the United States allow both individual and corporate taxpayers to claim tax credits (Pentz 2007). ↩
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All cells containing a nucleus also possess a cytoskeleton made up of filamentous protein strands that course through intracellular space like a rail network. Motor proteins "walk" along two types of these strands, called actin filaments and microtubules. On their way, they can carry different types of freight like membrane vesicles, messenger RNAs, proteins and even whole organelles. Disruption of these networks can cause chaos and may result in cell death. The motor proteins must recognize and bind to the correct fiber system and to the appropriate cargo. For transport of freight, molecular motors interact with a plethora of accessory factors to form large transport complexes.
Although these complexes are easy to observe in the fluorescence microscope, attempts to elucidate their detailed composition and structure have failed so far. "We chose baker's yeast, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, as a model, because it has a simple system for mRNA transport," says Dr. Marisa Muller, who performed a large body of the experiments for the new study. "Only a small number of factors are involved and all have already been identified."
"We know that, in addition to the motor protein Myo4p, factors called She2p and She3p are required for mRNA transport activity," adds Roland Heym, who shares first-author status with Muller. She2p is known to bind to RNA, and was thought to be the only factor required for the recognition of the mRNA to be transported. This was expected to be a very early step, taking place in the nucleus, possibly immediately after transcription of the mRNA from the genomic DNA.
The transport phase itself begins in the cytoplasm, i.e. after the mRNA has been exported from the nucleus. This is where She3p comes into play. She3p acts as an adaptor that forms a bridge between She2p (with its associated mRNA cargo) and the motor protein Myo4p. Using a combination of biochemical, biophysical and in-vivo imaging methods, Niessing and his team were able to work out how, when and in what order the transport complex is assembled.
"To our surprise, we found that She2p forms stable and specific complexes with mRNA only in the presence of She3p, and then only with mRNAs that are destined to be transported," says Niessing. "Moreover, She3p not only interacts with She2p and the motor Myo4p, but forms direct contacts with the mRNA. mRNA binding by the individual proteins is not sufficient for selection of transcripts for transport. She2p, She3p and mRNA must come together to permit formation of a stable and specific complex."
Moreover, the two proteins check the passenger tickets, so to speak, because the complex remains stable only if the mRNA carries a particular molecular label that earmarks it as cargo. If the label is missing, the complex rapidly disintegrates. "Our results demonstrate yet again how little we know about this essential cellular process," says Niessing. "It will take a whole series of analogous experiments to understand the mechanistic similarities and differences between the systems that mediate molecular transport in simple unicellular and sophisticated multicellular organisms."
"A Cytoplasmic Complex Mediates Specific mRNA Recognition and Localization in Yeast"; M. Muller, R. G. Heym, A. Mayer, K. Kramer, M. Schmid, P. Cramer, H. Urlaub, R.-P. Jansen, D. Niessing;
PloS Biol, 2011 Apr.; 9(4): e 1000611;
The publication was chosen as "Weekly Editor's Pick": http://www.plosbiology.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pbio.1...
Source: LMU Munich
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http://www.sciguru.com/newsitem/8118/how-molecules-get-to-the-right-place-at-the-right-time
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2013-05-22T07:27:42Z
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Large and brightly colored, caiman lizards can reach up to 3 feet in length. A flattened tail helps the species swim through the water.
Northern South America, from Colombia to Brazil
Caiman lizards favor watery habitats, including swamps and flooded woodlands.
This sizable lizard spends much of its time in the water, where it feeds almost exclusively on snails. At night, individuals retreat to trees and bushes.
Males and females come together to mate, with the female laying eggs after breeding.
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http://www.lpzoo.org/animals/factsheet/caiman-lizard
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At a time when many educators are looking for ways to encourage more students, and more girls in particular, to take an interest in science, a new study suggests gender bias in male and female views of their high school teachers' abilities could be setting back those efforts.
The study finds that male students rate their female science teachers significantly lower than their male teachers in biology, chemistry, and physics. Females students also rate women teachers negatively, though only in physics.
Those attitudes' show up despite male and female teachers showing roughly the same level of effectiveness in preparing students for college-level science courses, as demonstrated by their grades in undergraduate science classes.
Students' different attitudes toward male and female teachers also came through even when the authors accounted for different teaching styles, different levels of popularity among students, and other variations in classroom experiences, the study found. The overall picture indicates that students' attitudes toward their science teachers are specifically linked to gender, say the authors, from Clemson University, the University of Virginia, and the Harvard Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics. Their study was published in the journal Science Education.
The study was based on a large-scale survey of undergraduates called "Factors Influencing College Science Success." Part of the survey asks students to rate their high school teachers on various points, from their subject-matter knowledge to their ability to keep the class on task.
You can find a link to the study here.
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http://blogs.edweek.org/edweek/curriculum/2009/02/gender_bias_and_science.html
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ABRAVANEL, ABARBANEL, or ABRABANEL:
One of the oldest and most distinguished Spanish families, which traces its origin from King David. Members of this family lived at Seville, where dwelt its oldest representative, Don Judah Abravanel. Samuel Abravanel, his grandson, settled at Valencia, and Samuel's son, Judah (or perhaps he himself), left Spain for Portugal. Isaac, the son of Judah, returned to Castile, where he lived till the time of the great expulsion of the Jews from Spain in 1492. Then, with his three sons, Judah, Joseph, and Samuel, Isaac went to Italy. Their descendants, as well as other members of the family who arrived later from the Iberian peninsula, lived in Holland, England, Turkey, and elsewhere during and since the sixteenth century.
Statesman and Bible commentator, son of the Portuguese treasurer, Dom Judah, was born in the year 1437 at Lisbon, and died at Venice in 1508. He was buried in Padua.
Abravanel received a careful education and was a pupil of Joseph Ḥayyim, rabbi of Lisbon. Well versed in Talmudic literature and in the learning of his time, endowed with a clear and keen mind, and full of enthusiasm for Judaism, he devoted his early years to the study of Jewish religious philosophy,and when scarcely twenty years old wrote on the original form of the natural elements, on the most vital religious questions, on prophecy, etc. His political abilities also attracted attention while he was still young. He entered the service of King Alfonso V. of Portugal as treasurer, and soon won the confidence of his master. Notwithstanding his high position and the great wealth he had inherited from his father, his love for his afflicted brethren was unabated. When Arzilla, in Morocco, was taken by the Moors, and the Jewish captives were sold as slaves, he contributed largely to the funds needed to manumit them, and personally arranged for collections throughout Portugal. He also wrote to his learned and wealthy friend Jehiel, of Pisa, in behalf of the captives. After the death of Alfonso he was obliged to relinquish his office, having been accused by King John II. of connivance with the duke of Bragança, who had been executed on the charge of conspiracy. Abravanel, warned in time, saved himself by a hasty flight to Castile (1483). His large fortune was confiscated by royal decree. At Toledo, his new home, he occupied himself at first with Biblical studies, and in the course of six months produced an extensive commentary on the books of Joshua, Judges, and Samuel. But shortly afterward he entered the service of the house of Castile. Together with his friend, the influential Don Abraham Senior, of Segovia, he undertook to farm the revenues and to supply provisions for the royal army, contracts that he carried out to the entire satisfaction of Queen Isabella. During the Moorish war Abravanel advanced considerable sums of money to the government. When the banishment of the Jews from Spain was decreed, he left nothing undone to induce the king to revoke the edict. In vain did he offer him 30,000 ducats ($68,400, nominal value). With his brethren in faith he left Spain and went to Naples, where, soon after, he entered the service of the king. For a short time he lived in peace undisturbed; but when the city was taken by the French, bereft of all his possessions, he followed the young king, Ferdinand, in 1495, to Messina; then went to Corfu; and in 1496 settled in Monopoli, and lastly (1503) in Venice, where his services were employed in negotiating a commercial treaty between Portugal and the Venetian republic (Zurita, "Historia del Rey Don Fernando el Católico," v. 342a).
Abravanel's importance, however, lies not only in his changeful and active career. Although his works can scarcely be said to be of an absolutely original character, they contain so much instructive material, and exerted so wide an influence, that they demand special attention. They may be divided into three classes, referring to (1) exegesis, such as his commentary upon the entire Bible with the exception of the Hagiographa; (2) philosophy, dealing with philosophy in general and particularly with that of the Jewish religion; (3) apologetics, in defense of the Jewish doctrine of the Messiah. Characteristic of Abravanel's exegetic writings is his accurate estimation of the historical standpoint in the ancient annals of the Jewish people. All preceding Jewish exegetes had been too far removed from the tumult of the great world to possess a proper estimate of the historical epochs and episodes described in Scripture. Abravanel, who had himself taken part in the politics of the great powers of the day, rightly perceived that mere consideration of the literary elements of Scripture was insufficient, and that the political and social life of the people must also be taken into account. He recognized also the value of prefacing the individual books of the Bible with a general introduction concerning the character of each book, its date of composition, and the author's intention; he may consequently be considered as a pioneer of the modern science of Bible propædeutics. These excellences of Abravanel's commentaries were especially appreciated by the Christian scholars of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. No less than thirty Christian writers of this period—among them men of eminence, like the younger Buxtorf, Buddeus, Carpzov, and others—occupied themselves with the close study of Abravanel's exegetical writings, which they condensed and translated, and thus introduced to the world of Christian scholarship. Possibly somewhat of this appreciation of Abravanel by Christians was due to the latter's tolerance toward the Christian, exegetes—Jerome, Augustine, and Nicholas de Lyra —all of whom were closely studied by him and quoted without prejudice, receiving praise or disapprobation as the case demanded.
Abravanel's Jewish predecessors in the realm of philosophy, whoever, by no means received the same amount of tolerance at his hands. Men like Albalag, Palquera, Gersonides, Narboni, and others, were roundly denounced by Abravanel as infidels and misleading guides, for venturing to assume a comparatively liberal standpoint in religio-philosophical questions. Although he was the last Jewish Aristotelian, Abravanel was essentially an opponent of philosophy, for his entire conception of Judaism, opposed to that of Maimonides and his school, was rooted in a firm conviction of God's revelation in history, and particularly in the history of the selected people. Had Abravanel not been misled by the "Guide" of Maimonides, for whom he shared the traditional veneration, he might havegiven an exposition of his views on the relations of philosophy and religion. As it is, however, these views are confused, being at one and the same time Maimonistic, anti-Maimonistic, and, in a measure, even cabalistic. A characteristic instance of his vacillation is afforded by his most important religious work, the "Rosh Amanah" (The Pinnacle of Faith), based on Cant. iv. 8. This work, devoted to the championship of the Maimonidean thirteen articles of belief against the attacks of Crescas and Albo, ends with the statement that Maimonides compiled these articles merely in accordance with the fashion of other nations, which set up axioms or fundamental principles for their science; but that the Jewish religion has nothing in common with human science; that the teachings of the Torah are revelations from God, and therefore are all of equal value; that among them are neither principles nor corollaries from principles: which certainly is rather a lame conclusion for a work purporting to be a defense of Maimonides. It would not be just, however, to assert that Abravanel makes a pretense of championing Maimonides, while being actually opposed to him. Abravanel is no hypocrite; wherever he thinks that Maimonides deviates from traditional belief, he does not hesitate to combat him strenuously. He thus assails Maimonides' conception that the prophetic visions were the creations of imagination. Abravanel will not hear of this explanation even for the bat kol of the Talmud, which, according to him, was a veritable voice made audible by God—a miracle, in fact (commentary on Gen. xvi.). In like manner Abravanel exceeded all his predecessors in combating Maimonides' theory of the "Heavenly Chariot" in Ezekiel ("'Aṭeret Zeḳenim," xxiv., and commentary on the "Moreh," part iii. 71-74, ed. Warsaw). Indeed the most noteworthy feature of all Abravanel's philosophical disquisitions is the success with which he demonstrates the weak points in the Maimonidean system.As Apologete.
One point of Maimonides' system, however, and one that was not strictly in the line of tradition, found in Abravanel a zealous imitator: the belief in a Messiah. He felt deeply the hopelessness and despair which possessed his brethren in the years following their expulsion from Spain, and set himself, therefore, to champion the Messianic belief and to strengthen it among his desponding brethren. With this aim he wrote the following three works: "Ma'yene ha-Yeshu'ah" (Sources of Salvation), completed Dec. 6, 1496; "Yeshu'ot Meshiḥo" (The Salvation of His Anointed), completed Dec. 20, 1497; and "Mashmia' Yeshu'ah" (Proclaiming Salvation), completed Feb. 26, 1498—all of them devoted to the exposition of the Jewish belief concerning the Messiah and the Messianic age. The first-named of these is in the form of a commentary upon Daniel, in which he controverts both the Christian exposition and the Jewish rationalism of this book. Curiously enough, in opposition to the Talmud and all later rabbinical tradition, he counts Daniel among the prophets, coinciding therein—but therein only—with the current Christian interpretation. He is impelled to this by the fact that Daniel furnishes the foundation for his Messianic theory. The remainder of his commentary is devoted to an exhaustive and caustic criticism of the Christian exposition.
The second work is probably unique in being an exposition of the doctrine concerning the Messiah according to the traditional testimony of Talmud and Midrash; it is valuable for its exhaustive treatment and clearness of presentation. Of no less importance is his third apologetic work, which contains a collection of all the Messianic passages of the Bible and their interpretations, in the course of which latter Abravanel very frequently attacks the Christian interpretation of these passages. It contains (pp. 32c-34b, ed. Amsterdam) a description of the Messianic age as conceived by the Jewish orthodoxy of the Middle Ages. These apologetic works of Abravanel were widely read by his coreligionists, as is evidenced by their frequent republication, and they contributed undoubtedly to the reassurance of many of his brethren as to a better future for Israel.
The following list of Abravanel's works is arranged alphabetically, according to the Hebrew alphabet, the date of the first edition being given in each case:
(1) "'Aṭeret Zeḳenim" (Crown of the Ancients), Sabbionetta, 1557; (2) "Yeshu'ot Meshiḥo" (The Salvation of His Anointed), Karlsruhe, 1828; (3) "Maamar Kaẓer" (Short Treatise), Venice, 1574; (4) "Ma'yene ha-Yeshu'ah" (Sources of Salvation), Ferrara, 1551; also at Naples, no date, possibly ed. princeps; (5) "Mashmi'a Yeshu'ah" (Proclaiming Salvation), Salonica, 1526; (6) "Mif'alot Elohim" (Works of God), Venice, 1592; (7) "Mirkebet ha-Mishneh" (Second Chariot), Sabbionetta, 1551; (8) "Naḥlat Abot" (The Paternal Inheritance), Constantinople, 1505; (9) "Perush" (Commentary) on the Pentateuch, Venice, 1579; (10) "Perush" on the Earlier Prophets, Pesaro, 1511 (doubtful); (11) "Perush" on the Later Prophets, Pesaro, 1520 (?); (12) "Perush" on Maimonides' "Moreh Nebukim," Karlsruhe, 1831; (13) "Rosh Amanah" (The Pinnacle of Faith), Amsterdam, 1505; (14) "Shamayim Ḥadoshim" (The New Heavens), Rödelheim, 1828; (15) "Ẓurot ha-Yesodot" (Forms of the Elements), Sabbionetta, 1557; (16) "Teshubot" (Responsa), addressed to Saul ha-Kohen of Candia, Venice, 1574. See also Arama, David; Bibago, Abraham.
- Autobiographical notices are given in the introduction to his commentaries on Joshua, Kings, and Deuteronomy and in his Teshubot;
- Baruch , preface to Abravanel's Ma'yene (is of great value);
- Carmoly, in Jost's Annalen, 1839, p. 101;
- also an anonymous writer, ib. p. 181;
- Luzzatto, ibid. 1840, pp. 17, 24;
- Jost, Gesch. d. Israeliten, iii. 104-109;
- Grätz, Gesch. d. Juden, viii. and ix., see index;
- M. H. Friedländer, Chachme ha-Dorot, Brünn, 1880, pp. 136-150;
- Schwerin-Abarbanel, in Berliner's Magazin, 1891, xviii. 133-145, 235-241;
- Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. No. 5302;
- Fürst, Bibl. Jud. pp. 11-15;
- The American Israelite (Cincinnati, O.), 1862, pp. 212, 220, 228, 236, 244, contains a translation (incomplete) of the Rosh Amanah.
1. Son of Joseph Abravanel, and grandson of the Bible-commentator; was distinguished for his philanthropy and his devotion to science. He lived at Ferrara, Italy, where he died in 1573. He entrusted the education of his children to Isaac de Lattes in 1567. Amalus Lusitanus was in friendly intercourse with him and a frequent visitor at his house. 2. A rich and highly respected man who lived at Venice in 1668.Jonah Abravanel:
1. Poet; flourished at Amsterdam in the seventeenth century; died there Aug. 11, 1667. He was the son of the physician Joseph Abravanel, and a nephew of Manasseh ben Israel. He wrote "Elegio em Louvar da Nova Yesiba, institudo por o Senhor Yshac Pereira, de que he Ros Yesiba o Senhor Haham Menasse ben Israel" (Amsterdam, 1644). He wrote also elegies upon the martyrs Isaac de Castro Tartas (1647) and the Bernals (1655). He published with Dr. Ephraim Bueno, after 1630, ritualistic works and "Psalterio de David . . . transladado con toda fidelidad" (Amsterdam, 1644). 2. A learned and highly respected man who lived also at Amsterdam, wherehe died Feb. 19, 1707. 3. Son of Manasseh Abravanel; was a member of the Talmudical Academy 'Eẓ Ḥayyim in Amsterdam, 1710.Joseph Abravanel:
1. Physician and scholar; son of Isaac Abravanel; born at Lisbon in 1471; died about 1552. He lived at Venice and later at Ferrara, and enjoyed a great reputation. 2. A physician, brother of Manasseh Abravanel; flourished at Amsterdam in the seventeenth century; died about 1620. 3. A member of the Academy 'Eẓ Ḥayyim at Amsterdam, in 1706.Judah Abravanel:
1. Receiver of customs at Seville, Spain, in 1310. He rendered substantial service to the grandees of Castile. The infante Don Pedro, in his will, dated Seville, May 9, 1317, ordered that Judah be paid: (1) 15,000 maravedis ($36,000) for clothes delivered; (2) 30,000 maravedis ($72,000) as part of a personal debt, at the same time requesting Judah to release him from paying the rest. Judah had been in great favor with King Alfonso the Wise, with whom he once had a conversation regarding Jews and Judaism. 2. Grandson of the preceding; Portuguese treasurer about 1400. He managed the financial affairs of the infante Dom Fernando, who assigned to him, in 1437, over half a million reis blancos. 3. See Leo Hebræus. 4. The grandson of Judah Abravanel, or Leo Hebræus, bore also the name of Judah. He was a much respected man, who died Dec. 15, 1583, at Ferrara, at the age of fifty. He lived with his brother Jacob Abravanel and another Judah Abravanel, who was renowned for his wealth and for his philanthropy.Samuel Abravanel:
Son of Judah Abravanel of Seville; settled in Castile. He became a patron of learning. He supported the scholar, Menahem ben Zerah, and had him elected rabbi of Toledo. As a mark of his gratitude Menahem dedicated to Abravanel his work, "Ẓedah la-Derek" (Provision for the Journey). During the persecution of 1391 he submitted to baptism and was named, according to Zacuto, Juan of Seville. He soon, however, returned to Judaism. See also Abravalla, Samuel.Samuel Abravanel:
Youngest son of Isaac Abravanel, and grandson of Judah; was born in 1473, at Lisbon. His father sent him to Salonica to pursue his Talmudic studies, where he became the pupil of Joseph Fasi. He lived at Naples, and was employed as financier by the viceroy Don Pedro de Toledo. He made the best possible use of his great wealth, which amounted to more than 200,000 gold zecchini or sequins (about $450,000). The poet Samuel Usque said that he deserved the surname "Tremegisto," that is, "thrice great": great in scholarship, great in name (ancestry), and great in wealth. "He generously employs his wealth in promoting the welfare of his coreligionists. He enables many orphans to marry, supports the needy, and endeavors strenuously to free captives, so that in him are combined all the great qualities which make one fitted for the gift of prophecy." By his contemporaries he was surnamed "Nasi" (Prince), and was much respected. His second wife, Benvenida Abravanela, a woman of prudence, culture, grace, piety, and charity, nobly seconded his efforts. The viceroy of Naples permitted his daughter Leonora, later grand duchess of Tuscany, to be on friendly terms with Benvenida and even to become her pupil. Leonora looked up to her with filial love and respect.
