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Some rubies show a three-point or six-point asterism or "star". These rubies are cut into cabochons to display the effect properly. Asterisms are best visible with a single-light source and move across the stone as the light moves or the stone is rotated. Such effects occur when light is reflected off the "silk" (the s...	Ruby	Wikipedia	418	43551	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruby	Physical sciences	Mineral gemstones	null
Spinel, another red gemstone, is sometimes found along with rubies in the same gem gravel or marble. Red spinels may be mistaken for rubies by those lacking experience with gems. However, the finest red spinels, now heavily sought, can have values approaching all but the finest examples of ruby. The Mogok Valley in Upp...	Ruby	Wikipedia	400	43551	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruby	Physical sciences	Mineral gemstones	null
Color In the evaluation of colored gemstones, color is the most important factor. Color divides into three components: hue, saturation and tone. Hue refers to color as we normally use the term. Transparent gemstones occur in the pure spectral hues of red, orange, yellow, green, blue, violet. In nature, there are rarel...	Ruby	Wikipedia	508	43551	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruby	Physical sciences	Mineral gemstones	null
The rough stones are pre-polished to eradicate all surface impurities that may affect the process The rough is cleaned with hydrogen fluoride The first heating process during which no fillers are added. The heating process eradicates impurities inside the fractures. Although this can be done at temperatures up to 140...	Ruby	Wikipedia	511	43551	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruby	Physical sciences	Mineral gemstones	null
Other processes in which synthetic rubies can be produced are through Czochralski's pulling process, flux process, and the hydrothermal process. Most synthetic rubies originate from flame fusion, due to the low costs involved. Synthetic rubies may have no imperfections visible to the naked eye but magnification may rev...	Ruby	Wikipedia	393	43551	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruby	Physical sciences	Mineral gemstones	null
The Smithsonian's National Museum of Natural History in Washington, D.C. has some of the world's largest and finest ruby gemstones. The Burmese ruby, set in a platinum ring with diamonds, was donated by businessman and philanthropist Peter Buck in memory of his late wife Carmen Lúcia. This gemstone displays a richly s...	Ruby	Wikipedia	416	43551	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruby	Physical sciences	Mineral gemstones	null
Historical and cultural references The Old Testament of the Bible mentions ruby many times in the Book of Exodus, and many times in the Book of Proverbs, as well as various other times. It is not certain that the Biblical words mean 'ruby' as distinct from other jewels. An early recorded transport and trading of rubi...	Ruby	Wikipedia	259	43551	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruby	Physical sciences	Mineral gemstones	null
Fluorite (also called fluorspar) is the mineral form of calcium fluoride, CaF2. It belongs to the halide minerals. It crystallizes in isometric cubic habit, although octahedral and more complex isometric forms are not uncommon. The Mohs scale of mineral hardness, based on scratch hardness comparison, defines value 4 a...	Fluorite	Wikipedia	490	43589	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluorite	Physical sciences	Minerals	Earth science
In 1852, fluorite gave its name to the phenomenon of fluorescence, which is prominent in fluorites from certain locations, due to certain impurities in the crystal. Fluorite also gave the name to its constitutive element fluorine. Currently, the word "fluorspar" is most commonly used for fluorite as an industrial and c...	Fluorite	Wikipedia	510	43589	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluorite	Physical sciences	Minerals	Earth science
One of the largest deposits of fluorspar in North America is located on the Burin Peninsula, Newfoundland, Canada. The first official recognition of fluorspar in the area was recorded by geologist J.B. Jukes in 1843. He noted an occurrence of "galena" or lead ore and fluoride of lime on the west side of St. Lawrence ha...	Fluorite	Wikipedia	465	43589	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluorite	Physical sciences	Minerals	Earth science
One of the most famous of the older-known localities of fluorite is Castleton in Derbyshire, England, where, under the name of "Derbyshire Blue John", purple-blue fluorite was extracted from several mines or caves. During the 19th century, this attractive fluorite was mined for its ornamental value. The mineral Blue Jo...	Fluorite	Wikipedia	434	43589	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluorite	Physical sciences	Minerals	Earth science
The color of visible light emitted when a sample of fluorite is fluorescing depends on where the original specimen was collected; different impurities having been included in the crystal lattice in different places. Neither does all fluorite fluoresce equally brightly, even from the same locality. Therefore, ultraviole...	Fluorite	Wikipedia	405	43589	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluorite	Physical sciences	Minerals	Earth science
There are three principal types of industrial use for natural fluorite, commonly referred to as "fluorspar" in these industries, corresponding to different grades of purity. Metallurgical grade fluorite (60–85% CaF2), the lowest of the three grades, has traditionally been used as a flux to lower the melting point of ra...	Fluorite	Wikipedia	376	43589	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluorite	Physical sciences	Minerals	Earth science
