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55,878,329 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epichlo%C3%AB%20festucae | Epichloë festucae is a systemic and seed-transmissible endophytic fungus of cool season grasses.
First described in 1994, Epichloë festucae is a sister lineage to Epichloë amarillans, Epichloë baconii, Epichloë mollis and Epichloë stromatolonga. Epichloë festucae is found across North America, where it lives in the grass species Bromus kalmii and Elymus spp. (including Elymus patula).
Genome
The complete genome sequence of Epichloë festucae, the first complete genome sequence of any species in the genus Epichloë, was reported in 2018. The 35 Mb genome comprises 7 chromosomes, ranging from 3.2 to 7.8 Mb, including approximately 9,000 genes.
Centromeres
, although some centromere sequence data is available, full annotation of all open reading frames is not. As a result a full taxonomic analysis is still not possible.
Varieties
Epichloë festucae strains can have both a sexual reproductive morph (teleomorph) and an asexual reproductive morph (anamorph). For this group, the anamorph forms were long classified separately: initially in the genus Acremonium, and after 1996, in the new genus Neotyphodium. Since 2011, the nomenclatural code has required that a single name be used for all stages of development of a fungal species, and following a taxonomic revision of the genus Epichloë in 2014, the asexual forms of Epichloë festucae are now classified as Epichloë festucae var. lolii.
Found across Europe, Asia and North Africa, and introduced in New Zealand, Australia and elsewhere, Epichloë festucae var. lolii is associated with the grass species Lolium perenne subsp. perenne.
References
festucae
Fungi described in 1994
Fungi of North America
Fungus species | Epichloë festucae | [
"Biology"
] | 406 | [
"Fungi",
"Fungus species"
] |
55,878,416 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epichlo%C3%AB%20hybrida | Epichloë hybrida is a systemic, asexual and seed-transmissible endophyte of perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.) within the genus Epichloë. An interspecies allopolyploid of two haploid parent species Epichloë typhina and Epichloë festucae var. lolii (previously classified as Neotyphodium lolii), E. hybrida was first identified in 1989, recognized as an interspecific hybrid in 1994, but only formally named in 2017. Previously this species was often informally called Epichloë typhina x Epichloë festucae var. lolii, or referenced by the identifier of its most well-studied strain, Lp1. Epichloë hybrida is a symbiont of perennial ryegrass where its presence is almost entirely asymptomatic. The species has been commercialized for the benefits of its anti-insect compounds in a pasture setting, although it is now more commonly used as an experimental model system for studying interspecific hybridization in fungi.
The type specimen of E. hybrida is held in the American Type Culture Collection under holotype accession number TSD-66.
Hybrid status
The genus Epichloë is characterized by the frequent formation of interspecific, typically asexual, allopolyploid species that are commonly referred to as hybrids. Haploid, sexual Epichloë species usually carry only one homeolog ('gene copy') at a given genetic locus, but interspecific hybrids were originally identified by the presence of two or three homeologs, indicating their origin from two or three different parent species. As of 2016, Epichloë had the most known interspecific hybrids of any fungal genus. Epichloë hybrida was one of the first Epichloë hybrids identified. Although the date of the hybridization event is not known with any certainty, an upper bound of ~300,000 years has been estimated.
The colony morphology of E. hybrida Lp1 is a compact form with wavy edges, in contrast to the morphology of either parent. Conidia stained with DAPI, which binds to DNA, show only a single nucleus, confirming that E. hybrida is mononucleate and not simply an interspecies dikaryon.
Uniparental inheritance of mtDNA and rDNA
With few exceptions, the full complement of nuclear genes appear to be inherited and retained from both parent species. In contrast, the mitochondrial DNA of E. hybrida is derived only from E. festucae var. lolii, while the ribosomal DNA only exists as the E. typhina rDNA sequence type, with the other parental type likely lost through concerted evolution.
In consequence, the ribosomes of E. hybrida likely consist of E. typhina rRNA, but a mix of E. festucae var. lolii and E. typhina ribosomal proteins. Although the presence of divergently evolved ribosomal proteins might be expected to create poorly functioning ribosomes, most E. festucae var. lolii and E. typhina ribosomal protein genes have similar expression levels. It therefore appears that the gene expression of E. festucae var. lolii ribosomal proteins has not been suppressed despite the potential for ribosomal incompatibilities.
History
Epichloë hybrida was first isolated from perennial ryegrass seeds collected as part of a national breeding program funded by the French Ministry of Agriculture in the early 1980s. Run by Gilles Charmet and François Balfourier at the National Institute of Agricultural Research (INRA) in Clermont-Ferrand, 547 natural ryegrass populations were sampled across France by INRA researchers and a national team of ten private breeders. A core collection of 110 accessions, including the E. hybrida source population, was transferred to INRA Lusignan in 2000, where it now forms the basis of the modern French perennial ryegrass breeding program.
Accession F187 was collected in the summer of 1983 by Joël Meunier, an employee of the French breeding company Maïsadour , and as of 2016 was entered into the INRA collection under accession number #010204. The collection site was a natural meadow near the village of Bidache in the French administrative department of Pyrénées Atlantiques in southwestern France. Less than 30 km from the Atlantic coast and under 100 m in altitude, this area has hot summers and mild winters, and is very wet with substantial rainfall throughout the year.
In the late 1980s, the INRA collection was shared with Sydney Easton, a plant breeder in what was then the New Zealand Department of Scientific and Industrial Research (DSIR), and this New Zealand branch of the collection is now housed in the Margot Forde Germplasm Centre at the AgResearch Crown Research Institute. Accession F187 was recoded as accession A6056 at that time.
An endophyte program aimed at systematically isolating agriculturally promising Epichloë strains from this and other ryegrass seed collections was undertaken by Garrick Latch in the late 1980s/early 1990s. A ryegrass seedling from the INRA F187 seed lot was recognized as producing desirable anti-insect compounds. Originally called 187BB, E. hybrida Lp1 was identified in 1989 as the twenty-eighth isolate obtained from the seed batch. This isolate was placed within a group of Epichloë strains known as Lolium perenne Taxonomic Group 2, LpTG-2, which the formal E. hybrida species definition is now expected to encompass.
References
hybrida
Fungi described in 2017
Fungi of Europe
Fungus species | Epichloë hybrida | [
"Biology"
] | 1,182 | [
"Fungi",
"Fungus species"
] |
55,878,792 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lajos%20Hanzo | Lajos Hanzo FREng is an electronics engineer, Professor, and Chair of Telecommunications at the University of Southampton, and also a former Editor-in-Chief of IEEE Press.
Education
Lajos was born in Hungary and studied at the Technical University of Budapest, graduating with his master's degree in Electronics in 1976 and his Ph.D. in 1983. In 1980–81, he conducted research at the University of Erlangen–Nuremberg, Germany. He then returned to Hungary and, in 1986, moved to University of Southampton, UK.
Career
In 1987, he was appointed as a Lecturer (Assistant Professor) at the University of Southampton and, in 1998, he was appointed to the Chair of Telecommunications. In 2004, he received his Doctor of Science degree for his thesis based on 11 research monographs and 70 journal papers.
Lajos is a prolific educator and researcher. He has published 2000+ technical papers at IEEE Xplore and co-authored 19 John Wiley - IEEE Press research monographs. His research include multiple-input and multiple-output (MIMO) systems, orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing (OFDM), visible light communication (VLC), turbo coding, and quantum communications conceived for flawless tele-presence.
He is the holder of two consecutive European Research Council (ERC) Advanced Grants stretching over the past decade.
He has served several terms on the Board of Vehicular Technology Society (VTS) Governors of the IEEE. He is also a frequent keynote speaker at IEEE conferences.
Awards
Lajos was elected a Fellow of the Royal Academy of Engineering in 2004. He received the Sir Monty Finniston Award (IET Achievement Medals) in 2008. He is a Fellow of IEEE (2004) for contributions to adaptive wireless communication systems, Fellow of IET, and Fellow of EURASIP (2011). He received Honorary Doctorates from the Technical University of Budapest in 2009 and from the University of Edinburgh in 2015. In 2016, he was elected as a Foreign Member of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences. In 2022, he was bestowed upon the IEEE Eric E. Sumner Award for seminal contributions to adaptive
wireless communications.
Books and Publications
Lajos has co-authored 19 books related to generations of wireless communications standards, flawless voice- and video-compression, turbo coding, multi-carrier code-division multiple access (MC-CDMA), OFDM, MIMO systems, just to name a few. He has published 2000+ technical papers at IEEE Xplore. He is an ISI highly cited researcher.
References
External links
Living people
British electronics engineers
Fellows of the Institution of Engineering and Technology
Fellows of the Royal Academy of Engineering
Academics of the University of Southampton
Year of birth missing (living people)
Hungarian engineers | Lajos Hanzo | [
"Engineering"
] | 554 | [
"Institution of Engineering and Technology",
"Fellows of the Institution of Engineering and Technology"
] |
55,878,980 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strength%20of%20glass | Glass typically has a tensile strength of . However, the theoretical upper bound on its strength is orders of magnitude higher: . This high value is due to the strong chemical Si–O bonds of silicon dioxide. Imperfections of the glass, such as bubbles, and in particular surface flaws, such as scratches, have a great effect on the strength of glass and decrease it even more than for other brittle materials. The chemical composition of the glass also impacts its tensile strength. The processes of thermal and chemical toughening can increase the tensile strength of glass.
Glass has a compressive strength of .
Strength of glass fiber
Glass fibers have a much higher tensile strength than regular glass (200-500 times stronger than regular glass). This is due to the reduction of flaws in glass fibers and the small cross sectional area of glass fibers, constraining maximum defect size.
Strength of fiberglass
Fiberglass's strength depends on the type. S-glass has a strength of while E-glass and C-glass have a strength of .
Hardness
Glass has a hardness of 6.5 on the Mohs scale of mineral hardness.
References
Glass physics | Strength of glass | [
"Physics",
"Materials_science",
"Engineering"
] | 232 | [
"Glass engineering and science",
"Glass physics",
"Condensed matter physics"
] |
55,879,362 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molybdocene%20dihydride | Molybdocene dihydride is the organomolybdenum compound with the formula (η5-C5H5)2MoH2. Commonly abbreviated as Cp2MoH2, it is a yellow air-sensitive solid that dissolves in some organic solvents.
The compound is prepared by combining molybdenum pentachloride, sodium cyclopentadienide, and sodium borohydride. The dihydride converts to molybdocene dichloride upon treatment with chloroform.
The compound adopts a "clamshell" structure where the Cp rings are not parallel.
References
Hydrido complexes
Metallocenes
Organomolybdenum compounds
Cyclopentadienyl complexes
Molybdenum(IV) compounds | Molybdocene dihydride | [
"Chemistry"
] | 173 | [
"Organometallic chemistry",
"Cyclopentadienyl complexes"
] |
55,881,058 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gabrielle%20Donnay | Gabrielle Donnay, née Hamburger (21 March 1920 – 4 April 1987), was a German-born American crystallographer and historian of science.
Life
Gabrielle Donnay was born in Landeshut, Germany (now Kamienna Góra, Poland) on 21 March 1920 and emigrated to the United States in 1937. She received her B.A. from UCLA with highest honors in chemistry in 1941 and was awarded her Ph.D in 1949 from MIT. She was a postdoctoral fellow at Johns Hopkins University from 1949-1950. In 1949, she met and married Joseph (Jose) Donnay, a professor of crystallography and mineralogy at Johns Hopkins University. In 1950, she joined the staff of the Geophysical Laboratory at the Carnegie Institution of Washington, where she worked until 1969. She had concurrent position at the U.S. Geological Survey from 1952-1955. She was a professor in crystallography at McGill University in Montreal from 1970 to 1981. She died on 4 April 1987 near Mont St-Hilaire, Quebec.
Activities and Achievements
Her interest in tourmaline turned out to be a career long interest. Her paper, co-authored with M.J. Buerger, The Determination of the Crystal Structure of Tourmaline led to 13 more papers on the same topic, including a definitive 1977 paper on the structural mechanism of pyroelectricity in tourmaline.
She and her husband frequently collaborated and they published two editions of "Crystal Data" in 1954 and 1963 to compile the research of all crystallographers. Her area of expertise was in crystal chemistry and structural crystallography. She published more than 134 papers in her lifetime, almost half of which were collaborative projects with her husband.
Donnay published Laboratory Manual in Crystallography based on her classes at McGill University. She also published Women in the Geological Sciences in Canada in an effort correct the injustices that she experienced in the male-dominated field of geology. She was awarded the Past Presidents’ Medal of the Mineralogical Association of Canada in 1983. She was the first women named to the John Hopkins Society of Scholar. The mineral donnayite is named after her and Jose Donnay and the mineral species Gaidonnayite is named after her.
References
1920 births
1987 deaths
University of California, Los Angeles alumni
Massachusetts Institute of Technology alumni
Academic staff of McGill University
Emigrants from Nazi Germany to the United States
Johns Hopkins University faculty
American expatriates in Canada
Mineralogists
Geologists
Crystallographers | Gabrielle Donnay | [
"Chemistry",
"Materials_science"
] | 509 | [
"Crystallographers",
"Crystallography"
] |
55,882,165 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miamiensis%20avidus | Miamiensis avidus is a species of unicellular marine eukaryote that is a parasite of many different types of fish. It is one of several organisms known to cause the fish disease scuticociliatosis and is considered an economically significant pathogen of farmed fish. M. avidus is believed to be the cause of a 2017 die-off of fish and sharks in the San Francisco Bay.
Taxonomy
M. avidus is a scuticociliate first described in 1964. It was discovered during a study originally aimed at investigating viruses of marine mammals, and was isolated from the bodies of seahorses collected from waters near Miami, Florida. The name of the genus refers to the University of Miami, where the first studies of the ciliate were performed, and the specific name avidus refers to its "greedy feeding habits".
The name Philasterides dicentrarchi was originally applied to a similar ciliate identified as an infectious parasite in Mediterranean sea bass, but is now recognized as a junior synonym of M. avidus. However, a recent study suggests they may in fact be distinct species. The molecular phylogeny of scuticociliates is an active area of research.
Morphology
M. avidus cells are oval-shaped with a relatively pointed anterior end and a contractile vacuole toward the rounded posterior end of the cell. The cells feature several kineties, or rows of cilia along the major axis of the cell body, and a single caudal cilium. Descriptions vary on the number of kineties per cell, from as few as 10 to as many as 14. Each cell possesses one macronucleus and one micronucleus. The original 1964 description emphasized the significance of the morphology of the buccal apparatus and specialized oral cilia in differentiating among related ciliates. Descriptions of these features differ subtly among one another and may differentiate M. avidus from closely related species. The life cycle of M. avidus has been described and includes at least 3 stages: 1) Microstome, which mainly feeds on bacteria; 2) Macrostome, a voracious stage with a larger oral cavity which feeds on host tissues or other protozoans; and 3) tomite, a non-feeding, starvation-induced, smaller, dispersal stage. The intricate sequence in the morphological microstome to macrostome transformation of M. avidus has been described.
Ecological significance
Scuticociliates are free-living marine microorganisms that can function as opportunistic or facultative parasites. M. avidus infects a broad range of teleost species, as well as other groups of marine organisms such as seahorses, sharks, and crustaceans. It is one of the best characterized of the group of scuticoliciates known to cause the fish disease scuticociliatosis, in which histophagous (tissue-eating) ciliates consume the blood, skin, and eventually internal organs of infected fish. The disease has an especially high mortality rate among flatfish, possibly due to their sedentary lifestyle involving high levels of skin contact between individuals. In one comparative study, M. avidus infections spread further within host fish and had a significantly higher mortality rate than did similar scuticociliates. Infections caused by M. avidus have been described in wild fish populations and in aquaculture, where it is an economically significant pathogen. The species is believed to be responsible for a widely reported 2017 scuticociliatosis outbreak on the coast of Northern California, which saw thousands of dead fish and leopard sharks found in the San Francisco Bay.
It is unclear what triggers free-living M. avidus to initiate infection. Experimental infections under laboratory conditions have produced varying results on the mechanism of infection; results in different conditions and with different host species vary in whether free-living ciliates can infect healthy fish or require an abraded or damaged skin surface. Protease enzymes are commonly expressed by infectious parasites that damage host tissue, and are believed to play a role in M. avidus infections. Transformation in M. avidus has been shown to be induced by a prey derived soluble factor, although its exact identity is unknown.
References
Philasterida
Ciliate species
Parasitic eukaryotes
Parasites of fish | Miamiensis avidus | [
"Biology"
] | 897 | [
"Parasitic eukaryotes",
"Eukaryotes"
] |
55,883,075 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NGC%201989 | NGC 1989 (also known as ESO 423-21) is a lenticular galaxy in the Columba constellation. It is about 482 million light-years away from the Milky Way. The galaxy was discovered by John Herschel on January 28, 1835. Its apparent magnitude is 12.9 and its size is 1.40 by 1.1 arc minutes.
References
External links
Lenticular galaxies
423-21
-05-14-04
1989
017464
Columba (constellation)
Astronomical objects discovered in 1835
Discoveries by John Herschel | NGC 1989 | [
"Astronomy"
] | 114 | [
"Columba (constellation)",
"Constellations"
] |
55,883,279 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NGC%201988 | NGC 1988 is a star which is located in the Taurus constellation. It was recorded by Jean Chacornac on October 19, 1855.
References
1988
Stars
Taurus (constellation)
18551019 | NGC 1988 | [
"Astronomy"
] | 41 | [
"Astronomical objects",
"Taurus (constellation)",
"Stars",
"Constellations"
] |
55,883,680 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NGC%201986 | NGC 1986 (also known as ESO 56-SC134) is an open cluster which is located in the Mensa constellation which is part of the Large Magellanic Cloud. It was discovered by James Dunlop on September 27, 1826. It has an apparent magnitude of 11.31 and its size is 2.80 by 2.40 arc minutes.
