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text stringlengths 7 145k	page_title stringlengths 1 105	source stringclasses 1 value	token_count int64 3 30.2k	id stringlengths 2 8	url stringlengths 31 168	topic stringclasses 198 values	section stringlengths 4 49 ⌀	sublist stringlengths 0 628 ⌀	method stringclasses 2 values
In particular, when then is an abelian group since any non-trivial group element is of order or If some element of is of order then is isomorphic to the cyclic group of order hence abelian. On the other hand, if every non-trivial element in is of order hence by the conclusion above then or We only need to...	Conjugacy class	Wikipedia	436	49176	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conjugacy%20class	Mathematics	Abstract algebra	null	vital_articles
Antiviral drugs are a class of medication used for treating viral infections. Most antivirals target specific viruses, while a broad-spectrum antiviral is effective against a wide range of viruses. Antiviral drugs are a class of antimicrobials, a larger group which also includes antibiotic (also termed antibacterial), ...	Antiviral drug	Wikipedia	426	49197	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiviral%20drug	Biology and health sciences	Antiviral drugs	Health	vital_articles
This was a very time-consuming, hit-or-miss procedure, and in the absence of a good knowledge of how the target virus worked, it was not efficient in discovering effective antivirals which had few side effects. Only in the 1980s, when the full genetic sequences of viruses began to be unraveled, did researchers begin to...	Antiviral drug	Wikipedia	499	49197	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiviral%20drug	Biology and health sciences	Antiviral drugs	Health	vital_articles
Viral life cycles vary in their precise details depending on the type of virus, but they all share a general pattern: Attachment to a host cell. Release of viral genes and possibly enzymes into the host cell. Replication of viral components using host-cell machinery. Assembly of viral components into complete viral...	Antiviral drug	Wikipedia	463	49197	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiviral%20drug	Biology and health sciences	Antiviral drugs	Health	vital_articles
HIV infects a cell through fusion with the cell membrane, which requires two different cellular molecular participants, CD4 and a chemokine receptor (differing depending on the cell type). Approaches to blocking this virus/cell fusion have shown some promise in preventing entry of the virus into a cell. At least one of...	Antiviral drug	Wikipedia	505	49197	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiviral%20drug	Biology and health sciences	Antiviral drugs	Health	vital_articles
Reverse transcription One way of doing this is to develop nucleotide or nucleoside analogues that look like the building blocks of RNA or DNA, but deactivate the enzymes that synthesize the RNA or DNA once the analogue is incorporated. This approach is more commonly associated with the inhibition of reverse transcripta...	Antiviral drug	Wikipedia	360	49197	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiviral%20drug	Biology and health sciences	Antiviral drugs	Health	vital_articles
Translation/antisense Genomics has not only helped find targets for many antivirals, it has provided the basis for an entirely new type of drug, based on "antisense" molecules. These are segments of DNA or RNA that are designed as complementary molecule to critical sections of viral genomes, and the binding of these an...	Antiviral drug	Wikipedia	506	49197	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiviral%20drug	Biology and health sciences	Antiviral drugs	Health	vital_articles
Protease inhibitors have also been seen in nature. A protease inhibitor was isolated from the shiitake mushroom (Lentinus edodes). The presence of this may explain the Shiitake mushrooms' noted antiviral activity in vitro. Long dsRNA helix targeting Most viruses produce long dsRNA helices during transcription and repl...	Antiviral drug	Wikipedia	466	49197	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiviral%20drug	Biology and health sciences	Antiviral drugs	Health	vital_articles
One of the best-known of this class of drugs are interferons, which inhibit viral synthesis in infected cells. One form of human interferon named "interferon alpha" is well-established as part of the standard treatment for hepatitis B and C, and other interferons are also being investigated as treatments for various di...	Antiviral drug	Wikipedia	383	49197	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiviral%20drug	Biology and health sciences	Antiviral drugs	Health	vital_articles
The three FDA-approved neuraminidase antiviral flu drugs available in the United States, recommended by the CDC, include: oseltamivir (Tamiflu), zanamivir (Relenza), and peramivir (Rapivab). Influenza antiviral resistance often results from changes occurring in neuraminidase and hemagglutinin proteins on the viral surf...	Antiviral drug	Wikipedia	416	49197	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiviral%20drug	Biology and health sciences	Antiviral drugs	Health	vital_articles
The mechanisms for antiviral resistance development depend on the type of virus in question. RNA viruses such as hepatitis C and influenza A have high error rates during genome replication because RNA polymerases lack proofreading activity. RNA viruses also have small genome sizes that are typically less than 30 kb, wh...	Antiviral drug	Wikipedia	459	49197	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiviral%20drug	Biology and health sciences	Antiviral drugs	Health	vital_articles
Treatment options for antiviral resistant pathogens If a virus is not fully wiped out during a regimen of antivirals, treatment creates a bottleneck in the viral population that selects for resistance, and there is a chance that a resistant strain may repopulate the host. Viral treatment mechanisms must therefore acco...	Antiviral drug	Wikipedia	445	49197	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiviral%20drug	Biology and health sciences	Antiviral drugs	Health	vital_articles