In the laboratory, calcium fluoride is commonly used as a window material for both infrared and ultraviolet wavelengths, since it is transparent in these regions (about 0.15 μm to 9 μm) and exhibits an extremely low change in refractive index with wavelength. Furthermore, the material is attacked by few reagents. At wa...	Fluorite	Wikipedia	237	43589	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluorite	Physical sciences	Minerals	Earth science
Fluorite should not be confused with fluoro-crown (or fluorine crown) glass, a type of low-dispersion glass that has special optical properties approaching fluorite. True fluorite is not a glass but a crystalline material. Lenses or optical groups made using this low dispersion glass as one or more elements exhibit les...	Fluorite	Wikipedia	371	43589	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluorite	Physical sciences	Minerals	Earth science
With the advent of synthetically grown fluorite crystals in the 1950s - 60s, it could be used instead of glass in some high-performance optical telescope and camera lens elements. In telescopes, fluorite elements allow high-resolution images of astronomical objects at high magnifications. Canon Inc. produces synthetic ...	Fluorite	Wikipedia	496	43589	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluorite	Physical sciences	Minerals	Earth science
Flux describes any effect that appears to pass or travel (whether it actually moves or not) through a surface or substance. Flux is a concept in applied mathematics and vector calculus which has many applications in physics. For transport phenomena, flux is a vector quantity, describing the magnitude and direction of ...	Flux	Wikipedia	483	43590	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flux	Physical sciences	Basics_6	null
Given a flux according to the electromagnetism definition, the corresponding flux density, if that term is used, refers to its derivative along the surface that was integrated. By the Fundamental theorem of calculus, the corresponding flux density is a flux according to the transport definition. Given a current such as...	Flux	Wikipedia	447	43590	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flux	Physical sciences	Basics_6	null
As before, the surface is assumed to be flat, and the flow is assumed to be everywhere perpendicular to it. However the flow need not be constant. q is now a function of p, a point on the surface, and A, an area. Rather than measure the total flow through the surface, q measures the flow through the disk with area A ce...	Flux	Wikipedia	485	43590	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flux	Physical sciences	Basics_6	null
Finally, we can integrate again over the time duration t1 to t2, getting the total amount of the property flowing through the surface in that time (t2 − t1): Transport fluxes Eight of the most common forms of flux from the transport phenomena literature are defined as follows: Momentum flux, the rate of transfer of ...	Flux	Wikipedia	511	43590	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flux	Physical sciences	Basics_6	null
where the nabla symbol ∇ denotes the gradient operator, DAB is the diffusion coefficient (m2·s−1) of component A diffusing through component B, cA is the concentration (mol/m3) of component A. This flux has units of mol·m−2·s−1, and fits Maxwell's original definition of flux. For dilute gases, kinetic molecular theor...	Flux	Wikipedia	473	43590	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flux	Physical sciences	Basics_6	null
In physical geography, a fjord (also spelled fiord in New Zealand English; ) is a long, narrow sea inlet with steep sides or cliffs, created by a glacier. Fjords exist on the coasts of Antarctica, the Arctic, and surrounding landmasses of the northern and southern hemispheres. Norway's coastline is estimated to be lon...	Fjord	Wikipedia	397	43598	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fjord	Physical sciences	Glacial landforms	null
In the 19th century, Jens Esmark introduced the theory that fjords are or have been created by glaciers and that large parts of Northern Europe had been covered by thick ice in prehistory. Thresholds at the mouths and overdeepening of fjords compared to the ocean are the strongest evidence of glacial origin, and these...	Fjord	Wikipedia	373	43598	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fjord	Physical sciences	Glacial landforms	null
Hanging valleys are common along glaciated fjords and U-shaped valleys. A hanging valley is a tributary valley that is higher than the main valley and was created by tributary glacier flows into a glacier of larger volume. The shallower valley appears to be 'hanging' above the main valley or a fjord. Often, waterfalls ...	Fjord	Wikipedia	352	43598	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fjord	Physical sciences	Glacial landforms	null
During the summer season, there is usually a large inflow of river water in the inner areas. This freshwater gets mixed with saltwater creating a layer of brackish water with a slightly higher surface than the ocean which in turn sets up a current from the river mouths towards the ocean. This current is gradually more ...	Fjord	Wikipedia	460	43598	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fjord	Physical sciences	Glacial landforms	null
