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In 1949, 15,000 Americans underwent cosmetic surgery procedures and by 1969 this number rose to almost half a million people. The American Society of Plastic Surgeons estimates that more than 333,000 cosmetic procedures were performed on patients 18 years of age or younger in the US in 2005 compared to approx. 14,000 i... | Plastic surgery | Wikipedia | 353 | 42048 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastic%20surgery | Biology and health sciences | Medical procedures | null | vital_articles |
The most popular aesthetic/cosmetic procedures include:
Abdominoplasty ("tummy tuck"): reshaping and firming of the abdomen
Blepharoplasty ("eyelid surgery"): reshaping of upper/lower eyelids including Asian blepharoplasty
Phalloplasty ("penile surgery"): construction (or reconstruction) of a penis or, sometimes, ar... | Plastic surgery | Wikipedia | 500 | 42048 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastic%20surgery | Biology and health sciences | Medical procedures | null | vital_articles |
Calf augmentation: done by silicone implants or fat transfer to add bulk to calf muscles
Labiaplasty: surgical reduction and reshaping of the labia
Lip augmentation: alter the appearance of the lips by increasing their fullness through surgical enlargement with lip implants or nonsurgical enhancement with injectable ... | Plastic surgery | Wikipedia | 482 | 42048 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastic%20surgery | Biology and health sciences | Medical procedures | null | vital_articles |
Zygoma reduction plasty: reducing the facial width by performing osteotomy and resecting part of the zygomatic bone and arch
Jaw reduction: reduction of the mandible angle to smooth out an angular jaw and creating a slim jaw
Buccal fat extraction: extraction of the buccal pads
Body contouring: the removal of this ex... | Plastic surgery | Wikipedia | 414 | 42048 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastic%20surgery | Biology and health sciences | Medical procedures | null | vital_articles |
In 2015, the most popular surgeries were botox, liposuction, blepharoplasties, breast implants, rhynoplasties, and rhytidectomies. According to the 2020 Plastic Surgery Statistics Report, which is published by the American Society of Plastic Surgeons, the most surgical procedure performed in the U.S. was rhinoplasty (n... | Plastic surgery | Wikipedia | 390 | 42048 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastic%20surgery | Biology and health sciences | Medical procedures | null | vital_articles |
BDD is a disorder resulting in the individual becoming "preoccupied with what they regard as defects in their bodies or faces". Alternatively, where there is a slight physical anomaly, then the person's concern is markedly excessive. While 2% of people have body dysmorphic disorder in the United States, 15% of patients... | Plastic surgery | Wikipedia | 318 | 42048 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastic%20surgery | Biology and health sciences | Medical procedures | null | vital_articles |
Mescaline, also known as mescalin or mezcalin, and in chemical terms 3,4,5-trimethoxyphenethylamine, is a naturally occurring psychedelic protoalkaloid of the substituted phenethylamine class, known for its hallucinogenic effects comparable to those of LSD and psilocybin. It binds to and activates certain serotonin rec... | Mescaline | Wikipedia | 390 | 42052 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mescaline | Biology and health sciences | Recreational drugs | Health | vital_articles |
In traditional peyote preparations, the top of the cactus is cut off, leaving the large tap root along with a ring of green photosynthesizing area to grow new heads. These heads are then dried to make disc-shaped buttons. Buttons are chewed to produce the effects or soaked in water to drink. However, the taste of the c... | Mescaline | Wikipedia | 451 | 42052 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mescaline | Biology and health sciences | Recreational drugs | Health | vital_articles |
Potential medical usage
Mescaline has a wide array of suggested medical usage, including treatment of depression, anxiety, PTSD, and alcoholism. However, its status as a Schedule I controlled substance in the Convention on Psychotropic Substances limits availability of the drug to researchers. Because of this, very fe... | Mescaline | Wikipedia | 478 | 42052 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mescaline | Biology and health sciences | Recreational drugs | Health | vital_articles |
Chemistry
Mescaline, also known as 3,4,5-trimethoxyphenethylamine (3,4,5-TMPEA), is a substituted phenethylamine derivative. It is closely structurally related to the catecholamine neurotransmitters dopamine, norepinephrine, and epinephrine.
The drug is relatively hydrophilic with low fat solubility. Its predicted lo... | Mescaline | Wikipedia | 483 | 42052 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mescaline | Biology and health sciences | Recreational drugs | Health | vital_articles |
Mescaline was first synthesized in 1919 by Ernst Späth from 3,4,5-trimethoxybenzoyl chloride. Several approaches using different starting materials have been developed since, including the following:
Hofmann rearrangement of 3,4,5-trimethoxyphenylpropionamide.