The United States Food and Drug Administration approved DAAs on the basis of a surrogate endpoint called sustained virological response (SVR). SVR is achieved in a patient when hepatitis C virus RNA remains undetectable 12–24 weeks after treatment ends. Whether through DAAs or older interferon-based regimens, SVR is as...	Antiviral drug	Wikipedia	463	49197	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiviral%20drug	Biology and health sciences	Antiviral drugs	Health	vital_articles
Public Health Emergency Preparedness initiatives are managed by the CDC via the Office of Public Health Preparedness and Response. Funds aim to support communities in preparing for public health emergencies, including pandemic influenza. Also managed by the CDC, the Strategic National Stockpile (SNS) consists of bulk q...	Antiviral drug	Wikipedia	176	49197	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiviral%20drug	Biology and health sciences	Antiviral drugs	Health	vital_articles
The age of Earth is estimated to be 4.54 ± 0.05 billion years This age may represent the age of Earth's accretion, or core formation, or of the material from which Earth formed. This dating is based on evidence from radiometric age-dating of meteorite material and is consistent with the radiometric ages of the oldest-...	Age of Earth	Wikipedia	487	49256	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Age%20of%20Earth	Physical sciences	Basics	Earth science	vital_articles
In the mid-18th century, the naturalist Mikhail Lomonosov suggested that Earth had been created separately from, and several hundred thousand years before, the rest of the universe. Lomonosov's ideas were mostly speculative. In 1779 the Comte du Buffon tried to obtain a value for the age of Earth using an experiment: h...	Age of Earth	Wikipedia	407	49256	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Age%20of%20Earth	Physical sciences	Basics	Earth science	vital_articles
Geologists such as Lyell had difficulty accepting such a short age for Earth. For biologists, even 100 million years seemed much too short to be plausible. In Charles Darwin's theory of evolution, the process of random heritable variation with cumulative selection requires great durations of time, and Darwin stated tha...	Age of Earth	Wikipedia	499	49256	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Age%20of%20Earth	Physical sciences	Basics	Earth science	vital_articles
Overview By their chemical nature, rock minerals contain certain elements and not others; but in rocks containing radioactive isotopes, the process of radioactive decay generates exotic elements over time. By measuring the concentration of the stable end product of the decay, coupled with knowledge of the half life and...	Age of Earth	Wikipedia	460	49256	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Age%20of%20Earth	Physical sciences	Basics	Earth science	vital_articles
Some radioactive materials have short half-lives; some have long half-lives. Uranium and thorium have long half-lives and so persist in Earth's crust, but radioactive elements with short half-lives have generally disappeared. This suggested that it might be possible to measure the age of Earth by determining the relati...	Age of Earth	Wikipedia	347	49256	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Age%20of%20Earth	Physical sciences	Basics	Earth science	vital_articles
Rutherford assumed that the rate of decay of radium as determined by Ramsay and Soddy was accurate and that helium did not escape from the sample over time. Rutherford's scheme was inaccurate, but it was a useful first step. Boltwood focused on the end products of decay series. In 1905, he suggested that lead was the f...	Age of Earth	Wikipedia	405	49256	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Age%20of%20Earth	Physical sciences	Basics	Earth science	vital_articles
Robert Strutt tinkered with Rutherford's helium method until 1910 and then ceased. However, Strutt's student Arthur Holmes became interested in radiometric dating and continued to work on it after everyone else had given up. Holmes focused on lead dating because he regarded the helium method as unpromising. He performe...	Age of Earth	Wikipedia	507	49256	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Age%20of%20Earth	Physical sciences	Basics	Earth science	vital_articles
Holmes, being one of the few people who was trained in radiometric dating techniques, was a committee member and in fact wrote most of the final report. Thus, Holmes' report concluded that radioactive dating was the only reliable means of pinning down a geologic time scale. Questions of bias were deflected by the great...	Age of Earth	Wikipedia	500	49256	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Age%20of%20Earth	Physical sciences	Basics	Earth science	vital_articles
Some meteorites are furthermore considered to represent the primitive material from which the accreting solar disk was formed. Some have behaved as closed systems (for some isotopic systems) soon after the solar disk and the planets formed. To date, these assumptions are supported by much scientific observation and rep...	Age of Earth	Wikipedia	442	49256	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Age%20of%20Earth	Physical sciences	Basics	Earth science	vital_articles
The Moon, as another extraterrestrial body that has not undergone plate tectonics and that has no atmosphere, provides quite precise age dates from the samples returned from the Apollo missions. Rocks returned from the Moon have been dated at a maximum of 4.51 billion years old. Martian meteorites that have landed upon...	Age of Earth	Wikipedia	181	49256	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Age%20of%20Earth	Physical sciences	Basics	Earth science	vital_articles
In chemistry, hydronium (hydroxonium in traditional British English) is the cation , also written as , the type of oxonium ion produced by protonation of water. It is often viewed as the positive ion present when an Arrhenius acid is dissolved in water, as Arrhenius acid molecules in solution give up a proton (a positi...	Hydronium	Wikipedia	483	49281	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydronium	Physical sciences	Concepts	Chemistry	vital_articles
