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Tenkara rods
Tenkara rods are a type of bamboo fly rod used for tenkara fishing in Japan. A mixture of the rods in the other categories, they are carbon rods, fly rods and telescopic rods all in one. These are ultra-light and very portable telescopic rods (read more about telescopic below). Their extended length normal... | Fishing rod | Wikipedia | 464 | 47337 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fishing%20rod | Technology | Hunting and fishing | null |
Baitcasting rods
While the easy to use spin casting rods are often used by novice anglers, baitcasting rods and reels are generally more difficult to use. Professional anglers, however, prefer baitcasting rod and reel combos because baitcasting reels grant anglers more accuracy in their casts. Casting rods are typicall... | Fishing rod | Wikipedia | 446 | 47337 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fishing%20rod | Technology | Hunting and fishing | null |
Ultra-light rods
These rods are used to fish for smaller species, they provide more sport with larger fish, or to enable fishing with lighter line and smaller lures. Though the term is commonly used to refer to spinning or spin-cast rods and tackle, fly rods in smaller line weights (size #0–#3) have also long been util... | Fishing rod | Wikipedia | 398 | 47337 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fishing%20rod | Technology | Hunting and fishing | null |
Surf rods
The most common type of sea rods are for surf casting. Surf casting rods resemble oversized spinning or bait casting rods with long grip handles intended for two-handed casting techniques. Generally between in length, surf casting rods need to be longer in order for the user cast the lure or bait beyond the ... | Fishing rod | Wikipedia | 447 | 47337 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fishing%20rod | Technology | Hunting and fishing | null |
Telescopic fishing rods are designed to collapse down to a short length and open to a long rod. rods can close to as little as . This makes the rods very easy to transport to remote areas or travel on buses, compact cars, or public buses and subways. Telescopic fishing rods are made from the same materials as conventi... | Fishing rod | Wikipedia | 381 | 47337 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fishing%20rod | Technology | Hunting and fishing | null |
A fishing reel is a hand-cranked reel used in angling to wind and stow fishing line, typically mounted onto a fishing rod, but may also be used on compound bows or crossbows to retrieve tethered arrows when bowfishing.
Modern recreational fishing reels usually have fittings aiding in casting for distance and accuracy,... | Fishing reel | Wikipedia | 388 | 47338 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fishing%20reel | Technology | Hunting and fishing | null |
In literary records, the earliest evidence of the fishing reel comes from a 3rd-century AD Chinese work entitled Lives of Famous Immortals, where the term "angling lathe" (釣車) was used. Tang dynasty poet Lu Guimeng (?–881) and his friend Pi Rixiu (834–883), both avid anglers, frequently mentioned "angling lathe" and "a... | Fishing reel | Wikipedia | 502 | 47338 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fishing%20reel | Technology | Hunting and fishing | null |
The first English book on fishing is "A Treatise of Fishing with an Angle" in 1496 (its spelling respective to the manner of the date is The Treatyse of Fysshynge with an Angle'). However, the book did not mention a reel. A primitive reel was first cited in the book The Art of Angling by Thomas Barker (fl.1591–1651), f... | Fishing reel | Wikipedia | 480 | 47338 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fishing%20reel | Technology | Hunting and fishing | null |
Albert Illingworth, 1st Baron Illingworth a textiles magnate, patented the modern form of fixed-spool spinning reel in 1905. When casting Illingworth's reel design, the line was drawn off the leading edge of the spool, but was restrained and rewound by a line pickup, a device which orbits around the stationary spool. B... | Fishing reel | Wikipedia | 429 | 47338 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fishing%20reel | Technology | Hunting and fishing | null |
Types
Fishing reels can be classified into two design groups: rotary-spool and fixed-spool. Rotary-spool designs are essentially similar to a spinning wheel or windlass, where the spool actively rotates to wind the line around itself. Fixed-spool designs, on the other hand, behave like a spindle and have no rotating mo... | Fishing reel | Wikipedia | 339 | 47338 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fishing%20reel | Technology | Hunting and fishing | null |
The centrepin reel (or centerpin, center pin, or float reel) is a single-action reel which runs freely enough on its axle ("centrepin"). The centrepin reel is the earliest fishing reel design invented by humans, and is historically and currently used for coarse fishing. Instead of a mechanical drag, the angler's thumb ... | Fishing reel | Wikipedia | 485 | 47338 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fishing%20reel | Technology | Hunting and fishing | null |