References
Open clusters
56-SC134
1986
Mensa (constellation)
Large Magellanic Cloud
Astronomical objects discovered in 1826
Discoveries by James Dunlop | NGC 1986 | [
"Astronomy"
] | 102 | [
"Mensa (constellation)",
"Constellations"
] |
55,883,960 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NGC%201985 | NGC 1985 (also known as 2MASS J05374779+3159200) is a small, bright reflection nebula located in the constellation Auriga. It was discovered by William Herschel on December 13, 1790. It has an apparent magnitude of 12.8 and its size is .
References
reflection nebulae
2MASS J05374779+3159200
1985
Auriga
Astronomical objects discovered in 1790
Discoveries by William Herschel | NGC 1985 | [
"Astronomy"
] | 97 | [
"Nebula stubs",
"Auriga",
"Astronomy stubs",
"Constellations"
] |
67,159,816 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osserman%E2%80%93Xavier%E2%80%93Fujimoto%20theorem | In the mathematical field of differential geometry, the Osserman–Xavier–Fujimoto theorem concerns the Gauss maps of minimal surfaces in the three-dimensional Euclidean space. It says that if a minimal surface is immersed and geodesically complete, then the image of the Gauss map either consists of a single point (so that the surface is a plane) or contains all of the sphere except for at most four points.
Bernstein's theorem says that a minimal graph in which is geodesically complete must be a plane. This can be rephrased to say that the Gauss map of a complete immersed minimal surface in is either constant or not contained within an open hemisphere. As conjectured by Louis Nirenberg and proved by Robert Osserman in 1959, in this form Bernstein's theorem can be generalized to say that the image of the Gauss map of a complete immersed minimal surface in either consists of a single point or is dense within the sphere.
Osserman's theorem was improved by Frederico Xavier and Hirotaka Fujimoto in the 1980s. They proved that if the image of the Gauss map of a complete immersed minimal surface in omits more than four points of the sphere, then the surface is a plane. This is optimal, since it was shown by Konrad Voss in the 1960s that for any subset of the sphere whose complement consists of zero, one, two, three, or four points, there exists a complete immersed minimal surface in whose Gauss map has image . Particular examples include Riemann's minimal surface, whose Gauss map is surjective, the Enneper surface, whose Gauss map omits one point, the catenoid and helicoid, whose Gauss maps omit two points, and Scherk's first surface, whose Gauss map omits four points.
It is also possible to study the Gauss map of minimal surfaces of higher codimension in higher-dimensional Euclidean spaces. There are a number of variants of the results of Osserman, Xavier, and Fujimoto which can be studied in this setting.
References
Sources
External links
Weisstein, Eric W. "Nirenberg's Conjecture." From MathWorld–A Wolfram Web Resource.
Theorems in differential geometry
Conjectures that have been proved | Osserman–Xavier–Fujimoto theorem | [
"Mathematics"
] | 469 | [
"Theorems in differential geometry",
"Geometry stubs",
"Conjectures that have been proved",
"Geometry",
"Theorems in geometry",
"Mathematical problems",
"Mathematical theorems"
] |
67,160,105 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dungey%20Cycle | The Dungey cycle, officially proposed by James Dungey in 1961, is a phenomenon that explains interactions between a planet's magnetosphere and solar wind. Dungey originally proposed a cyclic behavior of magnetic reconnection between Earth's magnetosphere and flux of solar wind. This reconnection explained previously observed dynamics within Earth's magnetosphere. The rate of reconnection in the beginning of the cycle is dependent on the orientation of the interplanetary magnetic field as well as the resultant plasma conditions at the site of reconnection. On Earth, the reconnection cycle takes around 1 hour, but this differs from planet to planet.
Cyclic Behavior
The Dungey cycle occurs within three stages:
In the first stage, solar flux and the magnetopause connect, creating an opening in the magnetopause in which the solar wind can enter the magnetosphere. This opening is called the dayside reconnection and occurs on the side of the magnetosphere facing the solar wind source.
In the second stage, the flux travels in the direction of the solar wind across the magnetosphere.
In the third stage, at the magnetotail, reconnection closes the open flux, allowing for a new cycle to begin. This reconnection is called nightside reconnection.
Dungey's proposal originally put forth an explanation that the cycle is at steady state, and that the reconnection during stage one and three are equal. However, later work has found that the rate of reconnection is variable and affected by conditions at both the dayside reconnection site as well as the magnetotail.
Effect of interplanetary magnetic field orientation
The rate of reconnection at the magnetopause is heavily dependent on the orientation of the interplanetary magnetic field. Reconnection at the magnetopause occurs at higher rates when there is a stronger southward component to the field. This allows for solar wind with arbitrarily small shear angles to reconnect at the magnetopause. Under normal circumstances, the difference in field strength between the magnetopause and the surrounding fields only allow for solar winds with large shear angles to reconnect. A strong southward component normalizes the difference in field strength between the magnetopause and surrounding fields.
References
Geomagnetism
Planetary science
Solar phenomena
Space plasmas | Dungey Cycle | [
"Physics",
"Astronomy"
] | 471 | [
"Space plasmas",
"Physical phenomena",
"Astrophysics",
"Planetary science",
"Solar phenomena",
"Stellar phenomena",
"Astronomical sub-disciplines"
] |
67,160,348 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flajolet%20Lecture%20Prize | The Philippe Flajolet Lecture Prize is awarded to for contributions to analytic combinatorics and analysis of algorithms, in the fields of theoretical computer science. This prize is named in memory of Philippe Flajolet.
History
The Flajolet Lecture Prize has been awarded since 2014. The Flajolet Lecture Prize is awarded in odd-numbered years. After being selected for the prize, the recipient delivers the Flajolet Lecture during the following year. This lecture is organized as a keynote address at the International Conference on Probabilistic, Combinatorial and Asymptotic Methods for the Analysis of Algorithms (AofA). AofA is the international conference that began as a series of seminars, started by Flajolet and others in 1993. The Selection Committee consists of three members from this field.
Scientific topics
The recipients of the Flajolet Lecture Prize work in a variety of areas, including
analysis of algorithms,
analytic combinatorics,
combinatorics,
communication protocols,
complex analysis,
computational biology,
data mining,
databases,
graphs,
information theory,
limit distributions,
maps,
trees,
probability,
statistical physics.
In the inaugural lecture, Don Knuth discussed five "Problems That Philippe Would Have Loved". Knuth surveyed five problems, including enumeration of polyominoes, mathematical tiling, tree pruning, lattice paths, and perturbation theory. In particular, he discussed the asymptotic enumeration of polyominoes (see OEIS entry A001168 for context and history). Knuth's discussion of forest pruning caused Peter Luschny to observe a connection to Dyck paths (see OEIS entry A091866). The portion of the talk on Lattice Paths of Slope 2/5 focused on a theorem by Nakamigawa and Tokushige. Knuth made a conjecture about the related enumeration of lattice paths, which was subsequently resolved by Cyril Banderier and Michael Wallner. Knuth's discussion of lattice paths also led to the creation of two new OEIS entries, A322632 and A322633.
The 2016 lecture by Robert Sedgewick focused on a topic dating back to one of Flajolet's earliest papers, on approximate counting methods for streaming data. The talk drew connections between "practical computing" and theoretical computer science. As a key example of these connections, Sedgewick emphasized the way that Flajolet revisited the topic of approximate counting repeatedly during his career, starting with the Flajolet–Martin algorithm for probabilistic counting and leading the introduction of methods for Loglog Counting and HyperLogLog counting. Sedgewick's talk emphasized not only the underlying theory but also the experimental validation of approximate counting, and its modern applications in cloud computing. He also introduced an algorithm called HyperBitBit, which is appropriate in applications which involve small-scale, frequent calculations.
Recipients
See also
List of computer science awards
Notes
References
External links
Analysis of Algorithms international community website
Theoretical computer science
Computer science awards
Science lecture series
Recurring events established in 2014
Computer science education
Biennial events | Flajolet Lecture Prize | [
"Mathematics",
"Technology"
] | 641 | [
"Computer science awards",
"Theoretical computer science",
"Applied mathematics",
"Computer science education",
"Computer science",
"Science and technology awards"
] |
67,161,834 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evermannichthys%20bicolor | Evermannichthys bicolor (bicolored sponge goby) is a perciform species of fish in the family Gobiidae. As their name suggests, fishes in this species live inside sponges and can be found in the Caribbean Sea. The size of their populations are unknown, meaning it is not currently clear whether the bicolored sponge goby is in need of conservation.
Description
Overall, the body of the bicolored sponge goby is elongate and thin. The scale-covering and the number pores on the head is reduced, and generally measures 2 mm dorso-ventrally. Their color is dark across the dorsal-most third of their bodies, the lower two-thirds are pale, and the fins are generally clear. The frenum, which connects the upper lip to the snout is reduced in size, though the upper lip and snout are separated. The tongue has a notched edge.
Distribution and habitat
This species is demersal living between 27 and 30 m below the surface of tropical oceans. It can be found in the western Atlantic Ocean, especially near the island of Navassa, Jamaica, and Curaçao Very little is known about the population numbers and conservation of this species, and it is considered data deficient by the IUCN.
The bicolored sponge goby, as its name implies, lives inside sponges. Specifically, it lives deep within the sponge, near the openings of the in-current canals. The sponges provide protection for the bicolored sponge goby, as well as food, which is transported into the sponge via the in-current canals. It is thought that this species spends its entire life in sponges, and that its eggs either drift into a sponge from open water or are laid directly within a sponge.
Conservation
Bicolored sponge gobies are considered data deficient by the IUCN, meaning that estimations of the total number of individuals and the trend of the population through time is unknown. The species is not used by humans in any way, and no threats to them have been identified. While no specific actions have been taken to conserve this species, many portions of their native range (including their type locality) are protected areas.
References
External links
AQUATAB
Gobiidae
Fish described in 2001
Fish of the Caribbean
Data deficient species | Evermannichthys bicolor | [
"Biology"
] | 473 | [
"Biota by conservation status",
"Data deficient species"
] |
67,161,963 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin%20Giurfa | Martin Giurfa is an Argentinean-French neurobiologist and neuroethologist (born September 1962), member of the German National Academy of Sciences Leopoldina, the Académie royale des sciences, des lettres et des beaux-arts de Belgique, and the Institut Universitaire de France (IUF). He is acknowledged for his work on the neural mechanisms of cognition in invertebrates, which he mostly explores using honeybees as models for understanding basic principles of learning and memory.
Life and career
Early years in South America
Martin Giurfa was born in Lima, Peru, from an Argentinean mother who raised him alone and registered him as an Argentinean citizen. He grew up in Lima where he attended the French School Lycée franco-péruvien and moved to Buenos Aires, Argentina at the end of 1980 to study Biology at the University of Buenos Aires. Argentina was still under control of the military dictatorship (National Reorganization Process) and Martin Giurfa enrolled in the student movement resisting dictatorial oppression. Under the banner of the Partido Intransigente, a left-wing party, he played an influential role in that movement and in 1984, after the return of the democracy to Argentina, he became president of the Student Union of his faculty, the Faculty of Natural and Exact Sciences.
As many students in the Faculty of Exact and Natural Sciences, he benefited then from the return to Argentina of numerous prestigious Argentinean scientists who were in exile during the dictatorship and who participated in the academic reconstruction of the country (see Historia de la ciencia y la tecnología en Argentina). He met Prof. Josué Núñez, who trained him in the field of insect behavioral physiology and contacted him with German academia, in particular with Prof. Randolf Menzel Free University of Berlin, a leading neurobiologist working on color vision, learning and memory in honeybees.
Career in Europe
After obtaining his PhD Degree from the University of Buenos Aires under the supervision of Josué Núñez, he moved to Germany in 1990, to work at the institute of Neurobiology of the Free University of Berlin under the supervision of Prof. Menzel. He was first Fellow of the Deutscher Akademischer Austauschdienst and then Fellow of the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation. His first works focused on color and shape vision in honeybees leading to the discovery of color preferences. and color detection mechanisms by bees.
His work on symmetry categorization by honeybees in 1996 followed by his demonstration of concept learning in bees represented a turning point for the field of insect behavior, as they promoted a novel cognitive perspective to analyze honey bee behavior and decision making. This framework represented conceptual switch for a research domain, which had mostly attributed limited cognitive capacities to insects until then. In 1997, he obtained his Habilitation Degree of the Free University of Berlin and became group leader and assistant professor at the institute of Neurobiology of that University.
In 2001, he moved to Toulouse, France, as a Professor of Neurosciences of Paul Sabatier University. In 2003, he created the Research Center on Animal Cognition, a multidisciplinary research institute depending both on Paul Sabatier University and the French National Centre for Scientific Research, which focuses on the mechanisms of cognitive processing in various animal species and which he directed until 2017. From 2008 to 2012, he was President of the National Committee of Neurosciences of the French National Centre for Scientific Research and served in numerous French and European boards of neurosciences. In 2016, he adopted the French nationality. He has produced significant contributions dissecting the neural mechanisms of learning and memory in bees and other insects.
In 2023, he moved to Paris following an offer to become the director of the Institute of Biology Paris-Seine (IBPS) of Sorbonne University. He is currently and Exceptional-Class Professor of Neurosciences of Sorbonne University and will start his function of IBPS director in 2025.
Giurfa is a recipient of the Silver Medal of the French National Centre for Scientific Research and of an Advanced Fellowship from the European Research Council (ERC). He is also an elected member of the German National Academy of Sciences Leopoldina, the Royal Academies for Science and the Arts of Belgium and a senior member of the Institut Universitaire de France (IUF). In 2013, He was distinguished with the Raices Award of the Argentinean Government. He is an Honors Professor of the University of Buenos Aires and the Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University.
Giurfa has published ca. 200 articles in international scientific journals in the fields of insect cognition, insect neurobiology and insect behavior, many of them being highly cited. He is an Associate Editor of several scientific journals such as EJN, Learning & Memory, Animal Cognition and Frontiers in Behavioral Neurosciences among others. He is a member of Faculty of 1000 and deploys an intensive science dissemination activity to render scientific knowledge accessible to broad audiences. During the COVID-19 pandemics he established a highly attended series of virtual scientific seminars “to provide scientific stimulation and keep morale high in difficult times”.
Research achievements
Martin Giurfa has pioneered the field of insect cognition and has investigated during several decades elemental and non-elemental forms of learning. He adopted conceptual frameworks from experimental psychology and neuroethology to address questions on olfactory learning and memory in honeybees and performed the first experiments showing concept learning in insects trained to solve visual discriminations. He grounded thereby a field he termed “cognitive neuroethology” in which the neural bases of the cognitive capacities of animals are studied in the framework of their natural environment. He has developed his research addressing questions both at the behavioral level, establishing various novel protocols for insect conditioning and at the neural level, using multiple invasive techniques to record neural activity in the bee brain such as calcium imaging recordings, electrophysiology and neuropharmacological interference, among others. His work has led to the establishment of virtual reality scenarios for honey bees in which he studies their visual learning and decision-making. His discoveries have changed the way scientists regard insects and have brought, in particular, wide attraction and respect towards honeybees.
Bibliography
Journal articles: most highly cited
Giurfa M, Eichmann B, Menzel R (1996) Symmetry perception in an insect. Nature 382:458- 461. doi: 10.1038/382458a0.
Giurfa M, Zhang S, Jenett A, Menzel R, Srinivasan MV (2001) The concepts of 'sameness' and 'difference' in an insect. Nature 410(6831):930-933. doi: 10.1038/35073582.
Menzel R, Giurfa M (2001) Cognitive architecture of a mini-brain: the honeybee. Trends in cognitive sciences 5 (2), 62–71. doi: 10.1016/s1364-6613(00)01601-6.
Stach S, Benard J, Giurfa M (2004) Local-feature assembling in visual pattern recognition and generalization in honeybees. Nature 429(6993):758-761. doi: 10.1038/nature02594.
Guerrieri F, Schubert M, Sandoz JC, Giurfa M (2005) Perceptual and neural olfactory similarity in honeybees. PLoS Biology 3(4): e60. doi: 10.1371/journal.pbio.0030060.
Giurfa M (2007) Behavioral and neural analysis of associative learning in the honeybee: a taste from the magic well. Journal of Comparative Physiology A 193 (8), 801–824. doi: 10.1007/s00359-007-0235-9
Giurfa M, Sandoz JC (2012) Invertebrate learning and memory: fifty years of olfactory conditioning of the proboscis extension response in honeybee. Learning & memory 19 (2), 54–66. doi: 10.1101/lm.024711.111.
Devaud JM, Papouin T, Carcaud J, Sandoz JC, Grünewald B, Giurfa M (2015) Neural substrate for higher-order learning in an insect: Mushroom bodies are necessary for configural discriminations. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 112(43):E5854-62. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1508422112.
Giurfa M (2013) Cognition with few neurons: higher-order learning in insects. Trends in Neurosciences 36(5):285-94. doi:10.1016/j.tins.2012.12.011.
Avarguès-Weber A, Combe M, Dyer A, Giurfa M (2012) Simultaneous mastering of two abstract concepts by a miniature brain. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 109:7481- 7486. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1202576109.
Books
Galizia G, Eisenhardt D & Giurfa M. (eds.) 2012. Honeybee Neurobiology and Behavior. Springer, 509pp.
References
External links
Living people
Neuroethology
French neuroscientists
French National Centre for Scientific Research awards
Argentine scientists
University of Buenos Aires alumni
Paul Sabatier University alumni
1962 births
Academic staff of the University of Buenos Aires | Martin Giurfa | [
"Biology"
] | 1,969 | [
"Ethology",
"Behavior",
"Neuroethology"
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67,162,341 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mott%20Bridge | Mott Bridge is a historic timber braced spandrel arch bridge over the North Umpqua River in Douglas County, Oregon, United States. The bridge provides access from Oregon Route 138 to the Mott Trailhead on the North Umpqua Trail.
Constructed from 1935 to 1936 by the Civilian Conservation Corps, the bridge is the only surviving example of three such structures built during the Great Depression in the Pacific Northwest.