Structure Since and N have the same number of electrons, is isoelectronic with ammonia. As shown in the images above, has a trigonal pyramidal molecular geometry with the oxygen atom at its apex. The bond angle is approximately 113°, and the center of mass is very close to the oxygen atom. Because the base of the p...	Hydronium	Wikipedia	165	49281	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydronium	Physical sciences	Concepts	Chemistry	vital_articles
Acids and acidity The hydrated proton is very acidic: at 25 °C, its pKa is approximately 0. The values commonly given for pKaaq(H3O+) are 0 or –1.74. The former uses the convention that the activity of the solvent in a dilute solution (in this case, water) is 1, while the latter uses the value of the concentration of w...	Hydronium	Wikipedia	380	49281	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydronium	Physical sciences	Concepts	Chemistry	vital_articles
The aqueous proton is the most acidic species that can exist in water (assuming sufficient water for dissolution): any stronger acid will ionize and yield a hydrated proton. The acidity of (aq) is the implicit standard used to judge the strength of an acid in water: strong acids must be better proton donors than (aq), ...	Hydronium	Wikipedia	430	49281	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydronium	Physical sciences	Concepts	Chemistry	vital_articles
Two other well-known structures are the Zundel cation and the Eigen cation. The Eigen solvation structure has the hydronium ion at the center of an complex in which the hydronium is strongly hydrogen-bonded to three neighbouring water molecules. In the Zundel complex the proton is shared equally by two water molecule...	Hydronium	Wikipedia	402	49281	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydronium	Physical sciences	Concepts	Chemistry	vital_articles
The hydronium ion also forms stable compounds with the carborane superacid . X-ray crystallography shows a symmetry for the hydronium ion with each proton interacting with a bromine atom each from three carborane anions 320 pm apart on average. The salt is also soluble in benzene. In crystals grown from a benzene sol...	Hydronium	Wikipedia	491	49281	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydronium	Physical sciences	Concepts	Chemistry	vital_articles
Interstellar chemistry As mentioned previously, is found in both diffuse and dense molecular clouds. By applying the reaction rate constants (α, β, and γ) corresponding to all of the currently available characterized reactions involving , it is possible to calculate k(T) for each of these reactions. By multiplying the...	Hydronium	Wikipedia	363	49281	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydronium	Physical sciences	Concepts	Chemistry	vital_articles
Astronomical detections As early as 1973 and before the first interstellar detection, chemical models of the interstellar medium (the first corresponding to a dense cloud) predicted that hydronium was an abundant molecular ion and that it played an important role in ion-neutral chemistry. However, before an astronomica...	Hydronium	Wikipedia	389	49281	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydronium	Physical sciences	Concepts	Chemistry	vital_articles
In physics, the fine-structure constant, also known as the Sommerfeld constant, commonly denoted by (the Greek letter alpha), is a fundamental physical constant that quantifies the strength of the electromagnetic interaction between elementary charged particles. It is a dimensionless quantity (dimensionless physical ...	Fine-structure constant	Wikipedia	450	49295	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fine-structure%20constant	Physical sciences	Physical constants	Physics	vital_articles
While the value of can be determined from estimates of the constants that appear in any of its definitions, the theory of quantum electrodynamics (QED) provides a way to measure directly using the quantum Hall effect or the anomalous magnetic moment of the electron. Other methods include the A.C. Josephson effect and...	Fine-structure constant	Wikipedia	388	49295	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fine-structure%20constant	Physical sciences	Physical constants	Physics	vital_articles
Variation with energy scale In quantum electrodynamics, the more thorough quantum field theory underlying the electromagnetic coupling, the renormalization group dictates how the strength of the electromagnetic interaction grows logarithmically as the relevant energy scale increases. The value of the fine-structure co...	Fine-structure constant	Wikipedia	438	49295	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fine-structure%20constant	Physical sciences	Physical constants	Physics	vital_articles
With the development of quantum electrodynamics (QED) the significance of has broadened from a spectroscopic phenomenon to a general coupling constant for the electromagnetic field, determining the strength of the interaction between electrons and photons. The term is engraved on the tombstone of one of the pioneers ...	Fine-structure constant	Wikipedia	512	49295	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fine-structure%20constant	Physical sciences	Physical constants	Physics	vital_articles
However, in 2007 simple flaws were identified in the analysis method of Chand et al., discrediting those results. King et al. have used Markov chain Monte Carlo methods to investigate the algorithm used by the UNSW group to determine from the quasar spectra, and have found that the algorithm appears to produce correc...	Fine-structure constant	Wikipedia	491	49295	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fine-structure%20constant	Physical sciences	Physical constants	Physics	vital_articles