At one time, multiplier fly reels were widely available. These reels had a geared line retrieve of 2:1 or 3:1 that allowed faster retrieval of the fly line. However, their additional weight, complexity and expense did not justify the advantage of faster line retrieval in the eyes of many anglers. As a result, today the... | Fishing reel | Wikipedia | 511 | 47338 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fishing%20reel | Technology | Hunting and fishing | null |
Fly reel drag systems
Fly-reel drag systems have two purposes. One, they prevent spool overrun when stripping line from the reel while casting, and two, to tire out running fish by exerting pressure on the line that runs in the opposite direction. There are four main drag systems that are used with the fly reel. These ... | Fishing reel | Wikipedia | 392 | 47338 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fishing%20reel | Technology | Hunting and fishing | null |
The conventional reel, also known as the trolling reel (due to its popularity in recreational boat trolling) or "drum reel" (due to its often drum-like cylindrical shape), is the most classical design of multiplier reels. It can be mounted (more often) above or below the rod handle, with the spool axis being perpendicu... | Fishing reel | Wikipedia | 366 | 47338 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fishing%20reel | Technology | Hunting and fishing | null |
The baitcasting reel or baitcaster is a multiplying reel like modified from the conventional reel, but with a lighter spool and a higher, more forwardly positioned line guide to facilitate farther and smoother casting, hence the name. The baitcasting reel is always mounted above the rod handle (of what is known as a "c... | Fishing reel | Wikipedia | 450 | 47338 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fishing%20reel | Technology | Hunting and fishing | null |
Most fishing reels are suspended from the bottom side of the rod, since this position doesn't require wrist strength to overcome gravity while enabling the angler to cast and retrieve without changing hands. The baitcasting reel's unusual mounting position atop the rod is an accident of history. Baitcasting reels were ... | Fishing reel | Wikipedia | 428 | 47338 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fishing%20reel | Technology | Hunting and fishing | null |
Two variations of the revolving spool bait casting reel are the conventional surf fishing reel and the big game reel. These are very large and robust fishing reels, designed and built for heavy saltwater species such as tuna, marlin, sailfish and sharks. Surf fishing reels are normally mounted to long, two-handed rods;... | Fishing reel | Wikipedia | 476 | 47338 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fishing%20reel | Technology | Hunting and fishing | null |
Disadvantages Of Baitcasting Reels
Effective use of baitcasting reels requires prior experience and a developed skill set, thus it is unsuitable for beginners.
There are higher risks of getting backlashes during the cast without proper techniques.
One must know about spool tension adjustment for different spool size... | Fishing reel | Wikipedia | 343 | 47338 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fishing%20reel | Technology | Hunting and fishing | null |
The name of Holden Illingworth, a textiles magnate, was first associated with the modern form of fixed-spool spinning reel. When casting the Illingworth reel, line was drawn off the leading edge of the spool, but was restrained and rewound by a line pickup, a device which orbits around the stationary spool. Because the... | Fishing reel | Wikipedia | 384 | 47338 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fishing%20reel | Technology | Hunting and fishing | null |
Though spinning reels do not suffer from backlash, line can occasionally be trapped underneath itself on the spool or even detach from the reel in loose loops of line. Some of these issues can be traced to overfilling the spool with line, while others are due to the way in which the line is wound onto the spool by the ... | Fishing reel | Wikipedia | 434 | 47338 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fishing%20reel | Technology | Hunting and fishing | null |
Spincast reels are fixed-spool reels with the spool and line pickup mechanisms enclosed within a cylindrical or cylindroconoidal cover, which has a hole at the front to transmit the line. The first commercial spincast reels were introduced by the Denison-Johnson Reel Company and the Zero Hour Bomb Company (ZEBCO) in 19... | Fishing reel | Wikipedia | 486 | 47338 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fishing%20reel | Technology | Hunting and fishing | null |
Spincast reel Operation
Pressing a button on the rear of the reel disengages the line pickup, and the button is then released during the forward cast to allow the line to fly off the spool. The button is pressed again to stop the lure at the position desired. Upon cranking the handle, the pickup pin immediately re-enga... | Fishing reel | Wikipedia | 456 | 47338 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fishing%20reel | Technology | Hunting and fishing | null |
Anti-reverse reel
In anti-reverse reels, a mechanism allows line to pay out while the handle remains stationary. Depending on the drag setting, line may also pay out, as with a running fish, while the angler reels in. Baitcasting reels and many modern saltwater fly reels are examples of this design.
