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Hares and jackrabbits are mammals belonging to the genus Lepus. They are herbivores, and live solitarily or in pairs. They nest in slight depressions called forms, and their young are able to fend for themselves shortly after birth. The genus includes the largest lagomorphs. Most are fast runners with long, powerful hi...	Hare	Wikipedia	448	48130	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hare	Biology and health sciences	Lagomorphs	null	vital_articles
Hares are generally larger than rabbits, with longer ears, and have black markings on their fur. Hares, like all leporids, have jointed, or kinetic, skulls, unique among mammals. They have 48 chromosomes, while rabbits have 44. Hares have not been domesticated, while some rabbits are raised for food and kept as pets. ...	Hare	Wikipedia	296	48130	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hare	Biology and health sciences	Lagomorphs	null	vital_articles
Genus Lepus Subgenus Macrotolagus Antelope jackrabbit, Lepus alleni Subgenus Poecilolagus Snowshoe hare, Lepus americanus Subgenus Lepus Arctic hare, Lepus arcticus Alaskan hare, Lepus othus Mountain hare, Lepus timidus Subgenus Proeulagus Black jackrabbit, Lepus insularis Desert hare, Lepus tibetanus Tolai...	Hare	Wikipedia	501	48130	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hare	Biology and health sciences	Lagomorphs	null	vital_articles
()—hare stew with pearl onions, vinegar, red wine, and cinnamon—is a much-prized dish enjoyed in Greece and Cyprus and communities in the diaspora. The hare (and in recent times, the rabbit) is a staple of Maltese cuisine. The dish was presented to the island's Grandmasters of the Sovereign Military Order of Malta, as...	Hare	Wikipedia	463	48130	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hare	Biology and health sciences	Lagomorphs	null	vital_articles
Many other British cookbooks from before the middle of the 20th century have recipes for jugged hare. Merle and Reitch have this to say about jugged hare, for example: The best part of the hare, when roasted, is the loin and the thick part of the hind leg; the other parts are only fit for stewing, hashing, or jugging. ...	Hare	Wikipedia	506	48130	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hare	Biology and health sciences	Lagomorphs	null	vital_articles
The constellation Lepus is taken to represent a hare. The hare was once regarded as an animal sacred to Aphrodite and Eros because of its high libido. Live hares were often presented as a gift of love. In European witchcraft, hares were either witches' familiars or a witch who had transformed themself into a hare. Now...	Hare	Wikipedia	496	48130	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hare	Biology and health sciences	Lagomorphs	null	vital_articles
A microcomputer is a small, relatively inexpensive computer having a central processing unit (CPU) made out of a microprocessor. The computer also includes memory and input/output (I/O) circuitry together mounted on a printed circuit board (PCB). Microcomputers became popular in the 1970s and 1980s with the advent of i...	Microcomputer	Wikipedia	485	48144	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microcomputer	Technology	Computer hardware	null	vital_articles
In the US the earliest models such as the Altair 8800 were often sold as kits to be assembled by the user, and came with as little as 256 bytes of RAM, and no input/output devices other than indicator lights and switches, useful as a proof of concept to demonstrate what such a simple device could do. As microprocessor...	Microcomputer	Wikipedia	507	48144	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microcomputer	Technology	Computer hardware	null	vital_articles
The increasing availability and power of desktop computers for personal use attracted the attention of more software developers. As the industry matured, the market for personal computers standardized around IBM PC compatibles running DOS, and later Windows. Modern desktop computers, video game consoles, laptops, tabl...	Microcomputer	Wikipedia	95	48144	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microcomputer	Technology	Computer hardware	null	vital_articles
Colloquial use of the term By the early 2000s, everyday use of the expression "microcomputer" (and in particular "micro") declined significantly from its peak in the mid-1980s. The term is most commonly associated with the most popular 8-bit home computers (such as the Apple II, ZX Spectrum, Commodore 64, BBC Micro, ...	Microcomputer	Wikipedia	466	48144	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microcomputer	Technology	Computer hardware	null	vital_articles
A microcomputer comes equipped with at least one type of data storage, usually RAM. Although some microcomputers (particularly early 8-bit home micros) perform tasks using RAM alone, some form of secondary storage is normally desirable. In the early days of home micros, this was often a data cassette deck (in many ca...	Microcomputer	Wikipedia	482	48144	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microcomputer	Technology	Computer hardware	null	vital_articles
Another early system, the Kenbak-1, was released in 1971. Like the Datapoint 2200, it used small-scale integrated transistor–transistor logic instead of a microprocessor. It was marketed as an educational and hobbyist tool, but it was not a commercial success; production ceased shortly after introduction. Early microc...	Microcomputer	Wikipedia	491	48144	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microcomputer	Technology	Computer hardware	null	vital_articles
Virtually all early microcomputers were essentially boxes with lights and switches; one had to read and understand binary numbers and machine language to program and use them (the Datapoint 2200 was a striking exception, bearing a modern design based on a monitor, keyboard, and tape and disk drives). Of the early "box...	Microcomputer	Wikipedia	490	48144	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microcomputer	Technology	Computer hardware	null	vital_articles