These results have not been replicated by other researchers. In September and October 2010, after released research by Webb et al., physicists C. Orzel and S.M. Carroll separately suggested various approaches of how Webb's observations may be wrong. Orzel argues that the study may contain wrong data due to subtle diff...	Fine-structure constant	Wikipedia	512	49295	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fine-structure%20constant	Physical sciences	Physical constants	Physics	vital_articles
Conversely, statistician I. J. Good argued that a numerological explanation would only be acceptable if it could be based on a good theory that is not yet known but "exists" in the sense of a Platonic Ideal. Attempts to find a mathematical basis for this dimensionless constant have continued up to the present time. Ho...	Fine-structure constant	Wikipedia	141	49295	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fine-structure%20constant	Physical sciences	Physical constants	Physics	vital_articles
A bipolar junction transistor (BJT) is a type of transistor that uses both electrons and electron holes as charge carriers. In contrast, a unipolar transistor, such as a field-effect transistor (FET), uses only one kind of charge carrier. A bipolar transistor allows a small current injected at one of its terminals to c...	Bipolar junction transistor	Wikipedia	512	49338	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bipolar%20junction%20transistor	Technology	Semiconductors	null	vital_articles
Function BJTs exist as PNP and NPN types, based on the doping types of the three main terminal regions. An NPN transistor comprises two semiconductor junctions that share a thin p-doped region, and a PNP transistor comprises two semiconductor junctions that share a thin n-doped region. N-type means doped with impuri...	Bipolar junction transistor	Wikipedia	420	49338	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bipolar%20junction%20transistor	Technology	Semiconductors	null	vital_articles
To minimize the fraction of carriers that recombine before reaching the collector–base junction, the transistor's base region must be thin enough that carriers can diffuse across it in much less time than the semiconductor's minority-carrier lifetime. Having a lightly doped base ensures recombination rates are low. In ...	Bipolar junction transistor	Wikipedia	459	49338	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bipolar%20junction%20transistor	Technology	Semiconductors	null	vital_articles
In analog circuit design, the current-control view is sometimes used because it is approximately linear. That is, the collector current is approximately times the base current. Some basic circuits can be designed by assuming that the base–emitter voltage is approximately constant and that collector current is β times ...	Bipolar junction transistor	Wikipedia	460	49338	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bipolar%20junction%20transistor	Technology	Semiconductors	null	vital_articles
Common-emitter current gain The common-emitter current gain is represented by F or the -parameter FE; it is approximately the ratio of the collector's direct current to the base's direct current in forward-active region. (The F subscript is used to indicate the forward-active mode of operation.) It is typically greate...	Bipolar junction transistor	Wikipedia	443	49338	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bipolar%20junction%20transistor	Technology	Semiconductors	null	vital_articles
The base is physically located between the emitter and the collector and is made from lightly doped, high-resistivity material. The collector surrounds the emitter region, making it almost impossible for the electrons injected into the base region to escape without being collected, thus making the resulting value of α ...	Bipolar junction transistor	Wikipedia	505	49338	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bipolar%20junction%20transistor	Technology	Semiconductors	null	vital_articles
The heterojunction bipolar transistor (HBT) is an improvement of the BJT that can handle signals of very high frequencies up to several hundred GHz. It is common in modern ultrafast circuits, mostly RF systems. Two commonly used HBTs are silicon–germanium and aluminum gallium arsenide, though a wide variety of semicon...	Bipolar junction transistor	Wikipedia	459	49338	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bipolar%20junction%20transistor	Technology	Semiconductors	null	vital_articles
Although these regions are well defined for sufficiently large applied voltage, they overlap somewhat for small (less than a few hundred millivolts) biases. For example, in the typical grounded-emitter configuration of an NPN BJT used as a pulldown switch in digital logic, the "off" state never involves a reverse-biase...	Bipolar junction transistor	Wikipedia	471	49338	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bipolar%20junction%20transistor	Technology	Semiconductors	null	vital_articles
The emitter current is related to exponentially. At room temperature, an increase in by approximately 60 mV increases the emitter current by a factor of 10. Because the base current is approximately proportional to the collector and emitter currents, they vary in the same way. History The bipolar point-contact tran...	Bipolar junction transistor	Wikipedia	250	49338	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bipolar%20junction%20transistor	Technology	Semiconductors	null	vital_articles
Early manufacturing techniques Various methods of manufacturing bipolar transistors were developed. Point-contact transistor – first transistor ever constructed (December 1947), a bipolar transistor, limited commercial use due to high cost and noise. Tetrode point-contact transistor – Point-contact transistor having...	Bipolar junction transistor	Wikipedia	465	49338	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bipolar%20junction%20transistor	Technology	Semiconductors	null	vital_articles
BJTs can be thought of as two diodes (p–n junctions) sharing a common region that minority carriers can move through. A PNP BJT will function like two diodes that share an N-type cathode region, and the NPN like two diodes sharing a P-type anode region. Connecting two diodes with wires will not make a BJT, since minor...	Bipolar junction transistor	Wikipedia	510	49338	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bipolar%20junction%20transistor	Technology	Semiconductors	null	vital_articles