Samuel Abravanel was a patron of Jewish learning. His house was a favorite resort for Jewish and Christian scholars. The Portuguese refugee, David ben Yaḥya, whom Samuel succeeded in placing as rabbi at Naples, and the cabalist Baruch of Benevento, were his intimates. Following in the footsteps of his father, and aided by his noble wife, Samuel was always ready to defend his brethren in faith. When Charles V. issued an edict to expel the Jews from Naples, Benvenida, with the assistance of Leonora, intervened in their behalf so effectively that the decree was revoked. But several years later, when Charles V. ordered the Jews either to leave the land or to wear the badge, the Abravanels settled in Ferrara, where Samuel died in 1551, and Benvenida three years later.
The following were also prominent members of the family: the wealthy and learned "Prince" Ḥiyya Abravanel, who lived at Salonica with the preacher Senior Abravanel (died 1620); Hirsh Abravanel, who was head of the rabbinate at Lissa, Prussia (died 1863).
- Usque, Consolaçam, p. 206;
- Grätz, Gesch. d. Juden, ix. 47 et seq., 327 et seq.;
- Kayserling, Gesch. d. Juden in Portugal, p. 264;
- idem, Die Jüdischen Frauen, pp. 77 et seq.
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Cheyletiellosis in Dogs
The Cheyletiella mite is a highly contagious, zoonotic skin parasite that feeds on the the keratin layer of the skin — the outer layer — and on tissue fluid of the top layer. An infestation of the Cheyletiella mite is medically referred to as cheyletiellosis. This parasitic skin condition is similar to a flea infestation, and is treated with the same products, and with the same environmental methods used for exterminating fleas. Prevalence varies by geographic region largely because common flea-control insecticides control it. The Cheyletiella mite can live off of other hosts and is transmittable to humans.
A Cheyletiella infestation is also referred to as “walking dandruff,” because of the way the mite maneuvers around beneath the keratin layer, pushing up scales of skin so that they seem to be moving, and leaving a dusty surface of skin scales on the surface of the hair. The mites generally cause moderate irritation, but in young animals this infestation can be more severe when coupled with skin abrasions, and an increased risk of infection due to an immature immune system.
The condition or disease described in this medical article can affect both dogs and cats. If you would like to learn more about how this disease affects cats, please visit this page in the PetMD health library.
Symptoms and Types
- Excessive scratching
- Visible scaling of the skin
- Dusting of skin flakes (dandruff) on the surface of the hair
- Lesions on the back
- Underlying skin irritation (may be minimal)
- Small yellow skin mite may be visible on close inspection
- Frequent contact with other animals
- Recent stay in animal shelter, breeding establishment, grooming establishments, kennel
- May be picked up in an environment apparently lacking animal presence
- Re-infestation from improperly decontaminated bedding or housing
Other diseases that have similar symptoms are dandruff, flea-allergic skin irritation, infestation by mites other than Cheyletiella, allergy due to food sensitivity, diabetes, and skin allergies that are particular to your dog. Even so, it is general practice to test for cheyletiellosis when any of the obvious symptoms are present.
Your veterinarian will take samples of your dog's skin, and debris from the top layer of the skin and hair for examination. Even if the mites are not readily visible by looking at the dog, they are large enough to be discovered with a simple magnifying lens. The process is straightforward: the mites are easily collected using a piece of tape, or by a skin scraping. They can also be found in a stool sample, since they are frequently ingested during grooming and passed through the digestive tract undigested. If Cheyletiella mites cannot be identified for certain, your veterinarian may want to test your dog's response to insecticides.
When a dog displays cheyletiellosis, all animals in the household must be treated, as the mite can live for up to ten days away from a host. It is also important to thoroughly clean bedding, kennels, and rugs, so that the mite does not re-infect your dog, or infect other pets. Pets must then be bathed six to eight times a week to remove skin scales. In addition to insecticide and lime-sulfur rinses, your veterinarian may also prescribe oral medications. If the dog has a long coat, it must be clipped to a short length.
Living and Management
If you have been in contact with an infected animal, or your pet is infested with the Cheyletiella mite, you may develop a reaction, such as itching, small red bumps, or minor lesions, but the condition will clear on its own through the normal course of bathing yourself. It is best if you disinfecting your dog and its living environment, as well as disinfect and/or discard its combs, brushes, and other grooming equipment.
If the treatment regimen does not work, your veterinarian will look for other causes for the symptoms. Re-infestation may come from another carrier or from the presence of an unidentified source for the mites, such as untreated bedding.
Any type of arachnid excluding ticks
The fiber that makes up the hair, skin, and nails; protein
A chemical that kills insects by poison or fumigant
The whole system involved in digestion from mouth to anus
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In 323 Emperor Constantine moved the capitol of the Roman Empire to Byzantium. It was then renamed Constantinople. The Eastern part of the empire developed differently then the Western. The Western Empire fell in 400's with an invasion from the northern Germanic Tribes. The Byzantium Empire (Eastern section) stayed in tact over a thousand years longer, till the fall of Constantinople in 1453 to the Turks. Constantinople was renamed by the Turks Istanbul, which is the name it bears to this day. The art and architecture reflects differences between the Roman Catholic religion which develops in the Western Roman Empire and the Eastern Orthodox religion which thrived in the East, in the Byzantium Empire.
The majority of the art in this period and place were created for the Eastern Orthodox Church. The Eastern Orthodox preferred a somber reflected tone to worship instead of the large congregational worship of the West. This focus is also reflected in their art and architecture. The figures in their art appear flat and one dimensional with little use of shadowing to give any life-like appearance. Figures are almost always from the front with somber and solemn looks coming from starring eyes. Faces were long and narrow. In all, very little attempt was made for realism in the painting and mosaic depictions.
The development of the style of Byzantine Art was developed during the Fifth and Sixth centuries. From that time to the time the of the invasion by the Turks, very little change occured in the style. "Byzantine art displayed the same constancy: in the fifth and sixth centuries, it developed a formal expression that was manifested in the thousands of works of art that came to be regarded as sacred and immutable" (Marceau, Jo 1997, pg 136)
During the Eighth and Ninth Centuries, the painting of people was prohibited by the iconoclasts. This was started by Emperor Leo III in 726. He stated that the painting of people was a form of idolatry and that all icons (painting of people) should be destroyed. This spilt the empire into two sections which became know as the Iconoclastic Crisis. The painting and mosaics came back again in the Ninth century till the fall of the Empire to the Turks.
Sculpture was very limited in the Byzantine Era. The only sculpture which developed was limited mostly to small ivory book covers.
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Monday, June 11th, 2012 | education | 3 Comments
A thousand years ago a person could prosper without being literate; this is no longer possible today. Thirty years ago a person could prosper without being digitally literate; this is likewise no longer possible today. The workplace demands both literacy and digital skills and someone who enrols for a university course without them is at a disadvantage. These skills must be developed before a child leaves school.
It follows that the debate is no longer “should we use technology in school” but rather “how can we accelerate the introduction of technologies into our classrooms”. In other parts of the world technology has been a part of classrooms for decades but in South Africa we are lagging behind. While educators in other countries are already experiencing the power of technology as teaching and learning tools, we are grappling with the basics.
Technology can be used in a classroom in different ways.
The first one is to teach learners about technology. Just as good handwriting, spelling and grammar skills are basic building blocks for learning, so a sound understanding of technology is required. It is important to know how to use a word processor, a spreadsheet, presentation software and how to communicate effectively through email. These are basic skills and we may assume that learners will pick them up by themselves, but we only have to look at the way they write SMS messages to understand that much more is required than merely knowing where to press the buttons.
Teaching with technology is the second level for which to aim. Technology can be a powerful teaching aid. Think about a teacher who uses a laptop and a data projector in the classroom to spice up lessons by showing interesting pictures or video clips. This can spark off interesting class discussions, focussing the attention of learners on the learning material. An interactive whiteboard can take this one step further, encouraging further interactivity. If a teacher has a trolley with netbooks available, she can use this for drill and practise exercises to reinforce numeracy skills. Innovative educators will find many ways in which technology can be used as a teaching tool.
Teaching through technology is the third level to which teaches must aspire in the classroom: technology devices can assume the role of tutors to assist teachers with teaching and learners with learning. It becomes a tool for learners to find information, evaluate it, analyse it, and synthesize it to build knowledge. Collaboration skills can be developed as well as other critical thinking skills required for twenty-first century living.
We have a long way to go to reach this third stage – most schools are still battling to bring technology into classrooms to get stage one off the ground!
The state alone can’t make technology in education happen, even though we are looking at the national and provincial education departments to take the lead. NGOs and corporate organizations can play a major role in making technology in the classroom a reality.
The education system faces many challenges – making technology a part of the classroom experience is only one of them. It is, however, a critical one if we do not want the digital divide to widen even further.
Wednesday, February 15th, 2012 | education | Comments Off
If classroom productivity is measured in terms of the amount of learning taking place, ICT will prove to be a productivity powerhouse. But this does not happen automatically. The value of technology in the classroom depends on the way the teacher uses it.
Here are a few points for teachers to ponder:
Use your ICT devices to impact positively on learning; otherwise they’re a waste.
The mere presence of technology in your classroom won’t bring results –you need to apply it as a teaching tool.
The proof of the pudding is in the eating – you will only know the value of technology in the classroom when you try it.
Different degrees of white-elephantness occur in classrooms relative to ICT, ranging from under-utilization to total non-use.
Don’t allow technology to hinder teaching and learning – it remains a tool, albeit a powerful one in the hands of enthusiastic teachers.
Technology is most successful in the classroom when the focus is not on the technology but rather on teaching and learning.
Also bear in mind that technology in the classroom will only empower a teacher if the teacher powers it “on”.
Wednesday, October 26th, 2011 | technology | 2 Comments
Technology can be a valuable tool in the hands of teachers. Sadly, at times it does not result in improved teaching and learning, leading some to conclude that technology “does not work” and, to use a cliché, the baby is then thrown out with the bathwater.
Don’t be too quick to judge technology if it does not yield the expected results in a particular classroom or school. Bear the following facts in mind:
ICT is not a magic wand – its presence alone in a classroom is no guarantee that a teacher will miraculously become a good one.
One of the biggest – and most serious – problems encountered with ICT in education is under-utilization by teachers. This is not a technology failure, but a human (and often a systemic) failure.
Technology can empower teachers but it is only a tool; true empowerment depends on how this tool is used. It may take time for teachers to become skillful users of technology.
Vast as the potential is, ICT can only transform education if teachers are willing to tap into it! You may have a huge water reservoir, but if you are not prepared to tip your bucket into it to draw water you can’t expect to quench your thirst.
Metathesiophibia – a fear of change – leads to stagnation; teachers can’t afford this when it comes to using ICT in school.
When you see a classroom where avaialble technology has not yet brought about a change for the better, consider carefully where the problem lies: with the technololgy, the teacher or the system. Then put appropriate processes in place to remedy the matter.
Friday, December 31st, 2010 | technology | Comments Off
Learners need variety to keep their attention throughout the day – even for just a lesson period. That is why you employ a variety of teaching tools and techniques. When you have technology in your classroom, it is yet another set of tools you can use to add spice to your lessons. In fact, the use of spices is a good analogy to help you decide how often to use technology in the classroom.
You use spices to enhance the natural flavour of food – a touch of cinnamon makes pumpkin taste better; one clove gives a kick to your stew; and a small pinch of ginger can make the world of difference to a boring dish. Spices are edible – but they are not food. Imagine eating a plate of chillies! If your hand – or your spouse’s – slips and too much spice is added, the dish will be spoiled.
Technology must be employed in the same way that an experienced chef uses spices – with discernment. Chefs gain this skill by first making a thorough study of the different spices and then through experimentation. You can develop similar technology acumen by becoming thoroughly familiar with the technology tools at your disposal and then by experimenting with them until you’re skilled.
Once you know how and when to use technology you’ll realize that you don’t have to use it every moment of the day. You don’t use other classroom tools – blackboard, dictionary, chemistry equipment, or abacus – all the time but through experience you’ve learned to turn to each one of them when appropriate. You’ll soon reach the same point with your technology tools.
During some lessons you may use technology simply to introduce a lesson by showing a brief video clip or picture to the class. At other times you’ll prepare an entire lesson using presentation software and then use it for the full lesson period.
Perhaps you’ll overdo it when you start using technology tools – trying to incorporate them into everything. As time goes on you will learn to use your tools in the right measure, to spice up your lessons and to create an interactive classroom.
For more technology tips for teachers click here.
- Education has been in a downward spiral for some time ... has it now gone into free fall? Tweeted 3 days ago
- Whose responsibility is it to train teachers to use classroom technology? wp.me/p23NXx-6H Tweeted 3 days ago
- @markcarolissen Latitude allows for expanding the mind and to develop workable solutions ... I applaud you for using the opportunity. Tweeted 4 days ago
- @neiltyson @RichardDawkins Fortunately ample data is available in the physical world around us to support belief in creation and a creator. Tweeted 4 days ago
- Moving from a no-technology classroom to one that is rich in technology is not an easy journey ... but it's possible. Tweeted 4 days ago
A calender of all posts to date
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Classical manufacturing management approaches dictate that costs be lowered by breaking the process into steps, and ensuring that each of these steps minimizes cost and maximizes efficiency. This discrete approach has resulted in machines placed apart from each other to maximize the efficiency and throughput of each machine. The traditional accounting for machine capitalization is based on the number of parts produced, and this approach reinforces the idea of lowering the cost of each machine (by having them produce as many parts as possible.) Increasing the number of parts (WIP) adds waste in areas such as Inventory and Transportation.
Large amounts of excess Inventory often now accumulate between the machines in the process for reasons to do with 'unbalanced' line capacities and batch processing. In addition, the parts must now be transported between the machines. An increase in the number of machines involved also will reduce each worker's multi-skilling proficiency (since that would need them to learn how to operate multiple machines, and they too will need to move between those machines.)
Lean focuses on optimizing the end-to-end process as a whole. This enables a focus in the process on creating a finished product at the lowest cost (instead of lowering the cost of each step.) A common approach to achieving this is known as the workcell. Machines involved in building a product are placed next to each other to minimize transportation of both parts and people (an L-shaped desk with upper shelves is a good office example, which enables many office equipment to be within the reach of a worker). This will minimize waste in both transportation and in the storage of excess inventory.
At first glance, lean workcells may appear to be similar to traditional workcells, but they are inherently different. For instance, lean workcells must be designed for minimal wasted motion, which refers to any unnecessary time and effort required to assemble a product. Excessive twists or turns, uncomfortable reaches or pickups, and unnecessary walking all contribute to wasted motion and may put error inducing stress upon the operator. Workcells can often be reconfigured easily to allow the adaptation of the process to fit takt time. This flexibility allows the work content to be adapted as demand or product mix changes.
Another Lean approach is to aim to have flexible manufacturing through small production lot sizes since this smoothes production. Small lot sizes usually increases transportation waste, but this can be eliminated if machines are back-to-back in a workcell.
The implementation of workcells can reduce costs by an order of magnitude (90%). Workcells are one of the techniques that give lean production manufacturers such as Toyota great cost advantage.
In software development, the core of the workcell is the cross-functional team. This team differs from a more traditional waterfall team:
|Team composition||Separate roles||Cross-functional|
|Steps are||One at a time||Integrated|
|Size of steps||Large||Small|
|Focus is on||Completing step||Quality|
|Team work||Present only at boundaries of tasks||Present all the time|
|Results are||Historically poor slow, buggy||Fast, high-quality|
Nordson ASYMTEK Introduces a New Workcell for Automated Film-Frame Wafer Dispensing Applications at SEMICON West Booth #6071.(Company overview)
Jul 28, 2011; Nordson ASYMTEK, a leader in dispensing, coating, and jetting technologies, introduces its new automated Workcell for...
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Assessing the Hemodynamic Benefits of Cardiac Resynchronization Therapy in Children Following Open-Heart Surgery
Malformations of the heart (congenital heart disease) are the most common congenital birth defects, occurring in about 1% of children. Each year, between 150-200 children will undergo open heart surgery at British Columbia Children's Hospital (BCCH) to repair the defect(s) in their heart. The abnormal structure of the heart or the open heart surgery may cause damage to the electrical system of the heart which can disturb the rhythm of the heart (arrhythmias), prolong recovery or be life-threatening. For this reason, temporary pacing wires are placed in the heart following surgery to ensure the heart rhythm is as normal as possible during the post-operative period (pacing). In recent years, scientists have recognized that pacing the heart from one area is not necessarily the same as pacing it from a different area. In fact, in some individuals with arrhythmias and poor heart function, pacing the heart from different areas can improve the pumping of the heart, resulting in better heart function. This form of treatment is called Cardiac Resynchronization Therapy (CRT) because it endeavours to optimize the pumping of the heart by changing the electrical activation of the heart. CRT has been used to a very limited extent in children. A few pediatric cardiologists have used CRT to help children who are in heart failure. We would like to determine whether pacing the heart from different areas after open heart surgery improves the child's heart function and aids his or her recovery.