Cyanohydrin reaction between potassium cyanide and 3,4,5... | Mescaline | Wikipedia | 421 | 42052 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mescaline | Biology and health sciences | Recreational drugs | Health | vital_articles |
In humans, mescaline acts similarly to other psychedelic agents. It acts as an agonist, binding to and activating the serotonin 5-HT2A receptor. Its at the serotonin 5-HT2A receptor is approximately 10,000nM and at the serotonin 5-HT2B receptor is greater than 20,000nM. How activating the 5-HT2A receptor leads to psyc... | Mescaline | Wikipedia | 500 | 42052 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mescaline | Biology and health sciences | Recreational drugs | Health | vital_articles |
The LD50 of mescaline has been measured in various animals: 212–315 mg/kg i.p. (mice), 132–410 mg/kg i.p. (rats), 328 mg/kg i.p. (guinea pigs), 54mg/kg in dogs, and 130mg/kg i.v. in rhesus macaques. For humans, the LD50 of mescaline has been reported to be approximately 880 mg/kg. It has been said that it would be very... | Mescaline | Wikipedia | 469 | 42052 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mescaline | Biology and health sciences | Recreational drugs | Health | vital_articles |
The previously reported elimination half-life of mescaline was originally reported to be 6hours, but a new study published in 2023 reported a half-life of 3.6hours. The higher estimate is believed to be due to small sample numbers and collective measurement of mescaline metabolites.
Mescaline appears to have relativel... | Mescaline | Wikipedia | 507 | 42052 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mescaline | Biology and health sciences | Recreational drugs | Health | vital_articles |
Other countries
In Canada, France, The Netherlands and Germany, mescaline in raw form and dried mescaline-containing cacti are considered illegal drugs. However, anyone may grow and use peyote, or Lophophora williamsii, as well as Echinopsis pachanoi and Echinopsis peruviana without restriction, as it is specifically ... | Mescaline | Wikipedia | 133 | 42052 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mescaline | Biology and health sciences | Recreational drugs | Health | vital_articles |
Notable users
Salvador Dalí experimented with mescaline believing it would enable him to use his subconscious to further his art potential
Antonin Artaud wrote 1947's The Peyote Dance, where he describes his peyote experiences in Mexico a decade earlier.
Jerry Garcia took peyote prior to forming The Grateful Dead b... | Mescaline | Wikipedia | 433 | 42052 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mescaline | Biology and health sciences | Recreational drugs | Health | vital_articles |
Psychedelic research pioneer Alexander Shulgin said he was first inspired to explore psychedelic compounds by a mescaline experience. In 1974, Shulgin synthesized 2C-B, a psychedelic phenylethylamine derivative, structurally similar to mescaline, and one of Shulgin's self-rated most important phenethylamine compounds t... | Mescaline | Wikipedia | 300 | 42052 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mescaline | Biology and health sciences | Recreational drugs | Health | vital_articles |
Hydrogen cyanide (formerly known as prussic acid) is a chemical compound with the formula HCN and structural formula . It is a highly toxic and flammable liquid that boils slightly above room temperature, at . HCN is produced on an industrial scale and is a highly valued precursor to many chemical compounds ranging fro... | Hydrogen cyanide | Wikipedia | 490 | 42078 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen%20cyanide | Physical sciences | Hydrogen compounds | Chemistry | vital_articles |
Metal cyanides are typically prepared by salt metathesis from alkali metal cyanide salts, but mercuric cyanide is formed from aqueous hydrogen cyanide:
History of discovery and naming
Hydrogen cyanide was first isolated in 1752 by French chemist Pierre Macquer who converted Prussian blue to an iron oxide plus a volati... | Hydrogen cyanide | Wikipedia | 491 | 42078 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen%20cyanide | Physical sciences | Hydrogen compounds | Chemistry | vital_articles |
This reaction is akin to steam reforming, the reaction of methane and water to give carbon monoxide and hydrogen.
In the Shawinigan Process, hydrocarbons, e.g. propane, are reacted with ammonia.
In the laboratory, small amounts of HCN are produced by the addition of acids to cyanide salts of alkali metals:
This reac... | Hydrogen cyanide | Wikipedia | 424 | 42078 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen%20cyanide | Physical sciences | Hydrogen compounds | Chemistry | vital_articles |
Occurrence
HCN is obtainable from fruits that have a pit, such as cherries, apricots, apples, and nuts such as bitter almonds, from which almond oil and extract is made. Many of these pits contain small amounts of cyanohydrins such as mandelonitrile and amygdalin, which slowly release hydrogen cyanide. One hundred gram... | Hydrogen cyanide | Wikipedia | 419 | 42078 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen%20cyanide | Physical sciences | Hydrogen compounds | Chemistry | vital_articles |
In mammals
Some authors have shown that neurons can produce hydrogen cyanide upon activation of their opioid receptors by endogenous or exogenous opioids. They have also shown that neuronal production of HCN activates NMDA receptors and plays a role in signal transduction between neuronal cells (neurotransmission). Mo... | Hydrogen cyanide | Wikipedia | 449 | 42078 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen%20cyanide | Physical sciences | Hydrogen compounds | Chemistry | vital_articles |
HCN has been detected in the interstellar medium and in the atmospheres of carbon stars. Since then, extensive studies have probed formation and destruction pathways of HCN in various environments and examined its use as a tracer for a variety of astronomical species and processes. HCN can be observed from ground-based... | Hydrogen cyanide | Wikipedia | 442 | 42078 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen%20cyanide | Physical sciences | Hydrogen compounds | Chemistry | vital_articles |
On 11 August 2014, astronomers released studies, using the Atacama Large Millimeter/Submillimeter Array (ALMA) for the first time, that detailed the distribution of HCN, HNC, H2CO, and dust inside the comae of comets C/2012 F6 (Lemmon) and C/2012 S1 (ISON).