The unapproximated Ebers–Moll equations used to describe the three currents in any operating region are given below. These equations are based on the transport model for a bipolar junction transistor. where is the collector current is the base current is the emitter current is the forward common emitter curre...	Bipolar junction transistor	Wikipedia	467	49338	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bipolar%20junction%20transistor	Technology	Semiconductors	null	vital_articles
The hybrid-pi model is a popular circuit model used for analyzing the small signal and AC behavior of bipolar junction and field effect transistors. Sometimes it is also called Giacoletto model because it was introduced by L.J. Giacoletto in 1969. The model can be quite accurate for low-frequency circuits and can easil...	Bipolar junction transistor	Wikipedia	95	49338	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bipolar%20junction%20transistor	Technology	Semiconductors	null	vital_articles
Another model commonly used to analyze BJT circuits is the h-parameter model, also known as the hybrid equivalent model, closely related to the hybrid-pi model and the y-parameter two-port, but using input current and output voltage as independent variables, rather than input and output voltages. This two-port network ...	Bipolar junction transistor	Wikipedia	457	49338	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bipolar%20junction%20transistor	Technology	Semiconductors	null	vital_articles
As shown, the h-parameters have lower-case subscripts and hence signify AC conditions or analyses. For DC conditions they are specified in upper-case. For the CE topology, an approximate h-parameter model is commonly used which further simplifies the circuit analysis. For this the hoe and hre parameters are neglected (...	Bipolar junction transistor	Wikipedia	410	49338	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bipolar%20junction%20transistor	Technology	Semiconductors	null	vital_articles
The Gummel–Poon SPICE model is often used, but it suffers from several limitations. For instance, reverse breakdown of the base–emitter diode is not captured by the SGP (SPICE Gummel–Poon) model, neither are thermal effects (self-heating) or quasi-saturation. These have been addressed in various more advanced models wh...	Bipolar junction transistor	Wikipedia	431	49338	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bipolar%20junction%20transistor	Technology	Semiconductors	null	vital_articles
Avalanche pulse generators Transistors may be deliberately made with a lower collector to emitter breakdown voltage than the collector to base breakdown voltage. If the emitter–base junction is reverse biased the collector emitter voltage may be maintained at a voltage just below breakdown. As soon as the base voltage...	Bipolar junction transistor	Wikipedia	140	49338	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bipolar%20junction%20transistor	Technology	Semiconductors	null	vital_articles
Grid computing is the use of widely distributed computer resources to reach a common goal. A computing grid can be thought of as a distributed system with non-interactive workloads that involve many files. Grid computing is distinguished from conventional high-performance computing systems such as cluster computing in ...	Grid computing	Wikipedia	475	49373	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grid%20computing	Technology	Computer architecture concepts	null	vital_articles
Comparison of grids and conventional supercomputers “Distributed” or “grid” computing in general is a special type of parallel computing that relies on complete computers (with onboard CPUs, storage, power supplies, network interfaces, etc.) connected to a network (private, public or the Internet) by a conventional net...	Grid computing	Wikipedia	371	49373	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grid%20computing	Technology	Computer architecture concepts	null	vital_articles
One disadvantage of this feature is that the computers which are actually performing the calculations might not be entirely trustworthy. The designers of the system must thus introduce measures to prevent malfunctions or malicious participants from producing false, misleading, or erroneous results, and from using the s...	Grid computing	Wikipedia	382	49373	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grid%20computing	Technology	Computer architecture concepts	null	vital_articles
Public systems or those crossing administrative domains (including different departments in the same organization) often result in the need to run on heterogeneous systems, using different operating systems and hardware architectures. With many languages, there is a trade-off between investment in software development ...	Grid computing	Wikipedia	485	49373	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grid%20computing	Technology	Computer architecture concepts	null	vital_articles
Grid-enabled applications are specific software applications that can utilize grid infrastructure. This is made possible by the use of grid middleware, as pointed out above. Software as a service (SaaS) is “software that is owned, delivered and managed remotely by one or more providers.” (Gartner 2007) Additionally, S...	Grid computing	Wikipedia	422	49373	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grid%20computing	Technology	Computer architecture concepts	null	vital_articles
Creating an Opportunistic Environment is another implementation of CPU-scavenging where special workload management system harvests the idle desktop computers for compute-intensive jobs, it also refers as Enterprise Desktop Grid (EDG). For instance, HTCondor (the open-source high-throughput computing software framework...	Grid computing	Wikipedia	499	49373	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grid%20computing	Technology	Computer architecture concepts	null	vital_articles