The mechanism works... | Fishing reel | Wikipedia | 332 | 47338 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fishing%20reel | Technology | Hunting and fishing | null |
The mechanics of drag systems usually consist of a number of frictional discs (drag washers) arranged in a coaxial stack on the spool shaft, or in some cases, on the drive shaft. There is generally a screw or lever mechanism that presses perpendicularly against the washers, which creates friction especially when each w... | Fishing reel | Wikipedia | 499 | 47338 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fishing%20reel | Technology | Hunting and fishing | null |
Casting reels
Conventional overhead, trolling or baitcasting type reels usually use one of two types of drags: star or lever. The most common and simplest mechanically is the so-called 'star drag' because the adjustor wheel looks like a star with rounded points. Star drags work by screw action to increase or decrease ... | Fishing reel | Wikipedia | 350 | 47338 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fishing%20reel | Technology | Hunting and fishing | null |
With spinning reels, closed-face reels and conventional reels with star drags, a good starting point is to set the drag to about one-third to one-half the breaking strength of the line. For example, if the line is rated at test, a drag setting that requires of force on the line to move the spool would be appropriate.... | Fishing reel | Wikipedia | 427 | 47338 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fishing%20reel | Technology | Hunting and fishing | null |
To deal with backlashing, most modern baitcasting reels have a so-called "cast control" that serves to reduce the incidence of spool overrun at the cost of sacrificing casting distances. Each time a different lure weight is attached, the cast control must be adjusted to calibrate for the difference in lure momentum and... | Fishing reel | Wikipedia | 483 | 47338 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fishing%20reel | Technology | Hunting and fishing | null |
Line guide mechanisms
Line guides are unique to multiplier reels, as more evenly wound lines on the spool would allow the reel to function more smoothly and prevent unwanted "overspill" of line at either end of the spool. The vast majority of line guides are a simple ring or short cylinder with a internal diameter, w... | Fishing reel | Wikipedia | 425 | 47338 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fishing%20reel | Technology | Hunting and fishing | null |
Another notable 21st century line guide design, patented by the Shenzhen/New York City-based Chinese-American brand KastKing in 2023, is named the "Axis Eye" or "willowleaf guide". It has a silicon nitride-coated, rounded rectangle frame with a slightly serpentine shaped top profile, which can horizontally rotate 90° t... | Fishing reel | Wikipedia | 174 | 47338 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fishing%20reel | Technology | Hunting and fishing | null |
A fishing line is any flexible, high-tensile cord used in angling to tether and pull in fish, in conjunction with at least one hook. Fishing lines are usually pulled by and stored in a reel, but can also be retrieved by hand, with a fixed attachment to the end of a rod, or via a motorized trolling outrigger.
Fishing l... | Fishing line | Wikipedia | 412 | 47339 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fishing%20line | Technology | Hunting and fishing | null |
Trolling is a technique where one or more lines, each with at least one hooked fishing lure at the end, is dragged through the water, which mimick schooling forage fish. Trolling from a moving boat is used in both big-game and commercial fishing as a method of catching large open-water species such as tuna and marlin (... | Fishing line | Wikipedia | 473 | 47339 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fishing%20line | Technology | Hunting and fishing | null |
A typical modern angling setup can include the following line sections:
Backing is the rearmost section of the fishing line and typically used only to "pad up" the spool of the fishing reel, in order to prevent unwanted slippage between the mainline and the (usually metallic and well polished) spool surface, increase ... | Fishing line | Wikipedia | 459 | 47339 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fishing%20line | Technology | Hunting and fishing | null |
Early lines
Leonard Mascall, in his book from 1596 titled "A Booke of fishing with Hooke and Line, and of all other instruments thereunto belonging". followed in many ways after Dame Juliana Berners, has an excerpt establishing silk worms in the area of England at that time:
... ...
And another excerpt explaining co... | Fishing line | Wikipedia | 479 | 47339 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fishing%20line | Technology | Hunting and fishing | null |
Specialty lines
Fly lines consist of a tough braided or monofilament core, wrapped in a thick waterproof plastic sheath, often of polyvinyl chloride (PVC). In the case of floating fly lines, the PVC sheath is usually embedded with many "microballoons", or air bubbles, and may also be impregnated with silicone or other... | Fishing line | Wikipedia | 437 | 47339 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fishing%20line | Technology | Hunting and fishing | null |
Stainless-steel line leaders provide:
bite protection – it is extremely hard for fish to cut the steel wire, regardless of jaw and teeth strength and sharpness,
abrasion resistance – sharp rocks and objects can damage other lines, while steel wire can cut through most of the materials,
single-wire (single-strand) le... | Fishing line | Wikipedia | 384 | 47339 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fishing%20line | Technology | Hunting and fishing | null |
Hake is the common name for fish in the Merlucciidae family of the northern and southern oceans and the Phycidae family of the northern oceans. Hake is a commercially important fish in the same taxonomic order, Gadiformes, as cod and haddock.