In February 2016, it was announced that traces of hydrogen cy... | Hydrogen cyanide | Wikipedia | 466 | 42078 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen%20cyanide | Physical sciences | Hydrogen compounds | Chemistry | vital_articles |
The Chemical Weapons Convention lists it under Schedule 3 as a potential weapon which has large-scale industrial uses. Signatory countries must declare manufacturing plants that produce more than 30 metric tons per year, and allow inspection by the Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons.
Perhaps its most... | Hydrogen cyanide | Wikipedia | 363 | 42078 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen%20cyanide | Physical sciences | Hydrogen compounds | Chemistry | vital_articles |
Potassium hexacyanidoferrate(II) is the inorganic compound with formula K4[Fe(CN)6]·3H2O. It is the potassium salt of the coordination complex [Fe(CN)6]4−. This salt forms lemon-yellow monoclinic crystals.
Synthesis
In 1752, the French chemist Pierre Joseph Macquer (1718–1784) first reported the preparation of Potass... | Potassium ferrocyanide | Wikipedia | 502 | 42079 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potassium%20ferrocyanide | Physical sciences | Cyanide salts | Chemistry | vital_articles |
With the composition Fe[Fe(CN)], this insoluble but deeply coloured material is the blue of blueprinting, as well as on many famous paintings such as The Great Wave off Kanagawa and The Starry Night.
Applications
Potassium hexacyanidoferrate(II) finds many niche applications in industry. It and the related sodium sal... | Potassium ferrocyanide | Wikipedia | 455 | 42079 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potassium%20ferrocyanide | Physical sciences | Cyanide salts | Chemistry | vital_articles |
Structure
Like other metal cyanides, solid potassium hexacyanidoferrate(II), both as the hydrate and anhydrous salts, has a complicated polymeric structure. The polymer consists of octahedral [Fe(CN)6]4− centers crosslinked with K+ ions that are bound to the CN ligands. The K+---NC linkages break when the solid is di... | Potassium ferrocyanide | Wikipedia | 128 | 42079 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potassium%20ferrocyanide | Physical sciences | Cyanide salts | Chemistry | vital_articles |
The Atlantic cod (: cod; Gadus morhua) is a fish of the family Gadidae, widely consumed by humans. It is also commercially known as cod or codling.
In the western Atlantic Ocean, cod has a distribution north of Cape Hatteras, North Carolina, and around both coasts of Greenland and the Labrador Sea; in the eastern Atla... | Atlantic cod | Wikipedia | 465 | 42080 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantic%20cod | Biology and health sciences | Acanthomorpha | Animals | vital_articles |
Atlantic cod are a shoaling species and move in large, size-structured aggregations. Larger fish act as scouts and lead the shoal's direction, particularly during post spawning migrations inshore for feeding. Cod actively feed during migration and changes in shoal structure occur when food is encountered. Shoals are ge... | Atlantic cod | Wikipedia | 434 | 42080 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantic%20cod | Biology and health sciences | Acanthomorpha | Animals | vital_articles |
Heavy fishing of cod in the 1990s and the collapse of American and Canadian cod stocks resulted in trophic cascades. As cod are apex predators, overfishing them removed a significant predatory pressure on other Atlantic fish and crustacean species. Population-limiting effects on several species including American lobst... | Atlantic cod | Wikipedia | 341 | 42080 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantic%20cod | Biology and health sciences | Acanthomorpha | Animals | vital_articles |
Feeding and diet
The diet of the Atlantic cod consists of fish such as herring, capelin (in the Eastern Atlantic Ocean), and sand eels, as well as mollusks, tunicates, comb jellies, crustaceans, echinoderms and sea worms. Stomach sampling studies have discovered that small Atlantic cod feed primarily on crustaceans, wh... | Atlantic cod | Wikipedia | 341 | 42080 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantic%20cod | Biology and health sciences | Acanthomorpha | Animals | vital_articles |
Atlantic cod will attain sexual maturity between ages two and eight with this varying between different populations and has also varied over time with a population. Their gonads take several months to develop and most populations will spawn from January to May. For many populations, the spawning grounds are located in ... | Atlantic cod | Wikipedia | 428 | 42080 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantic%20cod | Biology and health sciences | Acanthomorpha | Animals | vital_articles |
Atlantic cod has been targeted by humans for food for thousands of years, and with the advent of modern fishing technology in the 1950s there was a rapid rise in landings. Cod is caught using a variety of fishing gears including bottom trawls, demersal longlines, Danish seine, jigging and hand lines. The quantity of co... | Atlantic cod | Wikipedia | 455 | 42080 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantic%20cod | Biology and health sciences | Acanthomorpha | Animals | vital_articles |
The fishery has only recently begun to recover, and may never fully recover because of a possibly stable change in the food chain. Atlantic cod was a top-tier predator, along with haddock, flounder and hake, feeding upon smaller prey, such as herring, capelin, shrimp, and snow crab. With the large predatory fish remove... | Atlantic cod | Wikipedia | 425 | 42080 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantic%20cod | Biology and health sciences | Acanthomorpha | Animals | vital_articles |