In 2007 the term cloud computing came into popularity, which is conceptually similar to the canonical Foster definition of grid computing (in terms of computing resources being consumed as electricity is from the power grid) and earlier utility computing. Progress In November 2006, Seidel received the Sidney Fernbach ...	Grid computing	Wikipedia	461	49373	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grid%20computing	Technology	Computer architecture concepts	null	vital_articles
As of October 2016, over 4 million machines running the open-source Berkeley Open Infrastructure for Network Computing (BOINC) platform are members of the World Community Grid. One of the projects using BOINC is SETI@home, which was using more than 400,000 computers to achieve 0.828 TFLOPS as of October 2016. As of Oct...	Grid computing	Wikipedia	333	49373	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grid%20computing	Technology	Computer architecture concepts	null	vital_articles
The Enabling Grids for E-sciencE project, based in the European Union and included sites in Asia and the United States, was a follow-up project to the European DataGrid (EDG) and evolved into the European Grid Infrastructure. This, along with the Worldwide LHC Computing Grid (WLCG), was developed to support experiments...	Grid computing	Wikipedia	292	49373	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grid%20computing	Technology	Computer architecture concepts	null	vital_articles
Definitions Today there are many definitions of grid computing: In his article “What is the Grid? A Three Point Checklist”, Ian Foster lists these primary attributes: Computing resources are not administered centrally. Open standards are used. Nontrivial quality of service is achieved. Plaszczak/Wellner define grid te...	Grid computing	Wikipedia	295	49373	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grid%20computing	Technology	Computer architecture concepts	null	vital_articles
The larynx (), commonly called the voice box, is an organ in the top of the neck involved in breathing, producing sound and protecting the trachea against food aspiration. The opening of larynx into pharynx known as the laryngeal inlet is about 4–5 centimeters in diameter. The larynx houses the vocal cords, and manipul...	Larynx	Wikipedia	510	49375	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Larynx	Biology and health sciences	Respiratory system	Biology	vital_articles
Location In adult humans, the larynx is found in the anterior neck at the level of the cervical vertebrae C3–C6. It connects the inferior part of the pharynx (hypopharynx) with the trachea. The laryngeal skeleton consists of nine cartilages: three single (epiglottic, thyroid and cricoid) and three paired (arytenoid, co...	Larynx	Wikipedia	209	49375	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Larynx	Biology and health sciences	Respiratory system	Biology	vital_articles
Unpaired cartilages: Thyroid cartilage: This forms the Adam's apple (also called the laryngeal prominence). It is usually larger in males than in females. The thyrohyoid membrane is a ligament associated with the thyroid cartilage that connects it with the hyoid bone. It supports the front portion of the larynx. Cri...	Larynx	Wikipedia	407	49375	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Larynx	Biology and health sciences	Respiratory system	Biology	vital_articles
The intrinsic muscles are divided into respiratory and the phonatory muscles (the muscles of phonation). The respiratory muscles move the vocal cords apart and serve breathing. The phonatory muscles move the vocal cords together and serve the production of voice. The main respiratory muscles are the posterior cricoaryt...	Larynx	Wikipedia	425	49375	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Larynx	Biology and health sciences	Respiratory system	Biology	vital_articles
Additionally, intrinsic laryngeal muscles present a constitutive Ca2+-buffering profile that predicts their better ability to handle calcium changes in comparison to other muscles. This profile is in agreement with their function as very fast muscles with a well-developed capacity for prolonged work. Studies suggests t...	Larynx	Wikipedia	404	49375	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Larynx	Biology and health sciences	Respiratory system	Biology	vital_articles
Nerve supply The larynx is innervated by branches of the vagus nerve on each side. Sensory innervation to the glottis and laryngeal vestibule is by the internal branch of the superior laryngeal nerve. The external branch of the superior laryngeal nerve innervates the cricothyroid muscle. Motor innervation to all other...	Larynx	Wikipedia	512	49375	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Larynx	Biology and health sciences	Respiratory system	Biology	vital_articles
Manipulation of the larynx is used to generate a source sound with a particular fundamental frequency, or pitch. This source sound is altered as it travels through the vocal tract, configured differently based on the position of the tongue, lips, mouth, and pharynx. The process of altering a source sound as it passes...	Larynx	Wikipedia	451	49375	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Larynx	Biology and health sciences	Respiratory system	Biology	vital_articles
The most important role of the larynx is its protective function, the prevention of foreign objects from entering the lungs by coughing and other reflexive actions. A cough is initiated by a deep inhalation through the vocal cords, followed by the elevation of the larynx and the tight adduction (closing) of the vocal ...	Larynx	Wikipedia	499	49375	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Larynx	Biology and health sciences	Respiratory system	Biology	vital_articles
Disorders There are several things that can cause a larynx to not function properly. Some symptoms are hoarseness, loss of voice, pain in the throat or ears, and breathing difficulties. Acute laryngitis is the sudden inflammation and swelling of the larynx. It is caused by the common cold or by excessive shouting. It...	Larynx	Wikipedia	465	49375	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Larynx	Biology and health sciences	Respiratory system	Biology	vital_articles