A fossil fuel is a carbon compound- or hydrocarbon-containing material formed naturally in the Earth's crust from the buried remains of prehistoric organisms (animals, plants or planktons), a process that occurs within geological formations. Reservoirs of such compound mixtures, such as coal, petroleum and natural gas,...	Fossil fuel	Wikipedia	420	48146	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil%20fuel	Technology	Energy	null	vital_articles
Recognition of the climate crisis, pollution and other negative impacts caused by fossil fuels has led to a widespread policy transition and activist movement focused on ending their use in favor of renewable and sustainable energy. Because the fossil-fuel industry is so heavily integrated in the global economy and hea...	Fossil fuel	Wikipedia	495	48146	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil%20fuel	Technology	Energy	null	vital_articles
Terrestrial plants tended to form coal and methane. Many of the coal fields date to the Carboniferous period of Earth's history. Terrestrial plants also form type III kerogen, a source of natural gas. Although fossil fuels are continually formed by natural processes, they are classified as non-renewable resources becau...	Fossil fuel	Wikipedia	344	48146	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil%20fuel	Technology	Energy	null	vital_articles
Prior to the latter half of the 18th century, windmills and watermills provided the energy needed for work such as milling flour, sawing wood or pumping water, while burning wood or peat provided domestic heat. The wide-scale use of fossil fuels, coal at first and petroleum later, in steam engines enabled the Industria...	Fossil fuel	Wikipedia	494	48146	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil%20fuel	Technology	Energy	null	vital_articles
Combustion of fossil fuels generates sulfuric and nitric acids, which fall to Earth as acid rain, impacting both natural areas and the built environment. Monuments and sculptures made from marble and limestone are particularly vulnerable, as the acids dissolve calcium carbonate. Fossil fuels also contain radioactive m...	Fossil fuel	Wikipedia	491	48146	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil%20fuel	Technology	Energy	null	vital_articles
According to Vox in August 2022, "Economists have pointed to energy prices as the main reason for high inflation," noting that "energy prices indirectly affect virtually every part of the economy". Sectors that raise prices significantly as a result of higher fossil fuel prices include transportation, food, and shippin...	Fossil fuel	Wikipedia	456	48146	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil%20fuel	Technology	Energy	null	vital_articles
While all energy sources inherently have adverse effects, the data show that fossil fuels cause the highest levels of greenhouse gas emissions and are the most dangerous for human health. In contrast, modern renewable energy sources appear to be safer for human health and cleaner. The death rates from accidents and air...	Fossil fuel	Wikipedia	181	48146	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil%20fuel	Technology	Energy	null	vital_articles
In astronomy and navigation, the celestial sphere is an abstract sphere that has an arbitrarily large radius and is concentric to Earth. All objects in the sky can be conceived as being projected upon the inner surface of the celestial sphere, which may be centered on Earth or the observer. If centered on the observer,...	Celestial sphere	Wikipedia	498	48239	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celestial%20sphere	Physical sciences	Celestial sphere	null	vital_articles
In this way, astronomers can predict geocentric or heliocentric positions of objects on the celestial sphere, without the need to calculate the individual geometry of any particular observer, and the utility of the celestial sphere is maintained. Individual observers can work out their own small offsets from the mean p...	Celestial sphere	Wikipedia	321	48239	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celestial%20sphere	Physical sciences	Celestial sphere	null	vital_articles
Greek history on celestial spheres Celestial spheres (or celestial orbs) were envisioned to be perfect and divine entities initially from Greek astronomers such as Aristotle. He composed a set of principles called Aristotelian physics that outlined the natural order and structure of the world. Like other Greek astrono...	Celestial sphere	Wikipedia	352	48239	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celestial%20sphere	Physical sciences	Celestial sphere	null	vital_articles
Numerous discoveries from Aristotle and Eudoxus (approximately 395 B.C. to 337 B.C.) have sparked differences in both of their models and sharing similar properties simultaneously. Aristotle and Eudoxus claimed two different counts of spheres in the heavens. According to Eudoxus, there were only 27 spheres in the heave...	Celestial sphere	Wikipedia	384	48239	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celestial%20sphere	Physical sciences	Celestial sphere	null	vital_articles
==Celestial coordinate systems== These concepts are important for understanding celestial coordinate systems, frameworks for measuring the positions of objects in the sky. Certain reference lines and planes on Earth, when projected onto the celestial sphere, form the bases of the reference systems. These include the Ea...	Celestial sphere	Wikipedia	238	48239	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celestial%20sphere	Physical sciences	Celestial sphere	null	vital_articles