The bridge is named after Lawrence Mott (1881-1931), who had a nearby fishing camp by the junction of Steamboat Creek and the North Umpqua River. Prior to the opening of the bridge, guests arriving from the north side of the river rang a bell to call for someone in the camp to row them and their baggage across the river.
Mott Bridge has been designated as an Oregon Historic Civil Engineering Landmark by the American Society of Civil Engineers.
References
External links
Bridges completed in 1936
Bridges in Douglas County, Oregon
Historic Civil Engineering Landmarks
Road bridges in Oregon
Tourist attractions in Douglas County, Oregon
Wooden bridges in Oregon | Mott Bridge | [
"Engineering"
] | 209 | [
"Civil engineering",
"Historic Civil Engineering Landmarks"
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67,162,701 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monument%20to%20the%20heroes%20of%20Puente%20Sampayo | The Monument to the Heroes of Puente Sampayo is a memorial and sculptural group created by the Spanish sculptor Julio González Pola, in Pontevedra, Spain.
It is in the gardens of the Plaza de España and was inaugurated on 27 August 1911. The monument commemorates the courage of the people of Pontevedra led by the officer Pablo Morillo and their triumph over the Napoleonic troops of Marshal Michel Ney, liberating Pontevedra from the occupation of the French army on 7 and 8 June 1809.
History
The Galician parliamentarian Eduardo Vincenti Reguera and the Galician Centre in Madrid were the main actors in the creation of the monument. On 9 February 1909, the Pontevedra City Council agreed to grant a subsidy of 500 pesetas and, later, authorised the contribution of the granite stone that supports the figures. This initiative was also supported by Javier Puig Llamas, mayor of Pontevedra at the time, and Eugenio Montero Ríos, president of the Senate. All these authorities made speeches at the inauguration of the monument on 27 August 1911.
The government of King Alfonso XIII, which donated the bronze needed for the sculpture, also awarded a medal to commemorate the Battle of Puente Sampayo. The contribution of many private individuals to the financing of the monument is also attested to.
The statue was surrounded by a monumental fountain built in 1983, which was removed in 2009 to return the monument and its surroundings to their original spatial design.
Description
This sculptural group belongs to the Spanish commemorative sculpture movement of the early 20th century.
The group is eight metres high. It consists of several bronze figures on a granite pedestal representing a group of farmers, soldiers and students led by officer Pablo Morillo, holding a flag in the final moments of the battle.
In the central part of the monument, a female figure (representing Galicia and the homeland) rests her hand on a shield with the Spanish coat of arms and extends her arm to invite combat. In the upper part, the figure of the officer Pablo Morillo encourages sword fighting. Next to him are a peasant, a student, a soldier and another wounded fighter representing the resistance of the people against the invader. Behind them is the flag and next to it a cannon.
In the corners of the lower part of the monument are the four coats of arms of the Galician provinces. The central granite construction symbolises one of the pillars of the Puente Sampayo bridge, where most of the battle took place and which was destroyed after the battle.
The sculptural group in popular culture
It is considered by the art history professor Francisco Portela Sandoval to be one of the most successful monuments of the time due to its composition and faithful reproduction of the event it aims to immortalise.
Gallery
References
Bibliography
Gallego Esperanza, Mª de las Mercedes, 1996: La Escultura Pública en Pontevedra. Pontevedra, Diputación de Pontevedra, .
Portela Sandoval, José, 1985: Julio González Pola y la escultura conmemorativa española en los albores del siglo XX, Boletín del Museo de Pontevedra.
Taboada, Roberto; Hermida, Arturo, 2009: O monumento ós héroes de Pontesampaio e o seu contorno, Pontevedra, Diputación de Pontevedra, .
See also
Related articles
Plaza de España (Pontevedra)
Alameda de Pontevedra
Battle of Puente Sampayo
External links
on the website Escultura Urbana
on the website Galicia Máxica
Pontevedra
Spanish sculpture
Colossal statues
Bronze sculptures
Outdoor sculptures in Pontevedra
Sculptures in Spain
20th-century sculptures
Tourist attractions in Galicia (Spain)
Monuments and memorials in Pontevedra
Monuments and memorials in Galicia (Spain) | Monument to the heroes of Puente Sampayo | [
"Physics",
"Mathematics"
] | 787 | [
"Quantity",
"Colossal statues",
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67,163,594 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predatory%20advertising | Predatory advertising, or predatory marketing, can be largely understood as the practice of manipulating vulnerable persons such as kids into unfavorable market transactions through the undisclosed exploitation of these vulnerabilities. The vulnerabilities of persons/populations can be hard to determine, especially as they are contextually dependent and may not exist across all circumstances. Commonly exploited vulnerabilities include physical, emotional, social, cognitive, and financial characteristics. Predatory marketing campaigns may also rely on false or misleading messaging to coerce individuals into asymmetrical transactions. The history of the practice has existed as long as general advertising, but particularly egregious forms have accompanied the explosive rise of information technology. Massive data analytics industries have allowed marketers to access previously sparse and inaccessible personal information, leveraging and optimizing it through the use of savvy algorithms. Some common examples today include for-profit college industries, "fringe" financial institutions, political micro-targeting, and elder/child exploitation. Many legal actions have been taken at different levels of government to mitigate the practice, with various levels of success.
Vulnerable populations
Predatory advertising depends, in large part, on the deliberate exploitation of individuals based on specific traits, life circumstances, or membership within certain groups. The "vulnerabilities" created by these characteristics are context-dependent, meaning they vary between markets and transactions. In other words, an individual with some or any of these traits is not rendered universally vulnerable within the marketplace. Furthermore, not all marketing or advertisements targeting these traits are necessarily "predatory," as the condition for the practice relies primarily on the intent of the advertiser. This distinction can be especially opaque given marketing's natural tendency—even within ethical bounds—to identify the "pain points" of potential consumers. Nonetheless, it can be helpful to delineate the most common forms of vulnerability. Some of the most common avenues of exploitation are:
Physical Vulnerability, wherein certain biological or physiological traits render an individual less likely to engage in market transactions from a fair position. Examples of this may include the targeting of overweight individuals with ineffective weight loss supplements, or the advertisement of unregulated "medical" devices to those suffering from degenerative or other painful diseases.
Cognitive Vulnerability, wherein cognitive deficiencies render an individual unable to fully comprehend and process advertising information that may be deceptive or manipulative. Examples of this are not limited to the cognitively disabled, and may include advertising that targets minors or the elderly.
Motivational Vulnerability, wherein certain individual traits or extraordinary personal circumstances may inhibit a person's ability to resist or properly negotiate certain market advances. Examples of this may include the advertisement of price-inflated funeral services to freshly grieving individuals (a practice which has been addressed by the FTC's "Funeral Rule")
Social Vulnerability, wherein the social circumstances of an individual greatly increases their propensity to engage in unfavorable transaction. Examples of this include the marketing of for-profit colleges to combat veterans struggling to find gainful employment.
Emotional Vulnerability, wherein the emotional states of individuals—temporary or persisting—are leveraged by advertisers to sell products that purportedly address these emotional ills. This avenue of exploitation has become especially pertinent as marketer access to data on individual users has become increasingly comprehensive, and algorithms have been able to return relevant advertisements in almost real-time.
Economic Vulnerability, wherein an individual's economic circumstances either limits their ability to engage in alternative market transactions, or increases the chances they will be susceptible to other predatory marketing schemes. Examples of this include the marketing of high-interest payday loans to financially unstable individuals, who may have no other options.
Deception tactics
Many predatory advertisers rely on the use of demonstrably false or otherwise deceitful claims to coerce consumers into market transactions. These can be incredibly hard to classify and regulate as some claims may be true at face-value, but rely on either tactical omissions of information or the contextual circumstances of the individual to draw inferences that may be false. While many of these tactics may be somewhat natural (and accepted) within the advertising industry at-large, they can be predatory if used in certain contexts. Researchers have compiled a general classification of these tactics to better understand how they are used in the marketing landscape.
False statements
These include claims or presentations that are demonstrably false, often statistics or other empirical claims. For example, a for-profit college claims "98% of our graduates find employment within one month of graduation!" when in fact this is untrue.
Omission
Statements made about a product or service which fail to include material information that is relevant to the claim being made. For example, a commercial suggests that "clinical trials have proven the effectiveness of a product" when in fact the clinical trial measured the effectiveness of the product in a different context or metric that the one being advertised.
Implication
Statements that are made which may be true, but which are intended to lead the consumer to reach erroneous inferences. These may capitalize on a lack of information about the product or service, or the contextual environment of the consumer. They can be further classified as:
Ambiguous statements or claims, which utilize unclear language or narratives to suggest product superiority. For example, a claim is made that the product is a much "better" alternative to a similar product, but there is no metric for "better."
Atypical statements or claims, which cite results of product utilization that fall well outside of the normal outcome. For example, a diet pill company claims you can lose up to 30 pounds in one month, when the result is both unusual and/or achieved by other methods.
Conjectural statements or claims, which lack substantive evidence or cannot be made with certainty. For example, a commercial promises a "100% satisfaction guarantee" despite its being impossible to ensure.
Manipulative statements or claims, which cite characteristics of the product or service that may not differentiate it from market standards, but create an illusion of product superiority. For instance, a sugar soda may highlight that it is fat-free, when in fact all sodas contain no fat content.
Accessing personal information
Data collection
The explosive growth of information technologies throughout the 21st century has brought with it entirely new privacy concerns, especially surrounding the collection and usage of personal data. As reliance on digital platforms has become almost necessary for participation in modern life, individuals have been asked to relinquish large amounts of personal information, either through direct submission or by inference from user engagement. Although access to personal information is generally agreed upon by participants, as outlined in end-user permissions agreements, questions of informed consent have brought forth numerous legislative efforts, including propositions to increase clarity in consent forms, as well as efforts to establish clear bounds of data usage.
The commodification of this data, which is highly valued across a number of sectors, has driven the exponential rise of a "data brokering" industry. Barring established industry norms and regulations (some of which can be hard to apply in the digital age), such as those in healthcare, finance, or other similarly protected sectors, data collected by individual entities like
or Facebook, as well as that collected by third party brokerage agencies such as Acxiom, can have a wide range of applications. Though many of these are relatively benign or even positive, often being utilized to tailor personalized user-experiences, the availability of such data to unethical marketers has inflamed problems of predatory advertising.
Data extraction and aggregation occurs over a vast network of platforms and businesses. Much of the information originates from discrete sources, including social media engagement, loyalty programs and purchasing history from online retailers, web browser queries, government records, and mobile application usage and preferences. Information gathered consists of many personal data points, ranging from available payment methods to health conditions. In the case of large technology platforms, especially for whom a large part of the revenue stream is composed of ad sales, this information may often be sold—either directly to advertisers or to third party brokerage firms. These firms specialize in the aggregation and categorization of data from a number of sources, which is then sold on the market to advertisers and other interested parties.
The process of categorization is especially important to understanding the avenues of exploitation made possible by comprehensive data aggregates. A 2013 report by the Federal Trade Commission found that data brokerage companies compiled individuals into groups with labels such as: "Zero Mobility," "Credit Crunched: City Families," "Rural and Barely Making It," "Enduring Hardships," and "Tough Start: Young Single Parents."
Algorithmic targeting
Whereas information pertaining to consumer vulnerabilities has been inferred through proxies for some time, such as the targeting of certain demographics based on specific television viewership, the drastic increase of direct access to information around the individual—especially coupled with methods of direct-to-consumer personalized advertisements—has intensified the accuracy and potency of predatory advertisement campaigns.
This information then allows advertisers to engage in online behavioral targeting, wherein advertisements are delivered to individuals based on personal information previously extracted from various sources. Complex algorithms, coupled with the aggregation of previously discrete data, have allowed advertisers to not only target increasingly precise individual characteristics, but also to draw inferences about individuals based on statistical corollaries requiring massive data sets. One consequence of this is that traditionally protected information, such as health outcomes, race, or private financial histories, can be inferred with greater certainty without ever collecting data on the specific item in question.
Once data has been collected, aggregated, and categorized, the connection between advertiser and consumer can be made. These are often fostered by intermediaries such as DoubleClick, a Google-owned company that offers marketers a wide range of websites to display their advertisements. The use of these intermediaries relieves websites of having to sell individual ad space, allowing algorithms to instead display personalized ads to users based on a complex mix of desirable metrics. This practice has sometimes been called "micro-targeting." While this process optimizes the ability to provide users with an individualized experience, it alleviates much of the culpability traditionally placed on ad-revenue dependent platforms to monitor their ad placements. Furthermore, when the algorithms are built using grouping labels such as those listed in the previous section (i.e. "Burdened by Debt: Singles"), advertisers looking to target and exploit specific characteristics can easily reach the most vulnerable populations.
It's important to note that the use of algorithms may result in such targeted advertisement despite being built without any malicious intent. Those utilizing Machine Learning will "train" themselves to display advertisements that result in user-engagement based on prior interactions, which may reinforce and increase the rate at which vulnerable populations receive advertisements that "speak" to those vulnerabilities.
Common examples
For-profit colleges
The for-profit college industry has faced a number of lawsuits over the last decade, many of which surrounded their engagement in deceptive marketing campaigns. A study by the United States Government Accountability Office found that, of fifteen institutions selected, four engaged in outright fraudulent practices, while all fifteen were found to have made deceptive statements about enrollment, employment prospects, or tuition. While the advertisements were found to generally target low-income individuals, the large majority of marketing efforts were focused on veterans due to their access to G.I. Bill benefits. An executive order released during the Obama Administration found that following the post September 11 reinstatement of the Bill, which re-allocated funds towards higher education for veterans, for-profit institutions began aggressively targeting veterans and their families, with some institutions recruiting individuals with traumatic brain injuries as well as other deep emotional vulnerabilities. Much of the lead generation for these institutions is conducted using the data-driven instruments outlined above. Other studies have shown that for-profit institutions attract a disproportionate number of low-income minorities through advertisement practices that capitalize on dampened social mobility through the promise of career placement. Research found that a large portion of students who enrolled were not awarded degrees, despite having taken on debt to pursue them.
Predatory lending
Predatory lending is the process of granting high-interest loans with unfavorable terms to financially-distressed individuals. The data landscape has made these individuals much easier to find. As mentioned above, this information can be ascertained through a number of correlated online behaviors. For instance, those who regularly search for coupons, "fringe" financial institutions, or low-paying jobs in their search browser may be disproportionately targeted with advertisement for these loans. Research has shown that "fringe" financial institutions such as check cashing outlets (CCO's), payday lenders, and pawnbrokers have a disproportionate presence in low-income neighborhoods, especially when compared to the relative under-representation of mainstream financial institutions in the same localities. Some researchers have called this phenomenon "predatory inclusion," whereby the necessity for fringe institutions providing "alternative" services is only made possible through larger, structural socioeconomic dynamics. The mixture of lacking alternative resources and savvy targeting methods have resulted in major increases in the prevalence of such loans, especially following the Great Recession.
Political messaging
The use of data-driven micro-targeting has allowed politicians to tailor messages to specific individuals, speaking directly to the preferences, concerns, interests, and fears that they may have displayed through their online activity. While these practices may be largely benign, by allowing politicians to increase engagement by using individual names or campaigning on individually-relevant issues, critics have noted some disastrous effects on democratic processes. One of the most notable examples is the Cambridge Analytica scandal, wherein the consulting firm was found to have utilized large amounts of personal data to create highly-inflammatory targeted material, having purported impact on numerous international elections.
Grieving individuals
There have been many reports over the years of funeral homes capitalizing on the emotional vulnerability of individuals who had recently lost a loved one by selling them unnecessary services or marking-up the price on traditional funeral packages. The practice was so prevalent that the Federal Trade Commission passed a mandate, commonly known as the "Funeral Rule", which set forth multiple stipulations for funeral homes, such as the requirement of a "general price list" that consumers can access, so as to easily compare universal prices without having to inquire further.
Children/teens
Studies have shown that children are especially susceptible to advertising messaging, as most cannot recognize the persuasive nature of content as commercially motivated. While regulations have been put in place to dictate the manner in which children can be marketed to on television, child-targeted ad initiative in the internet have been harder to classify and regulate. A common example is the "adver-game," or, online games that utilize branded content to subliminally foster brand preference. These have been commonly used by large food industry conglomerates and have raised many concerns. Often, these games will use the company "spokescharacter" (i.e. Tony the Tiger) as the primary character in the game to build brand recognition. Another common tactic is the structuring of advergames so that the attainment of the product is the desired goal (as in, acquiring the candy bar or equivalent awards the player with a point value or prize). Researchers have shown that the reward mechanism associated with the acquisition of the virtual product often carries into the marketplace, ultimately influencing children's consumption patterns. Studies have shown a direct correlation between exposure to such advertisements and poor health outcomes due to the consumption of low-nutrient foods.
Legality
Legislative measures
In the United States, many of the regulatory efforts put forth in response to predatory advertising practices, especially those involving the usage of personal data, have been spearheaded by the Federal Trade Commission. Congress too, has brought forth numerous legislative measures to address the informational asymmetry and privacy concerns of modern data-collection and advertising. Proponents of regulatory action have explained that data regulation can be exceptionally hard to craft for a number of reasons. Though many have called for greater transparency in data-collection efforts, critics claims that transparency alone falls short, as data is often repackaged and sold through many brokerage firms, leading to many uses that may not have been clearly outlined as the original purpose or intent. These critics suggest that direct parameters would be better placed on the operational uses of data in general. Opponents of regulatory reform say this would, perhaps unintentionally, drastically inhibit businesses ability to utilize the data for positive measures. Furthermore, because singular data points may be used across a large array of industries, sector-specific legislation may prove fruitless. To date, congress has introduced a few noteworthy bills, most of which were never passed:
Consumer Privacy Protection Act of 2011 (Not Passed): Required data-collection entities, especially those involved in the sale and disclosure of personally identifiable information, to provide consumers notice upon any intent to use personal data for reasons unrelated to the original transaction. Also required outlined entities to provide consumers an option to request that their personal information not be used for any purposes outside of the transaction for up to five years. A similar version of the bill was introduced in 2015, but also died before making it to the vote.