Duchenne muscular dystrophy, intrinsic laryngeal muscles (ILM) are spared from the lack of dystrophin and may serve as a useful model to study the mechanisms of muscle sparing in neuromuscular diseases. Dystrophic ILM presented a significant increase in the expression of calcium-binding proteins. The increase of calciu...	Larynx	Wikipedia	127	49375	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Larynx	Biology and health sciences	Respiratory system	Biology	vital_articles
Treatments Patients who have lost the use of their larynx are typically prescribed the use of an electrolarynx device. Larynx transplants are a rare procedure. The world's first successful operation took place in 1998 at the Cleveland Clinic, and the second took place in October 2010 at the University of California ...	Larynx	Wikipedia	435	49375	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Larynx	Biology and health sciences	Respiratory system	Biology	vital_articles
Non-mammals Most tetrapod species possess a larynx, but its structure is typically simpler than that found in mammals. The cartilages surrounding the larynx are apparently a remnant of the original gill arches in fish, and are a common feature, but not all are always present. For example, the thyroid cartilage is found...	Larynx	Wikipedia	354	49375	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Larynx	Biology and health sciences	Respiratory system	Biology	vital_articles
Deep Blue was a chess-playing expert system run on a unique purpose-built IBM supercomputer. It was the first computer to win a game, and the first to win a match, against a reigning world champion under regular time controls. Development began in 1985 at Carnegie Mellon University under the name ChipTest. It then move...	Deep Blue (chess computer)	Wikipedia	463	49387	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deep%20Blue%20%28chess%20computer%29	Technology	Specific hardware	null	vital_articles
Today, one of the two racks that made up Deep Blue is held by the National Museum of American History, having previously been displayed in an exhibit about the Information Age, while the other rack was acquired by the Computer History Museum in 1997, and is displayed in the Revolution exhibit's "Artificial Intelligence...	Deep Blue (chess computer)	Wikipedia	454	49387	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deep%20Blue%20%28chess%20computer%29	Technology	Specific hardware	null	vital_articles
After his loss, Kasparov said that he sometimes saw unusual creativity in the machine's moves, suggesting that during the second game, human chess players had intervened on behalf of the machine. IBM denied this, saying the only human intervention occurred between games. Kasparov demanded a rematch, but IBM had dismant...	Deep Blue (chess computer)	Wikipedia	449	49387	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deep%20Blue%20%28chess%20computer%29	Technology	Specific hardware	null	vital_articles
Computer science Computer scientists such as Deep Blue developer Campbell believed that playing chess was a good measurement for the effectiveness of artificial intelligence, and by beating a world champion chess player, IBM showed that they had made significant progress. Deep Blue is also responsible for the popularit...	Deep Blue (chess computer)	Wikipedia	424	49387	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deep%20Blue%20%28chess%20computer%29	Technology	Specific hardware	null	vital_articles
Before the second match, the program's rules were fine-tuned by grandmaster Joel Benjamin. The opening library was provided by grandmasters Miguel Illescas, John Fedorowicz, and Nick de Firmian. When Kasparov requested that he be allowed to study other games that Deep Blue had played so as to better understand his oppo...	Deep Blue (chess computer)	Wikipedia	327	49387	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deep%20Blue%20%28chess%20computer%29	Technology	Specific hardware	null	vital_articles
A window is an opening in a wall, door, roof, or vehicle that allows the exchange of light and may also allow the passage of sound and sometimes air. Modern windows are usually glazed or covered in some other transparent or translucent material, a sash set in a frame in the opening; the sash and frame are also referred...	Window	Wikipedia	383	49400	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Window	Technology	Architectural elements	null	vital_articles
Window is first recorded in the early 13th century, and originally referred to an unglazed hole in a roof. Window replaced the Old English , which literally means 'eye-hole', and 'eye-door'. Many Germanic languages, however, adopted the Latin word to describe a window with glass, such as standard Swedish , or German ...	Window	Wikipedia	291	49400	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Window	Technology	Architectural elements	null	vital_articles
Technologies In the 13th century BC, the earliest windows were unglazed openings in a roof to admit light during the day. Later, windows were covered with animal hide, cloth, or wood. Shutters that could be opened and closed came next. Over time, windows were built that both protected the inhabitants from the elements...	Window	Wikipedia	491	49400	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Window	Technology	Architectural elements	null	vital_articles
Peter Smith discusses overall trends in early-modern rural Welsh window architecture: Up to about 1680 windows tended to be horizontal in proportion, a shape suitable for lighting the low-ceilinged rooms that had resulted from the insertion of the upper floor into the hall-house. After that date vertically proportioned...	Window	Wikipedia	488	49400	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Window	Technology	Architectural elements	null	vital_articles