Skerries In some places near the seaward margins of areas with fjords, the ice-scoured channels are so numerous and varied in direction that the rocky coast is divided into thousands of island blocks, some large and mountainous while others are merely rocky points or rock reefs, menacing navigation. These are called sk...	Fjord	Wikipedia	500	43598	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fjord	Physical sciences	Glacial landforms	null
Overall, phytoplankton abundance and species composition within fjords is highly seasonal, varying as a result of seasonal light availability and water properties that depend on glacial melt and the formation of sea ice. The study of phytoplankton communities within fjords is an active area of research, supported by gr...	Fjord	Wikipedia	441	43598	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fjord	Physical sciences	Glacial landforms	null
As a loanword from Norwegian, it is one of the few words in the English language to start with the sequence fj. The word was for a long time normally spelled fiord, a spelling preserved in place names such as Grise Fiord. The fiord spelling mostly remains only in New Zealand English, as in the place name Fiordland. S...	Fjord	Wikipedia	502	43598	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fjord	Physical sciences	Glacial landforms	null
Whereas fjord names mostly describe bays (though not always geological fjords), straits in the same regions typically are named Sund, in Scandinavian languages as well as in German. The word is related to "to sunder" in the meaning of "to separate". So the use of Sound to name fjords in North America and New Zealand di...	Fjord	Wikipedia	502	43598	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fjord	Physical sciences	Glacial landforms	null
The fjords in Finnmark in Norway, which are fjords in the Scandinavian sense of the term, are not universally considered to be fjords by the scientific community, because although glacially formed, most Finnmark fjords lack the steep-sided valleys of the more southerly Norwegian fjords. The glacial pack was deep enoug...	Fjord	Wikipedia	129	43598	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fjord	Physical sciences	Glacial landforms	null
"Fjords" not created by glaciers The term "fjord" is sometimes applied to steep-sided inlets which were not created by glaciers. Most such inlets are drowned river canyons or rias. Examples include: In Acapulco, Mexico, the calanques (narrow, rocky inlets) on the western side of the city, where the famous cliff-divers...	Fjord	Wikipedia	405	43598	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fjord	Physical sciences	Glacial landforms	null
Some Norwegian freshwater lakes that have formed in long glacially carved valleys with sill thresholds, ice front deltas or terminal moraines blocking the outlet follow the Norwegian naming convention; they are frequently named fjords. Ice front deltas developed when the ice front was relatively stable for long time du...	Fjord	Wikipedia	432	43598	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fjord	Physical sciences	Glacial landforms	null
Some of these lakes were salt after the ice age but later cut off from the ocean during the post-glacial rebound. At the end of the ice age Eastern Norway was about lower (the marine limit). When the ice cap receded and allowed the ocean to fill valleys and lowlands, and lakes like Mjøsa and Tyrifjorden were part of t...	Fjord	Wikipedia	267	43598	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fjord	Physical sciences	Glacial landforms	null
Outside of Norway, the three western arms of New Zealand's Lake Te Anau are named North Fiord, Middle Fiord and South Fiord. Another freshwater "fjord" in a larger lake is Western Brook Pond, in Newfoundland's Gros Morne National Park; it is also often described as a fjord, but is actually a freshwater lake cut off fro...	Fjord	Wikipedia	467	43598	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fjord	Physical sciences	Glacial landforms	null
Principal fjord regions West coast of Europe Faroe Islands Westfjords of Iceland Eastern Region of Iceland West Highlands of Scotland Norway, the whole coast including Svalbard Kola Peninsula in Russia West coast of New Zealand Fiordland, in the southwest of the South Island Northwest coast of North America ...	Fjord	Wikipedia	484	43598	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fjord	Physical sciences	Glacial landforms	null
Extreme fjords The longest fjords in the world are: Nansen Sound/Greely Fiord/Tanquary Fiord in Canada— Chatham Strait/Lynn Canal in United States— Scoresby Sund in Greenland— Concepción Channel-Puerto Simpson in Chile— Sognefjord in Norway— Independence Fjord in Greenland— Matochkin Shar, Novaya Zemlya, Russia...	Fjord	Wikipedia	211	43598	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fjord	Physical sciences	Glacial landforms	null
Crayfish are freshwater crustaceans belonging to the infraorder Astacidea, which also contains lobsters. Taxonomically, they are members of the superfamilies Astacoidea and Parastacoidea. They breathe through feather-like gills. Some species are found in brooks and streams, where fresh water is running, while others t...	Crayfish	Wikipedia	506	43600	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crayfish	Biology and health sciences	Crustaceans	null
Crayfish all over the world can be seen in an ecological role of benthic dwellers, so this is where most of their food is obtained - at the sediment/water interface in ponds, lakes, swamps, or burrows. When the gut contents are analysed, most of the contents is mud: fine particulate organic matter (FPOM) and mixed part...	Crayfish	Wikipedia	501	43600	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crayfish	Biology and health sciences	Crustaceans	null