Commercial Privacy Bill of Rights Act of 2011 (Not Passed): Established parameters on the purposes for which data could be collected and placed further limitations on the length of time that data could be retained. Also established and FTC protocol that would require covered entities (those collection data on 5000+ U.S. citizens in the span of any year) to: 1) Give individuals notice about the use and storage of their personal information; 2) Provide individuals opportunities to "opt-out" of data collection, especially as used in behavioral advertising; 3) Provide avenues to fix inaccurate information; 4) Allow data points with personally identifiable characteristics to be rendered.
Data Broker Accountability and Transparency Act of 2019 (Not Passed): Established requirements for entities that engage in the collections of personal data for the purposes of re-sale to third party entities. Also required that individuals be granted access to the information that is collected about themselves.
See also
Microtargeting
Predatory Lending
Targeted Advertising
False Advertising
For-Profit Higher Education in the United States
References
Advertising
Psychological manipulation
Abuse
Disinformation
Deception | Predatory advertising | [
"Biology"
] | 3,757 | [
"Abuse",
"Behavior",
"Aggression",
"Human behavior"
] |
67,164,923 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sara%20Bals | Sara Bals (born 1977) is a Belgian nanoscientist known for her research on electron tomography and its application in the study of nanomaterials such as perovskite nanocrystals. She is a professor of electron microscopy for materials science at the University of Antwerp.
Education and career
Bals was born 25 August 1977 in Antwerp. She was educated in physics at the University of Antwerp, earning a master's degree in 1999 and completing her Ph.D. there in 2003. Her dissertation was Optimisation of superconducting thin films and tapes by transmission electron microscopy.
After postdoctoral research in the National Center for Electron Microscopy at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory and at the University of Antwerp, she became an assistant professor at the University of Antwerp in 2007. She was promoted to associate professor in 2012 and full professor in 2018.
Recognition
Bals was elected to the Royal Flemish Academy of Belgium for Science and the Arts in 2019. In 2020 she was the winner of the JEOL-EM Award for Physical/Materials Sciences and Optics, given quadrennially by the European Microscopy Society. The award cited "her outstanding achievements in the field of 3D electron tomography", "combining state-of-the-art electron microscopy with advanced reconstruction algorithms".
References
External links
1977 births
Living people
Scientists from Antwerp
Belgian women scientists
Microscopists
Nanotechnologists
Academic staff of the University of Antwerp | Sara Bals | [
"Chemistry",
"Materials_science"
] | 288 | [
"Nanotechnology",
"Microscopists",
"Nanotechnologists",
"Microscopy"
] |
67,167,452 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EasyCall | EasyCall Communications Philippines, Inc. (ECP), or simply known as EasyCall, is a telecommunications company most noted for its paging services in the Philippines in the 1990s. It ended paging services in 2002, shifting to other telecommunications services.
History
Pager era
It was established on September 25, 1989, as the Francisco N. Cervantes, Inc.. The company went public in 1992 and was listed in the Philippine Stock Exchange. It also changed its name to its current name, EasyCall.
Its main competition was PocketBell. Both EasyCall and PocketBell claimed 50 to 60 market share of the Philippines' paging industry. EasyCall's paging services covered the entire Philippines. At its peak, EasyCall operated 16 paging sites across the Philippines which has the capacity to cater to 300,000 subscribers.
Phaseout of paging services and diversification
EasyCall ended its paging services in 2002 due to introduction and growing adoption of short messaging service through mobile phones in the late 1990s. It ended its provincial paging services (except Cebu) in March 2002, and its Metro Manila and Cebu operations in November 2002. Its subscribers were absorbed by Island Country Telecommunications which operates the paging service named Jaspage. It shifted to engaging in contact center outsourcing and other information technology businesses. It started its outsourcing business in 1999 and added information technology to its line of services in 2000. It also began offering broadband services in 2015.
In 2001, it was acquired by the Transnational Diversified Group.
References
1989 establishments in the Philippines
Telecommunications companies of the Philippines
Pager companies
Business process outsourcing companies of the Philippines
Internet service providers of the Philippines
Companies listed on the Philippine Stock Exchange | EasyCall | [
"Technology"
] | 354 | [
"Pager companies",
"Pagers"
] |
67,168,299 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maamar%20Bettayeb | Maamar Bettayeb (born 7 June 1953) is a control theorist, educator and inventor. He is the author of publications on understanding the singular value decomposition and model order reduction. Bettayeb is also a promoter of scientific research.
Early years
Bettayeb continued his elementary and middle studies in Beni Amrane before joining the polyvalent high school of Tizi Ouzou in 1969 to follow his secondary studies in the Mathematics sector. After obtaining his baccalaureate in 1972 with a first class honors, he obtained a scholarship from the Algerian state to continue his university studies in the United States at the University of Southern California in Los Angeles.
He obtained his bachelor's degree in automatic control in 1976, then his master's degree in 1978.
Bettayeb obtained his PhD degree in 1981 following his defense of his thesis at the University of Southern California in the Department of Electrical Engineering, and whose title was "Approximation of Linear Systems: New Approaches Based on Singular Value Decomposition", under the supervision of Professor Emeritus Leonard M. Silverman.
Career
He worked as a research scientist for a year in Houston, Texas until 1982 in the Bellaire Research Center at Shell Oil Development Company, in the development of seismic signal processing deconvolution algorithms for the purpose of Gas and Oil exploration. Back in Algeria, he was recruited by the Center for Development of Advanced Technologies (CDTA) where he headed the instrumentation and control department from 1982 until 1988, and he led various research and development projects in the field of modeling, simulation, and control design of large scale energy systems with applications to nuclear, solar, wind and electric power systems.
He then emigrated to Saudi Arabia where he joined King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals in Dhahran where he worked for two years until 1990.
During the year 2000 he joined the staff of the University of Sharjah as a professor, where he held research and administrative positions.
Since September 2014, Bettayeb has been vice-rector at this university where he is in charge of graduation and research. He is also associate professor in automatic control and signal processing within the Center of Excellence in Intelligent Engineering Systems (CEIES) at King Abdulaziz University in a research laboratory.
During his career, he published more than 350 scientific journal and conference papers.
Bettayeb was an External Examiner for Electrical Engineering Programs at the University of Malaya in Malaysia from 2001 to 2004.
He also participated as a visiting professor at the Helsinki University of Technology in Finland during the years 2001 to 2003, where he gave short courses, research seminars, workshops and participated in the examination of doctoral students.
Bettayeb has worked in scientific consulting for the petrochemical industries on behalf of several companies, and has also taken part in several R&D funded projects in the fields of control and signal processing applications.
He chaired the International Symposium on Signal Processing and its applications (ISSPA) 2007 conference organized by University of Jijel, and was also the chair/co-chair of the program committee of several conferences.
He was Deputy Editor-in-Chief of the International Journal of Modeling, Identification and Control, is currently the Head of the Intelligent Systems Research Group at the University of Sharjah where he also led the strategic planning development of the research.
Research interests
Bettayeb has been interested in recent years in research areas related to:
H-infinity methods in control theory
Rational approximation
Signal processing
Image processing
Process control
Networked control systems
Fractional-order systems
Fractional-order control
Estimation theory
Nonlinear regression
Filtering problem and nonlinear filters
Soft computing
Wavelets
Renewable energy
Engineering education
Awards
Professor Bettayeb has received several awards and honors during his career in recognition of his work, including:
Prize for the best research distinguished in 1993-94 and 1998–99 at King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals (KFUPM).
Outstanding adviser award in 1996–97 at KFUPM.
Award for the best researcher at the University of Sharjah (UoS) in 2001–2002, 2006–2007, 2007–2008 and 2010–2011.
Sharjah Islamic Bank's Best Research Paper Award in 2003–2004.
Prize for the best research project in 2006–2007 at UoS.
Supervisor of the award for best student article, supervisor of the award for best student project in 2006–2007 at UOS.
Director of the prize for the best master's thesis in 2009–2010 at UoS.
Award for the best teaching at the University of Sharjah in 2011–2012.
IEOM Distinguished Leadership Award in 2020.
See also
List of Algerians
List of people in systems and control
List of systems scientists
University of Southern California
King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals
University of Sharjah
University of Malaya
Helsinki University of Technology
King Abdulaziz University
Bibliography
References
Videos
External links
Maamar Bettayeb on University of Sharjah homepage
1953 births
Algerian scientists
Living people
People from Beni Amrane
Kabyle people
Algerian educators
Algerian academics
Systems scientists
Control theorists
University of Southern California alumni
University of Southern California people
Academic staff of King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals
Academic staff of the University of Sharjah
People associated with the University of Malaya
Academic staff of the University of Malaya
Academic staff of the Helsinki University of Technology
Academic staff of King Abdulaziz University
21st-century Algerian people | Maamar Bettayeb | [
"Engineering"
] | 1,081 | [
"Control engineering",
"Control theorists"
] |
67,168,311 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindustan%20Syringes%20%26%20Medical%20Devices | Hindustan Syringes & Medical Devices is one of the major world firms manufacturing medical syringes and one of the few producing a special type of syringe suitable for making efficient use of the Pfizer–BioNTech COVID-19 vaccine.
The New Delhi factories have been producing 2.5 billion syringes a year, increasing their capacity because of the coronavirus pandemic. Two thirds of the capacity is for the market in India but there is global demand, increased by stockpiling, from the US and Europe where investment focused on the vaccine development rather than syringe manufacture. The United Nations is also being supplied for the COVAX programme. Before the pandemic, global production was about 16 billion syringes per annum but only 5 to 10 percent were used for vaccination and immunisation. Now 8 to 10 billion vaccination syringes are required.
To make best use of the Pfizer–BioNTech vaccine a dose no larger than 0.3 millilitres is required which allows six or even seven doses to be extracted from each vial. The device must also be a low dead space syringe so scarcely anything is left in the syringe after injection and the syringe itself must break after use so that there is no possibility of repeated use spreading infection. For this reason Japan ordered 15 million syringes at the beginning of 2021 and deliveries started within a month.
Hindustan Syringes & Medical Devices was established in 1957 and is a family run business. In 1995 new machines were required for an increase in production and so private capital was needed. The latest ramping up could be achieved very quickly because no further investment was required.
References
Medical equipment
Drug delivery devices
Companies based in New Delhi
Medical and health organisations based in India
Indian companies established in 1957
Biotechnology companies of India | Hindustan Syringes & Medical Devices | [
"Chemistry",
"Biology"
] | 378 | [
"Pharmacology",
"Drug delivery devices",
"Medical equipment",
"Medical technology"
] |
67,169,753 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katherine%20Jungjohann | Katherine Jungjohann is a group leader at the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) and previously worked as a scientist and engineer at the Center for Integrated Nanotechnologies (CINT) which is part of Sandia National Laboratories in Albuquerque, New Mexico, United States.
Biography
Early life
Jungjohann grew up in an academic family.
Education
Jungjohann received her Bachelor of Science degree in chemistry with honors from the University of Redlands, California, in 2008. She completed her Doctor of Philosophy degree in materials science and engineering at the University of California, Davis, CA in 2012.
Career
Jungjohann finished off a postdoctoral fellowship at the Center for Functional Nanomaterials at Brookhaven National Laboratory before beginning a staff position at the Center for Integrated Nanotechnologies at Sandia National Laboratories in 2013. In 2021, Jungjohann joined the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) as a group manager.
Distinctions
Nano Letters - Early Career Advisory Board (2016-2017)
Microscopy Society of America's Focused Interest Group on Electron Microscopy in Liquids and Gases - Co-leader and Placement Office Chair
Materials Research Society - Member, Speaker
American Chemical Society - Member
American Association for the Advancement of Science - Member
Publications
Jungjohann has over 150 publications. Her most cited work has been cited over 300 times.
Here is a sampling of her most cited works, each one has been cited more than 100 times:
Controlled growth of nanoparticles from solution with in situ liquid transmission electron microscopy
JE Evans, KL Jungjohann, ND Browning, I Arslan (2011)
In situ transmission electron microscopy study of electrochemical sodiation and potassiation of carbon nanofibers
Y Liu, F Fan, J Wang, Y Liu, H Chen, KL Jungjohann, Y Xu, Y Zhu, D Bigio, ... (2014)
Experimental procedures to mitigate electron beam induced artifacts during in situ fluid imaging of nanomaterials
TJ Woehl, KL Jungjohann, JE Evans, I Arslan, WD Ristenpart, ... (2013)
In situ liquid cell electron microscopy of the solution growth of Au–Pd core–shell nanostructures
KL Jungjohann, S Bliznakov, PW Sutter, EA Stach, EA Sutter (2013)
In situ liquid-cell electron microscopy of silver–palladium galvanic replacement reactions on silver nanoparticles
E Sutter, K Jungjohann, S Bliznakov, A Courty, E Maisonhaute, S Tenney, ... (2014)
Atomic-scale imaging and spectroscopy for in situ liquid scanning transmission electron microscopy
KL Jungjohann, JE Evans, JA Aguiar, I Arslan, ND Browning (2012)
Lithium Electrodeposition Dynamics in Aprotic Electrolyte Observed in Situ via Transmission Electron Microscopy
AJ Leenheer, KL Jungjohann, KR Zavadil, JP Sullivan, CT Harris (2015)
See also
Sandia National Laboratories
Los Alamos National Laboratory
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory
References
External links
University of California, Davis alumni
University of Redlands alumni
American women chemists
Microscopists
Living people
Year of birth missing (living people)
21st-century American chemists
21st-century American engineers
21st-century American women engineers
Members of the American Chemical Society
Sandia National Laboratories people | Katherine Jungjohann | [
"Chemistry"
] | 708 | [
"Microscopists",
"Microscopy"
] |
42,812,539 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jos%C3%A9%20Eisenberg | José Eisenberg (born 20 August 1945) is an Italian entrepreneur and founder of Eisenberg Data Systems.
Early life and education
Born August 20, 1945, in post-war Bucarest, José Eisenberg comes from a long line of textile manufacturers. He is the only son of Sally and Marcel Eisenberg.
He spent his childhood in Romania during the communist post-war era. His family's homes, businesses, and possessions were confiscated by the new political regime.
At age 13, he left school and held several jobs: newspaper deliveryman, poster maker, and handyman in workshops which still employed Renaissance art-making techniques.
Entrepreneurship
At age 21, José Eisenberg established his own fashion design studio and factory in Florence, Italy. He designed his own creations and produced collections for known fashion names. He is a pioneer of the democratisation of fashion in Europe. In 1972, Italy awarded him honorary citizenship for his immense contribution to the industrialisation of the Basilicata region.
Without abandoning his fashion design roots, José Eisenberg embarked on his second entrepreneurial project in 1974, investing time, energy and resources into artificial intelligence research, still in its infancy at the time. He founded JE Contrex in Boston, recruiting graduates from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Though JE Contrex was able to successfully develop a functioning artificial eye, work had to be abandoned due to the slow processing speed of the era's computers.
In 1976, he launched a second technology company, Eisenberg Data Systems (E.D.S.). E.D.S developed and marketed computers, including one with a detachable keyboard.
Eisenberg Paris
In 1985, José Eisenberg entered the beauty industry.
In 2000, Eisenberg launched his brand, José Eisenberg Paris, shortening the brand's name to Eisenberg the following year.
José Eisenberg remains involved in the day-to-day operations of the brand. In addition to skincare products, he has also created two perfume collections and a range of smart cosmetics which infuse make-up with skincare benefits, providing a single-step ‘make-care’ solution.
Personal life
José Eisenberg has three children, two daughters and a son.
His son, Edmond, joined Eisenberg Paris in 2011. Together, they steer the direction of the brand's product development and global development strategies. Edmond Eisenberg has said:
References
External links
Eisenberg Paris
Living people
French cosmetics businesspeople
Italian fashion designers
Fashion designers from Florence
French perfumers
Perfumers
People in information technology
Technology company founders
1945 births
Computer designers | José Eisenberg | [
"Technology"
] | 538 | [
"People in information technology",
"Information technology"
] |
42,812,764 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selection%20shadow | The selection shadow is a concept involved with the evolutionary theories of aging that states that selection pressures on an individual decrease as an individual ages and passes sexual maturity, resulting in a "shadow" of time where selective fitness is not considered. Over generations, this results in maladaptive mutations that accumulate later in life due to aging being non-adaptive toward reproductive fitness. The concept was first worked out by J. B. S. Haldane and Peter Medawar in the 1940s, with Medawar creating the first graphical model.
Model
The model developed by Medawar states that due to the dangerous conditions and pressures from the environment, including predators and diseases, most individuals in the wild die not long after sexual maturity. Therefore, there is a low probability for individuals to survive to an advanced age and suffer the effects related to aging. In conjunction with this, the effects of natural selection decrease as age increases, so that later individual performance is ignored by selection forces. This results in beneficial mutations not being selected for if they only have a positive result later in life, along with later in life deleterious mutations not being selected against. Due to the fitness of an individual not being affected once it is past its reproductive prime, later mutations and effects are considered to be in the "shadow" of selection.
This concept would later be adapted into Medawar's 1952 mutation accumulation hypothesis, which was itself expanded upon by George C. Williams in his 1957 antagonistic pleiotropy hypothesis.
A classical requirement and constraint of the model is that the number of individuals within a population that live to reach senescence must be small in number. If this is not true for a population, then the effects of old age will not be under a selection shadow and instead affect adaptation and evolution of the population as a whole. At the same time, however, this requirement has been challenged by increasing evidence of senescence being more common in wild populations than previously expected, especially among birds and mammals, while the effects of the selection shadow remain present.