Description
Hakes are medium-to-large fish averaging from in weight, with ... | Hake | Wikipedia | 477 | 47357 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hake | Biology and health sciences | Acanthomorpha | Animals |
Not all hake species are viewed as commercially important, but the deep-water and shallow-water hakes are known to grow rapidly and make up the majority of harvested species. Indicators of quality in hake products for human consumption include white flesh free of signs of browning, dryness, or grayness, and with a fres... | Hake | Wikipedia | 512 | 47357 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hake | Biology and health sciences | Acanthomorpha | Animals |
Human introduction to non-native areas
Frank Forrester's Fishermens' Guide in 1885 mentions a hake that was transplanted from the coast of Ireland to Cape Cod on the coast of Massachusetts in the United States. It is uncertain which species it was, but the Fishermens' Guide stated:This is an Irish salt water fish, sim... | Hake | Wikipedia | 247 | 47357 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hake | Biology and health sciences | Acanthomorpha | Animals |
Titan is the largest moon of Saturn and the second-largest in the Solar System. It is the only moon known to have an atmosphere denser than the Earth's and is the only known object in space—other than Earth—on which there is clear evidence that stable bodies of liquid exist. Titan is one of seven gravitationally rounde... | Titan (moon) | Wikipedia | 419 | 47402 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titan%20%28moon%29 | Physical sciences | Solar System | null |
The atmosphere of Titan is mainly nitrogen and methane; minor components lead to the formation of hydrocarbon clouds and heavy organonitrogen haze. Its climate—including wind and rain—creates surface features similar to those of Earth, such as dunes, rivers, lakes, seas (probably of liquid methane and ethane), and delt... | Titan (moon) | Wikipedia | 449 | 47402 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titan%20%28moon%29 | Physical sciences | Solar System | null |
Formation
The regular moons of Jupiter and Saturn likely formed via co-accretion, similar to the process believed to have formed the planets in the Solar System. As the young gas giants formed, they were surrounded by discs of material that gradually coalesced into moons. While the four Galilean moons of Jupiter exist... | Titan (moon) | Wikipedia | 405 | 47402 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titan%20%28moon%29 | Physical sciences | Solar System | null |
Titan is 5,149.46 km (3,199.73 mi) in diameter; it is 6% larger than the planet Mercury and 50% larger than Earth's Moon. Titan is the tenth-largest object known in the Solar system, including the Sun. Before the arrival of Voyager 1 in 1980, Titan was thought to be slightly larger than Ganymede, which has a diameter 5... | Titan (moon) | Wikipedia | 368 | 47402 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titan%20%28moon%29 | Physical sciences | Solar System | null |
The Cassini probe discovered evidence for the layered structure in the form of natural extremely-low-frequency radio waves in Titan's atmosphere. Titan's surface is thought to be a poor reflector of extremely-low-frequency radio waves, so they may instead be reflecting off the liquid–ice boundary of a subsurface ocean.... | Titan (moon) | Wikipedia | 330 | 47402 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titan%20%28moon%29 | Physical sciences | Solar System | null |
The primary constituents of Titan's atmosphere are nitrogen, methane, and hydrogen. The precise atmospheric composition varies depending on altitude and latitude due to methane cycling between a gas and a liquid in Titan's lower atmospherethe methane cycle. Nitrogen is the most abundant gas, with a concentration of ar... | Titan (moon) | Wikipedia | 445 | 47402 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titan%20%28moon%29 | Physical sciences | Solar System | null |
On September 30, 2013, propene was detected in the atmosphere of Titan by NASA's Cassini spacecraft, using its composite infrared spectrometer (CIRS). This is the first time propene has been found on any moon or planet other than Earth and is the first chemical found by the CIRS. The detection of propene fills a myster... | Titan (moon) | Wikipedia | 499 | 47402 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titan%20%28moon%29 | Physical sciences | Solar System | null |
The surface of Titan has been described as "complex, fluid-processed, [and] geologically young". Titan has been around since the Solar System's formation, but its surface is much younger, between 100 million and 1 billion years old. Geological processes may have reshaped Titan's surface. Titan's atmosphere is four time... | Titan (moon) | Wikipedia | 494 | 47402 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titan%20%28moon%29 | Physical sciences | Solar System | null |
Following the Voyager flybys, Titan was confirmed to have an atmosphere capable of supporting liquid hydrocarbons on its surface. However, the first tentative detection only came in 1995, when data from the Hubble Space Telescope and radar observations suggested expansive hydrocarbon lakes, seas, or oceans. The existen... | Titan (moon) | Wikipedia | 356 | 47402 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titan%20%28moon%29 | Physical sciences | Solar System | null |
Titan's lakes and seas are dominated by methane (), with smaller amounts of ethane () and dissolved nitrogen (). The fraction of these components varies across different bodies: observations of Ligeia Mare are consistent with 71% , 12% , and 17% by volume; whilst Ontario Lacus is consistent with 49% , 41% , and 10% b... | Titan (moon) | Wikipedia | 306 | 47402 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titan%20%28moon%29 | Physical sciences | Solar System | null |