The ancient Greeks assumed the literal truth of stars attached to a celestial sphere, revolving about the Earth in one day, and a fixed Earth. The Eudoxan planetary model, on which the Aristotelian and Ptolemaic models were based, was the first geometric explanation for the "wandering" of the classical planets. The ou...	Celestial sphere	Wikipedia	496	48239	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celestial%20sphere	Physical sciences	Celestial sphere	null	vital_articles
The lagomorphs () are the members of the taxonomic order Lagomorpha, of which there are two living families: the Leporidae (rabbits and hares) and the Ochotonidae (pikas). There are 110 recent species of lagomorph, of which only 109 species in twelve genera are extant, including ten genera of rabbits (42 species); one ...	Lagomorpha	Wikipedia	491	48317	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lagomorpha	Biology and health sciences	Lagomorphs	null	vital_articles
Characteristics Lagomorphs are similar to other mammals in that they all have hair, four limbs (i.e., they are tetrapods), and mammary glands and are endotherms. Lagomorphs possess a moderately fused postorbital process to the cranium, unlike other small mammals. They differ in that they have a mixture of "basal" and ...	Lagomorpha	Wikipedia	485	48317	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lagomorpha	Biology and health sciences	Lagomorphs	null	vital_articles
Pikas, also known as conies, are entirely represented by the family Ochotonidae and are small mammals native to mountainous regions of western North America and Central Asia. They are mostly about long and have greyish-brown, silky fur, small rounded ears, and almost no tail. Their four legs are nearly equal in length...	Lagomorpha	Wikipedia	435	48317	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lagomorpha	Biology and health sciences	Lagomorphs	null	vital_articles
Rabbits, members of the Leporidae family (excluding Lepus (hares)) are generally much smaller than hares and include the rock hares and the hispid hare. They are native to Europe, parts of Africa, Central and Southern Asia, North America and much of South America. They inhabit both grassland and arid regions. They vary...	Lagomorpha	Wikipedia	437	48317	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lagomorpha	Biology and health sciences	Lagomorphs	null	vital_articles
Birth and early life Many lagomorphs breed several times a year and produce large litters. This is particularly the case in species that live in underground, protective environments, such as burrows. The young of rabbits and pikas (called kits) are born after a short gestation period and the mother can become pregnant...	Lagomorpha	Wikipedia	449	48317	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lagomorpha	Biology and health sciences	Lagomorphs	null	vital_articles
Fossil genera Order Lagomorpha Brandt 1885 Family Leporidae Fischer de Waldheim 1817 (rabbits and hares) Subfamily † Archaeolaginae Genus †Archaeolagus Dice 1917 Genus †Hypolagus Dice 1917 Genus †Notolagus Wilson 1938 Genus †Panolax Cope 1874 Subfamily Leporinae Trouessart 1880 Genus †Alilepus Dice 1931 Genus †N...	Lagomorpha	Wikipedia	506	48317	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lagomorpha	Biology and health sciences	Lagomorphs	null	vital_articles
Genus †Piezodus Viret 1929 Genus †Russellagus Storer 1970 Genus †Sinolagomys Bohlin 1937 Genus †Titanomys von Meyer 1843 Family incertae sedis Genus †Eurolagus Lopez Martinez 1977 Genus †Hsiuannania Xu 1976 Genus †Hypsimylus Zhai 1977 Genus †Lushilagus Li 1965 Genus †Shamolagus Burke 1941	Lagomorpha	Wikipedia	80	48317	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lagomorpha	Biology and health sciences	Lagomorphs	null	vital_articles
The retina (; or retinas) is the innermost, light-sensitive layer of tissue of the eye of most vertebrates and some molluscs. The optics of the eye create a focused two-dimensional image of the visual world on the retina, which then processes that image within the retina and sends nerve impulses along the optic nerve ...	Retina	Wikipedia	450	48334	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retina	Biology and health sciences	Visual system	Biology	vital_articles
Inverted versus non-inverted retina The vertebrate retina is inverted in the sense that the light-sensing cells are in the back of the retina, so that light has to pass through layers of neurons and capillaries before it reaches the photosensitive sections of the rods and cones. The ganglion cells, whose axons form th...	Retina	Wikipedia	443	48334	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retina	Biology and health sciences	Visual system	Biology	vital_articles
The cephalopod retina does not originate as an outgrowth of the brain, as the vertebrate one does. This difference suggests that vertebrate and cephalopod eyes are not homologous, but have evolved separately. From an evolutionary perspective, a more complex structure such as the inverted retina can generally come about...	Retina	Wikipedia	381	48334	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retina	Biology and health sciences	Visual system	Biology	vital_articles
Inner limiting membrane – basement membrane elaborated by Müller cells Nerve fibre layer – axons of the ganglion cell bodies (a thin layer of Müller cell footplates exists between this layer and the inner limiting membrane) Ganglion cell layer – contains nuclei of ganglion cells, the axons of which become the optic n...	Retina	Wikipedia	490	48334	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retina	Biology and health sciences	Visual system	Biology	vital_articles
Additional structures, not directly associated with vision, are found as outgrowths of the retina in some vertebrate groups. In birds, the pecten is a vascular structure of complex shape that projects from the retina into the vitreous humour; it supplies oxygen and nutrients to the eye, and may also aid in vision. Rept...	Retina	Wikipedia	498	48334	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retina	Biology and health sciences	Visual system	Biology	vital_articles