Medawar's Test Tube model
Medawar developed a theoretical model to demonstrate his thought process which explained that most animals will die before aging will be the ultimate cause for death in that animal. This would be from environmental factors such as large storms, drought, and fires, and predation. Medawar wanted to demonstrate this possibility by using test tubes to get his point across. The test tubes would be used to represent a population of species. If one of these test tubes were to theoretically break, this would represent an individual animal dying. Randomly, test tubes would then be broken in the population to keep his model realistic. The broken test tubes would be replaced with a new one, which represents a new animal being born into the population. Over time, the model showed that test tubes over a certain age would decline in the population as new test tubes were put in. The overall results in Medawar’s thought model demonstrated an exponential decline in the survivor curve which resulted in the population having a half life. The amount of older animals, or test tubes in the population would then be harder to maintain and ultimately die. Medawar created this model to ultimately explain what would realistically happen in actual life.
Criticism
Some scientists, however, have criticized the idea of aging being non-adaptive, instead adopting the theory of "death by design". This theory follows the work of August Weismann, which states that aging specifically evolved as an adaptation, and disagrees with Medawar's model as a perceived oversimplification of the impact older organisms have on evolution. It is also claimed that older organisms have a higher reproductive capacity due to being better fit in order to reach their age, rather than their capacity being equal as in Medawar's calculations.
References
Life extension
Evolutionary biology
Senescence
Evolutionary theories of biological ageing | Selection shadow | [
"Chemistry",
"Biology"
] | 783 | [
"Senescence",
"Evolutionary biology",
"Metabolism",
"Cellular processes"
] |
42,812,909 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hibakujumoku | Hibakujumoku (; also called survivor tree or A-bombed tree in English) is a Japanese term for a tree that survived the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945. The term is from and .
Damage
The heat emitted by the explosion in Hiroshima within the first three seconds at a distance of three kilometres from the hypocenter was about 40 times greater than that from the Sun. The initial radiation level at the hypocenter was approximately 240 Gy. According to Hiroshima and Nagasaki: The Physical, Medical, and Social Effects of the Atomic Bombings, plants suffered damage only in the portions exposed above ground, while portions underground were not directly damaged.
Regeneration
The rate of regeneration differed by species. Active regeneration was shown by broad-leaved trees. Approximately 170 trees that grew in Hiroshima in 2011 had actually been there prior to the bombing. The oleander was designated the official flower of Hiroshima for its remarkable vitality.
Types of hibakujumoku
Hibakujumoku species are listed in the UNITAR database, shown below, combined with data from Hiroshima and Nagasaki: The Physical, Medical, and Social Effects of the Atomic Bombings. A more extensive list, including distance from the hypocenter for each tree, is available in Survivors: The A-bombed Trees of Hiroshima.
List
Surviving trees in Nagasaki
Although not as well known as the hibakujumoku in Hiroshima, there are a number of similar survivors in the vicinity of the hypocenter in Nagasaki. Approximately 50 of these trees have been documented in English.
See also
Hibakusha, humans that survived the atomic bombs
List of individual trees
References
Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki
Trees of Japan
Individual trees in Japan
Radiation effects | Hibakujumoku | [
"Physics",
"Materials_science",
"Engineering"
] | 353 | [
"Physical phenomena",
"Materials science",
"Radiation",
"Condensed matter physics",
"Radiation effects"
] |
42,813,634 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coprinopsis%20radiata | Coprinopsis radiata, formerly known as Coprinus radiatus, and commonly known as the miniature woolly inky cap, is a coprophilous fungus that grows on herbivore dung. It is heterothallic.
Taxonomy
Coprinopsis radiata was originally published in 1788 as Agaricus radiatus by English naturalist James Bolton. Samuel Frederick Gray transferred it to Coprinus in his 1821 work A Natural Arrangement of British Plants. In 2001, the genus Coprinus was reorganized and this species was moved to the newly created genus Coprinopsis.
Ecology
Coprinopsis radiata is known to grow from the dung of donkeys, sheep and horses.
Morphology
After mating and dikaryotic fruiting, the initial fruit body (young) is narrow egg-shaped and white. The mature fruit body is bluish-grey.
Research
Coprinopsis radiata has been used as a model organism to study basidiospore formation.
Culture conditions
Coprinopsis radiata is successfully cultured on horse dung at room temperature; under these conditions (with no control of external everyday light) the fungus can form a mushroom (mature fruit body).
Basidiospore activation
Coprinopsis radiata produces basidiospores from its fruit body that, under proper conditions, will germinate. Spores are activated by specific chemicals or temperatures that may act synergistically. Chemically, those resembling heterocyclic, unsaturated rings with or without small side groups, such as furfural, activate spores. Salt also causes slight activation. In the study, only low concentrations of chemicals were needed for activation. In nature, it is postulated that the combination of the following can lead to activation of dormant spores: temperature from the animal, dung heat (active organisms produce heat) and furans found on the dung (basis of compounds like furfural).
See also
List of Coprinopsis species
References
External links
NBN Gateway
Fungi described in 1788
Fungi of Europe
Fungi of North America
radiata
Fungus species | Coprinopsis radiata | [
"Biology"
] | 426 | [
"Fungi",
"Fungus species"
] |
42,813,814 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Termantia | Termantia, the present-day locality of Tiermes, is an archaeological site on the edge of the Duero valley in Spain. It is located in the sparsely populated municipio of Montejo de Tiermes (Soria, Castile and León).
During the Iron Age it was a Celtiberian hill fort. It resisted the Romans, and was allied to Numantia during the Celtiberian Wars. It is believed that the Romans gave it the status of municipium. The original name was Romanised as Termes or Termantia. It is remarkable for its impressive site on an arid red sandstone hill and for the way buildings have been carved in the solid rock.
Roman history
The wealth of Termes in Celtiberian and Roman times came possibly from sheep farming (there are indications of an annual transfer of flocks between the northern plateau and Extremadura) and from deposits of iron ore and other metals in their area of influence.
The conquest of the Iberian Peninsula by Rome was a long process that lasted two centuries. One of the highlights was the Celtiberian Wars that led to the incorporation of much of Celtiberia up to the middle of the upper Duero after the fall of Numantia in 133 BC. During this phase Termes was attacked by the Roman consul Q. Pompey in 141 BC, who signed a treaty with Termes in 139 BC, along with Numantia. The treaty was overruled by the Roman Senate, though continued hostilities did not directly affect Termes. Finally, at the end of the 2nd century BC, Rome restarted the conquest beyond Numantia; Termes fell in 98 BC, after the assault of the consul Titus Didius, who forced the inhabitants to move down to the plain, which according to archaeological data lasted only one or two decades. Afterwards Termes paid tribute (civitas stipendaria), beginning a slow process of Romanisation.
From 70 BC the city began major urban renewal, using the three terraces of the hill, especially the middle, where the most important buildings would be located in the future.
The city was probably given the title Municipium during the reign of Emperor Tiberius. Termes was assigned to the Conventus Cluniensis and thereafter the Hispanic-Roman city began to take shape, whose period of greatest splendour was between the first and second centuries AD. It was endowed with large public buildings, two fora (first Julio-Claudian and later a Flavian forum), thermal baths, a possible theatre, an aqueduct and urban development suited to the location of the city on a sandstone bluff surrounded by river gorges and forests.
A particular characteristic of Termes, and most spectacular today, is the technique of carving buildings into the solid rock, later perfected with the introduction of Roman construction techniques. The city has numerous remains of buildings with this type of architecture, both private buildings (House of the Niches, Aqueduct House ...) and public (rock bleachers, Theatre, ...) and infrastructure (urban channels aqueduct, drainage, pathways, ...).
The construction of the wall in the late third century AD indicates that the city maintained its character which lasted at least until the middle of IVth c. AD.
Termes faded during late antiquity.
Post-Roman history
Very little of what happened in the city during the Visigoth and Islamic periods is known. There is a Romanesque church, which as the area is now depopulated has the status of eremita (hermitage).
Archaeology
The archaeological remains are located on several terraces and in the southern plain:
Flight of steps carved into the rock: monumental public space of uncertain date and function, with steps divided into sectors and access stairways, near the door of the Sun, one of the ancient entrances.
Southern rock complex: the remains of homes probably originating Celtiberian era, carved into the rocks on two floors, in the back, and with masonry facade of the Roman era. There are 11 houses divided into two zones, separated by a staircase. The "house of the Niches", among them, also shows an upper floor.
Canal aqueduct: carved into the rock, it brought water from the hill to the Roman city, partly underground
West Gate: pedestrian access to the city
"House of the aqueduct", residence of 1800 sqm with 35 rooms on different levels connected by stairs. The foundation was cut into the hill, while the walls were plastered and decorated with murals.
Forum with a temple dedicated to the imperial cult, arcaded square and a macellum with taverns.
In 2018 geophysical prospection (Magnetometry) allowed to identify new housing-areas within the city walls as well as priorly unknown structures outside the (supposed) extends of the city, namely in the extreme west and extreme east of the hill. In the case of the western structures these are thought to be earlier than the Roman city of Termantia/Termes, i.e. part of the Iron Age hilltop settlement. The eastern structures are without fixed chronology and could be part of a previously unknown extension of the Roman settlement.
Gallery
Conservation and Museum
The site is protected by Spanish law, being listed as a Zona Arqueológica.
There is a museum at the site, an outpost of the Numantine Museum of Soria. The Friends of the Tiermes Museum (Asociación de Amigos del Museo de Tiermes - AAMT) is an NGO, which was set up in 1988. AAMT is concerned with environmental protection and the promotion of sustainable tourism.
The European LIFE Programme provided funding in the period 2003-2006 to develop eco-cultural tourism in what is an economically marginalised area. Actions for the conservation and enhancement of archaeological and natural heritage have been implemented.
The project identified potential for the declaration of a Special Protection Area for birds. Wildlife also includes wolves. Encinares de Tiermes, a Site of Community Importance, was designated a Special Area of Conservation for the species in 2015.
Activities available at Tiermes include guided tours and dark sky astronomy: the latter activity is also promoted at Borobia, another sparsely populated locality in the province of Soria.
References
Classical references: Greek and Latin
Appian, Iber. 76-77-79.
Diodorus of Sicily, XXXIII, 16-17.
Florus, III, 10.9.
Livy, :es:Epítome de Tito Livio Epit. LIV.
Polybius, Lib. XXXV.
Pliny, Nat. Hist., III, 27.
Ptolemy II, 6.55.
Sallust, Hist ,. II, 95.
Tacitus, Ann., IV, 45, 1-2.
Ravenna Cosmography, p. 311.6.
BIBLIOGRAPHY OF EXCAVATION AND GUIDES
www.bne.es.
MARTINEZ CABALLERO, S. and ALDECOA RUIZ, A . (2009): "Short Guide to visit Tiermes". Tiermes LIFE Project. (available online in PDF format).
ARGENTE OLIVER, JL and DIAZ DIAZ, A: La necrópolis celtibérica de Tiermes (Carratiermes, Soria) ("The Celtiberian necropolis of Tiermes (Carratiermes, Soria)"). Noticiario Arqueológico Hispánico, 7, 1979: pp. 95–151.
ARGENTE OLIVER, JL et al.: "Tiermes I (Campaigns 1975-1978) Works of excavations carried out in the Roman city and in the vicinity of the Romanesque Chapel of Our Lady of Tiermes.". Archaeological excavations in Spain, 111, Madrid, 1980.
ARGENTE OLIVER, JL et al.: "Tiermes II (Campaigns 1979-1980) Excavations in the Roman City and the Medieval Necropolis.". Archaeological excavations in Spain, 128. Madrid, 1984.
HOUSE MARTÍNEZ, C. de la and others: "Tiermes III Excavations in the Roman City and the Medieval Necropolis (Campaigns 1981-1984).". Archaeological excavations in Spain, 166. Madrid, 1994.
ARGENTE OLIVER, JL and Diaz Diaz, A .: Tiermes IV. La Casa del Acueducto (Domus alto imperial de la ciudad de Tiermes) (Campañas 1979-1986), "Tiermes IV. The Aqueduct House (Domus high imperial city of Tiermes) (Campaigns 1979-1986)". Excavaciones Arqueológicas en España (Archaeological excavations in Spain), 167. Madrid, 1994.
ARGENTE OLIVER, JL and Diaz Diaz, A .: "Tiermes V. Celtibérica of Carratiermes Necropolis" (Campaigns 1979 and 1986-1991) ". Edition directed by JLArgente and basically completed in 1997-1998, reviewed by the archaeological team of JL Argente (Alberto Bescós, Santiago Martínez Caballero, Arturo Aldecoa Ruiz and others) in 1999-2000 and published by the JCyL in 2001.
ORTEGO AND COLD, T .: Tiermes archaeological guide. Madrid, 1980.
ARGENTE OLIVER, JL and Diaz Diaz, A .: Tiermes guide archaeological site and museum. Soria, 1995. Junta de Castilla y León
TEICHNER F., ILLAREGUI GÓMEZ E., HERMANN F., MORENO ESCOBAR M., ARRIBAS LOBO P.: “Ver lo invisible”: prospecciones geofísicas en la ciudad celtíbero-romana de Termes (Montejo de Tiermes, Soria). In: C. Pérez González, P. Arribas Lobo, O. V. Reyes Hernando (Hrsg.), Estudios y recuerdos in memoriam Prof. Emilio Illarregui, Anejos de Oppidum 7, 2020, 105-123. Researchgate Download
External links
http://www.museodetiermes.es/
Bien de Interés Cultural landmarks in the Province of Soria
Dark-sky preserves in Spain
Former populated places in Spain
Hill forts in Spain
Celtiberian cities and towns
Roman towns and cities in Spain
Archaeological sites in Castile and León | Termantia | [
"Astronomy"
] | 2,119 | [
"Dark-sky preserves in Spain",
"Dark-sky preserves"
] |
42,813,835 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data%20publishing | Data publishing (also data publication) is the act of releasing research data in published form for use by others. It is a practice consisting in preparing certain data or data set(s) for public use thus to make them available to everyone to use as they wish.
This practice is an integral part of the open science movement.
There is a large and multidisciplinary consensus on the benefits resulting from this practice.
The main goal is to elevate data to be first class research outputs. There are a number of initiatives underway as well as points of consensus and issues still in contention.
There are several distinct ways to make research data available, including:
publishing data as supplemental material associated with a research article, typically with the data files hosted by the publisher of the article
hosting data on a publicly available website, with files available for download
hosting data in a repository that has been developed to support data publication, e.g. figshare, Dryad, Dataverse, Zenodo. A large number of general and specialty (such as by research topic) data repositories exist. For example, the UK Data Service enables users to deposit data collections and re-share these for research purposes.
publishing a data paper about the dataset, which may be published as a preprint, in a regular journal, or in a data journal that is dedicated to supporting data papers. The data may be hosted by the journal or hosted separately in a data repository.
Publishing data allows researchers to both make their data available to others to use, and enables datasets to be cited similarly to other research publication types (such as articles or books), thereby enabling producers of datasets to gain academic credit for their work.
The motivations for publishing data may range for a desire to make research more accessible, to enable citability of datasets, or research funder or publisher mandates that require open data publishing. The UK Data Service is one key organisation working with others to raise the importance of citing data correctly and helping researchers to do so.
Solutions to preserve privacy within data publishing has been proposed, including privacy protection algorithms, data ”masking” methods, and regional privacy level calculation algorithm.
Methods for publishing data
Data files as supplementary material
A large number of journals and publishers support supplementary material being attached to research articles, including datasets. Though historically such material might have been distributed only by request or on microform to libraries, journals today typically host such material online. Supplementary material is available to subscribers to the journal or, if the article or journal is open access, to everyone.
Data repositories
There are a large number of data repositories, on both general and specialized topics. Many repositories are disciplinary repositories, focused on a particular research discipline such as the UK Data Service which is a trusted digital repository of social, economic and humanities data. Repositories may be free for researchers to upload their data or may charge a one-time or ongoing fee for hosting the data. These repositories offer a publicly accessible web interface for searching and browsing hosted datasets, and may include additional features such as a digital object identifier, for permanent citation of the data, and linking to associated published papers and code.
Data papers
Data papers or data articles are “scholarly publication of a searchable metadata document describing a particular on-line accessible dataset, or a group of datasets, published in accordance to the standard academic practices”. Their final aim is to provide “information on the what, where, why, how and who of the data”. The intent of a data paper is to offer descriptive information on the related dataset(s) focusing on data collection, distinguishing features, access and potential reuse rather than on data processing and analysis. Because data papers are considered academic publications no different than other types of papers, they allow scientists sharing data to receive credit in currency recognizable within the academic system, thus "making data sharing count". This provides not only an additional incentive to share data, but also through the peer review process, increases the quality of metadata and thus reusability of the shared data.
Thus data papers represent the scholarly communication approach to data sharing. Despite their potentiality, data papers are not the ultimate and complete solution for all the data sharing and reuse issues and, in some cases, they are considered to induce false expectations in the research community.
Data journals
Data papers are supported by a rich array of data journals, some of which are "pure", i.e. they are dedicated to publish data papers only, while others – the majority – are "mixed", i.e. they publish a number of articles types including data papers.
A comprehensive survey on data journals is available. A non-exhaustive list of data journals has been compiled by staff at the University of Edinburgh.
Examples of "pure" data journals are: Earth System Science Data, Journal of Open Archaeology Data, Open Health Data, Polar Data Journal, and Scientific Data.
Examples of "mixed" journals publishing data papers are: Biodiversity Data Journal, F1000Research, GigaScience, GigaByte, PLOS ONE, and SpringerPlus.
Data citation
Data citation is the provision of accurate, consistent and standardised referencing for datasets just as bibliographic citations are provided for other published sources like research articles or monographs. Typically the well established Digital Object Identifier (DOI) approach is used with DOIs taking users to a website that contains the metadata on the dataset and the dataset itself.
History of development
A 2011 paper reported an inability to determine how often data citation happened in social sciences.
2012-13 papers reported that data citation was becoming more common but the practice for it was not standard.