The identification of cryovolcanic features on Titan remains controversial and inconclusive, primarily due to limitations of Cassini imagery and coverage. Cassini RADAR and VIMS imagery revealed several candidate cryovolcanic features, particularly flow-like terrains in western Xanadu and steep-sided lakes in the north... | Titan (moon) | Wikipedia | 512 | 47402 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titan%20%28moon%29 | Physical sciences | Solar System | null |
Another extensive type of terrain on Titan are sand dunes, grouped together into vast dune fields or "sand seas" located within 30° north or south. Titanian dunes are typically 1–2 km (0.62–1.24 mi) wide and spaced 1–4 (0.62–2.49 mi) apart, with some individual dunes over 100 km (62 mi) in length. Limited radar-derived... | Titan (moon) | Wikipedia | 392 | 47402 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titan%20%28moon%29 | Physical sciences | Solar System | null |
Titan was examined by both Voyager 1 and 2 in 1980 and 1981, respectively. Voyager 1's trajectory was designed to provide an optimized Titan flyby, during which the spacecraft was able to determine the density, composition, and temperature of the atmosphere, and obtain a precise measurement of Titan's mass. Atmospheric... | Titan (moon) | Wikipedia | 409 | 47402 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titan%20%28moon%29 | Physical sciences | Solar System | null |
The Huygens probe landed just off the easternmost tip of a bright region now called Adiri. The probe photographed pale hills with dark "rivers" running down to a dark plain. Current understanding is that the hills (also referred to as highlands) are composed mainly of water ice. Dark organic compounds, created in the u... | Titan (moon) | Wikipedia | 337 | 47402 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titan%20%28moon%29 | Physical sciences | Solar System | null |
There have been several conceptual missions proposed in recent years for returning a robotic space probe to Titan. Initial conceptual work has been completed for such missions by NASA (and JPL), and ESA. At present, none of these proposals have become funded missions. The Titan Saturn System Mission (TSSM) was a joint ... | Titan (moon) | Wikipedia | 478 | 47402 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titan%20%28moon%29 | Physical sciences | Solar System | null |
Titan is thought to be a prebiotic environment rich in complex organic compounds, but its surface is in a deep freeze at so it is currently understood that life cannot exist on the moon's frigid surface. However, Titan seems to contain a global ocean beneath its ice shell, and within this ocean, conditions are potenti... | Titan (moon) | Wikipedia | 498 | 47402 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titan%20%28moon%29 | Physical sciences | Solar System | null |
It has been speculated that life could exist in the lakes of liquid methane on Titan, just as organisms on Earth live in water. Such organisms would inhale H2 in place of O2, metabolize it with acetylene instead of glucose, and exhale methane instead of carbon dioxide. However, such hypothetical organisms would be requ... | Titan (moon) | Wikipedia | 369 | 47402 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titan%20%28moon%29 | Physical sciences | Solar System | null |
In 2010, Darrell Strobel, from Johns Hopkins University, identified a greater abundance of molecular hydrogen in the upper atmospheric layers of Titan compared to the lower layers, arguing for a downward flow at a rate of roughly 1028 molecules per second and disappearance of hydrogen near Titan's surface; as Strobel n... | Titan (moon) | Wikipedia | 481 | 47402 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titan%20%28moon%29 | Physical sciences | Solar System | null |
Obstacles
Despite these biological possibilities, there are formidable obstacles to life on Titan, and any analogy to Earth is inexact. At a vast distance from the Sun, Titan is frigid, and its atmosphere lacks CO2. At Titan's surface, water exists only in solid form. Because of these difficulties, scientists such as ... | Titan (moon) | Wikipedia | 440 | 47402 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titan%20%28moon%29 | Physical sciences | Solar System | null |
Instrumentation is a collective term for measuring instruments, used for indicating, measuring, and recording physical quantities. It is also a field of study about the art and science about making measurement instruments, involving the related areas of metrology, automation, and control theory. The term has its origin... | Instrumentation | Wikipedia | 431 | 47403 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instrumentation | Technology | Measuring instruments | null |
The ranges of pneumatic transmitters were defined by the need to control valves and actuators in the field. Typically, a signal ranged from 3 to 15 psi (20 to 100kPa or 0.2 to 1.0 kg/cm2) as a standard, was standardized with 6 to 30 psi occasionally being used for larger valves.
Transistor electronics enabled wiring t... | Instrumentation | Wikipedia | 344 | 47403 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instrumentation | Technology | Measuring instruments | null |
In the early years of process control, process indicators and control elements such as valves were monitored by an operator, that walked around the unit adjusting the valves to obtain the desired temperatures, pressures, and flows. As technology evolved pneumatic controllers were invented and mounted in the field that ... | Instrumentation | Wikipedia | 424 | 47403 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instrumentation | Technology | Measuring instruments | null |
The introduction of DCSs and SCADA allowed easy interconnection and re-configuration of plant controls such as cascaded loops and interlocks, and easy interfacing with other production computer systems. It enabled sophisticated alarm handling, introduced automatic event logging, removed the need for physical records su... | Instrumentation | Wikipedia | 332 | 47403 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instrumentation | Technology | Measuring instruments | null |
Kitchen appliances use sensors for control.
A refrigerator maintains a constant temperature by actuating the cooling system when the temperature becomes too high.