The white blood cells in the capillaries in front of the photoreceptors can be perceived as tiny bright moving dots when looking into blue light. This is known as the blue field entoptic phenomenon (or Scheerer's phenomenon). Between the ganglion-cell layer and the rods and cones are two layers of neuropils, where syn...	Retina	Wikipedia	350	48334	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retina	Biology and health sciences	Visual system	Biology	vital_articles
Though the rod and cones are a mosaic of sorts, transmission from receptors, to bipolars, to ganglion cells is not direct. Since about 150 million receptors and only 1 million optic nerve fibres exist, convergence and thus mixing of signals must occur. Moreover, the horizontal action of the horizontal and amacrine cell...	Retina	Wikipedia	457	48334	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retina	Biology and health sciences	Visual system	Biology	vital_articles
In addition to guiding cell fate determination, cues exist in the retina to determine the dorsal-ventral (D-V) and nasal-temporal (N-T) axes. The D-V axis is established by a ventral to dorsal gradient of VAX2, whereas the N-T axis is coordinated by expression of the forkhead transcription factors FOXD1 and FOXG1. Addi...	Retina	Wikipedia	372	48334	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retina	Biology and health sciences	Visual system	Biology	vital_articles
When light strikes 11-cis-retinal (in the disks in the rods and cones), 11-cis-retinal changes to all-trans-retinal which then triggers changes in the opsins. Now, the outer segments do not regenerate the retinal back into the cis- form once it has been changed by light. Instead the retinal is pumped out to the surroun...	Retina	Wikipedia	372	48334	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retina	Biology and health sciences	Visual system	Biology	vital_articles
The bifurcations and other physical characteristics of the inner retinal vascular network are known to vary among individuals, and these individual variances have been used for biometric identification and for early detection of the onset of disease. The mapping of vascular bifurcations is one of the basic steps in bio...	Retina	Wikipedia	401	48334	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retina	Biology and health sciences	Visual system	Biology	vital_articles
The response of cones to various wavelengths of light is called their spectral sensitivity. In normal human vision, the spectral sensitivity of a cone falls into one of three subtypes, often called blue, green, and red, but more accurately known as short, medium, and long wavelength-sensitive cone subtypes. It is a lac...	Retina	Wikipedia	442	48334	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retina	Biology and health sciences	Visual system	Biology	vital_articles
When thus excited by light, the photoceptor sends a proportional response synaptically to bipolar cells which in turn signal the retinal ganglion cells. The photoreceptors are also cross-linked by horizontal cells and amacrine cells, which modify the synaptic signal before it reaches the ganglion cells, the neural sign...	Retina	Wikipedia	435	48334	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retina	Biology and health sciences	Visual system	Biology	vital_articles
Although there are more than 130 million retinal receptors, there are only approximately 1.2 million fibres (axons) in the optic nerve. So, a large amount of pre-processing is performed within the retina. The fovea produces the most accurate information. Despite occupying about 0.01% of the visual field (less than 2° o...	Retina	Wikipedia	409	48334	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retina	Biology and health sciences	Visual system	Biology	vital_articles
The centre–surround structures are mathematically equivalent to the edge detection algorithms used by computer programmers to extract or enhance the edges in a digital photograph. Thus, the retina performs operations on the image-representing impulses to enhance the edges of objects within its visual field. For example...	Retina	Wikipedia	358	48334	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retina	Biology and health sciences	Visual system	Biology	vital_articles
The above matrix is only an approximation to what really happens inside the retina. The differences are: The above example is called "balanced". The term balanced means that the sum of the negative weights is equal to the sum of the positive weights so that they cancel out perfectly. Retinal ganglion cells are almost ...	Retina	Wikipedia	337	48334	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retina	Biology and health sciences	Visual system	Biology	vital_articles
Clinical significance There are many inherited and acquired diseases or disorders that may affect the retina. Some of them include: Retinitis pigmentosa is a group of genetic diseases that affect the retina and cause the loss of night vision and peripheral vision. Macular degeneration describes a group of diseases c...	Retina	Wikipedia	503	48334	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retina	Biology and health sciences	Visual system	Biology	vital_articles
In addition, the retina has been described as a "window" into the brain and body, given that abnormalities detected through an examination of the retina can discover both neurological and systemic diseases. Diagnosis A number of different instruments are available for the diagnosis of diseases and disorders affecting...	Retina	Wikipedia	367	48334	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retina	Biology and health sciences	Visual system	Biology	vital_articles