In 2014 FORCE 11 published the Joint Declaration of Data Citation Principles covering the purpose, function and attributes of data citation.
In October 2018 CrossRef expressed its support for cataloging datasets and recommending their citation.
A popular data-oriented journal reported in April 2019 that it would now use data citations.
A June 2019 paper suggested that increased data citation will make the practice more valuable for everyone by encouraging data sharing and also by increasing the prestige of people who share.
Data citation is an emerging topic in computer science and it has been defined as a computational problem. Indeed, citing data poses significant challenges to computer scientists and the main problems to address are related to:
the use of heterogeneous data models and formats – e.g., relational databases, Comma-Separated Values (CSV), Extensible Markup Language (XML), Resource Description Framework (RDF);
the transience of data;
the necessity to cite data at different levels of coarseness – i.e., deep citations;
the necessity to automatically generate citations to data with variable granularity.
See also
Data archiving
Disciplinary repository
Open science data
Registry of Research Data Repositories
References
Academic publishing
Open access (publishing)
Data
Open science
Scholarly communication | Data publishing | [
"Technology"
] | 1,433 | [
"Information technology",
"Data",
"Data publishing"
] |
42,813,856 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coprinopsis%20acuminata | Coprinopsis acuminata, commonly known as the humpback inkcap mushroom and earlier as Coprinus acuminatus, is a coprophilous fungus that grows on herbivore dung. It is heterothallic.
Taxonomy
Coprinopsis acuminata was first described as Coprinus acuminatus in 1969 and later as Coprinopsis acuminata.
References
External links
Coprinopsis acuminata (Romagn.) Redhead, Vilgalys & Moncalvo 2001, Encyclopedia of Life
acuminata
Fungi described in 2001
Fungus species | Coprinopsis acuminata | [
"Biology"
] | 125 | [
"Fungi",
"Fungus species"
] |
42,814,162 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Android%20Team%20Awareness%20Kit | Android Team Awareness Kit (ATAK) is an Android smartphone geospatial infrastructure and military situation awareness app. It allows for precision targeting, surrounding land formation intelligence, situational awareness, navigation, and data sharing. This Android app is a part of the larger TAK family of products. ATAK has a plugin architecture which allows developers to add functionality. This extensible plugin architecture that allows enhanced capabilities for specific mission sets (Direct Action, Combat Advising, Law Enforcement, Protection Operations, Border Security, Disaster Response, Off-grid Communications, Precision Mapping and Geotagging).
It enables users to navigate using GPS and geospatial map data overlayed with real-time situational awareness of ongoing events. The ATAK software represents the surrounding area using the military standard APP-6 symbology, and customized symbols such as icons from Google Earth and Google Maps for iconography and the Cursor on Target data format standard for communication.
Initially created in 2010 by the Air Force Research Laboratory, and based on the NASA WorldWind Mobile codebase its development and deployment grew slowly, then rapidly since 2016.
As of 2020, ATAK has a growing base of 250,000 military and civilian users across numerous public safety agencies and US partner nations, and has seen the addition of 15 United States Department of Defense programs.
Development and usage
ATAK began in August 2010 and was originally based on NASA WorldWind Mobile. The goal was to demonstrate robust information sharing in a mobile format.
In 2013, officials at Draper Laboratory said that the system would be compatible with Android mobile operating systems and could be used for navigation, spatial awareness, and controlling drones.
On October 14, 2014, U.S. Army Geospatial Center recommended AFRL's Android Team Awareness Kit (ATAK), over the world-leader Esri's Commercial Joint Mapping Tool Kit (CJMTK), NASA's World Wind, and the Army's Globe Engine (AGE) for map engine driving the Nett Warrior End User Device. ATAK was selected due to similar capabilities with CJMTK, similar risk, and less than one-third of the total cost.
According to a January 2016 article in National Defense Magazine, "[ATAK] has already been fielded to AFSOC units".
In September 2015, DARPA reported that ATAK was used in a successful demonstration of the Persistent Close Air Support Program, and is in use by thousands of users.
Polaris integrated its Ground Guidance software into an ATAK Plugin to allow on and off-road routing for mounted and dismounted soldiers, accounting for terrain, weather, enemy activity and equipment load.
In 2018, USAF Security Forces deployed ATAK at Eglin AFB, Florida.
The Android Team Awareness Kit or TAK is currently used by thousands of Department of Homeland Security personnel, along with other members of the Homeland Security Enterprise including state and local public safety personnel. It is in various stages of transition across DHS components and is the emerging DHS-wide solution for tactical awareness.
TAK has supported the rescue of over 2,000 people during disaster response for seven major hurricanes (Harvey, Irma, Maria, Florence, Lane, Michael, and Dorian). The capability is also regularly used during daily public safety operations and national security special events like United Nations General Assembly meetings and the Super Bowl.
ATAK versions
ATAK has various end-user versions:
ATAK - Civilian (ATAK-CIV) - A distribution controlled but fully-releasable version of the TAK Product line for First Responders, Licensed Commercial Developers. Distribution for ATAK-CIV is through Approved, Government Hosted Sites, Direct Commercial Sales (DCS). This version has no ITAR capabilities.
ATAK - Government (ATAK-GOV) - ITAR restricted version of the TAK Product line for USG entities and Foreign Government. Distribution for ATAK-GOV are through Approved, Government Hosted Sites; Direct Commercial Sales (DCS). This version of ATAK has no military (MIL) sensitive capabilities.
ATAK - Military (ATAK-MIL) - Military Sensitive version of the TAK Product line for US and Foreign Military end-users. Similar to ATAK-GOV, distribution is through Approved, Government Hosted Sites. However, is not available through Direct Commercial Sales (DCS).
ATAK - Public Release (ATAK-PR) - (Discontinued) Was made available for download on takmaps.com in April 2020. ATAK-PR is publicly releasable version of the TAK Product line for public individuals for public uses. This version of ATAK is not plugin capable. And is only compatible with arm64 based systems due to file size restrictions. End users with armeabi-v7a or x86 devices are to use ATAK-CIV.
ATAK - FVEY "Five Eyes" (ATAK-FVEY)
ATAK-CIV
On September 1, 2020 - the TAK Product Center released ATAK-CIV (Android Team Awareness Kit - Civil Use) - Version 4.1.1.0 on Google Play Store.
Other versions
In addition to the Android version, there is also a Microsoft Windows version (WinTAK), an Apple iOS version under development (iTAK). WinTAK is an application developed for the Microsoft Windows Operating System which uses maps to allow for precise targeting, intelligence on surrounding land formations, navigation, and generalized situational awareness. It was developed in conjunction with ATAK to provide similar functionality on a Windows platform.
Commercial licensing
In January 2015, AFRL began licensing ATAK through TechLink to U.S. companies, for commercial use to support state/local government uses as well as civilian uses. As of January 2020, one hundred companies have licensed ATAK for commercial uses. Corona Fire Department is one example of a local public safety agency using ATAK. Corona uses PAR Government's Team Connect platform to leverage ATAK. In civilian use, ATAK is often referred to as Android Team Awareness Kit.
Federal Government release
As of March 31, 2020, the civilian version of ATAK, referred to as CivTAK has been approved for "Public Release" by Army Night Vision and is available for download on takmaps.com and subsequently named Android Team Awareness Kit (ATAK) - Civilian.
License grant
Upon running ATAK-PR 4.0.0.1, the application splash screen shows a statement; "Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited.". The license conditions are detailed in the ATAK Software License Agreement found in the Support menu of ATAK.
Open source
On August 19, 2020, the source code for the Android Tactical Assault Kit for Civilian Use (ATAK-CIV), the official geospatial-temporal and situational awareness tool used by the US Government, has been released on United States Department of Defense - Defense Digital Service GitHub repository. ATAK-CIV is managed by the Tactical Assault Kit Configuration Steering Board (TAK CSB) and is designed for used by (US) federal employees.
It is made available to the open source community with the hope that community contributions will improve functionality, add features, and mature this work.
Users
Americas
Military
United States Special Operations Command
United States Army
United States Army Special Operations Command
United States Air Force
United States National Guard
United States Navy and United States Marine Corps(primarily use APASS and KILSWITCH but instances of ATAK use seen as of 2021)
United States Coast Guard
Law Enforcement and Emergency Services
United States Department of Homeland Security
United States Secret Service
Federal Bureau of Investigation
U.S. Customs and Border Protection
Immigration and Customs Enforcement
Federal Emergency Management Agency
Albuquerque Fire Rescue
Colorado Department of Public Safety
Division of Fire Prevention and Control, Center of Excellence for Advanced Technology Aerial Firefighting (CoE)
Corona Fire Department
New York City Police Department
Royal Canadian Mounted Police
Emergency Response Team
Canadian Armed Forces
Canadian Army
Europe
British Army
Special Air Service
Special Reconnaissance Regiment
Special Forces Support Group
Pathfinder Platoon
Ranger Regiment
4/73 (Sphinx) Special Observation Post Battery RA
The Black Watch
The Royal Regiment of Scotland
1st The Queen's Dragoon Guards
Royal Navy
Special Boat Service
Royal Marines
Polish Army
Polish Navy
Asia
Philippine National Police
JTF CoViD Shield
References
External links
TAK Product Center
TAK Product Center - Legacy Portal
CivTAK.org - News, Licensing, Support for TAK Tools
TAKCiv Community Support Wiki
Forces.net - British Army Officer: Military Mobile App 'A Game Changer'
Android (operating system)
Geographic information systems | Android Team Awareness Kit | [
"Technology"
] | 1,735 | [
"Information systems",
"Geographic information systems"
] |
42,814,178 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vinelink.com | Vinelink.com (VINE) is a national website in the United States that allows victims of crime, and the general public, to track the movements of prisoners held by the various states and territories. The first four letters in the websites name, "vine", are an acronym for "Victim Information and Notification Everyday". Vinelink.com displays information, based on the information provided by the various states' departments of correction and other law enforcement agencies, on whether an inmate is in custody, has been released, has been granted parole or probation, or has escaped from custody. In some cases, the website will reveal whether a defendant has been granted parole or probation, but then subsequently violated conditions of their release and become a fugitive. Information provided on Vinelink.com represents metadata, in that the website lists a defendant's custody status; but does not list what the individual is charged with, their criminal history, or the amount of their bail, if applicable.
Internet users accessing the Vinelink.com website choose from a map of states and provinces within the United States where they wish to perform a search for an inmate. The user may then search for an individual using the inmate's or parolee's name, or by entering the inmate's specific department of corrections inmate number, if known. When the inmate's custody status changes, users who have registered to be notified of such changes will be notified via email, phone or both. This information is currently released upon request, without the website requesting reasons for the users search or requiring payment, as public records available to the general public.
Inmate information is available for most states, and for Puerto Rico, on the website. The states of Arizona, Georgia, Massachusetts, Montana, New Hampshire and West Virginia provide very limited information on the site. The states of Maine and South Dakota do not participate in the VINE system. The website does not provide data on prisoners detained by the Federal Bureau of Prisons which has its own inmate locator web site nor for inmates of the U.S. military prisons.
References
External links
Official website
See also
Visit the official Federal Bureau of Prisons website to search for inmates being held by the United States Federal Bureau of Prisons.
Data management
Government services web portals in the United States
Law enforcement websites
Metadata
Public records | Vinelink.com | [
"Technology"
] | 464 | [
"Data management",
"Metadata",
"Data"
] |
42,815,262 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lamellarin%20D | Lamellarins are a group of pyrrole alkaloids first isolated in 1985 from the marine mollusk Lamellaria in the waters of Palau. Over 70 lamellarins and similar compounds were subsequently isolated. Other similar compounds include ningalins, lukianols, polycitones, and storniamides.
Biological activity
These compounds have shown a wide variety of biological activity, including reversal of multidrug resistance, HIV-1 integrase inhibition, and antibiotic activity. Lamellarin D, for example, displays strong cytotoxic activity against tumor cell lines, and is a potent topoisomerase I inhibitor.
Structure
The lamellarins all contain a central pyrrole ring, substituted at the 3 and 4 positions by polyhydroxy- or methoxyphenyls. They are divided into two groups, depending on whether the pyrrole ring is fused or unfused.
Synthesis
The lamellarins have been synthesized by a number of groups, including Isibashi, Steglich, Ruchirawat, Banwell, Alvarez, Gupton, Boger, and Handy.
Steglich synthesis of lamellarin G trimethyl ether
The Steglich synthesis features an oxidative coupling of two benzylic carbons, as well as a Paal-Knorr pyrrole synthesis.
Banwell synthesis of lamellarin K
The Banwell group’s synthesis of lamellarin K includes an intramolecular azomethine ylide cyclization.
Gallery
See also
Pyrrole
References
Pyrroles
Isoquinoline alkaloids | Lamellarin D | [
"Chemistry"
] | 339 | [
"Isoquinoline alkaloids",
"Alkaloids by chemical classification"
] |
42,815,625 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Design%20of%20the%20FAT%20file%20system | The FAT file system is a file system used on MS-DOS and Windows 9x family of operating systems. It continues to be used on mobile devices and embedded systems, and thus is a well-suited file system for data exchange between computers and devices of almost any type and age from 1981 through to the present.
Structure
A FAT file system is composed of four regions:
FAT uses little-endian format for all entries in the header (except for, where explicitly mentioned, some entries on Atari ST boot sectors) and the FAT(s). It is possible to allocate more FAT sectors than necessary for the number of clusters. The end of the last sector of each FAT copy can be unused if there are no corresponding clusters. The total number of sectors (as noted in the boot record) can be larger than the number of sectors used by data (clusters × sectors per cluster), FATs (number of FATs × sectors per FAT), the root directory (n/a for FAT32), and hidden sectors including the boot sector: this would result in unused sectors at the end of the volume. If a partition contains more sectors than the total number of sectors occupied by the file system it would also result in unused sectors, at the end of the partition, after the volume.
Reserved sectors area
Boot Sector
On non-partitioned storage devices, such as floppy disks, the Boot Sector (VBR) is the first sector (logical sector 0 with physical CHS address 0/0/1 or LBA address 0). For partitioned storage devices such as hard disks, the Boot Sector is the first sector of a partition, as specified in the partition table of the device.
BIOS Parameter Block
DOS 3.0 BPB:
The following extensions were documented since DOS 3.0, however, they were already supported by some issues of DOS 2.11. MS-DOS 3.10 still supported the DOS 2.0 format, but could use the DOS 3.0 format as well.
DOS 3.2 BPB:
Officially, MS-DOS 3.20 still used the DOS 3.0 format, but SYS and FORMAT were adapted to support a 6 bytes longer format already (of which not all entries were used).
DOS 3.31 BPB:
Officially introduced with DOS 3.31 and not used by DOS 3.2, some DOS 3.2 utilities were designed to be aware of this new format already. Official documentation recommends to trust these values only if the logical sectors entry at offset is zero.
A simple formula translates a volume's given cluster number CN to a logical sector number LSN:
Determine (once) SSA=RSC+FN×SF+ceil((32×RDE)/SS), where the reserved sector count RSC is stored at offset , the number of FATsFN at offset , the sectors per FAT SF at offset (FAT12/FAT16) or (FAT32), the root directory entries RDE at offset , the sector size SS at offset , and ceil(x) rounds up to a whole number.
Determine LSN=SSA+(CN−2)×SC, where the sectors per cluster SC are stored at offset .
On unpartitioned media the volume's number of hidden sectors is zero and therefore LSN and LBA addresses become the same for as long as a volume's logical sector size is identical to the underlying medium's physical sector size. Under these conditions, it is also simple to translate between CHS addresses and LSNs as well:
LSN=SPT×(HN+(NOS×TN))+SN−1, where the sectors per track SPT are stored at offset , and the number of sides NOS at offset . Track number TN, head number HN, and sector number SN correspond to Cylinder-head-sector: the formula gives the known CHS to LBA translation.
Extended BIOS Parameter Block
Further structure used by FAT12 and FAT16 since OS/2 1.0 and DOS 4.0, also known as Extended BIOS Parameter Block (EBPB) (bytes below sector offset are the same as for the DOS 3.31 BPB):
FAT32 Extended BIOS Parameter Block
In essence FAT32 inserts 28 bytes into the EBPB, followed by the remaining 26 (or sometimes only 7) EBPB bytes as shown above for FAT12 and FAT16. Microsoft and IBM operating systems determine the type of FAT file system used on a volume solely by the number of clusters, not by the used BPB format or the indicated file system type, that is, it is technically possible to use a "FAT32 EBPB" also for FAT12 and FAT16 volumes as well as a DOS 4.0 EBPB for small FAT32 volumes. Since such volumes were found to be created by Windows operating systems under some odd conditions, operating systems should be prepared to cope with these hybrid forms.
Exceptions
Versions of DOS before 3.2 totally or partially relied on the media descriptor byte in the BPB or the FAT ID byte in cluster 0 of the first FAT in order to determine FAT12 diskette formats even if a BPB is present. Depending on the FAT ID found and the drive type detected they default to use one of the following BPB prototypes instead of using the values actually stored in the BPB.
Originally, the FAT ID was meant to be a bit flag with all bits set except for bit 2 cleared to indicate an 80 track (vs. 40 track) format, bit 1 cleared to indicate a 9 sector (vs. 8 sector) format, and bit 0 cleared to indicate a single-sided (vs. double-sided) format, but this scheme was not followed by all OEMs and became obsolete with the introduction of hard disks and high-density formats. Also, the various 8-inch formats supported by 86-DOS and MS-DOS do not fit this scheme.
Microsoft recommends to distinguish between the two 8-inch formats for FAT ID by trying to read of a single-density address mark. If this results in an error, the medium must be double-density.
The table does not list a number of incompatible 8-inch and 5.25-inch FAT12 floppy formats supported by 86-DOS, which differ either in the size of the directory entries (16 bytes vs. 32 bytes) or in the extent of the reserved sectors area (several whole tracks vs. one logical sector only).