The heart's rhythmic beating or contraction is determined by the flow of an excitatory electrical wave-front along a specialized cardiac conduction system. In the presence of altered conduction, such as a bundle branch block or an intra-ventricular conduction delay, abnormal cardiac contraction or dyssynchrony occurs. The delay can occur in the specialized conduction system (electrical dyssynchrony) or myocardium (mechanical or structural dyssynchrony).1 Techniques to improve both electrical and mechanical synchrony in patients with bundle branch block were initially done on adults. Research in this field began to appear in the last decade when dual chamber pacing was first used as adjunctive therapy for adults with medically refractory heart failure.2 Acute studies showed that atrioventricular (AV) synchronous pacing with a short AV delay improved cardiac output and exercise duration in patients with heart failure and a prolonged PR interval.3 The beneficial effects of AV resynchrony (optimizing AV conduction times with pacing) were shown to be due to increased diastolic filling time, and reduction in mitral or tricuspid valve regurgitation. The results of long-term studies, however, did not demonstrate consistent improvement in ejection fraction or NYHA functional class with DDD pacing.4 Since then, Cardiac Resynchronization Therapy (CRT) has established itself as a proven therapy for congestive heart failure in adults, with patients showing improvement in exercise tolerance, quality of life, and survival.1, 5, 6 More recently, the technique of utilizing CRT to stimulate the heart from novel or multiple sites has been applied to pediatric patients.7-9 Children with chronic heart failure have received CRT successfully as an adjunctive therapy.
One of the major limitations of CRT is the objective assessment of whether cardiac output and ventricular function are improved. As well, the precise location of where to pace the heart in order to optimize hemodynamic function needs to be determined. The objective assessment of successful CRT is a difficult clinical issue and should ideally be performed non-invasively. Traditional two-dimensional echocardiographic and Doppler indices have been used to assess the efficacy of CRT and include measuring cardiac output, looking at ventricular ejection times, visually assessing wall motion, and measuring the length of diastole using the mitral "E" and "A" waves. As most of the existing techniques are limited to assessing global function, more detailed methods of assessment are necessary in order to fully assess and optimize CRT.10, 11 Tissue Doppler Imaging (TDI) offers a more detailed analysis of regional cardiac function and allows quantitative measures to be obtained. TDI operates at high frame rates and can non-invasively map cardiac activation and add information related to the degree and location of cardiac dyssychrony. TDI and its derivatives allow: (1) measurement of myocardial velocities, which is based on the detection of the Doppler shift caused by the motion of myocardial tissue during the cardiac cycle; (2) visualization of tissue tracking, which color-codes tissue segments with similar displacements according to a color map; (3) measurement of regional strain rates, which describes the rate of deformation, or how quickly a segment of tissue shortens or lengthens; and (4) measurement of regional strain, which describes the deformation of an object (in this case, tissue) relative to its original state. 12, 13
Cardiac pacing in children is done most often following cardiac surgery for congenital heart disease (CHD). This pacing is usually temporary. Following open heart surgery children frequently exhibit cardiac dyssynchrony secondary to conduction abnormalities or regional wall motion abnormalities. Often, damage to the conduction system is an unavoidable result of the operation itself. Regardless of the extent of the conduction abnormality, most patients operated on for congenital heart disease undergo a period of decreased cardiac function related to several factors, including: pre-existing myocardial disease; cardiopulmonary bypass; and residual cardiac lesions.7, 14 The decrease in cardiac performance and, therefore, the risk to the patient's life, can be aggravated by the presence of cardiac dyssynchrony. The benefits of CRT are just beginning to receive attention in the setting of pediatric post-operative cardiac care. 15
We hope to demonstrate that CRT is beneficial in the care of post-operative patients undergoing open-heart surgery for repair of congenital heart defects. We will be using state-of-the-art TDI for assessing cardiac dyssynchrony, and using it as a tool for monitoring therapy. This study has tremendous potential for application to all patients undergoing open-heart surgery for repair of congenital heart defects. If it can be demonstrated that CRT can improve post-operative outcomes in this population, significant morbidity and mortality can be avoided, Intensive Care Unit (ICU) and hospital stays shortened, and the associated health care costs reduced.
Allocation: Randomized, Control: Active Control, Endpoint Classification: Safety/Efficacy Study, Intervention Model: Parallel Assignment, Masking: Open Label, Primary Purpose: Treatment
Congenital Heart Defects
Cardiac Resynchronization with Biventricular Pacing
Children's Heart Centre, British Columbia's Children's Hospital
Active, not recruiting
University of British Columbia
Results (where available)
- Source: http://clinicaltrials.gov/show/NCT00397514
- Information obtained from ClinicalTrials.gov on July 15, 2010
Medical and Biotech [MESH] Definitions
Cardiac Resynchronization Therapy
The restoration of the sequential order of contraction and relaxation of the HEART ATRIA and HEART VENTRICLES by atrio-biventricular pacing.
A condition characterized by the thickening of ENDOCARDIUM due to proliferation of fibrous and elastic tissue, usually in the left ventricle leading to impaired cardiac function (CARDIOMYOPATHY, RESTRICTIVE). It is most commonly seen in young children and rarely in adults. It is often associated with congenital heart anomalies (HEART DEFECTS CONGENITAL;) INFECTION; or gene mutation. Defects in the tafazzin protein, encoded by TAZ gene, result in a form of autosomal dominant familial endocardial fibroelastosis.
Heart Defects, Congenital
Developmental abnormalities involving structures of the heart. These defects are present at birth but may be discovered later in life.
Cardiac Pacing, Artificial
Regulation of the rate of contraction of the heart muscles by an artificial pacemaker.
Ventricular Outflow Obstruction
Occlusion of the outflow tract in either the LEFT VENTRICLE or the RIGHT VENTRICLE of the heart. This may result from CONGENITAL HEART DEFECTS, predisposing heart diseases, complications of surgery, or HEART NEOPLASMS.
The purpose of this study is to demonstrate that biventricular pacing (BiV) and left univentricular (left ventricular [LV] only) pacing are safe and effective for cardiac resynchronization...
Patients who have heart failure and have electrical evidence of delay in the contraction of the left ventricle on an ECG tracing of the heart are eligible for biventricular pacing. Recent...
The purpose of this study is to determine whether combined mortality and hospitalization in heart failure patients receiving optimal pharmacologic therapy can be reduced by combining optim...
The Medtronic InSync III Marquis Cardiac Resynchronization Therapy Defibrillator (CRT-D)-System (implantable cardioverter-defibrillator with biventricular stimulation for cardiac resynchro...
The purpose of this study is to assess the efficiency of permanent biventricular pacing using three ventricular leads in terms of reduction in adverse cardiac events rates, improvement in...
This case report describes abrupt heart rate fallings below the lower pacing rate limit in a patient with cardiac resynchronization therapy (CRT). Interrogated information including stored episodes or...
PURPOSE: Bifocal pacing in the right ventricle is an option for patients with end-stage heart failure in whom biventricular pacing is not possible, due to failure in left ventricular (LV) lead inserti...
Cardiac resynchronization (CRT) through atrio-biventricular pacemaker therapy is now a well established treatment option for severely symptomatic patients with advanced systolic heart failure (HF) and...
Aims The objective of this study was to compare long-term clinical effects of biventricular pacing with isolated left ventricular pacing. Methods and results Forty consecutive patients with idiopathic...
Cardiac resynchronization therapy (CRT) with biventricular pacing (BV) is an established therapy for heart failure (HF) patients with inter- and intraventricular conduction delay. The aim of this pilo...
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Photographic survey of the impacts of Hurricane Katrina on the barrier islands, barrier shoreline, and the Mississippi River Delta along the Louisiana coastline. Primary focus is on the ecosystems such as fish, rookeries, and seagrass beds.
Landscapes of interwoven wetlands and uplands offer a rich set of ecosystem goods and services. Changes in climate and land use can affect the value of those services. We study these areas to understand how they may be changing.
Will salt marshes survive if sea level rises quickly? The answer depends on whether the areas surrounding them can allow salt marsh fauna and flora to migrate there. Local topography, both natural and manmade, is the main factor limiting this migration.
The North American Amphibian Monitoring Program (NAAMP) is a long-term monitoring program designed to track the status and trends of frog and toad populations with links to data access, protocol, and how to volunteer as an observer.
Locations of survey points, a photographic record of each site, field observations of vegetation cover and descriptions of oil coverage in the water and on plants, including measurements of the distance of oil penetration from the shoreline.
Portal of the South Florida Information Access (SOFIA) system providing multiple links to projects, products, information, and data for research, decision-making, and resource management of the South Florida ecosystem restoration effort.
A pictorial overview for general audiences of key landscapes and ecosystems in South Florida; includes extensive references and links to past and current research activities relating to the South Florida ecosystem restoration effort.
Interactive Mapping Service (IMS) is an Internet based Geographic Information System designed to provide users with online mapping capability of habitats, land use and land cover, and seagrass for areas of Tampa Bay.
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NASA researchers have released 90 rubber ducks into the Greenland’s Jakobshavn Glacier—the same glacier that may have sunk the Titanic a century ago—in an attempt to understand why glaciers move faster in the summer and why sea levels change.
Because the Jakobshavn Glacier is known to discharge as much as seven percent of Greenland’s melting icesheets, NASA researchers are specifically interested in knowing how the meltwater moves through the glacier. While they can clearly see how the icebergs fall into the ocean, it’s impossible to see exactly how the water flows. In theory, as the sun warms the ice in the summer, the top layer of the glacier melts and flows through a hole in the glacier until it reaches the other side. As such, the researchers suspect the rubber ducks will end up in the surrounding water in Baffin Bay.
The rubbery toys have the words “science experiment” and “reward” written in three languages on them and even have an email address in case anyone finds them. So far, there haven’t been any fishermen who’ve hooked any rubber duckies, but the NASA researchers remain hopeful that someone will find the ducks soon. “We haven’t heard back but it may take some time until somebody actually finds it and decides to send us an email that they have found it,” says Alberto Behar of NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory.
Rubber ducks have floated in the ocean before. Sixteen years ago, 29,000 plastic yellow ducks, blue turtles, and green frogs from China were pushed overboard from a cargo ship during a storm. Over the years, the toys have floated around the world, marked with the words, “The First Years.” While the rubber duckies never made it safely into the tubs, they did help scientists learn about the ocean’s surface currents, as they were able to track their movement at about a mile a day, as they traveled into the Arctic ice around the North-West Passage and into the Atlantic ocean. Most of the ducks headed South and were found in Indonesia, Australia and South America. Last year a retired teacher found the first rubber duck to wash ashore on a British beach somewhere between Woolacombe and Putsborough. Although the duck survived the 17,000 mile journey, it clearly took the toll of the sea: It was covered in barnacles and brown algae, and part of its head was missing.
Image: flickr / Dan
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Mood-changing drugs enter waterways, affect fish, study finds
Courtesy of Umeå University, Science and World Science staff
Some medicines that end up in the world’s waterways after being used are affecting fish behavior, according to a new study.
Tomas Brodin of Sweden’s Umeå University and colleagues found that wild European perch ate faster, became bolder and acted less social after exposure to an anxiety-moderating drug known as Oxazepam.
|Perch. (Courtesy Ben Christensen)
Residues of the drug often wind up in natural aquatic systems after people consume it, the researchers said. They’re excreted, flushed down the toilet, treated at wastewater treatment plants, and end up in the water unchanged.
Brodin and colleagues dosed wild perch with amounts of Oxazepam equivalent to those found in Sweden’s rivers and streams. Their results, they said, suggested that even small amounts of the drug can alter the behavior and foraging rates of these fish.
“Normally, perch are shy and hunt in schools. This is a known strategy for survival and growth. But those who swim in Oxazepam became considerably bolder,” said Brodin, lead author of the report, published in the Feb. 15 issue of the journal Science. The affected fish left their schools to seek food on their own, a behavior that can be risky, he explained; they also ate more quickly.
“We’re now going to examine what consequences this might have. In waters where fish begin to eat more efficiently, this can affect the composition of species, for example, and ultimately lead to unexpected effects, such as increased risk of algal blooming,” said Brodin.
“The solution to the problem is not to stop medicating ill people but to try to develop sewage treatment plants that can capture environmentally hazardous drugs,” added environmental chemist Jerker Fick, a co-author of the study.
The scientists added that the findings should be seen as a pointer about what might be underway in many waters around the world, though fuller studies are required before any far-reaching conclusions can be drawn.
- Psychiatric Meds in Water Supply May Alter Fish Behavior – U.S. News & World Report (health.usnews.com)
- Drugs Laked Into Rivers Make Fish Antisocial (news.yahoo.com)
- Study: Anxiety Drugs Found In Fish Could Have Evolutionary Consequences (washington.cbslocal.com)
- Drug passed on to fish boosts their confidence (smh.com.au)
- Pill to Gill: Antianxiety Drugs in Flushed into Water May Be Making Fishes Fearless (scientificamerican.com)
- Anxiety Drug in Water Makes Shy Swedish Fish Greedy (bloomberg.com)
- Drug residues ‘alter fish behaviour’ (bbc.co.uk)
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As the first postage stamps issued by the Bureau of Engraving and Printing, the Series of 1894 holds a unique position in U.S. philately. Generations of collectors have referred to the series as the 'First Bureau Issue'. The stamp designs were the legacy from the American Bank Note Company dies, to which the Bureau added 'triangles' in the upper corners. Until July 1894, when the first stamps of the series was issued, private companies had printed all postage stamps under contracts with the Post Office Department.
Series of 1894 stamps are categorized in three groups based primarily on whether or not watermarked paper was used and on color. The series includes thirteen denominations, ranging from one cent to five dollars.
Issued in July 1894, the first denomination of the first group was the 6-cent Garfield stamp. Most of the other stamps were issued in the fall of 1894, though the 8-cent Sherman was not issued until March 1895. The Bureau of Engraving and Printing issued all stamps in this first group on unwatermarked paper, just as the American Bank Note Company had done.
A decision was made in 1895 to print stamps on watermarked paper. Series of 1894 stamps that had only recently appeared on unwatermarked paper now appeared again on paper with a double-line USPS watermark. They were the first postage stamps printed on watermarked paper and constitute the second group of stamps in the First Bureau Issue.
The third group in the First Bureau Issue includes stamps whose colors were changed to conform to Universal Postal Union regulations. The 1-cent Franklin was changed from blue to green and the 5-cent Grant from chocolate to blue. In order to avoid confusing postal clerks and the public, the 10-cent Webster, previously printed in green, was reissued in brown and orange brown, and the 15-cent Clay, previously printed in blue, was reissued in olive green.
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Science Fair Project Encyclopedia
Acadia National Park
|Nearest city||Bar Harbor, Maine|
|Area||47,400 acres (192 km²)|
|Date of Establishment||February 26, 1919|
|Governing Body||National Park Service|
|IUCN category||II (National Park)|
Acadia National Park is a United States National Park, located primarily on Mount Desert Island off the Atlantic coast of Maine. The park is administered by the National Park Service. The area includes mountains, an ocean shoreline, woodlands, and lakes. In addition to Mount Desert Island, the park comprises much of the Isle au Haut, a small island to the southwest of Mount Desert Island. A portion of Schoodic Peninsula on the mainland is also part of the park. In total, Acadia National Park consists of 30,300 acres on Mount Desert Island, 2,728 acres (11 km²) on Isle au Haut and 2,266 acres (9.2 km²) on the Schoodic Peninsula.
The park was created as Sieur de Monts National Monument on January 19, 1916. On February 26, 1919, it became a national park, with the name Lafayette National Park in honor of the Marquis de Lafayette, an influential French supporter of the American Revolution. The park's name was changed to Acadia National Park in 1929.
The town of Bar Harbor is located on the northeast corner of the island. Cadillac Mountain on the eastern side of the island is a famous tourist destination because it is one of the first places in the United States to see the sunrise. Miles of scenic carriage roads were originally built by John D. Rockefeller, Jr. with great sensitivity to the trees and contours of the land.
- "Discover Acadia National Park: A Guide to Hiking, Biking, and Paddling" by Jerry Monkman et al., Appalachian Mountain Club; ISBN 1878239929; May 2000
- "Acadia Revealed" by Jay Kaiser et al., Papyrus Travel Guides; ISBN 0967890497; July 2000
- Official website
- Acadia National Park Page
- Guide to Acadia National Park on Compassmonkey.com
- Acadia National Park Pictures
- Photos of Acadia National Park - Terra Galleria
The contents of this article is licensed from www.wikipedia.org under the GNU Free Documentation License. Click here to see the transparent copy and copyright details
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Common Diseases of the Pancreas
Pancreatitis is an inflammation of the pancreas. It is caused when the digestive enzymes from the exocrine pancreas become activated inside of the pancreas, instead of in the duodenum, and start "digesting" the pancreas itself. It usually presents with abdominal pain and can cause nausea and vomiting.
- Acute pancreatitis may be a single or a recurring event, and it usually occurs suddenly. The abdominal pain with acute pancreatitis is often severe. Secretions can back up in the pancreas and cause permanent damage in just a few hours. Acute pancreatitis often presents with raised levels of pancreatic enzymes in the blood. These enzymes can circulate to other body organs, causing shock and organ failure. Acute pancreatitis can lead to internal bleeding and infection and can be life-threatening. The most common cause of acute pancreatitis is blockage of the pancreatic duct (obstruction), usually due to gallstones and sometimes due to particles (sometimes tiny gallstones) in bile that have precipitated (biliary sludge). Because these pass through the bile duct, they may cause blockage of the common duct through which both biliary and pancreatic secretions pass into the duodenum. Other causes may include alcohol excess, physical trauma to the abdomen, exceedingly high blood triglyceride level, and high blood calcium level.
- Chronic pancreatitis is characterized by chronic or persistent abdominal pain and may or may not present with raised pancreatic enzymes. It develops gradually, often results in slow destruction of the pancreas, and can lead to other problems, such as pancreatic insufficiency (see below), bacterial infections, and type 2 diabetes. The main causes of chronic pancreatitis are gallbladder disease (ductal obstruction) and genetic risks, which are increased by modifying factors such as alcoholism. Other causes include high blood calcium level and very, very high triglyceride level, some drugs, and autoimmune conditions. Hereditary chronic pancreatitis results from mutations that affect the secretion of digestive enzymes, such as cystic fibrosis, or mutations that cause early activation of digestive enzymes while they are still in the pancreas.