Gene therapy holds promise as a potential avenue to cure a wide range of retinal diseases. This involves using a non-infectious virus to shuttle a gene into a part of the retina. Recombinant adeno-associated virus (rAAV) vectors possess a number of features that render them ideally suited for retinal gene therapy, incl...	Retina	Wikipedia	305	48334	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retina	Biology and health sciences	Visual system	Biology	vital_articles
The unique architecture of the retina and its relatively immune-privileged environment help this process. Tight junctions that form the blood retinal barrier separate the subretinal space from the blood supply, thus protecting it from microbes and most immune-mediated damage, and enhancing its potential to respond to v...	Retina	Wikipedia	252	48334	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retina	Biology and health sciences	Visual system	Biology	vital_articles
This strategy is effective against a number of retinal diseases that have been studied, including neovascular diseases that are features of age-related macular degeneration, diabetic retinopathy and retinopathy of prematurity. Since the regulation of vascularization in the mature retina involves a balance between endog...	Retina	Wikipedia	436	48334	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retina	Biology and health sciences	Visual system	Biology	vital_articles
Between 1011 and 1021 CE, Ibn Al-Haytham published numerous experiments demonstrating that sight occurs from light reflecting from objects into the eye. This is consistent with intromission theory and against emission theory, the theory that sight occurs from rays emitted by the eyes. However, Ibn Al-Haytham decided th...	Retina	Wikipedia	415	48334	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retina	Biology and health sciences	Visual system	Biology	vital_articles
An electrolyte is a substance that conducts electricity through the movement of ions, but not through the movement of electrons. This includes most soluble salts, acids, and bases, dissolved in a polar solvent like water. Upon dissolving, the substance separates into cations and anions, which disperse uniformly through...	Electrolyte	Wikipedia	468	48336	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrolyte	Physical sciences	Electrochemistry	Chemistry	vital_articles
Etymology The word electrolyte derives from Ancient Greek ήλεκτρο- (ēlectro-), prefix originally meaning amber but in modern contexts related to electricity, and λυτός (lytos), meaning "able to be untied or loosened". History In his 1884 dissertation, Svante Arrhenius put forth his explanation of solid crystalline ...	Electrolyte	Wikipedia	482	48336	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrolyte	Physical sciences	Electrochemistry	Chemistry	vital_articles
Molten salts can also be electrolytes as, for example, when sodium chloride is molten, the liquid conducts electricity. In particular, ionic liquids, which are molten salts with melting points below 100 °C, are a type of highly conductive non-aqueous electrolytes and thus have found more and more applications in fuel c...	Electrolyte	Wikipedia	471	48336	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrolyte	Physical sciences	Electrochemistry	Chemistry	vital_articles
Both muscle tissue and neurons are considered electric tissues of the body. Muscles and neurons are activated by electrolyte activity between the extracellular fluid or interstitial fluid, and intracellular fluid. Electrolytes may enter or leave the cell membrane through specialized protein structures embedded in the p...	Electrolyte	Wikipedia	465	48336	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrolyte	Physical sciences	Electrochemistry	Chemistry	vital_articles
A home-made electrolyte drink can be made by using water, sugar and salt in precise proportions. It is important to include glucose (sugar) to utilise the co-transport mechanism of sodium and glucose. Commercial preparations are also available for both human and veterinary use. Electrolytes are commonly found in fruit...	Electrolyte	Wikipedia	486	48336	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrolyte	Physical sciences	Electrochemistry	Chemistry	vital_articles
Electrolytic conductors are used in electronic devices where the chemical reaction at a metal-electrolyte interface yields useful effects. In batteries, two materials with different electron affinities are used as electrodes; electrons flow from one electrode to the other outside of the battery, while inside the batte...	Electrolyte	Wikipedia	398	48336	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrolyte	Physical sciences	Electrochemistry	Chemistry	vital_articles
Dry polymer electrolytes differ from liquid and gel electrolytes in that salt is dissolved directly into the solid medium. Usually it is a relatively high-dielectric constant polymer (PEO, PMMA, PAN, polyphosphazenes, siloxanes, etc.) and a salt with low lattice energy. In order to increase the mechanical strength and ...	Electrolyte	Wikipedia	327	48336	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrolyte	Physical sciences	Electrochemistry	Chemistry	vital_articles
Caterpillars ( ) are the larval stage of members of the order Lepidoptera (the insect order comprising butterflies and moths). As with most common names, the application of the word is arbitrary, since the larvae of sawflies (suborder Symphyta) are commonly called caterpillars as well. Both lepidopteran and symphytan ...	Caterpillar	Wikipedia	389	48337	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caterpillar	Biology and health sciences	Lepidoptera	Animals	vital_articles