The implementation of a single-sided 315 KB FAT12 format used in MS-DOS for the Apricot PC and F1e had a different boot sector layout, to accommodate that computer's non-IBM compatible BIOS. The jump instruction and OEM name were omitted, and the MS-DOS BPB parameters (offsets - in the standard boot sector) were located at offset . The Portable, F1, PC duo and Xi FD supported a non-standard double-sided 720 KB FAT12 format instead. The differences in the boot sector layout and media IDs made these formats incompatible with many other operating systems. The geometry parameters for these formats are:
315 KB: Bytes per logical sector: 512 bytes, logical sectors per cluster: 1, reserved logical sectors: 1, number of FATs: 2, root directory entries: 128, total logical sectors: 630, FAT ID: , logical sectors per FAT: 2, physical sectors per track: 9, number of heads: 1.
720 KB: Bytes per logical sector: 512 bytes, logical sectors per cluster: 2, reserved logical sectors: 1, number of FATs: 2, root directory entries: 176, total logical sectors: 1440, FAT ID: , logical sectors per FAT: 3, physical sectors per track: 9, number of heads: 2.
Later versions of Apricot MS-DOS gained the ability to read and write disks with the standard boot sector in addition to those with the Apricot one. These formats were also supported by DOS Plus 2.1e/g for the Apricot ACT series.
The DOS Plus adaptation for the BBC Master 512 supported two FAT12 formats on 80-track, double-sided, double-density 5.25" drives, which did not use conventional boot sectors at all. 800 KB data disks omitted a boot sector and began with a single copy of the FAT. The first byte of the relocated FAT in logical sector 0 was used to determine the disk's capacity. 640 KB boot disks began with a miniature ADFS file system containing the boot loader, followed by a single FAT. Also, the 640 KB format differed by using physical CHS sector numbers starting with 0 (not 1, as common) and incrementing sectors in the order sector-track-head (not sector-head-track, as common). The FAT started at the beginning of the next track. These differences make these formats unrecognizable by other operating systems. The geometry parameters for these formats are:
800 KB: Bytes per logical sector: 1024 bytes, logical sectors per cluster: 1, reserved logical sectors: 0, number of FATs: 1, root directory entries: 192, total logical sectors: 800, FAT ID: , logical sectors per FAT: 2, physical sectors per track: 5, number of heads: 2.
640 KB: Bytes per logical sector: 256 bytes, logical sectors per cluster: 8, reserved logical sectors: 16, number of FATs: 1, root directory entries: 112, total logical sectors: 2560, FAT ID: , logical sectors per FAT: 2, physical sectors per track: 16, number of heads: 2.
DOS Plus for the Master 512 could also access standard PC disks formatted to or , using the first byte of the FAT in logical sector 1 to determine the capacity.
The DEC Rainbow 100 (all variations) supported one FAT12 format on 80-track, single-sided, quad-density 5.25" drives. The first two tracks were reserved for the boot loader, but didn't contain an MBR nor a BPB (MS-DOS used a static in-memory BPB instead). The boot sector (track 0, side 0, sector 1) was Z80 code beginning with DI . The 8088 bootstrap was loaded by the Z80. Track 1, side 0, sector 2 starts with the Media/FAT ID byte . Unformatted disks use instead. The file system starts on track 2, side 0, sector 1. There are 2 copies of the FAT and 96 entries in the root directory. In addition, there is a physical to logical track mapping to effect a 2:1 sector interleaving. The disks were formatted with the physical sectors in order numbered 1 to 10 on each track after the reserved tracks, but the logical sectors from 1 to 10 were stored in physical sectors 1, 6, 2, 7, 3, 8, 4, 9, 5, 10.
FS Information Sector
The "FS Information Sector" was introduced in FAT32 for speeding up access times of certain operations (in particular, getting the amount of free space). It is located at a logical sector number specified in the FAT32 EBPB boot record at position (usually logical sector 1, immediately after the boot record itself).
The sector's data may be outdated and not reflect the current media contents, because not all operating systems update or use this sector, and even if they do, the contents is not valid when the medium has been ejected without properly unmounting the volume or after a power-failure. Therefore, operating systems should first inspect a volume's optional shutdown status bitflags residing in the FAT entry of cluster 1 or the FAT32 EBPB at offset and ignore the data stored in the FS information sector, if these bitflags indicate that the volume was not properly unmounted before. This does not cause any problems other than a possible speed penalty for the first free space query or data cluster allocation; see fragmentation.
If this sector is present on a FAT32 volume, the minimum allowed logical sector size is 512 bytes, whereas otherwise it would be 128 bytes. Some FAT32 implementations support a slight variation of Microsoft's specification by making the FS information sector optional by specifying a value of (or ) in the entry at offset .
FAT region
File Allocation Table
Cluster map
A volume's data area is divided into identically sized clusters—small blocks of contiguous space. Cluster sizes vary depending on the type of FAT file system being used and the size of the drive; typical cluster sizes range from 2 to .
Each file may occupy one or more clusters depending on its size. Thus, a file is represented by a chain of clusters (referred to as a singly linked list). These clusters are not necessarily stored adjacent to one another on the disk's surface but are often instead fragmented throughout the Data Region.
Each version of the FAT file system uses a different size for FAT entries. Smaller numbers result in a smaller FAT, but waste space in large partitions by needing to allocate in large clusters.
The FAT12 file system uses 12 bits per FAT entry, thus two entries span 3 bytes. It is consistently little-endian: if those three bytes are considered as one little-endian 24-bit number, the 12 least significant bits represent the first entry (e.g. cluster 0) and the 12 most significant bits the second (e.g. cluster 1). In other words, while the low eight bits of the first cluster in the row are stored in the first byte, the top four bits are stored in the low nibble of the second byte, whereas the low four bits of the subsequent cluster in the row are stored in the high nibble of the second byte and its higher eight bits in the third byte.
The FAT16 file system uses 16 bits per FAT entry, thus one entry spans two bytes in little-endian byte order:
The FAT32 file system uses 32 bits per FAT entry, thus one entry spans four bytes in little-endian byte order. The four top bits of each entry are reserved for other purposes; they are cleared during formatting and should not be changed otherwise. They must be masked off before interpreting the entry as 28-bit cluster address.
The File Allocation Table (FAT) is a contiguous number of sectors immediately following the area of reserved sectors. It represents a list of entries that map to each cluster on the volume. Each entry records one of four things:
the cluster number of the next cluster in a chain
a special end of cluster-chain (EOC) entry that indicates the end of a chain
a special entry to mark a bad cluster
a zero to note that the cluster is unused
For very early versions of DOS to recognize the file system, the system must have been booted from the volume or the volume's FAT must start with the volume's second sector (logical sector 1 with physical CHS address 0/0/2 or LBA address 1), that is, immediately following the boot sector. Operating systems assume this hard-wired location of the FAT in order to find the FAT ID in the FAT's cluster 0 entry on DOS 1.0-1.1 FAT diskettes, where no valid BPB is found.
Special entries
The first two entries in a FAT store special values:
The first entry (cluster 0 in the FAT) holds the FAT ID since MS-DOS 1.20 and PC DOS 1.1 (allowed values - with - reserved) in bits 7-0, which is also copied into the BPB of the boot sector, offset since DOS 2.0. The remaining 4 bits (if FAT12), 8 bits (if FAT16) or 20 bits (if FAT32, the 4 MSB bits are zero) of this entry are always 1. These values were arranged so that the entry would also function as a "trap-all" end-of-chain marker for all data clusters holding a value of zero. Additionally, for FAT IDs other than (and ) it is possible to determine the correct nibble and byte order (to be) used by the file system driver, however, the FAT file system officially uses a little-endian representation only and there are no known implementations of variants using big-endian values instead. 86-DOS 0.42 up to MS-DOS 1.14 used hard-wired drive profiles instead of a FAT ID, but used this byte to distinguish between media formatted with 32-byte or 16-byte directory entries, as they were used prior to 86-DOS 0.42.
The second entry (cluster 1 in the FAT) nominally stores the end-of-cluster-chain marker as used by the formater, but typically always holds / / , that is, with the exception of bits 31-28 on FAT32 volumes these bits are normally always set. Some Microsoft operating systems, however, set these bits if the volume is not the volume holding the running operating system (that is, use instead of here). (In conjunction with alternative end-of-chain markers the lowest bits 2-0 can become zero for the lowest allowed end-of-chain marker / / ; bit 3 should be reserved as well given that clusters / / and higher are officially reserved. Some operating systems may not be able to mount some volumes if any of these bits are not set, therefore the default end-of-chain marker should not be changed.) For DOS 1 and 2, the entry was documented as reserved for future use.
Since DOS 7.1 the two most-significant bits of this cluster entry may hold two optional bitflags representing the current volume status on FAT16 and FAT32, but not on FAT12 volumes. These bitflags are not supported by all operating systems, but operating systems supporting this feature would set these bits on shutdown and clear the most significant bit on startup:
If bit 15 (on FAT16) or bit 27 (on FAT32) is not set when mounting the volume, the volume was not properly unmounted before shutdown or ejection and thus is in an unknown and possibly "dirty" state. On FAT32 volumes, the FS Information Sector may hold outdated data and thus should not be used. The operating system would then typically run SCANDISK or CHKDSK on the next startup (but not on insertion of removable media) to ensure and possibly reestablish the volume's integrity.
If bit 14 (on FAT16) or bit 26 (on FAT32) is cleared, the operating system has encountered disk I/O errors on startup, a possible indication for bad sectors. Operating systems aware of this extension will interpret this as a recommendation to carry out a surface scan (SCANDISK) on the next boot. (A similar set of bitflags exists in the FAT12/FAT16 EBPB at offset or the FAT32 EBPB at offset . While the cluster 1 entry can be accessed by file system drivers once they have mounted the volume, the EBPB entry is available even when the volume is not mounted and thus easier to use by disk block device drivers or partitioning tools.)
If the number of FATs in the BPB is not set to 2, the second cluster entry in the first FAT (cluster 1) may also reflect the status of a TFAT volume for TFAT-aware operating systems. If the cluster 1 entry in that FAT holds the value 0, this may indicate that the second FAT represents the last known valid transaction state and should be copied over the first FAT, whereas the first FAT should be copied over the second FAT if all bits are set.
Some non-standard FAT12/FAT16 implementations utilize the cluster 1 entry to store the starting cluster of a variable-sized root directory (typically 2). This may occur when the number of root directory entries in the BPB holds a value of 0 and no FAT32 EBPB is found (no signature or at offset ). This extension, however, is not supported by mainstream operating systems, as it conflicts with other possible uses of the cluster 1 entry. Most conflicts can be ruled out if this extension is only allowed for FAT12 with less than and FAT16 volumes with less than clusters and 2 FATs.
Because these first two FAT entries store special values, there are no data clusters 0 or 1. The first data cluster (after the root directory if FAT12/FAT16) is cluster 2, marking the beginning of the data area.
Cluster values
FAT entry values:
FAT32 uses 28 bits for cluster numbers. The remaining 4 bits in the 32-bit FAT entry are usually zero, but are reserved and should be left untouched. A standard conformant FAT32 file system driver or maintenance tool must not rely on the upper 4 bits to be zero and it must strip them off before evaluating the cluster number in order to cope with possible future expansions where these bits may be used for other purposes. They must not be cleared by the file system driver when allocating new clusters, but should be cleared during a reformat.
Root directory region
The root directory table in FAT12 and FAT16 file systems occupies the special Root Directory Region location.
Data region
Aside from the root directory table in FAT12 and FAT16 file systems, which occupies the special Root Directory Region location, all directory tables are stored in the data region. The actual number of entries in a directory stored in the data region can grow by adding another cluster to the chain in the FAT.
Directory table
A directory table is a special type of file that represents a directory (also known as a folder). Since 86-DOS 0.42, each file or (since MS-DOS 1.40 and PC DOS 2.0) subdirectory stored within it is represented by a 32-byte entry in the table. Each entry records the name, extension, attributes (archive, directory, hidden, read-only, system and volume), the address of the first cluster of the file/directory's data, the size of the file/directory, and the date and (since PC DOS 1.1) also the time of last modification. Earlier versions of 86-DOS used 16-byte directory entries only, supporting no files larger than 16 MB and no time of last modification.
The FAT file system itself does not impose any limits on the depth of a subdirectory tree for as long as there are free clusters available to allocate the subdirectories, however, the internal Current Directory Structure (CDS) under MS-DOS/PC DOS limits the absolute path of a directory to 66 characters (including the drive letter, but excluding the NUL byte delimiter), thereby limiting the maximum supported depth of subdirectories to 32, whatever occurs earlier. Concurrent DOS, Multiuser DOS and DR DOS 3.31 to 6.0 (up to including the 1992-11 updates) do not store absolute paths to working directories internally and therefore do not show this limitation. The same applies to Atari GEMDOS, but the Atari Desktop does not support more than 8 sub-directory levels. Most applications aware of this extension support paths up to at least 127 bytes. FlexOS, 4680 OS and 4690 OS support a length of up to 127 bytes as well, allowing depths down to 60 levels. PalmDOS, DR DOS 6.0 (since BDOS 7.1) and higher, Novell DOS, and OpenDOS sport a MS-DOS-compatible CDS and therefore have the same length limits as MS-DOS/PC DOS.
Each entry can be preceded by "fake entries" to support a VFAT long filename (LFN); see further below.
Legal characters for DOS short filenames include the following:
Upper case letters A–Z
Numbers 0–9
Space (though trailing spaces in either the base name or the extension are considered to be padding and not a part of the file name; also filenames with space in them could not easily be used on the DOS command line prior to Windows 95 because of the lack of a suitable escaping system). Another exception are the internal commands MKDIR/MD and RMDIR/RD under DR-DOS which accept single arguments and therefore allow spaces to be entered.
! # $ % & ' ( ) - @ ^ _ ` { } ~
Characters 128–228
Characters 230–255
This excludes the following ASCII characters:
" * / : < > ? \ | Windows/MS-DOS has no shell escape character
+ , . ; = [ ] Allowed in long file names only
Lower case letters a–zStored as A–Z; allowed in long file names
Control characters 0–31
Character 127 (DEL)
Character 229 () was not allowed as first character in a filename in DOS 1 and 2 due to its use as free entry marker. A special case was added to circumvent this limitation with DOS 3.0 and higher.
The following additional characters are allowed on Atari's GEMDOS, but should be avoided for compatibility with MS-DOS/PC DOS:
" + , ; < = > [ ] |
The semicolon (;) should be avoided in filenames under DR DOS 3.31 and higher, PalmDOS, Novell DOS, OpenDOS, Concurrent DOS, Multiuser DOS, System Manager and REAL/32, because it may conflict with the syntax to specify file and directory passwords: "...\DIRSPEC.EXT;DIRPWD\FILESPEC.EXT;FILEPWD". The operating system will strip off one (and also two—since DR-DOS 7.02) semicolons and pending passwords from the filenames before storing them on disk. (The command processor 4DOS uses semicolons for include lists and requires the semicolon to be doubled for password protected files with any commands supporting wildcards.)
The at-sign character (@) is used for filelists by many DR-DOS, PalmDOS, Novell DOS, OpenDOS and Multiuser DOS, System Manager and REAL/32 commands, as well as by 4DOS and may therefore sometimes be difficult to use in filenames.
Under Multiuser DOS and REAL/32, the exclamation mark (!) is not a valid filename character since it is used to separate multiple commands in a single command line.
Under IBM 4680 OS and 4690 OS, the following characters are not allowed in filenames:
? * : . ; , [ ] ! + = < > " - / \ |
Additionally, the following special characters are not allowed in the first, fourth, fifth and eight character of a filename, as they conflict with the host command processor (HCP) and input sequence table build file names:
@ # ( ) { } $ &
The DOS file names are in the current OEM character set: this can have surprising effects if characters handled in one way for a given code page are interpreted differently for another code page (DOS command CHCP) with respect to lower and upper case, sorting, or validity as file name character.
Directory entry
Before Microsoft added support for long filenames and creation/access time stamps, bytes – of the directory entry were used by other operating systems to store additional metadata, most notably the operating systems of the Digital Research family stored file passwords, access rights, owner IDs, and file deletion data there. While Microsoft's newer extensions are not fully compatible with these extensions by default, most of them can coexist in third-party FAT implementations (at least on FAT12 and FAT16 volumes).
32-byte directory entries, both in the Root Directory Region and in subdirectories, are of the following format (see also 8.3 filename):
The FlexOS-based operating systems IBM 4680 OS and IBM 4690 OS support unique distribution attributes stored in some bits of the previously reserved areas in the directory entries:
Local: Don't distribute file but keep on local controller only.
Mirror file on update: Distribute file to server only when file is updated.
Mirror file on close: Distribute file to server only when file is closed.
Compound file on update: Distribute file to all controllers when file is updated.
Compound file on close: Distribute file to all controllers when file is closed.