All waste products coming out through the hindgut are wrapped in a peritrophic membrane, so they look like a tube. Such an investment in the wrapping of the microbial free faeces in a protein rich membrane is most likely the reason they are coprophagic. Such feeding behaviour based on selection, ingestion, and extreme ...	Crayfish	Wikipedia	501	43600	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crayfish	Biology and health sciences	Crustaceans	null
The greatest diversity of crayfish species is found in southeastern North America, with over 330 species in 15 genera, all in the family Cambaridae. A further genus of astacid crayfish is found in the Pacific Northwest and the headwaters of some rivers east of the Continental Divide. Many crayfish are also found in low...	Crayfish	Wikipedia	471	43600	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crayfish	Biology and health sciences	Crustaceans	null
In Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa, the term "crayfish" or "cray" generally refers to a saltwater spiny lobster, of the genus Jasus that is indigenous to much of southern Oceania, while the freshwater species are usually called yabbies or , from the indigenous Australian and Māori names for the animal, respect...	Crayfish	Wikipedia	294	43600	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crayfish	Biology and health sciences	Crustaceans	null
Fossil burrows very similar in construction to those of modern crayfish and likely produced by early crayfish are known from the Early Permian (~300-270 million years ago) of equatorial Pangea, in what is now North America (Washington Formation), and Europe (Sardinia). The oldest body fossils assigned to crayfish are k...	Crayfish	Wikipedia	484	43600	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crayfish	Biology and health sciences	Crustaceans	null
Crayfish are eaten worldwide. Like other edible crustaceans, only a small portion of the body of a crayfish is eaten. In most prepared dishes, such as soups, bisques and étouffées, only the tail portion is served. At crawfish boils or other meals where the entire body of the crayfish is presented, other portions, such ...	Crayfish	Wikipedia	372	43600	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crayfish	Biology and health sciences	Crustaceans	null
In the United States, crayfish production is strongly centered in Louisiana, with 93% of crayfish farms located in the state as of 2018. In 1987, Louisiana produced 90% of the crayfish harvested in the world, 70% of which were consumed locally. In 2007, the Louisiana crayfish harvest was about 54,800 tons, almost all o...	Crayfish	Wikipedia	444	43600	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crayfish	Biology and health sciences	Crustaceans	null
Crayfish are kept as pets in freshwater aquariums. They prefer foods like shrimp pellets or various vegetables, but will also eat tropical fish food, regular fish food, algae wafers, and small fish that can be captured with their claws. A report by the National Park Service as well as video and anecdotal reports by aqu...	Crayfish	Wikipedia	468	43600	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crayfish	Biology and health sciences	Crustaceans	null
Sharks are a group of elasmobranch fish characterized by a cartilaginous skeleton, five to seven gill slits on the sides of the head, and pectoral fins that are not fused to the head. Modern sharks are classified within the clade Selachimorpha (or Selachii) and are the sister group to the Batoidea (rays and kin). Some ...	Shark	Wikipedia	478	43617	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shark	Biology and health sciences	Sharks	null
Etymology Until the 16th century, sharks were known to mariners as "sea dogs". This is still evidential in several species termed "dogfish", or the porbeagle. The etymology of the word shark is uncertain. The most likely etymology states that the original sense of the word was that of "predator, one who preys on other...	Shark	Wikipedia	510	43617	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shark	Biology and health sciences	Sharks	null
Sharks belong to the clade Selachimorpha in the subclass Elasmobranchii in the class Chondrichthyes. The Elasmobranchii also include rays and skates; the Chondrichthyes also include Chimaeras. It was thought that the sharks form a polyphyletic group: some sharks are more closely related to rays than they are to some ot...	Shark	Wikipedia	358	43617	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shark	Biology and health sciences	Sharks	null
Carcharhiniformes: Commonly known as ground sharks, the order includes the blue, tiger, bull, grey reef, blacktip reef, Caribbean reef, blacktail reef, whitetip reef, and oceanic whitetip sharks (collectively called the requiem sharks) along with the houndsharks, catsharks, and hammerhead sharks. They are distinguished...	Shark	Wikipedia	493	43617	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shark	Biology and health sciences	Sharks	null
Tooth shape depends on the shark's diet: those that feed on mollusks and crustaceans have dense and flattened teeth used for crushing, those that feed on fish have needle-like teeth for gripping, and those that feed on larger prey such as mammals have pointed lower teeth for gripping and triangular upper teeth with ser...	Shark	Wikipedia	454	43617	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shark	Biology and health sciences	Sharks	null
Unlike bony fish, sharks have a complex dermal corset made of flexible collagenous fibers and arranged as a helical network surrounding their body. This works as an outer skeleton, providing attachment for their swimming muscles and thus saving energy. Their dermal teeth give them hydrodynamic advantages as they reduce...	Shark	Wikipedia	383	43617	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shark	Biology and health sciences	Sharks	null