Caterpillars have soft bodies that can grow rapidly between moults. Their size varies between species and instars (moults) from as small as up to . Some larvae of the order Hymenoptera (ants, bees, and wasps) can appear like the caterpillars of the Lepidoptera. Such larvae are mainly seen in the sawfly suborder. Howev...	Caterpillar	Wikipedia	455	48337	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caterpillar	Biology and health sciences	Lepidoptera	Animals	vital_articles
The appearance of a caterpillar can often repel a predator: its markings and certain body parts can make it seem poisonous, or bigger in size and thus threatening, or non-edible. Some types of caterpillars are indeed poisonous or distasteful and their bright coloring warns predators of this. Others may mimic dangerous ...	Caterpillar	Wikipedia	469	48337	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caterpillar	Biology and health sciences	Lepidoptera	Animals	vital_articles
Plants contain toxins which protect them from herbivores, but some caterpillars have evolved countermeasures which enable them to eat the leaves of such toxic plants. In addition to being unaffected by the poison, the caterpillars sequester it in their body, making them highly toxic to predators. The chemicals are also...	Caterpillar	Wikipedia	407	48337	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caterpillar	Biology and health sciences	Lepidoptera	Animals	vital_articles
Some caterpillars are gregarious; large aggregations are believed to help in reducing the levels of parasitization and predation. Clusters amplify the signal of aposematic coloration, and individuals may participate in group regurgitation or displays. Pine processionary (Thaumetopoea pityocampa) caterpillars often link...	Caterpillar	Wikipedia	448	48337	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caterpillar	Biology and health sciences	Lepidoptera	Animals	vital_articles
Many caterpillars are nocturnal. For example, the "cutworms" (of the family Noctuidae) hide at the base of plants during the day and only feed at night. Others, such as spongy moth (Lymantria dispar) larvae, change their activity patterns depending on density and larval stage, with more diurnal feeding in early instars...	Caterpillar	Wikipedia	456	48337	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caterpillar	Biology and health sciences	Lepidoptera	Animals	vital_articles
Caterpillar hair has also been known to cause kerato-conjunctivitis. The sharp barbs on the end of caterpillar hairs can get lodged in soft tissues and mucous membranes such as the eyes. Once they enter such tissues, they can be difficult to extract, often exacerbating the problem as they migrate across the membrane. ...	Caterpillar	Wikipedia	371	48337	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caterpillar	Biology and health sciences	Lepidoptera	Animals	vital_articles
The role of caterpillars in the life stages of butterflies was badly understood. In 1679 Maria Sibylla Merian published the first volume of The Caterpillars' Marvelous Transformation and Strange Floral Food, which contained 50 illustrations and a description of insects, moths, butterflies and their larvae. An earlier p...	Caterpillar	Wikipedia	466	48337	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caterpillar	Biology and health sciences	Lepidoptera	Animals	vital_articles
Famously, in Lewis Carroll's Alice's Adventures in Wonderland a caterpillar asks Alice "Who are you?". When Alice comments on the caterpillar's inevitable transformation into a butterfly, the caterpillar champions the position that in spite of changes it is still possible to know something, and that Alice is the same A...	Caterpillar	Wikipedia	308	48337	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caterpillar	Biology and health sciences	Lepidoptera	Animals	vital_articles
Butterflies are winged insects from the lepidopteran suborder Rhopalocera, characterized by large, often brightly coloured wings that often fold together when at rest, and a conspicuous, fluttering flight. The group comprises the superfamilies Hedyloidea (moth-butterflies in the Americas) and Papilionoidea (all others)...	Butterfly	Wikipedia	422	48338	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Butterfly	Biology and health sciences	Lepidoptera	null	vital_articles
The Oxford English Dictionary derives the word straightforwardly from Old English butorflēoge, butter-fly; similar names in Old Dutch and Old High German show that the name is ancient, but modern Dutch and German use different words ( and ) and the common name often varies substantially between otherwise closely relate...	Butterfly	Wikipedia	507	48338	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Butterfly	Biology and health sciences	Lepidoptera	null	vital_articles
As in all insects, the body is divided into three sections: the head, thorax, and abdomen. The thorax is composed of three segments, each with a pair of legs. In most families of butterfly the antennae are clubbed, unlike those of moths which may be threadlike or feathery. The long proboscis can be coiled when not in u...	Butterfly	Wikipedia	489	48338	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Butterfly	Biology and health sciences	Lepidoptera	null	vital_articles
Many butterflies, such as the painted lady, monarch, and several danaine migrate for long distances. These migrations take place over a number of generations and no single individual completes the whole trip. The eastern North American population of monarchs can travel thousands of miles south-west to overwintering sit...	Butterfly	Wikipedia	443	48338	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Butterfly	Biology and health sciences	Lepidoptera	null	vital_articles
The vast majority of butterflies have a four-stage life cycle: egg, larva (caterpillar), pupa (chrysalis) and imago (adult). In the genera Colias, Erebia, Euchloe, and Parnassius, a small number of species are known that reproduce semi-parthenogenetically; when the female dies, a partially developed larva emerges from ...	Butterfly	Wikipedia	471	48338	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Butterfly	Biology and health sciences	Lepidoptera	null	vital_articles