The North Sea cod stock is primarily fished by European Union member states, the United Kingdom and Norway. In 1999, the catch was divided among Denmark (31%), Scotland (25%), the rest of the United Kingdom (12%), the Netherlands (10%), Belgium, Germany and Norway (17%). In the 1970s, the annual catch rose to between .... | Atlantic cod | Wikipedia | 497 | 42080 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantic%20cod | Biology and health sciences | Acanthomorpha | Animals | vital_articles |
The western Baltic cod consists of one or several small subpopulations that are genetically more similar to the North Sea cod. In the Arkona basin (located off Cape Arkona, Rügen), spawning and migrating cod from both the eastern and western stocks intermingle in proportions that vary seasonally. The immigration of eas... | Atlantic cod | Wikipedia | 87 | 42080 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantic%20cod | Biology and health sciences | Acanthomorpha | Animals | vital_articles |
Salmonella is a genus of rod-shaped, (bacillus) gram-negative bacteria of the family Enterobacteriaceae. The two known species of Salmonella are Salmonella enterica and Salmonella bongori. S. enterica is the type species and is further divided into six subspecies that include over 2,650 serotypes. Salmonella was named ... | Salmonella | Wikipedia | 457 | 42114 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salmonella | Biology and health sciences | Other organisms | null | vital_articles |
The genus Salmonella is part of the family of Enterobacteriaceae. Its taxonomy has been revised and has the potential to confuse. The genus comprises two species, S. bongori and S. enterica, the latter of which is divided into six subspecies: S. e. enterica, S. e. salamae, S. e. arizonae, S. e. diarizonae, S. e. houten... | Salmonella | Wikipedia | 479 | 42114 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salmonella | Biology and health sciences | Other organisms | null | vital_articles |
In the late 1930s, Australian bacteriologist Nancy Atkinson established a salmonella typing laboratory – one of only three in the world at the time – at the Government of South Australia's Laboratory of Pathology and Bacteriology in Adelaide (later the Institute of Medical and Veterinary Science). It was here that Atki... | Salmonella | Wikipedia | 448 | 42114 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salmonella | Biology and health sciences | Other organisms | null | vital_articles |
Salmonella species lead predominantly host-associated lifestyles, but the bacteria were found to be able to persist in a bathroom setting for weeks following contamination, and are frequently isolated from water sources, which act as bacterial reservoirs and may help to facilitate transmission between hosts. Salmonella... | Salmonella | Wikipedia | 453 | 42114 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salmonella | Biology and health sciences | Other organisms | null | vital_articles |
The serotype or serovar is a classification of Salmonella based on antigens that the organism presents. The Kauffman–White classification scheme differentiates serological varieties from each other. Serotypes are usually put into subspecies groups after the genus and species, with the serotypes/serovars capitalized, bu... | Salmonella | Wikipedia | 432 | 42114 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salmonella | Biology and health sciences | Other organisms | null | vital_articles |
Most infections are due to ingestion of food contaminated by animal feces, or by human feces (for example, from the hands of a food-service worker at a commercial eatery). Salmonella serotypes can be divided into two main groups—typhoidal and nontyphoidal. Typhoidal serotypes include Salmonella Typhi and Salmonella Par... | Salmonella | Wikipedia | 343 | 42114 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salmonella | Biology and health sciences | Other organisms | null | vital_articles |
Typhoid fever is caused by Salmonella serotypes which are strictly adapted to humans or higher primates—these include Salmonella Typhi, Paratyphi A, Paratyphi B, and Paratyphi C. In the systemic form of the disease, salmonellae pass through the lymphatic system of the intestine into the blood of the patients (typhoid f... | Salmonella | Wikipedia | 340 | 42114 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salmonella | Biology and health sciences | Other organisms | null | vital_articles |
The organisms enter through the digestive tract and must be ingested in large numbers to cause disease in healthy adults. An infection can only begin after living salmonellae (not merely Salmonella-produced toxins) reach the gastrointestinal tract. Some of the microorganisms are killed in the stomach, while the survivi... | Salmonella | Wikipedia | 250 | 42114 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salmonella | Biology and health sciences | Other organisms | null | vital_articles |
Invasive
While in developed countries, nontyphoidal serotypes present mostly as gastrointestinal disease, in sub-Saharan Africa, these serotypes can create a major problem in bloodstream infections, and are the most commonly isolated bacteria from the blood of those presenting with fever. Bloodstream infections caused... | Salmonella | Wikipedia | 347 | 42114 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salmonella | Biology and health sciences | Other organisms | null | vital_articles |
Epidemiology
Due to being considered sporadic, between 60% and 80% of salmonella infections cases go undiagnosed. In March 2010, data analysis was completed to estimate an incidence rate of 1140 per 100,000 person-years. In the same analysis, 93.8 million cases of gastroenteritis were due to salmonella infections. At ... | Salmonella | Wikipedia | 493 | 42114 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salmonella | Biology and health sciences | Other organisms | null | vital_articles |
Global monitoring