Buoyancy Unlike bony fish, sharks do not have gas-filled swim bladders for buoyancy. Instead, sharks rely on a large liver filled with oil that contains squalene, and their cartilage, which is about half the normal density of bone. Their liver constitutes up to 30% of their total body mass. The liver's effectiveness is...	Shark	Wikipedia	501	43617	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shark	Biology and health sciences	Sharks	null
Thermoregulation Most sharks are "cold-blooded" or, more precisely, poikilothermic, meaning that their internal body temperature matches that of their ambient environment. Members of the family Lamnidae (such as the shortfin mako shark and the great white shark) are homeothermic and maintain a higher body temperature t...	Shark	Wikipedia	468	43617	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shark	Biology and health sciences	Sharks	null
Digestion Digestion can take a long time. The food moves from the mouth to a J-shaped stomach, where it is stored and initial digestion occurs. Unwanted items may never get past the stomach, and instead the shark either vomits or turns its stomachs inside out and ejects unwanted items from its mouth. One of the bigges...	Shark	Wikipedia	421	43617	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shark	Biology and health sciences	Sharks	null
Shark eyes are similar to the eyes of other vertebrates, including similar lenses, corneas and retinas, though their eyesight is well adapted to the marine environment with the help of a tissue called tapetum lucidum. This tissue is behind the retina and reflects light back to it, thereby increasing visibility in the d...	Shark	Wikipedia	393	43617	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shark	Biology and health sciences	Sharks	null
Hearing Although it is hard to test the hearing of sharks, they may have a sharp sense of hearing and can possibly hear prey from many miles away. The hearing sensitivity for most shark species lies between 20 and 1000 Hz. A small opening on each side of their heads (not the spiracle) leads directly into the inner ear ...	Shark	Wikipedia	475	43617	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shark	Biology and health sciences	Sharks	null
Reproduction Unlike most bony fish, sharks are K-selected reproducers, meaning that they produce a small number of well-developed young as opposed to a large number of poorly developed young. Fecundity in sharks ranges from 2 to over 100 young per reproductive cycle. Sharks mature slowly relative to many other fish. Fo...	Shark	Wikipedia	457	43617	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shark	Biology and health sciences	Sharks	null
Ovoviviparity Most sharks are ovoviviparous, meaning that the eggs hatch in the oviduct within the mother's body and that the egg's yolk and fluids secreted by glands in the walls of the oviduct nourishes the embryos. The young continue to be nourished by the remnants of the yolk and the oviduct's fluids. As in vivipar...	Shark	Wikipedia	467	43617	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shark	Biology and health sciences	Sharks	null
Behavior The classic view describes a solitary hunter, ranging the oceans in search of food. However, this applies to only a few species. Most live far more social, sedentary, benthic lives, and appear likely to have their own distinct personalities. Even solitary sharks meet for breeding or at rich hunting grounds, wh...	Shark	Wikipedia	445	43617	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shark	Biology and health sciences	Sharks	null
Species that do need to swim continuously to breathe go through a process known as sleep swimming, in which the shark is essentially unconscious. It is known from experiments conducted on the spiny dogfish that its spinal cord, rather than its brain, coordinates swimming, so spiny dogfish can continue to swim while sle...	Shark	Wikipedia	478	43617	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shark	Biology and health sciences	Sharks	null
The bonnethead shark is the only known omnivorous species. Its main prey is crustaceans and mollusks, but it also eats a large amount of seagrass, and is able to digest and extract nutrients from about 50% of the seagrass it consume. Many sharks, including the whitetip reef shark are cooperative feeders and hunt in pa...	Shark	Wikipedia	446	43617	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shark	Biology and health sciences	Sharks	null
In general, sharks show little pattern of attacking humans specifically, part of the reason could be that sharks prefer the blood of fish and other common preys. Research indicates that when humans do become the object of a shark attack, it is possible that the shark has mistaken the human for species that are its norm...	Shark	Wikipedia	386	43617	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shark	Biology and health sciences	Sharks	null
In Hawaii Sharks figure prominently in Hawaiian mythology. Stories tell of men with shark jaws on their back who could change between shark and human form. A common theme was that a shark-man would warn beach-goers of sharks in the waters. The beach-goers would laugh and ignore the warnings and get eaten by the shark-m...	Shark	Wikipedia	394	43617	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shark	Biology and health sciences	Sharks	null
In American Samoa On the island of Tutuila in American Samoa (a U.S. territory), there is a location called Turtle and Shark (Laumei ma Malie) which is important in Samoan culture—the location is the site of a legend called O Le Tala I Le Laumei Ma Le Malie, in which two humans are said to have transformed into a turtl...	Shark	Wikipedia	478	43617	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shark	Biology and health sciences	Sharks	null