The egg stage lasts a few weeks in most butterflies, but eggs laid close to winter, especially in temperate regions, go through a diapause (resting) stage, and the hatching may take place only in spring. Some temperate region butterflies, such as the Camberwell beauty, lay their eggs in the spring and have them hatch i...	Butterfly	Wikipedia	382	48338	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Butterfly	Biology and health sciences	Lepidoptera	null	vital_articles
Caterpillars have short antennae and several simple eyes. The mouthparts are adapted for chewing with powerful mandibles and a pair of maxillae, each with a segmented palp. Adjoining these is the labium-hypopharynx which houses a tubular spinneret which is able to extrude silk. Caterpillars such as those in the genus C...	Butterfly	Wikipedia	280	48338	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Butterfly	Biology and health sciences	Lepidoptera	null	vital_articles
When the larva is fully grown, hormones such as prothoracicotropic hormone (PTTH) are produced. At this point the larva stops feeding, and begins "wandering" in the quest for a suitable pupation site, often the underside of a leaf or other concealed location. There it spins a button of silk which it uses to fasten its ...	Butterfly	Wikipedia	380	48338	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Butterfly	Biology and health sciences	Lepidoptera	null	vital_articles
The reproductive stage of the insect is the winged adult or imago. The surface of both butterflies and moths is covered by scales, each of which is an outgrowth from a single epidermal cell. The head is small and dominated by the two large compound eyes. These are capable of distinguishing flower shapes or motion but c...	Butterfly	Wikipedia	412	48338	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Butterfly	Biology and health sciences	Lepidoptera	null	vital_articles
The abdomen consists of ten segments and contains the gut and genital organs. The front eight segments have spiracles and the terminal segment is modified for reproduction. The male has a pair of clasping organs attached to a ring structure, and during copulation, a tubular structure is extruded and inserted into the f...	Butterfly	Wikipedia	357	48338	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Butterfly	Biology and health sciences	Lepidoptera	null	vital_articles
Mating When the butterfly Bicyclus anynana is subjected to repeated inbreeding in the laboratory, there is a dramatic decrease in egg hatching. This severe inbreeding depression is considered to be likely due to a relatively high mutation rate to recessive alleles with substantial damaging effects and infrequent episo...	Butterfly	Wikipedia	481	48338	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Butterfly	Biology and health sciences	Lepidoptera	null	vital_articles
Butterflies use their antennae to sense the air for wind and scents. The antennae come in various shapes and colours; the hesperiids have a pointed angle or hook to the antennae, while most other families show knobbed antennae. The antennae are richly covered with sensory organs known as sensillae. A butterfly's sense ...	Butterfly	Wikipedia	473	48338	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Butterfly	Biology and health sciences	Lepidoptera	null	vital_articles
Butterflies are threatened in their early stages by parasitoids and in all stages by predators, diseases and environmental factors. Braconid and other parasitic wasps lay their eggs in lepidopteran eggs or larvae and the wasps' parasitoid larvae devour their hosts, usually pupating inside or outside the desiccated husk...	Butterfly	Wikipedia	349	48338	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Butterfly	Biology and health sciences	Lepidoptera	null	vital_articles
Chemical defences are widespread and are mostly based on chemicals of plant origin. In many cases the plants themselves evolved these toxic substances as protection against herbivores. Butterflies have evolved mechanisms to sequester these plant toxins and use them instead in their own defence. These defence mechanisms...	Butterfly	Wikipedia	500	48338	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Butterfly	Biology and health sciences	Lepidoptera	null	vital_articles
Many tropical butterflies have seasonal forms for dry and wet seasons. These are switched by the hormone ecdysone. The dry-season forms are usually more cryptic, perhaps offering better camouflage when vegetation is scarce. Dark colours in wet-season forms may help to absorb solar radiation. Butterflies without defenc...	Butterfly	Wikipedia	510	48338	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Butterfly	Biology and health sciences	Lepidoptera	null	vital_articles
Sir John Tenniel drew a famous illustration of Alice meeting a caterpillar for Lewis Carroll's Alice in Wonderland, c. 1865. The caterpillar is seated on a toadstool and is smoking a hookah; the image can be read as showing either the forelegs of the larva, or as suggesting a face with protruding nose and chin. Eric Ca...	Butterfly	Wikipedia	380	48338	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Butterfly	Biology and health sciences	Lepidoptera	null	vital_articles
Diderot's Encyclopédie cites butterflies as a symbol for the soul. A Roman sculpture depicts a butterfly exiting the mouth of a dead man, representing the Roman belief that the soul leaves through the mouth. In line with this, the ancient Greek word for "butterfly" is ψυχή (psȳchē), which primarily means "soul" or "min...	Butterfly	Wikipedia	370	48338	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Butterfly	Biology and health sciences	Lepidoptera	null	vital_articles