An automatic ice machine makes ice until a limit switch is thrown.
Pop-up bread toasters allow the time to be set.
Non-electronic gas ovens will regulate the... | Instrumentation | Wikipedia | 487 | 47403 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instrumentation | Technology | Measuring instruments | null |
A modern aircraft has a far more sophisticated suite of sensors and displays, which are embedded into avionics systems. The aircraft may contain inertial navigation systems, global positioning systems, weather radar, autopilots, and aircraft stabilization systems. Redundant sensors are used for reliability. A subset of... | Instrumentation | Wikipedia | 379 | 47403 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instrumentation | Technology | Measuring instruments | null |
Instrumentation engineering is loosely defined because the required tasks are very domain dependent. An expert in the biomedical instrumentation of laboratory rats has very different concerns than the expert in rocket instrumentation. Common concerns of both are the selection of appropriate sensors based on size, weigh... | Instrumentation | Wikipedia | 489 | 47403 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instrumentation | Technology | Measuring instruments | null |
Davis Baird has argued that the major change associated with Floris Cohens identification of a "fourth big scientific revolution" after World War II is the development of scientific instrumentation, not only in chemistry but across the sciences. In chemistry, the introduction of new instrumentation in the 1940s was "n... | Instrumentation | Wikipedia | 203 | 47403 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instrumentation | Technology | Measuring instruments | null |
The stratosphere () is the second-lowest layer of the atmosphere of Earth, located above the troposphere and below the mesosphere. The stratosphere is composed of stratified temperature zones, with the warmer layers of air located higher (closer to outer space) and the cooler layers lower (closer to the planetary surfa... | Stratosphere | Wikipedia | 362 | 47454 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stratosphere | Physical sciences | Atmosphere: General | Earth science |
The mechanism describing the formation of the ozone layer was described by British mathematician and geophysicist Sydney Chapman in 1930, and is known as the Chapman cycle or ozone–oxygen cycle. Molecular oxygen absorbs high energy sunlight in the UV-C region, at wavelengths shorter than about 240 nm. Radicals produced... | Stratosphere | Wikipedia | 417 | 47454 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stratosphere | Physical sciences | Atmosphere: General | Earth science |
Sydney Chapman gave a correct description of the source of stratospheric ozone and its ability to generate heat within the stratosphere; he also wrote that ozone may be destroyed by reacting with atomic oxygen, making two molecules of molecular oxygen. We now know that there are additional ozone loss mechanisms and tha... | Stratosphere | Wikipedia | 512 | 47454 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stratosphere | Physical sciences | Atmosphere: General | Earth science |
Because the temperature in the tropopause and lower stratosphere is largely constant with increasing altitude, very little convection and its resultant turbulence occurs there. Most turbulence at this altitude is caused by variations in the jet stream and other local wind shears, although areas of significant convectiv... | Stratosphere | Wikipedia | 383 | 47454 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stratosphere | Physical sciences | Atmosphere: General | Earth science |
Another large-scale feature that significantly influences stratospheric circulation is the breaking planetary waves resulting in intense quasi-horizontal mixing in the midlatitudes. This breaking is much more pronounced in the winter hemisphere where this region is called the surf zone. This breaking is caused due to a... | Stratosphere | Wikipedia | 453 | 47454 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stratosphere | Physical sciences | Atmosphere: General | Earth science |
Birds
Some bird species have been reported to fly at the upper levels of the troposphere. On November 29, 1973, a Rüppell's vulture (Gyps rueppelli) was ingested into a jet engine above the Ivory Coast. Bar-headed geese (Anser indicus'') sometimes migrate over Mount Everest, whose summit is . | Stratosphere | Wikipedia | 74 | 47454 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stratosphere | Physical sciences | Atmosphere: General | Earth science |
The mesosphere (; ) is the third layer of the atmosphere, directly above the stratosphere and directly below the thermosphere. In the mesosphere, temperature decreases as altitude increases. This characteristic is used to define limits: it begins at the top of the stratosphere (sometimes called the stratopause), and en... | Mesosphere | Wikipedia | 463 | 47460 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesosphere | Physical sciences | Atmosphere: General | Earth science |
Temperature