Fishery In 2008, it was estimated that nearly 100 million sharks were being killed by people every year, due to commercial and recreational fishing. In 2021, it was estimated that the population of oceanic sharks and rays had dropped by 71% over the previous half-century. Shark finning yields are estimated at for 200...	Shark	Wikipedia	470	43617	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shark	Biology and health sciences	Sharks	null
Shark fin soup is a status symbol in Asian countries and is erroneously considered healthy and full of nutrients. Scientific research has revealed, however, that high concentrations of BMAA are present in shark fins. Because BMAA is a neurotoxin, consumption of shark fin soup and cartilage pills, therefore, may pose a ...	Shark	Wikipedia	501	43617	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shark	Biology and health sciences	Sharks	null
From 1962 to the present, the government of Queensland has targeted and killed sharks in large numbers by using drum lines, under a "shark control" program—this program has also inadvertently killed large numbers of other animals such as dolphins; it has also killed endangered hammerhead sharks. Queensland's drum line ...	Shark	Wikipedia	425	43617	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shark	Biology and health sciences	Sharks	null
George H. Burgess, the former director of the International Shark Attack File, "describes [shark] culling as a form of revenge, satisfying a public demand for blood and little else"; he also said shark culling is a "retro-type move reminiscent of what people would have done in the 1940s and 50s, back when we didn't hav...	Shark	Wikipedia	435	43617	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shark	Biology and health sciences	Sharks	null
In 2010, the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) rejected proposals from the United States and Palau that would have required countries to strictly regulate trade in several species of scalloped hammerhead, oceanic whitetip and spiny dogfish sharks. The majority, but not the required two-thi...	Shark	Wikipedia	480	43617	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shark	Biology and health sciences	Sharks	null
In April 2020 researchers reported to have traced the origins of shark fins of endangered hammerhead sharks from a retail market in Hong Kong back to their source populations and therefore the approximate locations where the sharks were first caught using DNA analysis. In July 2020 scientists reported results of a sur...	Shark	Wikipedia	216	43617	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shark	Biology and health sciences	Sharks	null
The great white shark (Carcharodon carcharias), also known as the white shark, white pointer, or simply great white, is a species of large mackerel shark which can be found in the coastal surface waters of all the major oceans. It is the only known surviving species of its genus Carcharodon. The great white shark is no...	Great white shark	Wikipedia	490	43619	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great%20white%20shark	Biology and health sciences	Sharks	null
Taxonomy The great white is the sole recognized extant species in the genus Carcharodon, and is one of five extant species belonging to the family Lamnidae. Other members of this family include the mako sharks, porbeagle, and salmon shark. The family belongs to the Lamniformes, the order of mackerel sharks. Etymology...	Great white shark	Wikipedia	464	43619	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great%20white%20shark	Biology and health sciences	Sharks	null
There have been a few attempts to describe and classify the great white before Linnaeus. One of its earliest mentions in literature as a distinct type of animal appears in Pierre Belon's 1553 book De aquatilibus duo, cum eiconibus ad vivam ipsorum effigiem quoad ejus fieri potuit, ad amplissimum cardinalem Castilioneum...	Great white shark	Wikipedia	423	43619	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great%20white%20shark	Biology and health sciences	Sharks	null
However, it is now understood that the great white shark holds closer ties to the mako sharks and is descended from a separate lineage as a chronospecies unrelated to the mega-toothed sharks. This was proven with the discovery of a transitional species that connected the great white to an unserrated shark known as Carc...	Great white shark	Wikipedia	490	43619	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great%20white%20shark	Biology and health sciences	Sharks	null
Great white sharks live in almost all coastal and offshore waters which have water temperature between , with greater concentrations in the United States (Northeast and California), South Africa, Japan, Oceania, Chile, and the Mediterranean including the Sea of Marmara and Bosphorus. One of the densest-known population...	Great white shark	Wikipedia	398	43619	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great%20white%20shark	Biology and health sciences	Sharks	null
In the Northwest Atlantic, the white shark populations off the New England coast were nearly eradicated due to over-fishing. In recent years, the populations have grown greatly, largely due to the increase in seal populations on Cape Cod, Massachusetts since the enactment of the Marine Mammal Protection Act in 1972. Cu...	Great white shark	Wikipedia	475	43619	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great%20white%20shark	Biology and health sciences	Sharks	null