Double-hung sash A sash window is the traditional style of window in the United Kingdom, and many other places that were formerly colonized by the UK, with two parts (sashes) that overlap slightly and slide up and down inside the frame. The two parts are not necessarily the same size; where the upper sash is smaller (...	Window	Wikipedia	398	49400	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Window	Technology	Architectural elements	null	vital_articles
A casement window is a window with a hinged sash that swings in or out like a door comprising either a side-hung, top-hung (also called "awning window"; see below), or occasionally bottom-hung sash or a combination of these types, sometimes with fixed panels on one or more sides of the sash. In the US, these are usuall...	Window	Wikipedia	438	49400	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Window	Technology	Architectural elements	null	vital_articles
Tilt and turn A tilt and turn window can both tilt inwards at the top or open inwards from hinges at the side. This is the most common type of window in Germany, its country of origin. It is also widespread in many other European countries. In Europe, it is usual for these to be of the "turn first" type. i.e. when the...	Window	Wikipedia	492	49400	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Window	Technology	Architectural elements	null	vital_articles
An oriel window is a form of bay window. This form most often appears in Tudor-style houses and monasteries. It projects from the wall and does not extend to the ground. Originally a form of porch, they are often supported by brackets or corbels. Thermal Thermal, or Diocletian, windows are large semicircular windows...	Window	Wikipedia	419	49400	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Window	Technology	Architectural elements	null	vital_articles
French A French door has two rows of upright rectangular glass panes (lights) extending its full length; and two of these doors on an exterior wall and without a mullion separating them, that open outward with opposing hinges to a terrace or porch, are referred to as a French window. Sometimes these are set in pairs o...	Window	Wikipedia	455	49400	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Window	Technology	Architectural elements	null	vital_articles
Light, or Lite, is the area between the outer parts of a window (transom, sill and jambs), usually filled with a glass pane. Multiple panes are divided by mullions when load-bearing, muntins when not. Lattice light is a compound window pane madeup of small pieces of glass held together in a lattice. Fixed window is a...	Window	Wikipedia	444	49400	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Window	Technology	Architectural elements	null	vital_articles
Labeling The United States NFRC Window Label lists the following terms: Thermal transmittance (U-factor), best values are around U-0.15 (equal to 0.8 W/m2/K) Solar heat gain coefficient (SHGC), ratio of solar heat (infrared) passing through the glass to incident solar heat Visible transmittance (VT), ratio of trans...	Window	Wikipedia	474	49400	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Window	Technology	Architectural elements	null	vital_articles
Low-emissivity coated panes reduce heat transfer by radiation, which, depending on which surface is coated, helps prevent heat loss (in cold climates) or heat gains (in warm climates). High thermal resistance can be obtained by evacuating or filling the insulated glazing units with gases such as argon or krypton, whic...	Window	Wikipedia	461	49400	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Window	Technology	Architectural elements	null	vital_articles
An alternative method is to calculate an optimum window mounting angle that accounts for summer sun load minimization, with consideration of actual latitude of the building. This process has been implemented, for example, in the Dakin Building in Brisbane, California—in which most of the fenestration is designed to ref...	Window	Wikipedia	324	49400	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Window	Technology	Architectural elements	null	vital_articles
A sex-determination system is a biological system that determines the development of sexual characteristics in an organism. Most organisms that create their offspring using sexual reproduction have two common sexes, males and females, and in other species, there are hermaphrodites, organisms that can function reproduct...	Sex-determination system	Wikipedia	510	49414	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sex-determination%20system	Biology and health sciences	Genetics	Biology	vital_articles
In 1917, C.E. Allen, discovered sex determination mechanisms in plants. In 1922, C.B. Bridges, put forth the Genic Balance Theory of sex determination. Chromosomal systems Among animals, the most common chromosomal sex determination systems are XY, XO, ZW, ZO, but with numerous exceptions. According to the Tree of S...	Sex-determination system	Wikipedia	383	49414	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sex-determination%20system	Biology and health sciences	Genetics	Biology	vital_articles
In Y-centered sex determination, the SRY gene is the main gene in determining male characteristics, but multiple genes are required to develop testes. In XY mice, lack of the gene DAX1 on the X chromosome results in sterility, but in humans it causes adrenal hypoplasia congenita. However, when an extra DAX1 gene is pla...	Sex-determination system	Wikipedia	468	49414	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sex-determination%20system	Biology and health sciences	Genetics	Biology	vital_articles
Although it is an XY system, the platypus' sex chromosomes share no homologues with eutherian sex chromosomes. Instead, homologues with eutherian sex chromosomes lie on the platypus chromosome 6, which means that the eutherian sex chromosomes were autosomes at the time that the monotremes diverged from the therian mamm...	Sex-determination system	Wikipedia	460	49414	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sex-determination%20system	Biology and health sciences	Genetics	Biology	vital_articles

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