A parachute is a device used to slow the motion of an object through an atmosphere by creating drag or aerodynamic lift. A major application is to support people, for recreation or as a safety device for aviators, who can exit from an aircraft at height and descend safely to earth. A parachute is usually made of a lig...	Parachute	Wikipedia	367	48339	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parachute	Technology	Aviation	null	vital_articles
Shortly after, a more sophisticated parachute was sketched by the polymath Leonardo da Vinci in his Codex Atlanticus (fol. 381v) dated to . Here, the scale of the parachute is in a more favorable proportion to the weight of the jumper. A square wooden frame, which alters the shape of the parachute from conical to pyram...	Parachute	Wikipedia	507	48339	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parachute	Technology	Aviation	null	vital_articles
The modern parachute was invented in the late 18th century by Louis-Sébastien Lenormand in France, who made the first recorded public jump in 1783. Lenormand also sketched his device beforehand. Two years later, in 1785, Lenormand coined the word "parachute" by hybridizing an Italian prefix para, an imperative form of...	Parachute	Wikipedia	480	48339	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parachute	Technology	Aviation	null	vital_articles
In 1911 a successful test took place with a dummy at the Eiffel Tower in Paris. The puppet's weight was ; the parachute's weight was . The cables between the puppet and the parachute were long. On February 4, 1912, Franz Reichelt jumped to his death from the tower during initial testing of his wearable parachute. Als...	Parachute	Wikipedia	460	48339	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parachute	Technology	Aviation	null	vital_articles
The first military use of the parachute was by artillery observers on tethered observation balloons in World War I. These were tempting targets for enemy fighter aircraft, though difficult to destroy, due to their heavy anti-aircraft defenses. Because it was difficult to escape from them, and dangerous when on fire due...	Parachute	Wikipedia	443	48339	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parachute	Technology	Aviation	null	vital_articles
In the UK, Everard Calthrop, a railway engineer and breeder of Arab horses, invented and marketed through his Aerial Patents Company a "British Parachute" and the "Guardian Angel" parachute. As part of an investigation into Calthrop's design, on 13 January 1917, test pilot Clive Franklyn Collett successfully jumped fro...	Parachute	Wikipedia	490	48339	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parachute	Technology	Aviation	null	vital_articles
The experience with parachutes during the war highlighted the need to develop a design that could be reliably used to exit a disabled airplane. For instance, tethered parachutes did not work well when the aircraft was spinning. After the war, Major Edward L. Hoffman of the United States Army led an effort to develop an...	Parachute	Wikipedia	345	48339	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parachute	Technology	Aviation	null	vital_articles
Beginning with Italy in 1927, several countries experimented with using parachutes to drop soldiers behind enemy lines. The regular Soviet Airborne Troops were established as early as 1931 after a number of experimental military mass jumps starting from 2 August 1930. Earlier the same year, the first Soviet mass jumps ...	Parachute	Wikipedia	372	48339	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parachute	Technology	Aviation	null	vital_articles
Round parachutes are purely a drag device (that is, unlike the ram-air types, they provide no lift) and are used in military, emergency and cargo applications (e.g. airdrops). Most have large dome-shaped canopies made from a single layer of triangular cloth gores. Some skydivers call them "jellyfish 'chutes" because of...	Parachute	Wikipedia	391	48339	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parachute	Technology	Aviation	null	vital_articles
The unique design characteristics of cruciform parachutes decrease oscillation (its user swinging back and forth) and violent turns during descent. This technology will be used by the United States Army as it replaces its older T-10 parachutes with T-11 parachutes under a program called Advanced Tactical Parachute Syst...	Parachute	Wikipedia	366	48339	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parachute	Technology	Aviation	null	vital_articles
Due to their lenticular shape and appropriate venting, they have a considerably faster forward speed than, say, a modified military canopy. And due to controllable rear-facing vents in the canopy's sides, they also have much snappier turning capabilities, though they are decidedly low-performance compared to today's ra...	Parachute	Wikipedia	401	48339	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parachute	Technology	Aviation	null	vital_articles
Ribbon and ring parachutes have similarities to annular designs. They are frequently designed to deploy at supersonic speeds. A conventional parachute would instantly burst upon opening and be shredded at such speeds. Ribbon parachutes have a ring-shaped canopy, often with a large hole in the centre to release the pres...	Parachute	Wikipedia	447	48339	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parachute	Technology	Aviation	null	vital_articles
Ellipticals are usually used only by sport parachutists. They often have smaller, more numerous fabric cells and are shallower in profile. Their canopies can be anywhere from slightly elliptical to highly elliptical, indicating the amount of taper in the canopy design, which is often an indicator of the responsiveness ...	Parachute	Wikipedia	511	48339	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parachute	Technology	Aviation	null	vital_articles

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