In Germany, food-borne infections must be reported. From 1990 to 2016, the number of officially recorded cases decreased from about 200,000 to about 13,000 cases. In the United States, about 1,200,000 cases of Salmonella infection are estimated to occur each year. A World Health Organization study es... | Salmonella | Wikipedia | 497 | 42114 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salmonella | Biology and health sciences | Other organisms | null | vital_articles |
Mechanisms of entry
Nontyphoidal serotypes preferentially enter M cells on the intestinal wall by bacterial-mediated endocytosis, a process associated with intestinal inflammation and diarrhoea. They are also able to disrupt tight junctions between the cells of the intestinal wall, impairing the cells' ability to stop... | Salmonella | Wikipedia | 485 | 42114 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salmonella | Biology and health sciences | Other organisms | null | vital_articles |
The AvrA toxin injected by the SPI1 type III secretion system of S. Typhimurium works to inhibit the innate immune system by virtue of its serine/threonine acetyltransferase activity, and requires binding to eukaryotic target cell phytic acid (IP6). This leaves the host more susceptible to infection.
Clinical symptoms... | Salmonella | Wikipedia | 464 | 42114 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salmonella | Biology and health sciences | Other organisms | null | vital_articles |
Host adaptation
S. enterica, through some of its serotypes such as Typhimurium and Enteritidis, shows signs that it has the ability to infect several different mammalian host species, while other serotypes, such as Typhi, seem to be restricted to only a few hosts. Two ways that Salmonella serotypes have adapted to the... | Salmonella | Wikipedia | 391 | 42114 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salmonella | Biology and health sciences | Other organisms | null | vital_articles |
Salmonella sv. Newport shows signs of adaptation to a plant-colonization lifestyle, which may play a role in its disproportionate association with food-borne illness linked to produce. A variety of functions selected for during sv. Newport persistence in tomatoes have been reported to be similar to those selected for i... | Salmonella | Wikipedia | 424 | 42114 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salmonella | Biology and health sciences | Other organisms | null | vital_articles |
Ancient DNA
S. enterica genomes have been reconstructed from up to 6,500 year old human remains across Western Eurasia, which provides evidence for geographic widespread infections with systemic S. enterica during prehistory, and a possible role of the Neolithization process in the evolution of host adaptation. Additi... | Salmonella | Wikipedia | 93 | 42114 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salmonella | Biology and health sciences | Other organisms | null | vital_articles |
A server is a computer that provides information to other computers called "clients" on a computer network. This architecture is called the client–server model. Servers can provide various functionalities, often called "services", such as sharing data or resources among multiple clients or performing computations for a... | Server (computing) | Wikipedia | 456 | 42116 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Server%20%28computing%29 | Technology | Networks | null | vital_articles |
Strictly speaking, the term server refers to a computer program or process (running program). Through metonymy, it refers to a device used for (or a device dedicated to) running one or several server programs. On a network, such a device is called a host. In addition to server, the words serve and service (as verb and ... | Server (computing) | Wikipedia | 466 | 42116 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Server%20%28computing%29 | Technology | Networks | null | vital_articles |
The role of a server is to share data as well as to share resources and distribute work. A server computer can serve its own computer programs as well; depending on the scenario, this could be part of a quid pro quo transaction, or simply a technical possibility. The following table shows several scenarios in which a s... | Server (computing) | Wikipedia | 349 | 42116 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Server%20%28computing%29 | Technology | Networks | null | vital_articles |
Large servers
Large traditional single servers would need to be run for long periods without interruption. Availability would have to be very high, making hardware reliability and durability extremely important. Mission-critical enterprise servers would be very fault tolerant and use specialized hardware with low fail... | Server (computing) | Wikipedia | 356 | 42116 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Server%20%28computing%29 | Technology | Networks | null | vital_articles |
Mobile
A mobile server has a portable form factor, e.g. a laptop. In contrast to large data centers or rack servers, the mobile server is designed for on-the-road or ad hoc deployment into emergency, disaster or temporary environments where traditional servers are not feasible due to their power requirements, size, an... | Server (computing) | Wikipedia | 510 | 42116 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Server%20%28computing%29 | Technology | Networks | null | vital_articles |
Environmental groups have placed focus on the carbon emissions of data centers as it accounts to 200 million metric tons of carbon dioxide in a year. | Server (computing) | Wikipedia | 27 | 42116 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Server%20%28computing%29 | Technology | Networks | null | vital_articles |
A garden is a planned space, usually outdoors, set aside for the cultivation, display, and enjoyment of plants and other forms of nature. The single feature identifying even the wildest wild garden is control. The garden can incorporate both natural and artificial materials.