Cancer of the pancreas is the fourth leading cause of cancer death in the United States, killing more than 35,000 people a year. Risks include smoking, age, gender (more common in men), chronic pancreatitis, and exposure to some industrial chemicals. About 95% of pancreatic cancers develop in the exocrine tissues. Pancreatic cancer is very difficult to detect in the early stages because symptoms are either absent or nonspecific: abdominal pain, nausea, loss of appetite, and sometimes jaundice. Tumors near the head section that block flow to the intestine may be detected earlier. Only about 10% of the cancers are still contained within the pancreas at the time of diagnosis.
Pancreatic insufficiency is not a primary disorder but is secondary to the other causes of pancreatic disease. It is the inability of the pancreas to produce and/or transport enough digestive enzymes to break down food in the intestine. It typically occurs as a result of progressive pancreatic damage - damage that may be caused by a variety of conditions. It is most frequently associated with cystic fibrosis in children and with chronic pancreatitis in adults; it is less frequently but sometimes associated with pancreatic cancer.
To find out more about some of the less common pancreatic diseases, visit the web site Pancreas.org: Rare syndromes.
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How is Technology Used
Weather dominates our lives. It controls how we work, live and play, and accounts for nearly 20 percent of the information presented in local newscasts. Many of us plan our daily activities by looking at a forecast. Will it snow? Will it be humid? What are the chances of rain for the weekend?
These are the questions people want answered about their climate, but where does one go to explore the “weather” in the aquatic environment of fish, oysters or bay grasses?
The answer: Eyes on the Bay. http://www.eyesonthebay.net.
Water quality mapping technologies improve this data’s spatial resolution, enabling DNR to determine the extent and impact of harmful conditions such as low dissolved oxygen or algal blooms. New technologies also allow for timely and relevant data to be provided in a compelling format through the EOTB website. DNR is also partnering with NASA to provide satellite imagery of the Chesapeake Bay Watershed. These images provide valuable information and data which scientist can view to help understand or figure out why an event like an algae bloom may have occurred. The orbit of the NASA satellite provides imagery to study environmental issues across the globe such as cloud cover, vegetation on land and water temperatures. (www.aqua.nasa.gov).
More Than Just Data
Courtesy of NASA/GSFC/MITI/ERSDAC/JAROS,
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1. It is an adult medium. No seventh grader who has difficulty reading likes to be seen carrying around Six Ducks in a Pond, but the same student is proud to be seen carrying a newspaper.
2. It deals in reality, in what is happening here and now. Motivation for reading and for discussion are built in.
3. It bridges the gap between the classroom and the “real” world.
4. It contains history as it happens, reported as completely and as objectively as possible.
5. It is the ideal text for individualized instruction because it contains something for every student - the comics for reading enjoyment; the editorials for thinking skills; math problems ranging from number recognition to understanding stock reports; information useable in every academic discipline.
6. It contains practical vocabulary, the words students will use over and over throughout their lives. It provides a perfect base for learning English.
7. It can be marked, cut, pasted and colored - all important to those who learn best by doing and seeing.
8. It contains, in its news stories, the best models for clear, concise and simple writing.
9. It is the perfect model for teaching students to write for a purpose and for a particular audience.
10. It is the only up-to-date social studies and science text there is.
11. It is the only text that the majority of students will continue to read throughout their lives.
12. It is an influential and integral part of our free society. Its freedom is guaranteed in the Bill of Rights. This freedom is “less the right to the newspaper to print than it is the right of the citizens to read."
CU GalleriesView All Galleries »
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While there are many different types of snakes found at Gauley River National Recreation Area, only two types are poisonous; the Northern Copperhead and the Timber Rattlesnake. Although these snakes are not normally aggressive, they can bite if surprised or threatened. Copperheads and rattlesnakes are an essential part of the natural ecosystem and an important component in the natural food chain. Please remember that snakes are protected at Gauley River National Recreation Area; it is illegal to harm them.
The copperhead and the rattlesnake share three characteristics that can quickly distinguish them from other non-venomous snakes.
1. Broad, flattened, arrow shaped heads with narrow necks, while the heads of non venomous snakes are long and slender.
2. The venomous snakes have elliptical shaped eyes similar to a cat's eye, while non venomous snakes eyes are round.
3. Sensory pits located near the nostrils are also unique to venomous snakes.
• Reddish brown with a series of darker hourglass or saddlebag shaped markings down backs.
• Pinkish belly
• 2 to 3 feet in length
• When agitated a copperhead may vibrate its tail rapidly in an attempt to warn off danger.
• Bright yellow to dull gray in color.
• Brown or black chevron shaped markings along its back.
• Can grow up to 6 ft in length.
• Will seldom bite unless disturbed.
How to avoid being bitten:
• Do not place your hands or feet where you can't see.
• Keep all pets on a leash.
• If you see a snake, do not provoke it or try to pick it up, just avoid it.
First Aid for a Snake Bite:
• Stay calm; don't panic.
• Look for signs of envenomation: severe burning pain at the site of the bite, swelling beginning within about five minutes of getting bit and progressing up the limb, discoloration and blood-filled blisters developing in 6 to 48 hours. In at least 25% of bites, no venom is injected.
• If there are immediate symptoms, get help immediately.
• Send someone for help; Call 911
• Try to keep the affected limb lowered below the victims heart
• Keep the victim as quiet and calm as possible; activity can increase venom absorption.
• Seek medical help even if there is no immediate reaction. All bites can cause infection and should be treated by a physician.
Did You Know?
The Gauley River has cut a gorge of up to 500 feet deep in places. Within the gorge, the river is characterized by alternating pools and rapids with torrential water, boulders and exposed bedrock.
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This atlas provides a comprehensive overview of what is currently known about all six species of great apes - chimpanzee, bonobo, Sumatran orangutan, Bornean orangutan, eastern gorilla, and western gorilla. It gives a thorough background on ape behaviour and ecology for each species, including detailed habitat requirements, the apes' ecological role, and the possible consequences of their decline.
Despite the dedicated efforts of many individuals and organizations, the great apes all fall into the Endangered or Critically Endangered category of the IUCN Red List. This atlas offers a full description of the threats, current conservation efforts, and additional protection needed for each species across its entire range.
•Covers all six species of great apes
•Provides the most up-to-date and comprehensive data available
•More than 150 full-colour photos
•More than 40 full-colour maps and diagrams
This innovative tool provides users with initial estimates of embedded carbon within an identified spatial area such as a protected area or any user-defined polygon drawn on a global map.Resource Type: Tools / Applications
UNEP-WCMC, with support from the German Federal Agency for Nature Conservation (BfN), has launched a new website highlighting the potential for actions on reducing emissions from land use change to secure additional important benefits for biodiversity and ecosystem services (co-benefits). The website demonstrates the utility of spatial analyses to assist decision makers in identifying areas where high carbon, high biodiversity priority, and ecosystem service values overlap, which represent opportunities for securing co-benefits. It showcases UNEP-WCMC’s recent work with in-country partners on developing such analyses and includes an interactive mapping tool that allows users to explore the spatial relationships between carbon and co-benefits.Resource Type: Tools / Applications
The Great Apes, including the chimpanzee, gorilla and orangutan, are threatened with extinction. All species are rapidly declining in abundance, even within protected areas.The main factors responsible for this decline are loss and degradation of habitat, and hunting. Construction of roads in forest areas is particularly damaging, as such development facilitates hunting and other activities which lead to habitat destruction.
This report assesses the impact of infrastructural development on great ape populations, using the GLOBIO modelling approach. GLOBIO is a multivariable spatial model, which estimates the extent of land area with reduced abundance and diversity of living organisms, as a result of infrastructural development. The model can also be used to develop scenarios of possible future impacts, based on the current rates of infrastructural development.Resource Type: Reports
The Last Stand of the Orangutan was prepared by a Rapid Response Team at UNEP/GRID-Arendal and UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre as a broad collaborative effort, involving contributors from the Ministry of Environment and Ministry of Forestry, Indonesia, and partners of the Great Apes Survival Project (GRASP).Resource Type: Reports
This paper reviews the potential for carbon sequestration in dryland ecosystems, which includes forests, but also covers other habitats, such as grasslands, and, importantly, soils. It also considers ways in which carbon storage in drylands affects land degradation issues.Resource Type: Reports
This reports looks at the carbon storage function of protected areas as a contribution to the development of strategies for reducing emissions from land use change. In particular, it is relevant to the current discussions surrounding reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation (REDD) under the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC).Resource Type: Reports
This study combines the best available data on carbon stocks and deforestation with protected area data to estimate the area of forest loss within the protected area network of the humid tropical forest biome during 2000-2005.Resource Type: Reports
Well-planned and carefully implemented REDD+ actions can have positive outcomes that are additional to emissions reductions. Such ‘cobenefits’ include conservation of biodiversity and maintenance of ecosystem services. Potential cobenefits from REDD+ are highly relevant in Nigeria, where services provided by forests make an important contribution to the livelihoods of local communities (Aruofor 2001).
Spatial analyses relating potential co-benefits to carbon stocks can support planning and decisionmaking on REDD+. Simple mapping tools can be used to help identify areas where high carbon, high biodiversity priority, and ecosystem service values overlap, and show how these relate to pressures and management options. This brochure presents results from some initial spatial analyses for Nigeria.Resource Type: Reports
©2013 UNEP All rights reserved
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HTML and CSS Tutorials - Creating Tables
Tables are a very helpful way of presenting data on a website. Tables have an interesting history on the Web, though one that bears a little discussion before you dig in and begin creating them.
As many readers might be aware, the Web was created by a physicist. Tim Berners-Lee had a vision that the technology could be used as a highly efficient means of distributing and sharing research documents. So tables are an extension of that original idea: They were added to the growing language of HTML as a means to share data with other researchers and scientists.
At the time, CSS hadn't emerged, so there was no technology available to specifically address the way pages were laid out. Because tables create a grid, it quickly became convention to use tables as a means of displaying content rather than dataa de facto layout tool because nothing better existed.
To this day, tables remain the primary means of laying out web documents visually. But this approach is fraught with problems. Table-based layouts take longer to load and are often extremely detailed, making them difficult to manage effectively. Tables for layout do not follow the structural premise so important for search engine rankings, so using them can inhibit the capability to improve ranking. Finally, and perhaps most importantly, table layouts create numerous barriers to accessibility.
The use of tables for layout is the biggest hack in HTML history because it forces elements and attributes created for one specific thing: the display of tabular data, to be used for something entirely different. There is no doubt that table layouts changed the face of the Web, but now that we have CSS, there's no reason to use tables for most layouts anymore. Instead, tables are once again being looked upon in their true light: as a means of displaying data.
An approach known as transitional design incorporates the use of lightly crafted tables along with CSS to achieve layouts that are compatible in older browsers. This technique is an excellent approach if you have concerns about supporting browsers other than contemporary ones. However, the ideal is to avoid tables altogether, except for the purpose for which they were intended.
Table of content (tutorial index)
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From Pet Health Learning Center
Dog Hypothyroidism (Canine Hypothyroidism)
Signs and Symptoms
Hypothyroidism is an endocrine disorder that commonly affects dogs. In fact, hypothyroidism is the hormonal disorder most frequently experienced by canines. This disorder affects a dog's entire body and can significantly detract from you pet's happiness and enjoyment of life. This disorder can also lead to additional medical problems, compounding your pet's ill health and discomfort. The good news regarding canine hypothyroidism is that it's relatively easy to treat. So in order to prevent unnecessary suffering and the development of further health complications, it's important to begin treatment of hypothyroidism as early on as possible. In order for this to occur, prompt diagnosis is necessary. So if your canine buddy is behaving oddly or seems to be feeling under the weather, consult with a veterinarian so that the problem can be identified and dealt with quickly.
Since canine hypothyroidism affects a dog's entire system, the potential signs and symptoms of this disorder are numerous and varied. However, one warning sign that tends to appear early on and in the majority of cases is a gradual onset of listlessness and lethargy. A dog with this endocrine disorder may appear to become mentally dull as well as physically dull, and may also begin to gain weight despite an apparently low food intake. Coat changes are also common. The dog's hair tends to lose its luster and becomes greasy with time, and will also shed excessively. This often leads to bald spots, especially on the dog's trunk and hind legs. Hair loss on the animal's tail is also symptomatic of hypothyroidism, typically leaving only a small tuft of hair at the end of the tail. This hair loss occurs due to the unhealthy state of the afflicted dog's skin, which can also give rise to recurrent skin infections and an unpleasant odor.
Other symptoms commonly displayed by dogs with hypothyroidism include drooping eyelids, general weakness, and low tolerance for exercise. Canines with this disorder also tend to prefer warm environments. Some dogs suffering from hypothyroidism experience seizures and others become infertile. Since these symptoms and warning signs are so varied, they can also be indicators of other illnesses and medical conditions. So if your dog is exhibiting any of these behaviors or symptoms, it's important to contact a veterinarian immediately so that the underlying cause can be identified and a treatment plan can be implemented.
If your dog is feeling under the weather, a veterinarian will go over your pet's medical history and conduct a physical examination. If the history and/or physical exam suggest the possibility of hypothyroidism, a number of tests will be conducted in order to confirm a diagnosis of this endocrine disorder. General blood tests will be run in order to check for high levels of blood lipids as well as high blood cholesterol, both of which are often seen in dogs with hypothyroidism. In addition, approximately fifty percent of dogs suffering from this hormone disorder also suffer from anemia, so this condition will be checked for as well.
Thyroid tests are often the most helpful when it comes to diagnosing dog hypothyroidism. If thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) levels are high despite low levels of T4 and free T4, this indicates that the canine patient could be suffering from hypothyroidism. Also, a special TSH stimulation test may be used to confirm a diagnosis of this condition. If a dog has hypothyroidism, its T4 levels will not increase when given thyroid stimulating hormone. In some circumstances, an EKG may be used to help reach a diagnosis of hypothyroidism. A hypothyroid dog tends to exhibit an abnormal heart tracing with low R waves and sometimes has a slow heart rate as well.
While there are numerous tests that can be employed when canine hypothyroidism is suspected, diagnosing this condition is not always easy. Hypothyroidism often resembles other diseases and illnesses, and many of the diagnostic tests can be affected by drugs, obesity, and other medical conditions. However, when a number of diagnostic tests are used together, a confident diagnosis can often be achieved.
Pathophysiology A dog's thyroid is a small dual-lobed, butterfly-shaped gland located in the neck. The thyroid produces hormones, which are chemicals that are transported via the bloodstream and act upon tissue physiology. Namely, the thyroid is responsible for producing the hormones thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3), both of which play a significant role in a number of important physiological functions, including growth and the regulation of metabolism. When a dog develops hypothyroidism, thyroid activity drops and production of thyroxine is deficient. Since thyroid hormones participate in a wide array of different physiological tasks and functions, improper function of this gland has numerous and varied consequences. Moreover, since thyroid hormones regulate metabolism and determine the rate at which the body's cells burn fuel, hypothyroidism affects every cell in a dog's body. This disruption of normal metabolism is what gives rise to the common symptoms of listlessness and lethargy.
A dog's thyroid acts as a master gland, controlling almost every tissue in the dog's body to at least some extent. As a result, it's not surprising that a disruption of normal thyroid function gives rise to so many different symptoms and health problems. While thyroid disorders in cats most frequently manifest themselves as hyperthyroidism (overactive thyroid), hypothyroidism is by far the most common form of endocrine disorder in canines.
Causes The majority of cases of canine hypothyroidism, almost ninety percent, arise as a result of an immune disorder. This involves the dog's immune system attacking its own thyroid gland and is referred to as autoimmune thyroiditis or Hashimoto's Disease. When the immune system attacks the thyroid gland, it eventually causes destruction of the thyroid, triggering the onset of the symptoms characteristic of hypothyroidism. Why exactly this occurs is not fully understood. However, there are certain factors that are believed to contribute to the onset of such an immune disorder. For example, some believe that too many immune-stimulating vaccines can lead to autoimmune thyroiditis. Furthermore, breed and genetics are known to play a role in the development of this type of thyroid disorder. As a result, certain breeds are particularly prone to developing hypothyroidism, including Cocker Spaniels, Golden Retrievers, Great Danes, Irish Setters, Poodles, and Boxers.
In addition to genetics and autoimmune thyroiditis, there are several other potential causes of dog hypothyroidism as well. These possible triggers included cancer, the surgical removal of the thyroid gland, and low levels of iodine in the diet. Moreover, some causes of this disorder are completely unknown (idiopathic). Thus, canine hypothyroidism can develop for many different reasons, although immune disorders are responsible for the majority of occurrences of this endocrine condition.
Treatment Regardless of the disorder's cause, canine hypothyroidism is typically treated with thyroid hormone supplements. L-thyroxine (T4) tablets are generally administered twice a day, although treatments are often started slowly in order to allow the animal's heart to adjust. Once treatment has begun, significant improvement is often observed in just a few weeks. Regular veterinary checkups and occasional follow-up blood tests help to keep track of the patient's progress and to keep medication at optimal levels.
Homeopathic remedies can also be very beneficial for dogs suffering from hypothyroidism. Some dogs benefit from kelp and seaweed, which contain iodine. Vitamin A, vitamin C, the B vitamins, and Omega 6 fatty acids are also known to aid hypothyroid canines. Other beneficial substances include alfalfa, fennel, and oats. Some natural herbal tonics are available that combine several natural ingredients to provide numerous beneficial effects for pets with hypothyroidism. Such tonics may include ingredients like Siberian ginseng and kelp, which stimulate metabolism and balance thyroid activity. Furthermore, natural substances such as milk vetch and licorice help to boost the immune system while also promoting overall good health. Since so many natural ingredients have an array of beneficial, health-promoting properties, homeopathic remedies can provide a great form of treatment for many dogs suffering from hypothyroidism.
1.Talk to your doctor about taking hormone pills - the most common form of treatment.
2.Understand that these pills provide the hormone levels the body cannot produce on its own.
3.Be prepared for it to take a few months before your symptoms disappear.
4.Realize that your dose may need to be adjusted a few times before your hormone levels stabilize.
5.Have follow-up blood tests to be sure your hormone levels are healthy.
6.Continue to visit your doctor at least once a year, because changes in weight and pregnancy can affect the dosage of medication you need.
7.Be on the lookout for the possible reappearance of any of your symptoms.
8.Remember that you will probably need to continue these pills for life.