In great white sharks, sexual dimorphism is present, and females are generally larger than males. Male great whites on average measure in length, while females measure . Adults of this species weigh on average; however, mature females can have an average mass of . The largest females have been verified up to in leng...	Great white shark	Wikipedia	461	43619	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great%20white%20shark	Biology and health sciences	Sharks	null
Examples of large unconfirmed great whites A number of very large unconfirmed great white shark specimens have been recorded. For decades, many ichthyological works, as well as the Guinness Book of World Records, listed two great white sharks as the largest individuals: In the 1870s, a great white captured in souther...	Great white shark	Wikipedia	228	43619	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great%20white%20shark	Biology and health sciences	Sharks	null
While these measurements have not been confirmed, some great white sharks caught in modern times have been estimated to be more than long, but these claims have received some criticism. However, J. E. Randall believed that great white shark may have exceeded in length. A great white shark was captured near Kangaroo I...	Great white shark	Wikipedia	498	43619	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great%20white%20shark	Biology and health sciences	Sharks	null
This shark, known locally as the "Submarine", had a legendary reputation that was supposedly well-founded. Though rumours have stated this shark was exaggerated in size or non-existent altogether, witness accounts by the then young Craig Anthony Ferreira, a notable shark expert in South Africa, and his father indicate ...	Great white shark	Wikipedia	116	43619	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great%20white%20shark	Biology and health sciences	Sharks	null
One contender in maximum size among the predatory sharks is the tiger shark (Galeocerdo cuvier). While tiger sharks, which are typically both a few feet smaller and have a leaner, less heavy body structure than white sharks, have been confirmed to reach at least in the length, an unverified specimen was reported to ha...	Great white shark	Wikipedia	249	43619	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great%20white%20shark	Biology and health sciences	Sharks	null
To more successfully hunt fast and agile prey such as sea lions, the great white has adapted to maintain a body temperature warmer than the surrounding water. One of these adaptations is a "rete mirabile" (Latin for "wonderful net"). This close web-like structure of veins and arteries, located along each lateral side o...	Great white shark	Wikipedia	426	43619	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great%20white%20shark	Biology and health sciences	Sharks	null
Bite force A 2007 study from the University of New South Wales in Sydney, Australia, used CT scans of a shark's skull and computer models to measure the shark's maximum bite force. The study reveals the forces and behaviours its skull is adapted to handle and resolves competing theories about its feeding behaviour. In...	Great white shark	Wikipedia	341	43619	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great%20white%20shark	Biology and health sciences	Sharks	null
The great white shark is one of only a few sharks known to regularly lift its head above the sea surface to gaze at other objects such as prey. This is known as spy-hopping. This behaviour has also been seen in at least one group of blacktip reef sharks, but this might be learned from interaction with humans (it is the...	Great white shark	Wikipedia	364	43619	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great%20white%20shark	Biology and health sciences	Sharks	null
Great white sharks are generalist carnivores, preying upon fish (e.g. tuna, rays, other sharks), cetaceans (i.e., dolphins, porpoises, whales), pinnipeds (e.g. seals, fur seals, and sea lions), squid, sea turtles, sea otters (Enhydra lutris) and seabirds. Great whites have also been known to eat objects that they are u...	Great white shark	Wikipedia	421	43619	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great%20white%20shark	Biology and health sciences	Sharks	null
Off California, sharks use different predation techniques depending on the prey species. They immobilize northern elephant seals (Mirounga angustirostris) with a large bite to the hindquarters (which is the main source of the seal's mobility) and wait for the seal to bleed to death. This technique is especially used on...	Great white shark	Wikipedia	220	43619	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great%20white%20shark	Biology and health sciences	Sharks	null
White sharks also attack dolphins and porpoises from above, behind or below to avoid being detected by their echolocation. Targeted species include dusky dolphins (Sagmatias obscurus), Risso's dolphins (Grampus griseus), bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops ssp.), humpback dolphins (Sousa ssp.), harbour porpoises (Phocoena ph...	Great white shark	Wikipedia	323	43619	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great%20white%20shark	Biology and health sciences	Sharks	null
Whale carcasses comprise an important part of the diet of white sharks. However, this has rarely been observed due to whales dying in remote areas. It has been estimated that of whale blubber could feed a white shark for 1.5 months. Detailed observations were made of four whale carcasses in False Bay between 2000 and...	Great white shark	Wikipedia	393	43619	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great%20white%20shark	Biology and health sciences	Sharks	null