Gardens often have design features includin... | Garden | Wikipedia | 484 | 42139 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garden | Technology | Food and health | null | vital_articles |
A garden can have aesthetic, functional, and recreational uses:
Cooperation with nature
Plant cultivation
Garden-based learning
Observation of nature
Bird- and insect-watching
Reflection on the changing seasons
Relaxation
Placing down different types of garden gnomes
Family dinners on the terrace
Children pla... | Garden | Wikipedia | 402 | 42139 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garden | Technology | Food and health | null | vital_articles |
Another early royal garden was Shaqui, or the Dunes of Sand, built by the last Shang ruler, King Zhou (1075–1046 BC). It was composed of an earth terrace, or tai, which served as an observation platform in the center of a large square park. It was described in one of the early classics of Chinese literature, the Record... | Garden | Wikipedia | 427 | 42139 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garden | Technology | Food and health | null | vital_articles |
The earliest recorded Japanese gardens were the pleasure gardens of the Emperors and nobles. They were mentioned in several brief passages of the , the first chronicle of Japanese history, published in 720 CE. In spring 74 CE, the chronicle recorded: "The Emperor Keikō put a few carp into a pond, and rejoiced to see th... | Garden | Wikipedia | 400 | 42139 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garden | Technology | Food and health | null | vital_articles |
France
Following his campaign in Italy in 1495, where he saw the gardens and castles of Naples, King Charles VIII brought Italian craftsmen and garden designers, such as Pacello da Mercogliano, from Naples and ordered the construction of Italian-style gardens at his residence at the Château d'Amboise and at Château Ga... | Garden | Wikipedia | 496 | 42139 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garden | Technology | Food and health | null | vital_articles |
The French landscape garden was influenced by the English landscape garden and gained prominence in the late eighteenth century.
United Kingdom
Before the Grand Manner era, a few significant gardens were found in Britain which were developed under the influence of the continent. Britain's homegrown domestic gardening... | Garden | Wikipedia | 423 | 42139 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garden | Technology | Food and health | null | vital_articles |
Elements of garden design include the layout of hard landscape, such as paths, rockeries, walls, water features, sitting areas and decking, as well as the plants themselves, with consideration for their horticultural requirements, their season-to-season appearance, lifespan, growth habit, size, speed of growth, and com... | Garden | Wikipedia | 368 | 42139 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garden | Technology | Food and health | null | vital_articles |
Gardeners may cause environmental damage by the way they garden, or they may enhance their local environment.
Damage by gardeners can include direct destruction of natural habitats when houses and gardens are created; indirect habitat destruction and damage to provide garden materials such as peat, rock for rock garden... | Garden | Wikipedia | 495 | 42139 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garden | Technology | Food and health | null | vital_articles |
Data communication, including data transmission and data reception, is the transfer of data, transmitted and received over a point-to-point or point-to-multipoint communication channel. Examples of such channels are copper wires, optical fibers, wireless communication using radio spectrum, storage media and computer bu... | Data communication | Wikipedia | 499 | 42168 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data%20communication | Technology | Basics_3 | null | vital_articles |
The theoretical aspects of data transmission are covered by information theory and coding theory.
Protocol layers and sub-topics
Courses and textbooks in the field of data transmission typically deal with the following OSI model protocol layers and topics:
Layer 1, the physical layer:
Channel coding including
Digi... | Data communication | Wikipedia | 401 | 42168 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data%20communication | Technology | Basics_3 | null | vital_articles |
Data transmission is utilized in computers in computer buses and for communication with peripheral equipment via parallel ports and serial ports such as RS-232 (1969), FireWire (1995) and USB (1996). The principles of data transmission are also utilized in storage media for error detection and correction since 1951. Th... | Data communication | Wikipedia | 491 | 42168 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data%20communication | Technology | Basics_3 | null | vital_articles |
Data transmission, digital transmission or digital communications is the transfer of data over a point-to-point or point-to-multipoint communication channel. Examples of such channels include copper wires, optical fibers, wireless communication channels, storage media and computer buses. The data are represented as an ... | Data communication | Wikipedia | 417 | 42168 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data%20communication | Technology | Basics_3 | null | vital_articles |
Parallel transmission is the simultaneous transmission of related signal elements over two or more separate paths. Multiple electrical wires are used that can transmit multiple bits simultaneously, which allows for higher data transfer rates than can be achieved with serial transmission. This method is typically used i... | Data communication | Wikipedia | 292 | 42168 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data%20communication | Technology | Basics_3 | null | vital_articles |
Data mining is the process of extracting and discovering patterns in large data sets involving methods at the intersection of machine learning, statistics, and database systems. Data mining is an interdisciplinary subfield of computer science and statistics with an overall goal of extracting information (with intellige... | Data mining | Wikipedia | 444 | 42253 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data%20mining | Technology | Computer software | null | vital_articles |