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16. April 2008: Methane sources over the last 30,000 years – New insights into natural changes in atmospheric methane concentrations
Ice cores are essential for climate research, because they represent the only archive which allows direct measurements of atmospheric composition and greenhouse gas concentrations in the past. Using novel isotopic studies, scientists from the European Project for Ice Coring In Antarctica (EPICA) were now able to identify the most important processes responsible for changes in natural methane concentrations over the transition from the last ice age into our warm period. The study now published in the scientific magazine nature shows that wetland regions emitted significantly less methane during glacial times. In contrast methane emissions by forest fire activity remained surprisingly constant from glacial to interglacial times.
In the current issue of Nature, members of the EPICA team publish new insights into natural changes in the atmospheric concentrations of the second most important greenhouse gas methane (CH4). The scientist present the first glacial/interglacial record of the carbon isotopic composition of methane (δ13CH4) providing essential information on the sources being responsible for the observed CH4 concentration changes.
The well known glacial/interglacial changes in atmospheric methane concentrations are quite drastic. Glacial concentration were on average 350 ppbv (part per billion by volume) and increased to approximately 700 ppbv during the last glacial/interglacial transition superimposed by rapid shifts of about 200 ppbv connected to rapid climate changes. During the last centuries human methane emissions artificially increased CH4 concentrations to approximately 1750 ppbv.
But what caused these substantial changes in natural atmospheric CH4 concentrations prior to the human impact? To answer this question, the scientists developed a new analytical method that now allows to quantify changes in the isotopic ratio of 12CH4 and 13CH4 in ice core samples. This ratio provides insight into the responsible methane sources.
“These studies bring us much closer to a quantitative understanding of what happened with wetlands and methane in the past”, says Dr. Hubertus Fischer from the Alfred-Wegener-Institute for Polar and Marine Research, who is the lead author of the publication and coordinator of the gas studies on the EPICA ice cores. “This is essential to also improve our predictions of how the methane cycle will respond to an increased warming in the future”, he adds.
The study shows, that tropical wetlands emitted substantially less CH4 during glacials; most likely caused by changes in monsoonal precipitation patterns. Together with a reduced atmospheric lifetime, this explains major parts of the glacial CH4 reduction. In addition, boreal methane sources located in wetlands in higher northern latitudes were essentially switched off during the glacial due to the expansion of the northern ice sheets and the very cold temperatures in high northern latitude. However, these high latitude wetlands were quickly reactivated when rapid climate warming events occurred. Also forest fires emit a considerable amount of CH4, which, however, remained surprisingly constant over time. The isotopic measurements show no signs of CH4 emissions by a destabilization of marine gas hydrate reservoirs when climate was warming.
The current results were published by a team of scientist from Germany, France and Switzerland. As the German partner within EPICA, the Alfred-Wegener-Institute was responsible for the drilling operation of the ice core used for this study. In addition, it specialized on the development of new analytical techniques to measure isotopes in greenhouse gases and the interpretation of changes in biogeochemical cycles in the past.
Coordinated by the European Science Foundation (ESF), EPICA is funded by the participating countries and the European Union. EPICA is one of the core projects of the AWI Research Program “Maritime, Coastal and Polar Systems” in the “Earth and Environment” research section of the Helmholtz-Gemeinschaft. For its outstanding effort and large impact on climate research, EPICA has recently received the Descartes Prize for Transnational, Collaborative Research awarded by the European Commission.
“Changing boreal methane sources and constant biomass burning during the last termination” by Fischer et al.
will be published in Nature on April 17, 2008.
In case of publication, please provide a copy.
Notes for editors: For further information please contact Dr Hubertus Fischer (+49(0)471 4841 1174, email: email@example.com) or the press department at the Alfred Wegener Institute: Dr Ude Cieluch (+49(0)471 4831 2008; email: firstname.lastname@example.org).
Contact at the University of Bern, Switzerland, is Prof. Thomas Stocker (+41(0)31 631 44 62, email: email@example.com)
Contact at the Laboratoire de Glaciologie et Geophysique de l’Environnement, Grenoble, France, is Dr. Jerome Chappellaz, (+33(0)4 76 82 42 64, email: firstname.lastname@example.org)
The Alfred Wegener Institute carries out research in the Arctic and Antarctic as well as in the high and mid latitude oceans. The institute coordinates German polar research and makes available to international science important infrastructure, e.g. the research ice breaker “Polarstern” and research stations in the Arctic and Antarctic. AWI is one of 15 research centres within the Helmholtz-Gesellschaft, Germany’s largest scientific organization.
Dr Hubertus Fischer cutting an ice core at Kohnen Station, Antarctica. Photo: Gerald Traufetter
Kohnen Station - EPICA
Scientists working at Kohnen Station, Drill Trench. Photo: Hans Oerter
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Walk on the Water
John Bush is associate professor of applied mathematics at the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology. In his research, he uses
experimental and theoretical techniques to elucidate fundamental
problems in fluid dynamics. I first saw some of John's still
photographs of water responding to various forces and since then
have paid close attention to his stunning images. I am always
delighted to be reminded that research can be presented with
both mathematical and visual beauty.
F. F. Can you tell us what brought you to
investigating the motion of water striders?
J. B. Much of my recent work in fluid mechanics has
been focused on flows dominated by the influence of surface tension.
I have long been looking for outstanding problems in the biological
sciences in which surface tension is important. When I learned of
Denny's paradox—the assertion that infant water striders
should be unable to move—I realized that the dynamics of
water-walking insects was just such a problem.
F. F. "Denny's paradox?"
J. B. It was generally believed that water striders
relied on waves to transfer momentum to the underlying fluid. A
standard result from hydrodynamic theory indicates that, in order to
generate waves, an object moving at the surface must exceed the
minimum wave speed (about 23 centimeters per second at an air-water
interface). Infant water striders' peak leg speeds may be less than
this critical value. It was thus thought that they would be unable
to generate waves, unable to transfer momentum to the underlying
fluid, and so unable to move. The fact that infant water striders
can move resulted in the conundrum known as Denny's paradox.
F. F. How did you capture this particular still image?
J. B. It was shot by my students (David Hu and
Brian Chan) with our standard digital Sony still camera. The
2-centimeter-deep fluid layer was contained within a shallow
plexiglass tank placed on a light table, which gave the fluid its
apparent luminescence. We were hoping for the strider to follow a
straight line, and so leave a linear trail of vortices. The pattern
of the thymol blue, the path taken by the strider, and the resulting
lines were simply fortuitous. Needless to say, many such photos were
taken, but this was our favorite.
F. F. What kind of information do you get from
measuring the shape and size of the vortices?
J. B. The form of the vortices, in addition to
their speed, indicates the magnitude of the momentum that they
transfer. In order for water striders to move, they must transfer
momentum to the underlying fluid; it was previously thought that
they did so through waves. The point of our study was to show that
vortices rather than waves are responsible for the dominant momentum
transfer in the wake of the strider.
F. F. Much of your other work captures phenomena
through photography. Would you say that you are engaged both
visually and mathematically as you first approach a question ... or
does the math come later?
J. B. All of my research has its origins in our
laboratory, and is focused on elucidating new physical
(specifically, fluid mechanical) phenomena. Photography is the
simplest means by which to clearly present the flow of interest to
the reader. The mathematical modeling is both motivated and
constrained by our experimental observations, and the two typically
evolve in tandem. However, in my work the mathematical modeling is
rarely if ever as elegant as the phenomenon of interest.
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Details: This poster shows a snowboarder under a tree.
Snowboarding is a winter sport that combines skateboarding, surfing and skiing. It was developed in the United States is the 1960s and 70s. It involves the rider being strapped to a snow board and propelling down a mountain. Often times snowboarders perform jumps and other kinds of tricks. Snowboarding became an Olympic sport in 1998.
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Benefits Beyond the Test
Words are the tools by which all ideas are communicated; do you want your ideas heard? Absolutely.
Success at a university, in a career, and day-to-day life hinges on your ability to express your thoughts and ideas effectively.
Learn Vocabulary Quickly
Our program features an optimized vocabulary learning experience built on the English dictionary and a library of classical works. Our approach is designed from the ground up to teach vocabulary as quickly and as effectively as possible using a mixture of approaches, from flash cards to filling in the blank. Learn the words, not only the definitions.
Raise Your GRE and SAT Scores
The GreatVocab system was developed because the "recommended" study technique – Flash Cards – was tedious, outdated, and boring. There was a real need for a GRE verbal test training class that could actually raise your score.
Benefits that Go Beyond Improved Test Taking
- Better communication skills through writing and spoken language
- Increased career potential and promotion opportunities
- More effective persuasion power through concise and precise use of the English language
- Reduced fear of public speaking by improving your command of the English language
As a student and programmer, I wanted something better when preparing for the Graduate Record Exam… so I built it. My vocabulary training tool has evolved over time into GreatVocab, helping hundreds of friends, family and students learn vocabulary along the way. In my case, with the earliest versions of the tool I learned 24 words a day and improved my verbal score 100 points at just 27 minutes a day.
GreatVocab has gained many features and abilities with the feedback and suggestions of its users:
- Prepared word lists: we have prepared several vocabulary lists for exams such as the GRE and SAT.
- Word roots: we have created a section specifically for learning over five hundred common word roots which greatly increases performance on standardized tests in short order.
- Sentence completion: learn to use the words as well as know their definitions. With sentence completion you will learn to apply the words in context as is required on standardized exams and in daily use. We believe this to be just as valuable as learning definitions through a flash card approach.
- Multiple definitions: Rather than learning one definition for each word, we test your understanding of every definition for a word. Don’t let multiple meanings trip you up on an exam, especially dangerous if using a process of elimination.
- Synonyms and antonyms: We also have used the topology of the English language to be sure you know synonyms and antonyms. For example we show definitions of words similar to the word being learned so that the subtle differences between the words are learned.
- Graphs and progress statistics: With a powerful engine managing your vocabulary training we are able to present to you your progress through statistics an graphs that will help you pace yourself to meet deadlines for exams and tests such as the GRE and SAT.
- Personal login: GreatVocab is an online application, meaning you can use it from anywhere you have an internet connection: home, work, or even the bus ride home.
- Scoring and community challenges: We encourage competition when it comes to learning vocabulary. What better way to know how prepared you are for your exam than to know where you stand as one of our members.
- Benefit from others: With GreatVocab you have the added benefit of an engine that adapts to others’ performance. We know which words are the hardest to learn for our members, and you benefit from that.
Join thousands of people around the globe who are using this simple yet effective vocabulary tool. A 100% Satisfaction Guarantee is included with your membership.
Forget about those more expensive, ineffective training programs - you can start using GreatVocab in less than 5 minutes and be on your way to memorizing all the words required to pass the GRE Verbal.
The bottom line? GreatVocab’s GRE verbal test training class will help you raise Your GRE Score.
Take the Tour Now to find out more about the GRE Verbal Program that works.
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The UN's December 2009 meeting in Copenhagen is supposed to be the final negotiations on a new set of targetsfor international cooperation on climate change. Some countries view these negotiations as an update of the Kyoto Protocol's original emissions reductions, set to expire in 2012. However, the framework of legally binding emissionstargets for developed countries and none for developing nations is opposed by the United States, which continues to refuse ratification. As a consequence, many developed countries now are looking to create an entirely new framework. The two most controversial elements of the Copenhagen meetingwill be whether the Kyoto framework continues and whether developing countries will agree to specific binding commitments. The consensus among experts is that, at best, Copenhagen will provide a framework for further negotiations going into 2010 and beyond, though some are optimistic that the conference will produce agreements on important issues such as financing and deforestation. Senior Fellow Michael Levi writes in Foreign Affairs that one of the "biggest prizes" from Copenhagen could be an international agreement on a process for measuring, reporting, and verifying (MRV) greenhouse gas reductions.
Here are some negotiating positions of countries crucial to the process:
President Obama has said climate change remains a policy priority for the United States--a close second to China in greenhouse gas emissions--but a host of other issues have competed for the administration's attention. With legislation passed by the House butstill pending in the Senate that would cut emissions by about 17 percent to 20 percent below 2005 levels by 2020, someanalysts are concerned about what the United States could commit to in Copenhagen. In late November, the White House announced it was "prepared to put on...
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FluoroCycle: increased recycling of mercury containing lamps
FluoroCycle (www.fluorocycle.org.au) is a voluntary, national scheme that aims to increase recycling of mercury-containing lamps. It commenced operations on 21 July 2010. The initial focus of the scheme is on those sectors that account for the largest consumption of mercury containing lamps, the commercial and public lighting sectors.
FluoroCycle is based on a collaboration between industry and government. It is administered by Lighting Council Australia and sponsored by the Environment Protection and Heritage Council (EPHC).
The EPHC is made up of state, territory, and Australian Government environment ministers. It has been investigating the issues associated with the end-of-life management (disposal methods) for compact fluorescent lamps (CFLs) and other mercury-containing lamps and, in May 2009, announced its support for FluoroCycle.
FluoroCycle is also supported by key industry bodies including the Australian Council of Recyclers, the Facility Management Association of Australia, the Australian Local Government Association, the Property Council of Australia and the National Electrical and Communications Association.
- EPHC Communique - Environment Protection and Heritage Council, May 2009
Disposing of mercury-containing lamps
A variety of lamp types used in Australia require mercury to operate. Generally, the higher the power usage, the more mercury that is required to operate the lamp. Mercury containing lamps include:
- high intensity discharge (HID) lamps, such as mercury vapour lamps used for street lighting, which contain between 50 and 1000 milligrams (mg) of mercury
- linear fluorescent tubes, as used in most commercial and public buildings, which are required by an Australian standard to contain less than 15 mg
- compact fluorescent lamps (CFLs), used mostly in homes, which are required under a new Australian Standard to have a maximum of 5 mg, and
- some neon tubes, as used in signs.
Waste disposal and handling is primarily a state and local government responsibility in Australia. Landfill disposal of large amounts of mercury containing lamps such as those generated by businesses, institutions, or councils is forbidden in some states.
Please check with your local authority to determine what conditions apply where you live.
An alternative to landfill disposal is taking mercury containing lamps to specialty recyclers who are able to safely recover not only the mercury, but also the glass, phosphor and aluminium contained in the lamps. Recovered mercury is commonly sold to the dental industry, where it is used in amalgam for fillings.
Most lamp recyclers collect large quantities of lamps from capital cities and selected regional areas for transport to a mercury-recycling facility. CFLs can also be posted to recyclers in special purpose containers, although these are currently only available for large quantities. A number of companies provide mercury recycling services.
Several states have household chemical collection programs and/or drop-off points that accept domestic quantities of CFLs and fluorescent tubes for recycling. Other states are considering introducing similar schemes.
Please check with your state environment agency and/or local authority to determine if there is a collection point near you and the types and quantities of lamps accepted for recycling. The following state department websites may be of assistance:
Australian Capital Territory
Department of Territory and Municipal Services
Phone 13 2281
New South Wales
Department of Environment and Climate Change
Phone 131 555
Natural Resources, Environment, the Arts and Sport
Phone (08) 8999 5511
Environment Protection Agency
Phone 1300 130 372
Zero Waste SA
Phone (08) 8204 2051
Department of Environment, Parks, Heritage and the Arts
Phone (03) 6233 6518
Phone 1300 363 744
Zero Waste WA
Phone (08) 6467 5011
Alternatively, you may contact Planet Ark's Recycling Near You Hotline on 1300 733 712 or visit their website at www.recyclingnearyou.com.au to find out where you can recycle CFLs and other mercury-containing lamps in your local area.
More information on mercury lamps, including safe clean-up guidelines for broken lamps is available at: www.climatechange.gov.au/en/what-you-need-to-know/lighting.aspx
About the EPHC
The objective of the Environment Protection and Heritage Council is to ensure the protection of the environment and heritage of Australia and New Zealand.
communiques, reports, public consultation
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To address the issue of Global Warming we must evaluate how we consume. The US relies on petroleum for the manufacturing of things consumers’ use and dispose of on a daily basis. This campaign addresses the production, use and disposal of plastic bags and bottles. It will communicate to consumers some basic facts about how plastic waste impacts ocean ecosystems.
Plastic will survive up to 1000 years in the landfill. Plastic will never biodegrade, rather it breaks up into tiny little pieces that attract deadly chemicals like DDT and PCBs. Although these chemicals were banned long ago in the U.S., they remain in the environment because of plastic’s molecular disposition. Because plastic will never disappear, unless it is incinerated, these tiny plastic bits float in the ocean for centuries. Larger pieces of plastic trash in the ocean are commonly mistaken for food and ingested by hundreds of thousands of sea mammals and seabirds annually.
The Eastern Garbage patch located in a gyre in the middle of the Pacific Ocean is just one of five high pressure zones in the oceans that have become massive wastelands that span 40% of the sea. This problem will continue to reach epidemic proportions given the amount of plastic we use and dispose of on a daily basis. There are approximately 300 million people currently living in the U.S. Just this year, Americans bought approximately 25 billion single serving plastic water bottles. Recycling cannot fix these over consumptive habits. We must reduce our plastic use.
Information sources: US EPA; reusablebags.com; treehugger.com; “Plague of Plastic Chokes the Seas” -Kenneth Weiss, LA Times; Algalita Marine Research Foundation
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Viruses cause most types of hepatitis. Autoimmune hepatitis (AIH) is one exception. This type of liver disease occurs when your immune system attacks your liver cells. AIH is a chronic condition and can result in cirrhosis (scarring) of the liver and (ultimately) liver failure.
AIH occurs when your immune system mistakes your liver cells for foreign aggressors and creates antibodies to attack them. Doctors do not know precisely why this occurs. However, certain risk factors have been identified, including:
- a family history of AIH
- being female
- a history of bacterial or viral infections
- the use of certain medications, such as minocycline
Other autoimmune conditions can cause symptoms of liver disease and are also associated with the development of AIH. These diseases include:
There are two types of AIH:
Type I is more common, tends to affect young women, and is associated with other autoimmune diseases. This is the most common form of AIH in North America.
Type II primarily affects girls between the ages of two and 14.
While AIH generally occurs in adolescence or early adulthood, it can develop at any age.
Symptoms of AIH range from mild to severe. In the early stages, you may have no symptoms, but in later stages, symptoms can appear suddenly. They may also slowly develop over time.