In another documented incident, white sharks were observed scavenging on a whale carcass alongside tiger sharks. In 2020, marine biologists Sasha Dines and Enrico Gennari published a documented incident in the journal Marine and Freshwater Research of two great white sharks within an hour apart, successfully attacking ...	Great white shark	Wikipedia	464	43619	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great%20white%20shark	Biology and health sciences	Sharks	null
Little is known about the great white shark's mating habits, and mating behaviour had not been observed in this species until 1997 and properly documented in 2020. It was assumed previously to be possible that whale carcasses are an important location for sexually mature sharks to meet for mating. According to the test...	Great white shark	Wikipedia	481	43619	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great%20white%20shark	Biology and health sciences	Sharks	null
A breach is the result of a high-speed approach to the surface with the resulting momentum taking the shark partially or completely clear of the water. This is a hunting technique employed by great white sharks whilst hunting seals. This technique is often used on cape fur seals at Seal Island in False Bay, South Afric...	Great white shark	Wikipedia	442	43619	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great%20white%20shark	Biology and health sciences	Sharks	null
In 2015, a pod of orcas was recorded to have killed a great white shark off South Australia. In 2017, three great whites were found washed ashore near Gansbaai, South Africa, with their body cavities torn open and the livers removed by what is likely to have been orcas. Orcas also generally impact great white distribut...	Great white shark	Wikipedia	511	43619	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great%20white%20shark	Biology and health sciences	Sharks	null
Relationship with humans Shark bite incidents Of all shark species, the great white shark is responsible for by far the largest number of recorded shark bite incidents on humans, with 351 documented unprovoked bite incidents on humans as of 2024. More than any documented bite incident, Peter Benchley's best-selling...	Great white shark	Wikipedia	490	43619	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great%20white%20shark	Biology and health sciences	Sharks	null
However, some researchers have hypothesized that the reason the proportion of fatalities is low is not that sharks do not like human flesh, but because humans are often able to escape after the first bite. In the 1980s, John McCosker, chair of aquatic biology at the California Academy of Sciences, noted that divers who...	Great white shark	Wikipedia	512	43619	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great%20white%20shark	Biology and health sciences	Sharks	null
In 2014 the state government of Western Australia led by Premier Colin Barnett implemented a policy of killing large sharks. The policy, colloquially referred to as the Western Australian shark cull, was intended to protect users of the marine environment from shark bite incidents, following the deaths of seven people ...	Great white shark	Wikipedia	442	43619	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great%20white%20shark	Biology and health sciences	Sharks	null
Monterey Bay Aquarium first attempted to display a great white in 1984, but the shark died after 11 days because it did not eat. In July 2003, Monterey researchers captured a small female and kept it in a large netted pen near Malibu for five days. They had the rare success of getting the shark to feed in captivity bef...	Great white shark	Wikipedia	433	43619	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great%20white%20shark	Biology and health sciences	Sharks	null
One of the largest adult great whites ever exhibited was at Japan's Okinawa Churaumi Aquarium in 2016, where a male was exhibited for three days before dying. Perhaps the most famous captive was a female named Sandy, which in August 1980 became the only great white to be housed at the California Academy of Sciences' ...	Great white shark	Wikipedia	494	43619	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great%20white%20shark	Biology and health sciences	Sharks	null
Conservation status It is unclear how much of a concurrent increase in fishing for great white sharks has caused the decline of great white shark populations from the 1970s to the present. No accurate global population numbers are available, but the great white shark is now considered vulnerable worldwide, and critica...	Great white shark	Wikipedia	505	43619	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great%20white%20shark	Biology and health sciences	Sharks	null
In 2002, the Australian government created the White Shark Recovery Plan, implementing government-mandated conservation research and monitoring for conservation in addition to federal protection and stronger regulation of shark-related trade and tourism activities. An updated recovery plan was published in 2013 to revi...	Great white shark	Wikipedia	396	43619	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great%20white%20shark	Biology and health sciences	Sharks	null
In New Zealand The great white shark is one of the most commonly found in the waters of New Zealand. As of April 2007, great white sharks were fully protected within of New Zealand and additionally from fishing by New Zealand-flagged boats outside this range. The maximum penalty is a $250,000 fine and up to six month...	Great white shark	Wikipedia	475	43619	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great%20white%20shark	Biology and health sciences	Sharks	null

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