The difference between data analysis and data mining is that data analysis is used to test models and hypotheses on the dataset, e.g., analyzing the effectiveness of a marketing campaign, regardless of the amount of data. In contrast, data mining uses machine learning and statistical models to uncover clandestine or hi... | Data mining | Wikipedia | 419 | 42253 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data%20mining | Technology | Computer software | null | vital_articles |
Background
The manual extraction of patterns from data has occurred for centuries. Early methods of identifying patterns in data include Bayes' theorem (1700s) and regression analysis (1800s). The proliferation, ubiquity and increasing power of computer technology have dramatically increased data collection, storage, a... | Data mining | Wikipedia | 405 | 42253 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data%20mining | Technology | Computer software | null | vital_articles |
Pre-processing
Before data mining algorithms can be used, a target data set must be assembled. As data mining can only uncover patterns actually present in the data, the target data set must be large enough to contain these patterns while remaining concise enough to be mined within an acceptable time limit. A common so... | Data mining | Wikipedia | 460 | 42253 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data%20mining | Technology | Computer software | null | vital_articles |
The final step of knowledge discovery from data is to verify that the patterns produced by the data mining algorithms occur in the wider data set. Not all patterns found by the algorithms are necessarily valid. It is common for data mining algorithms to find patterns in the training set which are not present in the gen... | Data mining | Wikipedia | 430 | 42253 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data%20mining | Technology | Computer software | null | vital_articles |
Standards
There have been some efforts to define standards for the data mining process, for example, the 1999 European Cross Industry Standard Process for Data Mining (CRISP-DM 1.0) and the 2004 Java Data Mining standard (JDM 1.0). Development on successors to these processes (CRISP-DM 2.0 and JDM 2.0) was active in 20... | Data mining | Wikipedia | 483 | 42253 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data%20mining | Technology | Computer software | null | vital_articles |
It is recommended to be aware of the following before data are collected:
The purpose of the data collection and any (known) data mining projects.
How the data will be used.
Who will be able to mine the data and use the data and their derivatives.
The status of security surrounding access to the data.
How collecte... | Data mining | Wikipedia | 394 | 42253 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data%20mining | Technology | Computer software | null | vital_articles |
In the United States, privacy concerns have been addressed by the US Congress via the passage of regulatory controls such as the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA). The HIPAA requires individuals to give their "informed consent" regarding information they provide and its intended present and fu... | Data mining | Wikipedia | 510 | 42253 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data%20mining | Technology | Computer software | null | vital_articles |
US copyright law, and in particular its provision for fair use, upholds the legality of content mining in America, and other fair use countries such as Israel, Taiwan and South Korea. As content mining is transformative, that is it does not supplant the original work, it is viewed as being lawful under fair use. For ex... | Data mining | Wikipedia | 502 | 42253 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data%20mining | Technology | Computer software | null | vital_articles |
Proprietary data-mining software and applications
The following applications are available under proprietary licenses.
Angoss KnowledgeSTUDIO: data mining tool
LIONsolver: an integrated software application for data mining, business intelligence, and modeling that implements the Learning and Intelligent OptimizatioN... | Data mining | Wikipedia | 264 | 42253 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data%20mining | Technology | Computer software | null | vital_articles |
Irrigation (also referred to as watering of plants) is the practice of applying controlled amounts of water to land to help grow crops, landscape plants, and lawns. Irrigation has been a key aspect of agriculture for over 5,000 years and has been developed by many cultures around the world. Irrigation helps to grow cro... | Irrigation | Wikipedia | 445 | 42261 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irrigation | Technology | Horticultural techniques | null | vital_articles |
The environmental effects of irrigation relate to the changes in quantity and quality of soil and water as a result of irrigation and the subsequent effects on natural and social conditions in river basins and downstream of an irrigation scheme. The effects stem from the altered hydrological conditions caused by the in... | Irrigation | Wikipedia | 474 | 42261 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irrigation | Technology | Horticultural techniques | null | vital_articles |
By 2021 the global land area equipped for irrigation reached 352 million ha, an increase of 22% from the 289 million ha of 2000 and more than twice the 1960s land area equipped for irrigation. The vast majority is located in Asia (70%), where irrigation was a key component of the green revolution; the Americas account ... | Irrigation | Wikipedia | 459 | 42261 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irrigation | Technology | Horticultural techniques | null | vital_articles |
a Glasgow-based startup has helped a farmer in Scotland to establish edible saltmarsh crops irrigated with sea water. An acre of previously marginal land has been put under cultivation to grow samphire, sea blite, and sea aster; these plants yield a higher profit than potatoes. The land is flood irrigated twice a day t... | Irrigation | Wikipedia | 414 | 42261 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irrigation | Technology | Horticultural techniques | null | vital_articles |
Surface irrigation, also known as gravity irrigation, is the oldest form of irrigation and has been in use for thousands of years. In surface (furrow, flood, or level basin) irrigation systems, water moves across the surface of agricultural lands, in order to wet it and infiltrate into the soil. Water moves by followin... | Irrigation | Wikipedia | 419 | 42261 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irrigation | Technology | Horticultural techniques | null | vital_articles |