AIH symptoms include:
- enlarged liver (hepatomegaly)
- abnormal blood vessels on the skin (spider angiomas)
- abdominal distention (swelling)
- dark urine
- pale-colored stools
Additional symptoms that may occur include:
- yellowing of the skin and eyes (jaundice)
- itching caused by a build-up of toxins and bile
- loss of appetite
- joint pain
- abdominal discomfort
AIH can be easily confused with other illnesses. Symptoms are very similar to those of viral hepatitis. To make a proper diagnosis, blood testing is required to:
- rule out viral hepatitis
- determine the type of AIH you have
- check your liver function
Blood tests are also used to measure the levels of specific antibodies in your blood. Antibodies associated with AIH include:
- anti-smooth muscle antibody
- anti-liver kidney microsome type I antibody
- anti-nuclear antibody
Blood tests can also measure the amount of immunoglobulin G (IgG) antibodies in your blood. IgG antibodies help the body fight infection and inflammation.
A liver biopsy may sometimes be necessary to diagnose AIH, and can reveal the type and severity of your liver damage and inflammation. A biopsy will involve removing a small piece of your liver tissue with a long needle and sending it to a laboratory for testing.
Treatment can slow down, stop, and sometimes reverse liver damage. According to the National Digestive Diseases Information Clearinghouse, 70 percent of AIH patients will go into remission. However, remission can take up to three years (NDDIC, 2012).
Drugs and Medication
Immunosuppressant drugs can be used to stop the immune system’s attack. Such drugs include 6-mercaptopurine and azathioprine. Taking immunosuppressant drugs may compromise your body’s ability to fight other infections.
Corticosteroids, usually in the form of prednisone, can directly treat liver inflammation. They can also serve as immunosuppressants. You will likely need to take prednisone for a minimum of 18-24 months. Some patients must continue taking the drug for life to prevent AIH from recurring. Prednisone may cause serious side effects, including diabetes, osteoporosis, high blood pressure, and weight gain.
A liver transplant (replacing your liver with a donor organ) can treat AIH. However, the disease can sometimes recur even after a transplant. According to the National Digestive Diseases Information Clearinghouse (NDDIC), there is a 90 percent one-year survival rate for patients who have a transplant. The five-year survival rate is 70 to 80 percent.
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Everything from genes to jungles has played a part
ALONGSIDE almost every creation myth about the origin of the Earth or the genesis of humankind, you’ll find another story about the diversity of language. In the Old Testament, “confounding the one language” is God’s punishment on humans for building the Tower of
Babel. In Greek mythology, Hermes divides language to spite his father Zeus. The Wa-Sania people of east Africa put it down to a jabbering madness brought on by famine, while the Iroquois story tells of a god who directed his people to disperse across the world.
Creation myths are just myths, of course, but the question of linguistic diversity is a genuine problem. If Americans and the British are two peoples divided by a common language, then the whole world is one united by the mutual incomprehension of nearly 7000.
Language is perhaps the defining feature of our species, and yet also the most divisive. Why is it that we communicate in so many different ways?
Science has come only so far in addressing this question. During the past century, the existence of different languages had been explained by a process not unlike the Iroquois origin myth. Isolated societies adapt existing words and phrases and coin new ones and, over time, the changes accumulate to the point where their language is no longer intelligible to outsiders.
This process of cultural evolution is similar to biological speciation, where two populations of the same species become separated from one another and diverge until they can no longer interbreed. But while biologists have used evolutionary theory to explain the variety of life, linguists have been slow to explain the staggering diversity of human languages.
Why, for example, does Latin have complex grammar while its daughters, the modern Romance languages, follow simpler rules? How come some languages, such as Mandarin, are tonal, so that the pitch of a word changes its meaning? And why does linguistic diversity mirror biodiversity, with more around the equator than in the temperate regions?
Thanks to a spate of recent studies, we can now start to answer these questions. In the same way that species are adapted to fit certain habitats, languages evolve to suit the particular needs of their speakers. Everything from a population’s genetic and social make-up to the climate and plant cover of the place they live seem to exert an influence. Understand these factors, and we might be able to predict how the world’s languages will change in the face of
It’s no wonder that linguistic diversity fascinates us—the enormous variation in our languages is one of humanity’s oddest characteristics. If you take a chimp born in London Zoo and place it
back in its African homeland, it will have little trouble communicating. That’s because all chimps share a small repertoire of grunts, barks and hoots. Humans need to be more flexible. Our brains can handle a huge range of abstract concepts, so we have evolved an open-ended form of communication to express our thoughts. It is built from a set of discrete sounds, called phonemes, which we string together in elaborate combinations to form words and sentences, structured by the rules we call grammar. Each language is a unique combination of these elements. “We are capable of effectively infinite variety,” says Mark Pagel at the University of
This flexibility is one of the drivers of linguistic diversity. It opens the door to cultural evolution, which can quickly drive a wedge through a language. Following a split, it takes as little as 500 years for one language to diverge into two. Pagel and colleagues have found that many of the changes occur immediately after the split, perhaps because people invent new ways of speaking to assert their group identity (Science, vol 319, p 588).
The cultural wedge may also explain why languages, like living organisms, proliferate in the tropics. Around 60 per cent of the world’s nearly 7000 languages are found in two areas coinciding almost exactly with the two great belts of equatorial forest, one in
Africa and the other across southern Asia and the Pacific.
The richest place of all is Papua New Guinea, home to 1 in 7 of the world’s languages. One explanation is that a climate that favours biodiversity also makes it easier for people in small splinter groups to grow food and survive on their own (Journal of Anthropological Archaeology, vol 17, p 354). Equatorial regions also tend to have a higher incidence of infectious disease, which might lead groups to isolate themselves from others (Oikos, vol 117, p
Over the millennia, cultural evolution has carved out thousands of mutually unintelligible tongues, most of which are now extinct.
Pagel has estimated that half a million languages may have lived and died since modern humans first evolved.
Few researchers have been interested in explaining their differences, however. That’s partly due to Noam Chomsky’s influential theory of universal grammar, which stated that, despite
their superficial differences, all languages follow the same set of basic rules. With this in mind, most researchers focused on similarities rather than differences, says Gary Lupyan at the
University of Wisconsin-Madison. “It wasn’t considered crucial to look at language diversity,” he says. But as universal grammar has fallen out of favour (New Scientist, 29 May 2010, p 32), linguists are becoming more interested in the forces that push languages apart.
Tracking humankind’s first movements out of Africa seems a good place to start. Quentin Atkinson at the University of Auckland, New Zealand, was inspired by the “serial founder effect”, which explains why human genetic diversity declines as you get further away from
Africa. Bands of migrating humans took only a subset of genes from the gene pool in their place of origin, reducing genetic diversity as they migrated further and further away.
He suspected migration might have whittled down language in a similar way. As groups splintered off the ancestral population in Africa, they may have left behind some of the lesser-used phonemes, which were perhaps only spoken in minority dialects. Each subsequent
migration from the splinter group would have further diminished the repertoire.
An analysis of 504 languages offers some evidence in support. Atkinson found the highest phoneme diversity in Africa and the lowest in South America and Oceania. Taa, spoken in Botswana, uses about 110 phonemes whereas the Papuan language Rotokas has just 11
(English uses about 50). Atkinson concluded that the serial founder effect accounts for about 30 per cent of the variation in the phoneme content of the world’s languages (Science, vol 332, p 346).
What might explain the other 70 per cent? Since the 11 phonemes of Rotokas can convey just as much meaning as the 110 of Taa, it’s clear that we don’t need a huge inventory of sounds to make ourselves understood. This redundancy creates a lot of room for random shifts. Each language could add or lose phonemes without reducing its usefulness, building linguistic diversity over time in much the same way that genetic drift can amplify the differences
The result is a huge amount of random variation that might mask other more systematic changes. Perhaps that can explain why it took so long for researchers to consider another important factor: the challenges of conversing in difficult surroundings.
Robert L. Munroe, an anthropologist at Pitzer College in Claremont, California, first began to ponder this possibility during field trips to Belize, Kenya and American Samoa. He noticed that languages in these tropical places tend to separate their consonants with vowels—they barely have any words like “linguistics”, for instance, with its bunches of consonants rubbing shoulders. Since vowels are easier to hear at a distance than most consonants, Munroe began to suspect that people in warmer countries use sounds that help them communicate outdoors. In contrast, people in chillier climates might be more likely to talk indoors, so it’s not as important to use sounds that carry.
Subsequent studies by Munroe and his colleagues have confirmed that people in warmer climates do tend to use more vowels. Think of the distinctive rhythm of Italian, with its evenly spaced vowels and consonants—spaghetti, tortellini, Pavarotti—not found in northern European languages. Climate seems to influence the consonants we use too. Nasal sounds like “n” and “m” are more common in warm regions, while “obstruents” like “t”, “g” and the Scottish ”och” sound are more common in cooler ones.
What’s more, studies by Carol and Melvin Ember at Yale University have found that these effects are less pronounced in areas with dense vegetation. Foliage standing between you and another speaker makes it more difficult to communicate at a distance, so sonorous
sounds are less useful. Conversely, a certain amount of tree cover can take the chill out of a wind in a colder region, so people in these areas might spend more time outside than they would on a frigid plain—and their language adapts accordingly (American
Anthropologist, vol 109, p 180).
Another influence on language diversity may be hiding in our genes.
Dan Dediu at the Max Planck Institute for Psycholinguistics in Nijmegen, the Netherlands, and Robert Ladd at the University of Edinburgh, UK, have found that certain variants of two genes associated with brain development are more common in places where people speak tonal languages, including China, south-east Asia and sub-Saharan Africa. It is not known if these gene variants are involved in language, but Dediu doubts that it is a coincidence. He has created a mathematical model showing that if the genes help people differentiate between pitches, in areas where they are common they will push language towards a tonal system (Human Biology, vol 83, p 279). This model is by no means proof that genes influence language, but it suggests the idea is worth pursuing.
Even more so than the differences in sounds, it’s difficult to see why different languages have such vastly divergent grammars.
Consider the sentence “I walked the dog”. English changes the ending of the verb “to walk” to signal that the event happened in the past.
In Mandarin, the verb doesn’t change—if the timing isn’t obvious a word is simply added to make it clear. Speakers of the Peruvian language Yagua, on the other hand, must choose one of five verb endings depending on whether the walk happened hours, days, weeks, months or years ago.
Such diversity is mystifying until you look at who speaks the language, says Lupyan. In an analysis of more than 2000 languages, he found that complex grammars are more common in small languages whose speakers have little contact with outsiders. Those with simpler rules—such as English and Mandarin—tend to be spoken by larger populations that have contact with lots of other societies (PLoS One, vol 5, p e8559). The crucial factor is that many more
people learn these languages as an adult than you would find learning the more insular languages—and this seems to influence the complexity of the grammar.
Lupyan points out that adults find it difficult to master intricate or irregular rules so they tend to simplify when they learn a language. Children, in contrast, seem to favour complexity, as the
additional linguistic cues help clarify the sentence’s meaning.
Lupyan’s latest computer simulations suggest that grammar is swayed by the need to balance these competing demands. Pidgins and creoles, which emerge when groups of people who don’t share a common language are forced to work together, would seem to reinforce this argument -
both tend to use simpler grammars than you would find in other languages.
It’s not hard to imagine how this may have shaped the linguistic past. As the Romans civilised the ancient world they also spread their language. Latin has complex rules in which a noun’s ending changes in one of six ways depending on its role in the sentence. As adults in the provinces began to learn the lingo, they simplified it into vulgar forms that eventually became Italian, Spanish, French and other languages—each of which lacks some of Latin’s
complexities. English tells a similar story. Successive waves of invasion brought in huge numbers of immigrants who would have had to converse with their new neighbours. “They were forced to become bilingual,” says Lupyan, which may explain why English is missing
many of the rules you see in its sister Germanic languages.
Lupyan has also studied recent language change, analysing Google’s archive of literature to compare American and British English. He found that Americans seem to use more regular forms of words which would be easier for an adult to learn. This fits with his hypothesis, since America’s historically high rate of immigration means a greater proportion of second-language learners.
Other linguists are cautiously welcoming of Lupyan’s ideas. “It’s definitely plausible,” says Stephen Levinson, also at the Max Planck Institute for Psycholinguistics.
The recent findings may be just a taster of what’s to come. Having established that the differences between languages aren’t arbitrary, the hunt is now on for more laws that dictate their evolution. “We have got an interesting few years ahead of us,” says Atkinson.
With an increased understanding of language evolution, linguists may be able to answer a harder question: what will languages sound like in the future? English, in particular, is being pulled in many different directions (New Scientist, 29 March 2008, p 28). “With
exposure to the common media, you might expect differences to diminish, but they’re not going away, since we use language to confirm our social identity,” says Lupyan. For this reason, he
foresees widening gulfs between British, American and Australian English.
Sadly, many smaller languages won’t be able to exert their independence in this way. “Mass extinction is the future,” says Pagel. Around half of the world’s languages are in danger and the
majority haven’t even been documented yet. Once they’re gone, their intricacies will be lost forever. The need to study and explain the confusion of the tongues has never been more urgent.
David Robson is a feature editor at New Scientist
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We breathe 16-20 times per minute and 22,000 times in a day. Find out how many breaths have your lungs clocked since your birth. The calculation may leave you breathless!
Above calculator is for informational purpose only and is not meant to substitute for a professional medical assessment.
If you are worried kindly go and see your doctor immediately.
- With every breath we take in about a pint(473.176473 milliliters) of air.
- In average lifetime we take in about 288 million pints.
- We breathe about 600 million times during our lifetime.
- In a lifetime we would have inhaled about 48 lbs of dust.
- The x-ray of the lungs of a person living in a city differs from that of someone living in a less polluted region of the world.
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A sweat test measures the amount of salt chemicals (sodium and chloride) in sweat. It is done to help diagnose cystic fibrosis. Normally, sweat on the skin surface contains very little sodium and chloride. People with cystic fibrosis have 2 to 5 times the normal amount of sodium and chloride in their sweat.
During the sweat test, medicine that causes a person to sweat is applied to the skin (usually on the arm or thigh). The sweat is then collected on a paper or a gauze pad, and the amount of salt chemicals in the paper or gauze is measured in a lab. Generally, chloride (sweat chloride) is measured. See a picture of a sweat test.
A sweat test is done on any baby suspected of having cystic fibrosis. An initial test may be done as early as 48 hours of age. But a sweat test done during the first month of life may need to be repeated. Younger babies may not produce enough sweat to give reliable test results. Also, younger babies may naturally have lower sweat chloride levels than older babies and children with cystic fibrosis.
Why It Is Done
The sweat test is done to help diagnose cystic fibrosis. It also may be used to test people with a family history of cystic fibrosis and for anyone with symptoms of cystic fibrosis.
How To Prepare
No special preparation is needed before having this test. Your child may eat, drink, and exercise normally before the test. If your child takes any medicines, he or she may take them on the usual schedule.
You may help with the test and stay with your child during the test. If you cannot stay, you may want to ask a family member or friend to stay with your child. Bring your child's favorite book or toy to help pass the time while the test is done. See if your child might be able to watch a movie during the test.
Talk with your health professional about any concerns you have regarding the need for the test, its risks, how it will be done, or what the results will mean. To help you understand the importance of this test, fill out the medical test information form(What is a PDF document?) .
How It Is Done
The sweat test is usually done on a baby's right arm or thigh. On an older child or adult, the test is usually done on the inside of the right forearm. Sweat may be collected and analyzed from two different sites.
- The skin is washed and dried, then two small gauze pads are placed on the skin. One pad is soaked with a medicine that makes the skin sweat, called pilocarpine. The other pad is soaked with salt water.
- Other pads called electrodes are placed over the gauze pads. The electrodes are hooked up to an instrument that produces a mild electric current, which pushes the medicine into the skin.
- After 5 to 10 minutes, the gauze pads and electrodes are removed, and the skin is cleaned with water and then dried. The skin will look red in the area under the pad that contained the medicine.
- A dry gauze pad, paper collection pad, or special tubing is taped to the red patch of skin. This pad is covered with plastic or wax to prevent fluid loss (evaporation).
- The new pad will soak up the sweat for up to 30 minutes, then it is removed and placed in a sealed bottle. It is then weighed to measure how much sweat the skin produced, and it is checked to find out how much salt chemical (sodium and/or chloride) the sweat contains. Another testing method collects the sweat into a coil (macroduct technique).
- After the collection pad is removed, the skin is washed and dried again. The test site may look red and continue to sweat for several hours after the test.
The sweat test usually takes 45 minutes to 1 hour.
How It Feels
This test does not cause pain. Some children feel a light tingling or tickling when the electric current is applied to the skin. If the gauze pads are not properly placed, the electric current may produce a burning sensation.
There is very little risk of complications from this test. But the test should always be done on an arm or leg (not the chest) to prevent the possibility of electric shock.
The electric current may cause skin redness and excess sweating for a short time after the test is done. In rare cases, the current may make the skin look slightly sunburned.
A sweat test measures the amount of salt chemicals (sodium and chloride) in sweat. Generally, chloride (sweat chloride) is measured.
Results are usually available in 1 or 2 days. Normal results vary from lab to lab.
Less than 40 millimoles per liter (mmol/L)
60 mmol/L or more
Less than 30 mmol/L
60 mmol/L or more
Many conditions can change sodium and chloride levels. Your health professional will discuss any significant abnormal results with you in relation to your symptoms and medical history.
The test results do not indicate how severe the cystic fibrosis is. The test only shows if a person could have the disease.
Abnormal (high) values
- Usually mean a person has cystic fibrosis. Some people with cystic fibrosis have borderline or even normal sweat chloride levels.
- May be caused by other conditions. But the sweat test is not used to diagnose these conditions, which include:
What Affects the Test
Reasons you may not be able to have the test or why the results may not be helpful include:
- A baby's age. Babies younger than 4 weeks may not produce enough sweat to give reliable test results and may have lower sweat chloride levels than older babies and children. A minimum amount of sweat is needed for accurate test results regardless of the child's age.
- A skin rash or sore on the area of the skin where the gauze pads are attached.
- Acute or severe illness.
- Dehydration or heavy sweating.
- Decreased sweating.
- Normal fluctuations in sodium and chloride during puberty.
- A decrease in the hormone aldosterone.
- Steroid medicines, such as fludrocortisone.
What To Think About
- Usually, two sweat tests are done to confirm a diagnosis of cystic fibrosis.
- Younger babies may not produce enough sweat to give reliable test results and may have lower sweat chloride levels than older babies and children with cystic fibrosis.
- A sweat test cannot identify carriers of the cystic fibrosis gene. If your child is diagnosed with cystic fibrosis, you may wish to talk with your health professional about genetic counseling. For more information, see the topic Cystic Fibrosis Carrier Screening.
- Adults generally have higher salt concentrations in their sweat than children. Also, sweat test results in adults can vary widely. This is especially true in women, because the amount of salt in their sweat can vary with the phase of their menstrual cycle. Enough sweat must be collected to get accurate test results.