Within the mesosphere, temperature decreases with increasing height. This is a result of decreasing absorption of solar radiation by the rarefied atmosphere having a diminishing relative ozone concentration as altitude increases (ozone being the main absorber in the UV wavelengths that survived absorption b... | Mesosphere | Wikipedia | 467 | 47460 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesosphere | Physical sciences | Atmosphere: General | Earth science |
Beginning in October 2018, a distinct type of aurora has been identified, originating in the mesosphere. Often referred to as 'dunes' due to their resemblance to sandy ripples on a beach, the green undulating lights extend toward the equator. They have been identified as originating about above the surface. Since auro... | Mesosphere | Wikipedia | 382 | 47460 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesosphere | Physical sciences | Atmosphere: General | Earth science |
The thermosphere is the layer in the Earth's atmosphere directly above the mesosphere and below the exosphere. Within this layer of the atmosphere, ultraviolet radiation causes photoionization/photodissociation of molecules, creating ions; the thermosphere thus constitutes the larger part of the ionosphere. Taking its ... | Thermosphere | Wikipedia | 462 | 47463 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermosphere | Physical sciences | Atmosphere: General | Earth science |
Neutral gas constituents
It is convenient to separate the atmospheric regions according to the two temperature minima at an altitude of about (the tropopause) and at about (the mesopause) (Figure 1). The thermosphere (or the upper atmosphere) is the height region above , while the region between the tropopause and ... | Thermosphere | Wikipedia | 430 | 47463 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermosphere | Physical sciences | Atmosphere: General | Earth science |
The thermosphere contains an appreciable concentration of elemental sodium located in a thick band that occurs at the edge of the mesosphere, above Earth's surface. The sodium has an average concentration of 400,000 atoms per cubic centimeter. This band is regularly replenished by sodium sublimating from incoming met... | Thermosphere | Wikipedia | 457 | 47463 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermosphere | Physical sciences | Atmosphere: General | Earth science |
Solar XUV radiation
The solar X-ray and extreme ultraviolet radiation (XUV) at wavelengths < 170 nm is almost completely absorbed within the thermosphere. This radiation causes the various ionospheric layers as well as a temperature increase at these heights (Figure 1).
While the solar visible light (380 to 780 nm) i... | Thermosphere | Wikipedia | 286 | 47463 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermosphere | Physical sciences | Atmosphere: General | Earth science |
Solar wind
The second source of energy input into the thermosphere is solar wind energy which is transferred to the magnetosphere by mechanisms that are not well understood. One possible way to transfer energy is via a hydrodynamic dynamo process. Solar wind particles penetrate the polar regions of the magnetosphere wh... | Thermosphere | Wikipedia | 487 | 47463 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermosphere | Physical sciences | Atmosphere: General | Earth science |
Heating, predominately by tidal waves, occurs mainly at lower and middle latitudes. The variability of this heating depends on the meteorological conditions within the troposphere and middle atmosphere, and may not exceed about 50%.
Dynamics
Within the thermosphere above an altitude of about , all atmospheric waves s... | Thermosphere | Wikipedia | 321 | 47463 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermosphere | Physical sciences | Atmosphere: General | Earth science |
The first term in (3) on the right is the global mean of the exospheric temperature (of the order of 1000 K). The second term [with P20 = 0.5(3 sin2(φ)−1)] represents the heat surplus at lower latitudes and a corresponding heat deficit at higher latitudes (Fig. 2a). A thermal wind system develops with the wind toward ... | Thermosphere | Wikipedia | 351 | 47463 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermosphere | Physical sciences | Atmosphere: General | Earth science |
Thermospheric storms
In contrast to solar XUV radiation, magnetospheric disturbances, indicated on the ground by geomagnetic variations, show an unpredictable impulsive character, from short periodic disturbances of the order of hours to long-standing giant storms of several days' duration. The reaction of the thermosp... | Thermosphere | Wikipedia | 331 | 47463 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermosphere | Physical sciences | Atmosphere: General | Earth science |
In optics, the aperture of an optical system (including a system consisted of a single lens) is a hole or an opening that primarily limits light propagated through the system. More specifically, the entrance pupil as the front side image of the aperture and focal length of an optical system determine the cone angle of ... | Aperture | Wikipedia | 505 | 47474 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aperture | Physical sciences | Optics | Physics |
The word aperture is also used in other contexts to indicate a system which blocks off light outside a certain region. In astronomy, for example, a photometric aperture around a star usually corresponds to a circular window around the image of a star within which the light intensity is assumed.