Micro-irrigation, sometimes called localized irrigation, low volume irrigation, or trickle irrigation is a system where water is distributed under low pressure through a piped network, in a pre-determined pattern, and applied as a small discharge to each plant or adjacent to it. Traditional drip irrigation use individu... | Irrigation | Wikipedia | 406 | 42261 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irrigation | Technology | Horticultural techniques | null | vital_articles |
In sprinkler or overhead irrigation, water is piped to one or more central locations within the field and distributed by overhead high-pressure sprinklers or guns. A system using sprinklers, sprays, or guns mounted overhead on permanently installed risers is often referred to as a solid-set irrigation system. Higher pr... | Irrigation | Wikipedia | 502 | 42261 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irrigation | Technology | Horticultural techniques | null | vital_articles |
most center pivot systems have drops hanging from a U-shaped pipe attached at the top of the pipe with sprinkler heads that are positioned a few feet (at most) above the crop, thus limiting evaporative losses. Drops can also be used with drag hoses or bubblers that deposit the water directly on the ground between crops... | Irrigation | Wikipedia | 432 | 42261 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irrigation | Technology | Horticultural techniques | null | vital_articles |
Wheel line systems are limited in the amount of water they can carry, and limited in the height of crops that can be irrigated. One useful feature of a lateral move system is that it consists of sections that can be easily disconnected, adapting to field shape as the line is moved. They are most often used for small, r... | Irrigation | Wikipedia | 347 | 42261 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irrigation | Technology | Horticultural techniques | null | vital_articles |
There are two main types of sprinklers used in lawn irrigation, pop-up spray heads and rotors. Spray heads have a fixed spray pattern, while rotors have one or more streams that rotate. Spray heads are used to cover smaller areas, while rotors are used for larger areas. Golf course rotors are sometimes so large that a ... | Irrigation | Wikipedia | 457 | 42261 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irrigation | Technology | Horticultural techniques | null | vital_articles |
Subirrigation
Subirrigation has been used for many years in field crops in areas with high water tables. It is a method of artificially raising the water table to allow the soil to be moistened from below the plants' root zone. Often those systems are located on permanent grasslands in lowlands or river valleys and co... | Irrigation | Wikipedia | 376 | 42261 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irrigation | Technology | Horticultural techniques | null | vital_articles |
Increased irrigation efficiency has a number of positive outcomes for the farmer, the community and the wider environment. Low application efficiency infers that the amount of water applied to the field is in excess of the crop or field requirements. Increasing the application efficiency means that the amount of crop p... | Irrigation | Wikipedia | 474 | 42261 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irrigation | Technology | Horticultural techniques | null | vital_articles |
Overdrafting (depletion) of underground aquifers: In the mid-20th century, the advent of diesel and electric motors led to systems that could pump groundwater out of major aquifers faster than drainage basins could refill them. This can lead to permanent loss of aquifer capacity, decreased water quality, ground subside... | Irrigation | Wikipedia | 510 | 42261 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irrigation | Technology | Horticultural techniques | null | vital_articles |
Social aspects
Competition for surface water rights and territory defense.
Assisting smallholders in sustainably and collectively managing irrigation technology and changes in technology.
History
Ancient history
Archaeological investigation has found evidence of irrigation in areas lacking sufficient natural rai... | Irrigation | Wikipedia | 462 | 42261 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irrigation | Technology | Horticultural techniques | null | vital_articles |
Evidence of terrace irrigation occurs in pre-Columbian America, early Syria, India, and China. In the Zana Valley of the Andes Mountains in Peru, archaeologists have found remains of three irrigation canals radiocarbon-dated from the 4th millennium BCE, the 3rd millennium BCE and the 9th century CE. These canals provid... | Irrigation | Wikipedia | 413 | 42261 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irrigation | Technology | Horticultural techniques | null | vital_articles |
The oldest known hydraulic engineers of China were Sunshu Ao (6th century BCE) of the Spring and Autumn period and Ximen Bao (5th century BCE) of the Warring States period, both of whom worked on large irrigation projects. In the Sichuan region belonging to the state of Qin of ancient China, the Dujiangyan Irrigation S... | Irrigation | Wikipedia | 271 | 42261 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irrigation | Technology | Horticultural techniques | null | vital_articles |
The earliest agricultural irrigation canal system known in the area of the present-day United States dates to between 1200 BCE and 800 BCE and was discovered by Desert Archaeology, Inc. in Marana, Arizona (adjacent to Tucson) in 2009. The irrigation-canal system predates the Hohokam culture by two thousand years and be... | Irrigation | Wikipedia | 379 | 42261 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irrigation | Technology | Horticultural techniques | null | vital_articles |
Modern history
The scale of global irrigation increased dramatically over the 20th century. In 1800, 8 million hectares were irrigated; in 1950, 94 million hectares, and in 1990, 235 million hectares. By 1990, 30% of the global food production came from irrigated land. Irrigation techniques across the globe included ca... | Irrigation | Wikipedia | 374 | 42261 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irrigation | Technology | Horticultural techniques | null | vital_articles |
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