- If results of a sweat test are positive or unclear (especially in babies), a blood test may be done to detect changes in the genetic material (DNA) that causes cystic fibrosis. Blood test results are usually ready in 10 to 21 days. For more information, see the medical test Genetic Test.
- Sweat tests should be done at labs that are certified by the Cystic Fibrosis Foundation. These labs perform a large number of sweat tests and are skilled at sweat test techniques and interpretation.
Other Works Consulted
- Chernecky CC, Berger BJ (2008). Laboratory Tests and Diagnostic Procedures, 5th ed. St. Louis: Saunders.
- Farrell PM, et al. (2008). Guidelines for diagnosis of cystic fibrosis in newborns through older adults: Cystic Fibrosis Foundation consensus report. Journal of Pediatrics, 153(2): S4–S14.
- Fischbach FT, Dunning MB III, eds. (2009). Manual of Laboratory and Diagnostic Tests, 8th ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams and Wilkins.
- LeGrys VA, et al. (2007). Diagnostic sweat testing: The Cystic Fibrosis Foundation Guidelines. Journal of Pediatrics, 151(1): 85–89.
- Pagana KD, Pagana TJ (2006). Mosby’s Manual of Diagnostic and Laboratory Tests, 3rd ed. St. Louis: Mosby.
|Author||Debby Golonka, MPH|
|Editor||Susan Van Houten, RN, BSN, MBA|
|Associate Editor||Tracy Landauer|
|Primary Medical Reviewer||Michael J. Sexton, MD - Pediatrics|
|Specialist Medical Reviewer||Susanna McColley, MD - Pediatric Pulmonology|
|Last Updated||June 23, 2009|
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Running programs conventionally have three input and output streams already available to them for reading and writing. These are known as the standard input, standard output, and standard error output. These streams are, by default, connected to your keyboard and screen, but they are often redirected with the shell, via the ‘<’, ‘<<’, ‘>’, ‘>>’, ‘>&’, and ‘|’ operators. Standard error is typically used for writing error messages; the reason there are two separate streams, standard output and standard error, is so that they can be redirected separately.
In other implementations of awk, the only way to write an error message to standard error in an awk program is as follows:
print "Serious error detected!" | "cat 1>&2"
This works by opening a pipeline to a shell command that can access the standard error stream that it inherits from the awk process. This is far from elegant, and it is also inefficient, because it requires a separate process. So people writing awk programs often don't do this. Instead, they send the error messages to the screen, like this:
print "Serious error detected!" > "/dev/tty"
(/dev/tty is a special file supplied by the operating system that is connected to your keyboard and screen. It represents the “terminal,”1 which on modern systems is a keyboard and screen, not a serial console.) This usually has the same effect but not always: although the standard error stream is usually the screen, it can be redirected; when that happens, writing to the screen is not correct. In fact, if awk is run from a background job, it may not have a terminal at all. Then opening /dev/tty fails.
gawk provides special file names for accessing the three standard streams. (c.e.). It also provides syntax for accessing any other inherited open files. If the file name matches one of these special names when gawk redirects input or output, then it directly uses the stream that the file name stands for. These special file names work for all operating systems that gawk has been ported to, not just those that are POSIX-compliant:
The file names /dev/stdin, /dev/stdout, and /dev/stderr are aliases for /dev/fd/0, /dev/fd/1, and /dev/fd/2, respectively. However, they are more self-explanatory. The proper way to write an error message in a gawk program is to use /dev/stderr, like this:
print "Serious error detected!" > "/dev/stderr"
Note the use of quotes around the file name. Like any other redirection, the value must be a string. It is a common error to omit the quotes, which leads to confusing results.
Finally, using the
close() function on a file name of the
", for file descriptor numbers
above two, does actually close the given file descriptor.
The /dev/stdin, /dev/stdout, and /dev/stderr special files are also recognized internally by several other versions of awk.
The “tty” in /dev/tty stands for “Teletype,” a serial terminal.
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Large scale monoculture plantations are increasingly being promoted worldwide, especially but not only in the global South. These plantations are established with the objective to generate timber, pulpwood, oil or carbon sinks. Furthermore, the recent boom in agrofuels is creating greater demand for oil palm, soy, sugarcane and jathropha plantations.
Friends of the Earth International calls for a halt to the conversion of forests to large plantations. We support local communities in defending their land and territories.
new stories about tree plantations and women
Three new case studies and a video on the impacts of monoculture tree plantations on women in Nigeria, Papua New Guinea and Brazil were released on Sunday 8 March 2009, in recognition of International Women’s Day. Read more.
- uruguay: we are surrounded by plantations
- To raise public awareness about the impacts of expanding export-oriented monocultures, FoE Uruguay gathers and processes data on land distribution and concentration.
- colombia: courts overturns controversial forestry law
- Combined and unfaltering efforts of the Colombian communities and organizations led to a significant legal decision acknowledging the rights of Indigenous Peoples and black communities.
- brazil: building the struggle against monocultures
- The ongoing expansion of exotic tree monocultures in the Brazilian Pampas, and the Pampas plains of Uruguay and Argentina, threatens the region’s biodiversity and natural resources.
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Science in Focus: Shedding Light: Workshop 6
Energy and Ecosystems
In this program participants are shown that light energy that has been absorbed by plants during photosynthesis and transformed into chemical energy can now be transferred to other organisms. Energy is contained within food molecules such as sugar and starch made by plants, therefore when animals eat plants, or eat other animals, the energy is passed to them.
However, the transfer of energy between plants and animals is inefficient and there are energy losses. Consequently, energy must constantly be put into natural systems. The source of energy for ecosystems is generally visible light energy.
Energy transfer between organisms can be described by constructing food chains and food webs for each ecosystem. In this program, we shall visit classrooms where children are learning about chains and webs. We shall also look at the interconnectedness of organisms in pond and ocean ecosystems.
Finally, the program will show that matter from the bodies of dead organisms is decomposed by bacteria, fungi and worms. The process of decomposition returns nutrients, such as minerals and carbon dioxide, to the environment for future plant growth.
This program illustrates some important aspects of our understanding of energy:
- Energy can be transferred and transformed, but it cannot be created or destroyed.
- Some energy will be lost to the system as it is undergoing a transformation and is generally given off as heat.
While matter in ecosystems can be recycled, energy cannot. Energy flows through ecosystems and must constantly be provided to plants for photosynthesis by the Sun.
Participants will gain:
- An understanding that plants and animals are interconnected in ecosystems by their feeding relationships because food contains energy.
- Recognition that energy is transferred and transformed as it flows through an ecosystem from the Sun as the source to producers which make food and on to consumers which eat food.
- Recognition that because the transfer of energy between organisms is inefficient, ecosystems must receive a continuous input of light energy to sustain them.
National Science Education Standards
K-4 Standards: http://bob.nap.edu/html/nses/html/6c.html#csck4
- All animals depend on plants. Some animals eat plants for food.
Other animals eat animals that eat plants.
Content Standards: K-4: Life Science: Organisms and Their Environments
5-8 Standards: http://bob.nap.edu/html/nses/html/6d.html#csc58
- Populations of organisms can be categorized by the function they serve in an ecosystem. Plants and some micro-organisms are producers Ð they make their own food. All animals, including humans, are consumers, which obtain food by eating other organisms. Decomposers, primarily bacteria and fungi, are consumers that use waste materials and dead organisms for food. Food webs identify the relationships among producers, consumers, and decomposers in an ecosystem.
ecosystems, the major source of energy is sunlight. Energy entering
ecosystems as sunlight is transferred by producers into chemical
energy through photosynthesis. That energy then passes from organism
to organism in food webs.
Content Standards: 5-8: Life Science: Population and Ecosystems
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As suggested by the catalog description (below), this course bridges the major strands of secondary mathematics through a study of applications of rates of change. Topics include difference equations, curve-fitting, parameter-based simulation, and discrete and continuous dynamics. For detailed information and policies, please read the MATH 5329 Syllabus.
A study of rates of change through modeling. Direct applications of rates of change to number concepts, algebra, geometry, probability, and statistics.
What Are We Doing?
»For the full details, check out the Working Course Calendar.
|12||11/21||Project Work Time||(no required class meeting)||
|13||11/28||Modeling and Number Theory||3 Student presentations, Quiz #5||
|14||12/5||Course Synthesis||Summary, key points, conclusions|
|15||12/12||Comprehensive||Final Exam at 7:15-9:45pm|
by Shermane King Interested math teachers, see the "Downloads" section in the sidebar → Description The activity is a general worksheet that can be utilize in any secondary mathematics classroom. At the beginning of the worksheet students are given a scenario that will be followed by 10 questions. The questions range from developing equations to calculating real-world…
Like many great works, this sample final exam was collaboratively produced by a bunch of smart people who would rather have not done it :) Sample Math 5329 Final Exam - Fall 2011
by Gwendolyn Walbey & Christopher Whiteneck Interested math teachers, see the "Downloads" section in the sidebar → »All information and corrections made in this document were updated as of 11-6-2011. The following guidelines are resource to instructors with objectives pertaining to: spreadsheet usages to create, analyze, and use data tables and graphs for linear, exponential or polynomial…
Interested math teachers, see the "Downloads" section in the sidebar → by Paul Rodriguez and Vanessa Garza Sequence for Modeling Real Automobile Data Create a table using the data provided. Use the table to create a Scatter Plot. Use graph paper to plot the coordinates. Create appropriate intervals. Label the x- and y- axis. Title your…
by Brittney Martinez & Amanda Raiborn Interested math teachers, see the "Downloads" section in the sidebar → Teacher's Guide for Speedy Delivery Route The Activity! This particular activity uses an algorithm called Dijkstra’s Algorithm – or the shortest path algorithm. It takes a problem of delivery routes and solves for the quickest route from one point…
Interested math teachers, see the "Downloads" section in the sidebar → Teacher's Guide for Choosing an Apartment Description: Individually, students will decide on four to six important criteria for selecting an apartment to live in once they graduate high school. Students will then select an appropriate amount (three to five) of local apartments to use for…
For all the math teachers, see the "Downloads" section in the sidebar → Teacher’s Guide to Does This Line Ever Move? Description Individually or group work, student(s) will work on Arm-and-a Leg Tickets Activity. Students will struggle thru the assignment, thus you will have to guide each group or individual’s when they reach that point. Goal/Objectives…
This collaborative quiz asks teachers to make sense of a recursively defined sequence that leads to the famous Collatz Problem. The main task of the quiz is to connect the sequences to the secondary mathematics classroom by using the Collatz problem as part of a lesson plan. Download Quiz 5: Cycles and Chaos Related Links…
During an in-class activity on Modeling World Population, groups of mathematics teachers found data related to factors influencing population change. The spreadsheet generated during the activity is available below. Quiz 4 on Modeling World Population World Population Spreadsheet by Teachers
The world population recently hit 7 billion people... or did it? The goal of this extended activity for math teachers is basic: Work as a group to develop a single mathematical model for the world population and use it to independently estimate the date when the world population equals 7 billion. Constraints The model must…
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http://faculty.tamucc.edu/jchampion/math5329
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A single copy of this article may be reprinted for personal, noncommercial use only.
Ventricular assist devices (VADs)By Mayo Clinic staff
Original Article: http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/lvad/MY01077
CLICK TO ENLARGE
|Left ventricular assist device (LVAD)|
A ventricular assist device (VAD) is an implantable mechanical pump that helps pump blood from the lower chambers of your heart (the ventricles) to the rest of your body. VADs are used in people who have weakened hearts or heart failure. Although VADs can be placed in the left, right or both ventricles of your heart, they are most frequently used in the left ventricle. When placed in the left ventricle they are called left ventricular assist devices (LVADs).
You may have a VAD implanted while you wait for a heart transplant or for your heart to become strong enough to effectively pump blood on its own. Your doctor may also recommend having a VAD implanted as a long-term treatment if you have heart failure and you're not a good candidate for a heart transplant.
The procedure to implant a VAD requires open-heart surgery and has serious risks. However, a VAD can be lifesaving if you have severe heart failure.
Why it's done
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|Left ventricular assist device (LVAD)|
VADs are mechanical devices that support the lower left heart chamber (left ventricular assist devices, or LVADs), the lower right heart chamber (right ventricular assist devices, or RVADs) or both lower heart chambers (biventricular assist devices, or BIVADs).
Your doctor may recommend you have a VAD implanted if:
- You're waiting for a heart transplant. You may have a VAD implanted temporarily while you wait for a donor heart to become available. A VAD can keep blood pumping despite a diseased heart and will be removed when your new heart is implanted. When a VAD is implanted while you're waiting for a heart transplant, it's referred to as a "bridge to transplant."
- Your heart's function can become normal again. If your heart failure is temporary, your doctor may recommend implanting a VAD until your heart is healthy enough to pump blood on its own again. It's also possible you'll have a VAD implanted for a short time if you're recovering from heart surgery. You may have a VAD implanted for only a few weeks or months. RVADs are often temporarily implanted after some heart surgeries. An RVAD can help keep blood flowing from the right ventricle to your lungs.
- You're not a good candidate for a heart transplant. VADs are increasingly being used as a long-term treatment for people who have heart failure, but aren't good candidates for a heart transplant. A VAD can improve your quality of life. When a VAD is implanted as a permanent treatment for heart failure, it's referred to as destination therapy.
If VADs can't help your heart, another treatment option your doctor may consider is a total artificial heart (TAH). This device replaces the two ventricles of your heart. Because a total artificial heart is difficult to implant and can cause serious complications, it's only used in a small number of people.
Implanting and using a VAD has some rare but serious risks, including:
Blood clots. As your blood moves through your VAD, blood clots may form. Blood clots can slow or block normal blood flow through your heart, which can lead to stroke or heart attack, or cause your VAD to stop working.
Your doctor may prescribe a blood-thinning medication such as aspirin or warfarin (Coumadin, Jantoven) to help prevent blood clots after your VAD is implanted. It's very important to follow the instructions for taking warfarin carefully to reduce the risk of life-threatening blood clots. Warfarin is a medication that can have dangerous side effects if not taken exactly as instructed, so talk to your doctor about any special instructions you'll need to follow.
- Bleeding. Implanting a VAD requires open-heart surgery. Having open-heart surgery can increase your risk of bleeding after your operation. Taking blood-thinning medications to reduce your risk of clotting also increases your risk of dangerous bleeding into the gastrointestinal track and the brain.
- Infection. Because the power source and control unit for your VAD are outside your body and connected through a port in your skin, there's an increased risk of germs getting in the port and causing a serious infection. You and your medical team should watch for signs of infection, such as soreness or redness near the port, fluid draining from the site, or a fever.
- Device malfunctions. It's possible that your VAD may stop working properly after it's implanted. The pumping action of the device might not work exactly right, making it so not enough blood pumps through your heart. The power supply to the device could also fail, or other parts of the device may stop working properly. Each of these problems requires immediate medical attention.
Right heart failure. If you have an LVAD implanted, it will pump more blood from the left ventricle of your heart than what your heart might have been used to. Your right ventricle may be too weak to pump the increased amount of blood.
If you develop right heart failure, medications may help improve the pumping ability of the right ventricle. An RVAD might also be implanted to support the right ventricle if you develop this complication.
How you prepare
Before your VAD is implanted, it's likely you'll stay in the hospital for some time preparing for surgery. While you're in the hospital, you may have other treatments for your weakened heart or heart failure. Your doctors will make sure you're healthy enough to have surgery to implant a VAD. You may need many tests or other procedures before the surgery, including:
- Echocardiogram. An echocardiogram, which is an imaging test, helps your doctor determine the pumping function of your heart, check your heart valves and help determine the cause of your heart failure. This can help your doctor decide if you're a candidate for a VAD and if there are any other treatment options available.
- Chest X-ray. Your doctor uses a chest X-ray to see the size and shape of your heart and lungs.
- Blood tests. Your doctor will order blood tests to see if your liver and kidneys are working properly before the surgery to implant your VAD. Your doctor might also check for other chemicals in your blood that show how well your heart is working. Blood tests are commonly used to check for diabetes, thyroid problems or symptoms of infection, which will need to be treated before you can have surgery.
- Electrocardiogram (EKG). An electrocardiogram can help your doctor check your heart rhythm before surgery.
- Cardiac catheterization. In this test, a short tube (sheath) is inserted into a vein or artery in your upper leg (groin) or arm. A hollow, flexible and longer tube (guide catheter) is then inserted into the sheath. Aided by X-ray images on a monitor, your doctor threads the guide catheter through that artery until it reaches your heart. This test checks the pressures in your heart and may be used to determine if you are a candidate for a VAD and if you may need additional devices.
While you're in the hospital, you'll also learn how your VAD works. You'll be given special instructions on:
- Safety precautions
- What to do if your control unit signals a problem with your VAD
- How to respond to emergencies, such as a failed battery or other loss of power to your VAD
- How to care for your VAD
- How to bathe without damaging your device
- How to travel with your VAD
- How you and your family can manage stress and anxiety regarding your device, and adjust to your new lifestyle
What you can expect
During the procedure
The procedure to implant a VAD is an open-heart surgery that usually takes four to six hours. You'll be asleep during the procedure, so you shouldn't feel any pain during the procedure.
You'll be connected to a machine that helps you breathe (ventilator) during your surgery. A tube will be run down your throat to your lungs and connected to the ventilator. You may need to remain connected to the ventilator for several days after your surgery.
A cut will be made down the center of your chest. Your chest bone (sternum) is separated and your rib cage is opened so that your doctors can operate on your heart. Your heart is stopped during the surgery. You will be connected to a heart-lung bypass machine that keeps oxygenated blood flowing through your body during surgery.
Once your VAD is implanted and working properly, your doctors will take you off the heart-lung bypass machine so that the VAD can begin pumping blood through your heart.
Some VADs pump blood similar to the way your heart does, with a pumping action. Other VADs allow a continuous stream of blood to flow through your heart. If you have a continuous stream of blood flowing through your LVAD, you may not have a normal pulse, even though your body is getting the blood it needs.
After the procedure
When you wake up from your surgery, you'll be in the intensive care unit (ICU). You'll stay in the ICU for several days, where you'll be fed and given fluids and medications through an intravenous (IV) line. You'll have a tube in your bladder to drain your urine and other tubes in your chest to drain fluid and blood. Your lungs may not work properly immediately after your surgery, so you may need to remain connected to a ventilator for a few more days until you're able to breathe on your own.
After a few days in the ICU, you'll likely be moved to a regular hospital room. As you recover, nurses will help you become increasingly active. They may help you get out of bed, sit up and walk around the hallways of the hospital. You may also have visits with a physical therapist to help you continue to gain strength and get used to performing daily activities. The amount of time you'll spend in the ICU and in the hospital can vary, depending on your condition before the procedure and how well you recover after your VAD is placed.