Application | Aperture | Wikipedia | 56 | 47474 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aperture | Physical sciences | Optics | Physics |
The aperture stop is an important element in most optical designs. Its most obvious feature is that it limits the amount of light that can reach the image/film plane. This can be either unavoidable due to the practical limit of the aperture stop size, or deliberate to prevent saturation of a detector or overexposure of... | Aperture | Wikipedia | 481 | 47474 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aperture | Physical sciences | Optics | Physics |
In addition to an aperture stop, a photographic lens may have one or more field stops, which limit the system's field of view. When the field of view is limited by a field stop in the lens (rather than at the film or sensor) vignetting results; this is only a problem if the resulting field of view is less than was desi... | Aperture | Wikipedia | 508 | 47474 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aperture | Physical sciences | Optics | Physics |
The lens aperture is usually specified as an f-number, the ratio of focal length to effective aperture diameter (the diameter of the entrance pupil). A lens typically has a set of marked "f-stops" that the f-number can be set to. A lower f-number denotes a greater aperture which allows more light to reach the film or i... | Aperture | Wikipedia | 449 | 47474 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aperture | Physical sciences | Optics | Physics |
Lenses with apertures opening or wider are referred to as "fast" lenses, although the specific point has changed over time (for example, in the early 20th century aperture openings wider than were considered fast. The fastest lenses for the common 35 mm film format in general production have apertures of or , with m... | Aperture | Wikipedia | 466 | 47474 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aperture | Physical sciences | Optics | Physics |
By contrast, the minimum aperture does not depend on the focal length – it is limited by how narrowly the aperture closes, not the lens design – and is instead generally chosen based on practicality: very small apertures have lower sharpness due to diffraction at aperture edges, while the added depth of field is not ge... | Aperture | Wikipedia | 386 | 47474 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aperture | Physical sciences | Optics | Physics |
Though as early as 1933 Torkel Korling had invented and patented for the Graflex large format reflex camera an automatic aperture control, not all early 35mm single lens reflex cameras had the feature. With a small aperture, this darkened the viewfinder, making viewing, focusing, and composition difficult. Korling's de... | Aperture | Wikipedia | 277 | 47474 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aperture | Physical sciences | Optics | Physics |
For some lenses, including a few long telephotos, lenses mounted on bellows, and perspective-control and tilt/shift lenses, the mechanical linkage was impractical, and automatic aperture control was not provided. Many such lenses incorporated a feature known as a "preset" aperture, which allows the lens to be set to wo... | Aperture | Wikipedia | 483 | 47474 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aperture | Physical sciences | Optics | Physics |
As a matter of performance, lenses often do not perform optimally when fully opened, and thus generally have better sharpness when stopped down some – this is sharpness in the plane of critical focus, setting aside issues of depth of field. Beyond a certain point, there is no further sharpness benefit to stopping down,... | Aperture | Wikipedia | 327 | 47474 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aperture | Physical sciences | Optics | Physics |
In many living optical systems, the eye consists of an iris which adjusts the size of the pupil, through which light enters. The iris is analogous to the diaphragm, and the pupil (which is the adjustable opening in the iris) the aperture. Refraction in the cornea causes the effective aperture (the entrance pupil in opt... | Aperture | Wikipedia | 390 | 47474 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aperture | Physical sciences | Optics | Physics |
In digital photography, the 35mm-equivalent aperture range is sometimes considered to be more important than the actual f-number. Equivalent aperture is the f-number adjusted to correspond to the f-number of the same size absolute aperture diameter on a lens with a 35mm equivalent focal length. Smaller equivalent f-num... | Aperture | Wikipedia | 512 | 47474 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aperture | Physical sciences | Optics | Physics |
Aperture Science, a fictional company in the Portal fictional universe, is named after the optical system. The company's logo heavily features an aperture in its logo, and has come to symbolize the series, fictional company, and the Aperture Science Laboratories Computer-Aided Enrichment Center that the game series tak... | Aperture | Wikipedia | 62 | 47474 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aperture | Physical sciences | Optics | Physics |
An aquifer is an underground layer of water-bearing material, consisting of permeable or fractured rock, or of unconsolidated materials (gravel, sand, or silt). Aquifers vary greatly in their characteristics. The study of water flow in aquifers and the characterization of aquifers is called hydrogeology. Related terms ... | Aquifer | Wikipedia | 512 | 47481 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquifer | Physical sciences | Hydrology | Earth science |
In 2013 large freshwater aquifers were discovered under continental shelves off Australia, China, North America and South Africa. They contain an estimated half a million cubic kilometers of "low salinity" water that could be economically processed into potable water. The reserves formed when ocean levels were lower an... | Aquifer | Wikipedia | 360 | 47481 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquifer | Physical sciences | Hydrology | Earth science |
Unsaturated conditions occur above the water table where the pressure head is negative (absolute pressure can never be negative, but gauge pressure can) and the water that incompletely fills the pores of the aquifer material is under suction. The water content in the unsaturated zone is held in place by surface adhesiv... | Aquifer | Wikipedia | 395 | 47481 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquifer | Physical sciences | Hydrology | Earth science |
In mountainous areas (or near rivers in mountainous areas), the main aquifers are typically unconsolidated alluvium, composed of mostly horizontal layers of materials deposited by water processes (rivers and streams), which in cross-section (looking at a two-dimensional slice of the aquifer) appear to be layers of alte... | Aquifer | Wikipedia | 486 | 47481 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquifer | Physical sciences | Hydrology | Earth science |
If the distinction between confined and unconfined is not clear geologically (i.e., if it is not known if a clear confining layer exists, or if the geology is more complex, e.g., a fractured bedrock aquifer), the value of storativity returned from an aquifer test can be used to determine it (although aquifer tests in u... | Aquifer | Wikipedia | 401 | 47481 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquifer | Physical sciences | Hydrology | Earth science |
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