You'll likely be prescribed antibiotics and blood-thinning medications to prevent infection and other complications while you're in the hospital. Your doctor will order blood tests periodically to check your kidney function and to make sure your medications are effective.
While you're recovering in the hospital, it can be helpful to have friends and family visit. Visitors can help you perform some physical activities, and they can learn to help you care for your VAD when you go home.
After you're released from the hospital, you may be able to return to most of your daily activities. Depending on your condition, you may be able to return to work, be sexually active and drive. Your doctor should tell you what activities are appropriate for you.
You will likely have weekly appointments at a specialized clinic or hospital to check how well your VAD is working. Your doctor may also recommend a cardiac rehabilitation program (cardiac rehab). Cardiac rehab is a customized program of exercise and education, designed to help you recover after a heart attack, from other forms of heart disease or after surgery to treat heart disease.
Living with a VAD can seem stressful. You may worry that your VAD will stop working or that you'll get an infection. If you're waiting for a heart transplant, you may worry that your VAD won't keep you alive long enough to receive a donor heart. Tell your medical team and family if you feel this way. It may help to discuss how you're feeling, join a support group or talk with a professional counselor.
VADs and heart transplants
If you have a VAD implanted to help your heart pump blood while you wait for a heart transplant, you'll remain in close contact with your doctor and transplant center while you remain on the waiting list. It's likely you won't be allowed to travel farther than two hours driving time of your hospital in case a donor heart becomes available.
- Heart failure. National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute. http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/health-topics/topics/hf/. Accessed Feb. 2, 2012.
- Jessup M, et al. 2009 focused update: ACCF/AHA guidelines for the diagnosis and management of heart failure in adults. Circulation. 2009;119:1977.
- Ventricular assist device. National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute. http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/dci/Diseases/vad/vad_all.html. Accessed Feb. 2, 2012.
- Slaughter MS, et al. Advanced heart failure treated with continuous-flow left ventricular assist device. New England Journal of Medicine. 2009;361:1.
- Mancini D, et al. Mechanical device-based methods of managing and treating heart failure. Circulation. 2005;112:438.
- Anscheim DD, et al. Innovation with experience using implantable left ventricular assist devices. Circulation: Heart Failure. 2009;2:1.
- Heart transplant. National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute. http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/health-topics/topics/ht/ Accessed Feb. 2, 2012.
- Total artificial heart. National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute. http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/health-topics/topics/tah/. Accessed Feb. 2, 2012.
- Mitter N, et al. Update on ventricular assist devices. Current Opinion in Anaesthesiology. 2010;23:57.
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Jan. 18, 2013 Cheating is a behavior not limited to humans, animals and plants. Even microscopically small, single-celled algae do it, a team of University of Arizona researchers has discovered.
Humans do it, chimpanzees do it, cuckoos do it -- cheating to score a free ride is a well-documented behavior by many animals, even plants. But microscopically small, single-celled algae? Yes, they do it too, biologists with the University of Arizona's department of ecology and evolutionary biology have discovered.
"There are cheaters out there that we didn't know of," said William Driscoll, lead author of a research report on the topic who studied an environmentally devastating toxic alga that is invading U.S. waters as part of his doctoral research in the lab of Jeremiah Hackett, an assistant professor of ecology and evolutionary biology.
Driscoll isolated several strains of the species, Prymnesium parvum, and noticed that some grew more quickly and do not produce any of the toxins that protect the algae against competition from other species of algae.
"When those 'cheaters' are cultured with their toxic counterparts, they can still benefit from the toxins produced by their cooperative neighbors -- they are true 'free riders,'" Driscoll explained.
The study, published in the journal Evolution, adds to the emerging view that microbes often have active social lives. Future research into the social side of toxic algae could open up new approaches to control or counteract toxic algal blooms, which can pose serious threats to human health and wipe out local fisheries, for example.
Prymnesium belong to a group of algae known as golden algae, so named for their accessory pigments, which give the cells a golden sheen. This toxic species lives mostly in oceans and only recently has invaded freshwater environments. Its distant relatives include the equally microscopic diatoms, which make up a large part of phytoplankton, and giant kelp.
The algae produce toxins that are deadly to fish but so far have not been shown to threaten the health of humans or cattle. Many scientists believe the toxin arose as a chemical weapon to wipe out other algae and other organisms competing for the same nutrients and sunlight on which the algae depend. The discovery of cheaters that don't bother to produce toxin, however, throws a wrench into this scenario.
"We are trying to understand the ecological side in these algae," Driscoll said.
"If you're a single cell, regardless of whether you make a toxin or not, you're just drifting through the water, and everything is drifting with you," Driscoll explained. "Producing toxins only makes sense if the entire population does it. Any given individual cell won't get any benefit from the chemicals it makes because they immediately diffuse away. It's a bit like schooling behavior in fish: A single fish can't confuse a predator; you need everyone else do the same thing." For that reason, he explained, the cheaters should have an immediate advantage over their "honest" peers because they can invest the energy and resources they save into making more offspring.
"Theory tells us cooperation should break down in these circumstances. If you are secreting a toxin and it's beneficial to your species, then everybody gets access to that benefit. In a well-mixed population where there is no group structure, natural selection should favor selfishness, and the cheaters should take over." But for some reason, they don't. An alternative explanation for toxicity becomes clear when toxic cells are observed alongside their competition under a microscope.
"They attack other cells," he said. "Using their two flagella, they swim up to the prey and latch on to it. Sometimes a struggle takes place, and more cells swim up to the scene, surround their victim and release more toxin, and then they eat it."
"These toxins might have evolved less as a means to keep competitors away and more like a rattlesnake venom. The algae might use it to stun or immobilize prey." Driscoll and his co-workers isolated the toxic and the non-toxic strains side by side from the same water sample, taken from a late bloom as the bloom started to crash.
"When times are good and there are plenty of nutrients in the water, the algae use photosynthesis to gain energy from sunlight, but when nutrients become sparse, they attack and become toxic," Driscoll said. "That's when they start swimming around looking for prey. They are a little bit like carnivorous plants in that way -- like a Venus fly trap."
The group observed that as soon as nutrients become scarce, the toxic population ceases to grow, but the cheaters keep multiplying.
Driscoll and his team think the cheating behavior could be an adaptation to the algae bloom life style.
"During a bloom you have killed off all the prey or a huge amount of it, so why produce toxins and go looking for something that isn't there? It might be better to just keep growing and not even try to bother to keep looking for prey because it's gone."
Driscoll said the research illustrates how little is known about the ecology of microbes.
"We're just starting to understand what the mechanisms are that maintain cooperation in microbes. The theory is heavily slanted toward multicellular organisms. Only recently have people started to think about microbes cooperating."
To better understand the genes and biochemical pathways that control how the algae make their toxins, the group in Hackett's lab is investigating which genes are active in the toxic compared to the non-toxic strains.
"We are finding a number of stress-related genes are regulated differently in the cheaters," Driscoll said. "A lot of the other genes have not been studied before, especially those most likely involved in toxin production."
"The problem is that nothing close to these algae has had its genome sequenced, so they're pretty mysterious. Many of the genes we have sequenced are novel, so understanding their function is a big part of the challenge."
Unraveling the molecular mechanisms behind all this chemical warfare, cheating behavior and maximizing growth could potentially lead to new applications, the researchers speculate, albeit cautiously.
Driscoll explained the cheating trait might be an Achilles heel that could be exploited to curb algal blooms.
"We are ultimately interested in disrupting the competitive abilities of these bloom-forming populations. While this research is just scratching the surface, understanding how natural selection may work over the course of a bloom can provide a deeper understanding of the traits that are most important to the success of this species."
In addition, the cheaters' tendency to keep growing when their toxic peers no longer can is in some ways reminiscent of cancer cells.
According to Driscoll, one way to think about cancer is that cancerous cells have an immediate advantage over their non-cancerous, well-behaved neighbors. But this advantage, if unchecked, is very shortsighted because it will interfere with the basic functioning of the multicellular organism of which they are all a part.
"What we may be seeing in our algae is a -- far less extreme -- version of a similar story, because a short-term advantage to not producing toxins may interfere with the long-term competitive ability of the population."
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- William W. Driscoll, Noelle J. Espinosa, Omar T. Eldakar, Jeremiah D. Hackett. ALLELOPATHY AS AN EMERGENT, EXPLOITABLE PUBLIC GOOD IN THE BLOOM-FORMING MICROALGAPRYMNESIUM PARVUM. Evolution, 2013; DOI: 10.1111/evo.12030
Note: If no author is given, the source is cited instead.
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In this chapter you learned the story of the most publicized political scandal in American history—the Watergate break-in. This Web site takes an in-depth look at the Washington Post's Pulitzer Prize-winning coverage of this infamous story. From the first articles that detailed a burglary at the Democratic National Committee headquarters to a reporter's perspective 25 years later, its all here. Go to this Web site to find out how the free press helped to topple the presidency of Richard Nixon.
Destination Title: Revisiting Watergate
Note: Clicking on the link above will launch a new browser window.
Need help using your browser for this activity? Click here for tips.
Start at the Revisiting Watergate Web site.
- Click on Chronology. Read through the site, clicking on each hyperlink to access the accompanying Post Story.
- From the main menu, click on the Key Players topic to complete your research.
- Browse through the stories, taking notes as you go.
After you have read through the information, answer the following questions.
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The business end of a cuttlefish is no place a small crustacean wants to be. Cuttlefish are hunters who creep around in camouflage—virtually indistinguishable from a gray patch of gravel or a branching green seaweed—then lash out with their tentacles, turning a passing shrimp into shrimp toast. Oh, and they're colorblind. Despite this apparent handicap, though, learning to hunt doesn't take a lifetime. Baby cuttlefish figure it out almost as soon as they hatch.
"Newly hatched cuttlefish are mini adults," says Anne-Sophie Darmaillacq of the Université de Caen Basse-Normandie in France. They behave similarly to full-grown cuttlefish, that is, and look like toy versions of their parents. Yet those grownups are long gone. "Parents die after the spawning season," Darmaillacq says. Since cuttlefish are born as orphans, they have to be able to look after themselves right away.
For this reason, Darmaillacq and her coauthors wondered how the eyesight of junior cephalopods compares to that of their adult relatives. To find out how quickly a just-hatched cuttlefish's eyes get up to speed, they collected eggs of the cuttlefish Sepia officinalis off the coast of France. (The genus name describes a cuttlefish's brown ink, not its many-colored body.)
Zero to 30 days after hatching in the lab, the tots were tested in a carousel-like device. While a cuttlefish sat stationary at the center, a cylindrical screen with vertical stripes rotated around it at various speeds. Animals that were able to distinguish the stripes spinning by would follow them with their eyes, or by rotating their whole bodies. One set of test screens had black, white and gray stripes. Another had stripes that produced different polarizations of light.
Human eyeballs don't distinguish light polarization, which is when light waves all wiggle in the same orientation as they travel, as after passing through a filter. Bees and some other animals can see this polarization and use it to navigate. Cuttlefish, too, can see light polarization, and scientists are familiar with the architecture in a cuttlefish's retina that allows this. But Darmaillacq says the ability hadn't been studied as much in young cuttlefish.
The tests in the striped carousel showed that cuttlefish who had just hatched were already great at tracking black, white and gray stripes, and got even better over their first 30 days of life. They also started life with some skill at seeing stripes of light polarization, and improved as they aged.
Watching stripes spin is less important than knowing when to pounce on a passing meal, though. In a second set of experiments, the researchers showed young cuttlefish two types of prey trapped inside glass tubes and waited to see which the cuttlefish would attack. One prey was mysid shrimp, which hide by being transparent—but they're much easier to spot if you can see light polarization. The other prey was crabs, which both cuttlefish and humans can see without the help of polarized light.
In a regular glass tube, cuttlefish eagerly attacked all the prey. But in a tube covered with a plastic film that hid light polarization, cuttlefish were more reluctant to attack the shrimp. As they grew older, they got faster at spotting all their victims, but they still didn't like to attack transparent prey unless they could see the polarized light coming off their bodies.
Darmaillacq says newly hatched cuttlefish seem to already have the cognitive skills that make a good hunter, such as learning, attention, and decision making. Her experiments also show that cuttlefish can see light polarization soon after hatching, and that skill helps them find transparent prey and decide when to pounce.
The cuttlefish's colorblindness is a deficit that's almost impossible to believe once you've watched this camouflage master in action. Darmaillacq says the ability to see light polarization may make up for the cuttlefish's missing color vision.
Polarized light helps young cuttlefish spot some of their favorite transparent snacks, which would otherwise be hidden. Additionally, "Wavelengths vary a lot depending on the depth [of the water]," Darmaillacq says. "Light polarization does not." In other words, colors can lie in the ocean, but polarization tells the truth. This means cuttlefish can see well enough that their prey—like the fish in this video from the New England Aquarium—never see them coming.
Cartron, L., Dickel, L., Shashar, N., & Darmaillacq, A. (2013). Maturation of polarization and luminance contrast sensitivities in cuttlefish (Sepia officinalis) Journal of Experimental Biology DOI: 10.1242/jeb.080390 Image: Leonard Clifford (Flickr) Video: New England Aquarium
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Often beginning as heat stress or dehydration, the progression to heat exhaustion and ultimately heat stroke can occur with blinding speed. Horses’ large muscle mass allows them to generate a tremendous amount of heat, which makes them susceptible to a loss of water and electrolytes through sweat. As the amount of sweat increases, so does the imbalance of body fluids and electrolytes.
Heat exhaustion is characterized by hyperthermia (temperature > 41oC/106oF), tachycardia (heart rate > 60 beats per minute), and an elevated respiratory rate (> 80 breaths/minute). Most horses with heat exhaustion, especially exercising horses, are dehydrated and fatigued. Mucous membranes are dry and tacky to the touch; capillary refill time is prolonged (> 3 seconds). The skin is normally dripping wet from excessive sweating, but may be dry and warm in horses with anhidrosis. Many heat exhausted horses "thump" or show a spasmodic jerking or thumping of the diaphragm and flanks. Fatigue often shows itself as a stiff, abnormal gait or muscle soreness similar to horses that have “tied up.”
Left untreated, heat exhaustion rapidly proceeds to heat stroke. Technically, horses with heat stroke exhibit both hyperthermia (temperature > 41oC/106oF) and evidence of central nervous system dysfunction. Additional clinical signs in these horses can include a weaving, staggering gait; rearing, falling, and scrambling to rise; seizures; coma; and death. Skin is no longer wet but rather dry and warm to the touch. Horses with heat stroke are often unaware of their surroundings and this abnormal mental status makes them a danger to themselves and those attempting to treat them. Complications such as laminitis, kidney or liver failure, colic, or respiratory issues including pulmonary edema and sudden respiratory distress are known sequella to heat stroke.
Horses suffering from heat-related problems need to be identified quickly and treated aggressively. All horses, even those showing only minor evidence of heat stress, should be moved to a shady area and put in front of a fan. Remove bits and other tack as soon as possible. Apply cool water, either from a sponge or hose, to the hose’s neck and body, paying particular attention to the large veins of the neck and thin-skinned areas in the groin. Water sprayed directly on the face and head usually does little good and further upsets a horse with neurologic impairment. Several pints of rubbing alcohol applied topically along the back and neck areas are effective in promoting heat loss. Cooling blankets, if available, should be used and changed frequently.Once the horse is stable, small amounts of cool—not cold—water should be offered. If the horse will not drink or is dehydrated, large volumes of IV fluids (> 60 liters) should be administered. Either a balanced electrolyte solution or 0.9% sodium chloride should be used to replace fluid losses and help balance electrolytes lost in sweat.
The use of antipyretic, anti-inflammatory drugs, such as flunixin and ketoprofen, is controversial as they may not be effective in lowering body temperature in horses with heat exhaustion or heat stroke. They will, however, protect the body against “heat shock” proteins and provide pain relief if needed. Typically at least one dose should be administered. Rapid-acting sedatives (detomidine, romifidine, xylazine) are recommended for agitated horses with neurological signs. The dose should be titrated to provide some relief from neurological signs and to protect handlers yet keep the horse standing and aware of surroundings. Glucocorticoids (methylprednisolone sodium succinate 2-4 mg/kg given inravenously) should be used in horses with severe heat stroke and rapidly progressing neurologic signs. Not only will they help prevent shock, but they stabilize cellular membranes and may be effective in preventing organ system failure or further problems such as disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC).
Additional treatment depends on the severity of the clinical signs. Horses should not be moved until stabilized and then only to a cool, well-ventilated area. Perform blood work to identify kidney or liver problems, repeating as needed. All affected horses should be well rested and get no exercise for a minimum of 3 to 5 days. Horses that have recovered from heat exhaustion or heat stroke may be more susceptible to a second occurrence throughout their lifetime and should be monitored closely when exercising or when they’re confined to enclosed areas in hot, humid weather.
The overall prognosis varies depending on the severity of the process. Horses exhibiting minor heat stress or exhaustion that are treated appropriately have an excellent prognosis for a full recovery. Horses with more severe heat exhaustion or those that have full-blown heat stroke carry a poor prognosis. As a general rule, when central nervous system signs disappear during the cooling period, the prognosis is better. Continued lateral recumbency or the onset of seizures carries a very poor prognosis as does the onset of renal or liver failure, colic, laminitis, or DIC.
Dr. Hovda is director of veterinary services at SafetyCall International and Pet Poison Helpline in Bloomington, Minn. She's also Chief Commission Veterinarian for the Minnesota Racing Commission.
Pet Poison Helpline is a service available 24 hours, seven days a week for pet owners and veterinary team members who require assistance treating a potentially poisoned pet and can provide treatment advice for poisoning cases of all species, including dogs, cats, birds, small mammals, large animals, and exotic species. As the most cost-effective option for animal poison control care, Pet Poison Helpline's fee of $35 per incident includes follow-up consultation for the duration of the poisoning case. It is available in North America by calling 800-213-6680.
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|This article does not cite any references or sources. (April 2013)|
The military sports are sport mainly practiced by the military, the subject of international competitions, with an objective relates to the physical training of military, preparation for combat, skill, toughness, the development of physical qualities of the warfighter and improve the professional proficiency based on the different areas of the military action: land, sea and air.
Since the founding of the International Military Sports Council in 1948, was purpose of this organization structure a body of evidence that adapt and serve as training for the different branches of the armed forces.
There are 26 disciplines recognized by CISM; some are exclusively military sports.
- * — purely military sport
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