Some incompatible extensions found in some operating systems include:
Size limits
The FAT12, FAT16, FAT16B, and FAT32 variants of the FAT file systems have clear limits based on the number of clusters and the number of sectors per cluster (1, 2, 4, ..., 128). For the typical value of 512 bytes per sector:
FAT12 requirements : 3 sectors on each copy of FAT for every 1,024 clusters
FAT16 requirements : 1 sector on each copy of FAT for every 256 clusters
FAT32 requirements : 1 sector on each copy of FAT for every 128 clusters
FAT12 range : 1 to 4,084 clusters : 1 to 12 sectors per copy of FAT
FAT16 range : 4,085 to 65,524 clusters : 16 to 256 sectors per copy of FAT
FAT32 range : 65,525 to 268,435,444 clusters : 512 to 2,097,152 sectors per copy of FAT
FAT12 minimum : 1 sector per cluster × 1 clusters = 512 bytes (0.5 KiB)
FAT16 minimum : 1 sector per cluster × 4,085 clusters = 2,091,520 bytes (2,042.5 KB)
FAT32 minimum : 1 sector per cluster × 65,525 clusters = 33,548,800 bytes (32,762.5 KB)
FAT12 maximum : 64 sectors per cluster × 4,084 clusters = 133,824,512 bytes (≈ 127 MB)
[FAT12 maximum : 128 sectors per cluster × 4,084 clusters = 267,694,024 bytes (≈ 255 MB)]
FAT16 maximum : 64 sectors per cluster × 65,524 clusters = 2,147,090,432 bytes (≈2,047 MB)
[FAT16 maximum : 128 sectors per cluster × 65,524 clusters = 4,294,180,864 bytes (≈4,095 MB)]
FAT32 maximum : 8 sectors per cluster × 268,435,444 clusters = 1,099,511,578,624 bytes (≈1,024 GB)
FAT32 maximum : 16 sectors per cluster × 268,173,557 clusters = 2,196,877,778,944 bytes (≈2,046 GB)
[FAT32 maximum : 32 sectors per cluster × 134,152,181 clusters = 2,197,949,333,504 bytes (≈2,047 GB)]
[FAT32 maximum : 64 sectors per cluster × 67,092,469 clusters = 2,198,486,024,192 bytes (≈2,047 GB)]
[FAT32 maximum : 128 sectors per cluster × 33,550,325 clusters = 2,198,754,099,200 bytes (≈2,047 GB)]
Legend: 268435444+3 is , because FAT32 version 0 uses only 28 bits in the 32-bit cluster numbers, cluster numbers up to flag bad clusters or the end of a file, cluster number 0 flags a free cluster, and cluster number 1 is not used. Likewise 65524+3 is for FAT16, and 4084+3 is for FAT12. The number of sectors per cluster is a power of 2 fitting in a single byte, the smallest value is 1 (), the biggest value is 128 (). Lines in square brackets indicate the unusual cluster size 128, and for FAT32 the bigger than necessary cluster sizes 32 or 64.
Because each FAT32 entry occupies 32 bits (4 bytes) the maximal number of clusters (268435444) requires 2097152 FAT sectors for a sector size of 512 bytes. 2097152 is , and storing this value needs more than two bytes. Therefore, FAT32 introduced a new 32-bit value in the FAT32 boot sector immediately following the 32-bit value for the total number of sectors introduced in the FAT16B variant.
The boot record extensions introduced with DOS 4.0 start with a magic 40 () or 41 (). Typically FAT drivers look only at the number of clusters to distinguish FAT12, FAT16, and FAT32: the human readable strings identifying the FAT variant in the boot record are ignored, because they exist only for media formatted with DOS 4.0 or later.
Determining the number of directory entries per cluster is straightforward. Each entry occupies 32 bytes; this results in 16 entries per sector for a sector size of 512 bytes. The DOS 5 RMDIR/RD command removes the initial "." (this directory) and ".." (parent directory) entries in subdirectories directly, therefore sector size 32 on a RAM disk is possible for FAT12, but requires 2 or more sectors per cluster. A FAT12 boot sector without the DOS 4 extensions needs 29 bytes before the first unnecessary FAT16B 32-bit number of hidden sectors, this leaves three bytes for the (on a RAM disk unused) boot code and the magic at the end of all boot sectors. On Windows NT the smallest supported sector size is 128.
On Windows NT operating systems the FORMAT command options /A:128K and /A:256K correspond to the maximal cluster size 0x80 (128) with a sector size 1024 and 2048, respectively. For the common sector size 512 /A:64K yields 128 sectors per cluster.
Both editions of each ECMA-107 and ISO/IEC 9293 specify a Max Cluster Number MAX determined by the formula MAX=1+trunc((TS-SSA)/SC), and reserve cluster numbers MAX+1 up to 4086 (, FAT12) and later 65526 (, FAT16) for future standardization.
Microsoft's EFI FAT32 specification states that any FAT file system with less than 4085 clusters is FAT12, else any FAT file system with less than 65,525 clusters is FAT16, and otherwise it is FAT32. The entry for cluster 0 at the beginning of the FAT must be identical to the media descriptor byte found in the BPB, whereas the entry for cluster 1 reflects the end-of-chain value used by the formatter for cluster chains (, or ). The entries for cluster numbers 0 and 1 end at a byte boundary even for FAT12, e.g., for media descriptor .
The first data cluster is 2, and consequently the last cluster MAX gets number MAX+1. This results in data cluster numbers 2...4085 () for FAT12, 2...65525 () for FAT16, and 2...268435445 () for FAT32.
The only available values reserved for future standardization are therefore (FAT12) and (FAT16). As noted below "less than 4085" is also used for Linux implementations, or as Microsoft's FAT specification puts it:
...when it says <, it does not mean <=. Note also that the numbers are correct. The first number for FAT12 is 4085; the second number for FAT16 is 65525. These numbers and the "<" signs are not wrong."
Fragmentation
The FAT file system does not contain built-in mechanisms which prevent newly written files from becoming scattered across the partition. On volumes where files are created and deleted frequently or their lengths often changed, the medium will become increasingly fragmented over time.
While the design of the FAT file system does not cause any organizational overhead in disk structures or reduce the amount of free storage space with increased amounts of fragmentation, as it occurs with external fragmentation, the time required to read and write fragmented files will increase as the operating system will have to follow the cluster chains in the FAT (with parts having to be loaded into memory first in particular on large volumes) and read the corresponding data physically scattered over the whole medium reducing chances for the low-level block device driver to perform multi-sector disk I/O or initiate larger DMA transfers, thereby effectively increasing I/O protocol overhead as well as arm movement and head settle times inside the disk drive. Also, file operations will become slower with growing fragmentation as it takes increasingly longer for the operating system to find files or free clusters.
Other file systems, e.g., HPFS or exFAT, use free space bitmaps that indicate used and available clusters, which could then be quickly looked up in order to find free contiguous areas. Another solution is the linkage of all free clusters into one or more lists (as is done in Unix file systems). Instead, the FAT has to be scanned as an array to find free clusters, which can lead to performance penalties with large disks.
In fact, seeking for files in large subdirectories or computing the free disk space on FAT volumes is one of the most resource intensive operations, as it requires reading the directory tables or even the entire FAT linearly. Since the total amount of clusters and the size of their entries in the FAT was still small on FAT12 and FAT16 volumes, this could still be tolerated on FAT12 and FAT16 volumes most of the time, considering that the introduction of more sophisticated disk structures would have also increased the complexity and memory footprint of real-mode operating systems with their minimum total memory requirements of 128 KB or less (such as with DOS) for which FAT has been designed and optimized originally.
With the introduction of FAT32, long seek and scan times became more apparent, particularly on very large volumes. A possible justification suggested by Microsoft's Raymond Chen for limiting the maximum size of FAT32 partitions created on Windows was the time required to perform a "DIR" operation, which always displays the free disk space as the last line. Displaying this line took longer and longer as the number of clusters increased. FAT32 therefore introduced a special file system information sector where the previously computed amount of free space is preserved over power cycles, so that the free space counter needs to be recalculated only when a removable FAT32 formatted medium gets ejected without first unmounting it or if the system is switched off without properly shutting down the operating system, a problem mostly visible with pre-ATX-style PCs, on plain DOS systems and some battery-powered consumer products.
With the huge cluster sizes (16 KB, 32 KB, 64 KB) forced by larger FAT partitions, internal fragmentation in form of disk space waste by file slack due to cluster overhang (as files are rarely exact multiples of cluster size) starts to be a problem as well, especially when there are a great many small files.
Various optimizations and tweaks to the implementation of FAT file system drivers, block device drivers and disk tools have been devised to overcome most of the performance bottlenecks in the file system's inherent design without having to change the layout of the on-disk structures. They can be divided into on-line and off-line methods and work by trying to avoid fragmentation in the file system in the first place, deploying methods to better cope with existing fragmentation, and by reordering and optimizing the on-disk structures. With optimizations in place, the performance on FAT volumes can often reach that of more sophisticated file systems in practical scenarios, while at the same time retaining the advantage of being accessible even on very small or old systems.
DOS 3.0 and higher will not immediately reuse disk space of deleted files for new allocations but instead seek for previously unused space before starting to use disk space of previously deleted files as well. This not only helps to maintain the integrity of deleted files for as long as possible but also speeds up file allocations and avoids fragmentation, since never before allocated disk space is always unfragmented.
DOS accomplishes this by keeping a pointer to the last allocated cluster on each mounted volume in memory and starts searching for free space from this location upwards instead of at the beginning of the FAT, as it was still done by DOS 2.x. If the end of the FAT is reached, it would wrap around to continue the search at the beginning of the FAT until either free space has been found or the original position has been reached again without having found free space. These pointers are initialized to point to the start of the FATs after bootup, but on FAT32 volumes, DOS 7.1 and higher will attempt to retrieve the last position from the FS Information Sector.
This mechanism is defeated, however, if an application often deletes and recreates temporary files as the operating system would then try to maintain the integrity of void data effectively causing more fragmentation in the end. In some DOS versions, the usage of a special API function to create temporary files can be used to avoid this problem.
Additionally, directory entries of deleted files will be marked since DOS 3.0. DOS 5.0 and higher will start to reuse these entries only when previously unused directory entries have been used up in the table and the system would otherwise have to expand the table itself.
Since DOS 3.3 the operating system provides means to improve the performance of file operations with FASTOPEN by keeping track of the position of recently opened files or directories in various forms of lists (MS-DOS/PC DOS) or hash tables (DR-DOS), which can reduce file seek and open times significantly. Before DOS 5.0 special care must be taken when using such mechanisms in conjunction with disk defragmentation software bypassing the file system or disk drivers.
Windows NT will allocate disk space to files on FAT in advance, selecting large contiguous areas, but in case of a failure, files which were being appended will appear larger than they were ever written into, with a lot of random data at the end.
Other high-level mechanisms may read in and process larger parts or the complete FAT on startup or on demand when needed and dynamically build up in-memory tree representations of the volume's file structures different from the on-disk structures. This may, on volumes with many free clusters, occupy even less memory than an image of the FAT itself. In particular on highly fragmented or filled volumes, seeks become much faster than with linear scans over the actual FAT, even if an image of the FAT would be stored in memory. Also, operating on the logically high level of files and cluster-chains instead of on sector or track level, it becomes possible to avoid some degree of file fragmentation in the first place or to carry out local file defragmentation and reordering of directory entries based on their names or access patterns in the background.
Some of the perceived problems with fragmentation of FAT file systems also result from performance limitations of the underlying block device drivers, which becomes more visible the lesser memory is available for sector buffering and track blocking/deblocking:
While the single-tasking DOS had provisions for multi-sector reads and track blocking/deblocking, the operating system and the traditional PC hard disk architecture (only one outstanding input/output request at a time and no DMA transfers) originally did not contain mechanisms which could alleviate fragmentation by asynchronously prefetching next data while the application was processing the previous chunks. Such features became available later. Later DOS versions also provided built-in support for look-ahead sector buffering and came with dynamically loadable disk caching programs working on physical or logical sector level, often utilizing EMS or XMS memory and sometimes providing adaptive caching strategies or even run in protected mode through DPMS or Cloaking to increase performance by gaining direct access to the cached data in linear memory rather than through conventional DOS APIs.
Write-behind caching was often not enabled by default with Microsoft software (if present) given the problem of data loss in case of a power failure or crash, made easier by the lack of hardware protection between applications and the system.
VFAT long file names
VFAT Long File Names (LFNs) are stored on a FAT file system using a trick: adding additional entries into the directory before the normal file entry. The additional entries are marked with the Volume Label, System, Hidden, and Read Only attributes (yielding ), which is a combination that is not expected in the MS-DOS environment, and therefore ignored by MS-DOS programs and third-party utilities. Notably, a directory containing only volume labels is considered as empty and is allowed to be deleted; such a situation appears if files created with long names are deleted from plain DOS. This method is very similar to the DELWATCH method to utilize the volume attribute to hide pending delete files for possible future undeletion since DR DOS 6.0 (1991) and higher. It is also similar to a method publicly discussed to store long filenames on Ataris and under Linux in 1992.
Because older versions of DOS could mistake LFN names in the root directory for the volume label, VFAT was designed to create a blank volume label in the root directory before adding any LFN name entries (if a volume label did not already exist).
Each phony entry can contain up to 13 UCS-2 characters (26 bytes) by using fields in the record which contain file size or time stamps (but not the starting cluster field, for compatibility with disk utilities, the starting cluster field is set to a value of 0. See 8.3 filename for additional explanations). Up to 20 of these 13-character entries may be chained, supporting a maximum length of 255 UCS-2 characters.
If the position of the LFN's last character is not at a directory entry boundary (13, 26, 39, ...), then a terminator is added in the next character position. Then, if that terminator is also not at the boundary, remaining character positions are filled with . No directory entry containing a lone terminator will exist.
LFN entries use the following format:
If there are multiple LFN entries required to represent a file name, the entry representing the end of the filename comes first. The sequence number of this entry has bit 6 () set to represent that it is the last logical LFN entry, and it has the highest sequence number. The sequence number decreases in the following entries. The entry representing the start of the filename has sequence number 1. A value of is used to indicate that the entry is deleted.
On FAT12 and FAT16 volumes, testing for the values at to be zero and at to be non-zero can be used to distinguish between VFAT LFNs and pending delete files under DELWATCH.
For example, a filename like "File with very long filename.ext" would be formatted like this:
A checksum also allows verification of whether a long file name matches the 8.3 name; such a mismatch could occur if a file was deleted and re-created using DOS in the same directory position. The checksum is calculated using the algorithm below. (pFCBName is a pointer to the name as it appears in a regular directory entry, i.e. the first eight characters are the filename, and the last three are the extension. The dot is implicit. Any unused space in the filename is padded with space characters (ASCII ). For example, "Readme.txt" would be "README␠␠TXT".)
unsigned char lfn_checksum(const unsigned char *pFCBName)
{
int i;
unsigned char sum = 0;
for (i = 11; i; i--)
sum = ((sum & 1) << 7) + (sum >> 1) + *pFCBName++;
return sum;
}
If a filename contains only lowercase letters, or is a combination of a lowercase basename with an uppercase extension, or vice versa; and has no special characters, and fits within the 8.3 limits, a VFAT entry is not created on Windows NT and later versions of Windows such as XP. Instead, two bits in byte of the directory entry are used to indicate that the filename should be considered as entirely or partially lowercase. Specifically, bit 4 means lowercase extension and bit 3 lowercase basename, which allows for combinations such as "example.TXT" or "HELLO.txt" but not "Mixed.txt". Few other operating systems support it. This creates a backwards-compatibility problem with older Windows versions (Windows 95 / 98 / 98 SE / ME) that see all-uppercase filenames if this extension has been used, and therefore can change the name of a file when it is transported between operating systems, such as on a USB flash drive. Current 2.6.x versions of Linux will recognize this extension when reading (source: kernel 2.6.18 /fs/fat/dir.c and fs/vfat/namei.c); the mount option shortname determines whether this feature is used when writing.
See also
Comparison of file systems
Drive letter assignment
exFAT
Extended Boot Record (EBR)
FAT filesystem and Linux
List of file systems
Master Boot Record (MBR)
Partition type
Timeline of DOS operating systems
Transaction-Safe FAT File System
Turbo FAT
Volume Boot Record (VBR)
Notes
References
External links
ECMA-107 Volume and File Structure of Disk Cartridges for Information Interchange, identical to ISO/IEC 9293.
Microsoft Extensible Firmware Initiative FAT32 File System Specification, FAT: General Overview of On-Disk Format
Understanding FAT32 file systems (explained for embedded firmware developers)
Understanding FAT including lots of info about LFNs
Detailed Explanation of FAT Boot Sector: Microsoft Knowledge Base Article 140418
Description of the FAT32 File System: Microsoft Knowledge Base Article 154997
FAT12/FAT16/FAT32 file system implementation for *nix: Includes libfat libraries and fusefat, a FUSE file system driver
MS-DOS: Directory and Subdirectory Limitations: Microsoft Knowledge Base Article 39927
Overview of FAT, HPFS, and NTFS File Systems: Microsoft Knowledge Base Article 100108
Volume and file size limits of FAT file systems: Microsoft Technet, copy made by Internet Archive Wayback Machine
Microsoft TechNet: A Brief and Incomplete History of FAT32 by Raymond Chen
FAT32 Formatter : allows formatting volumes larger than with FAT32 under Windows 2000, Windows XP and Windows Vista
Fdisk does not recognize full size of hard disks larger than : Microsoft Knowledge Base Article 263044, copy made by Internet Archive Wayback Machine. Explains inability to work with extremely large volumes under Windows 95/98.
Microsoft Windows XP: FAT32 File System. Copy made by Internet Archive Wayback Machine of an article with summary of limits in FAT32 which is no longer available on Microsoft website.
Visual Layout of a FAT16 drive
1980 software
Computer file systems
Disk file systems
DOS technology
Windows components
Windows disk file systems
Ecma standards
File systems supported by the Linux kernel
fr:File Allocation Table#Aspect technique | Design of the FAT file system | [
"Technology"
] | 10,551 | [
"Computer standards",
"Ecma standards"
] |
42,816,580 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium%20germanate | Sodium germanate is an inorganic compound with the chemical formula Na2GeO3. It exists as a colorless solid. Sodium germanate is primarily used for the synthesis of other germanium compounds.
Preparation and reactions
Sodium germanate can be prepared by the fusion of germanium oxide with sodium hydroxide at high temperatures:
2NaOH + GeO2 → Na2GeO3 + H2O
An intermediate in this reaction is the protonated derivative NaHGeO3, which is a water-soluble salt.
Structure
it is structurally analogous to sodium metasilicate, Na2SiO3, consisting of polymeric GeO32− anions made up of vertex sharing {GeO4} tetrahedra.
See also
Germanate
References
Germanates
Sodium compounds | Sodium germanate | [
"Chemistry"
] | 153 | [
"Inorganic compounds",
"Inorganic compound stubs"
] |
42,817,407 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cordyceps%20militaris | Cordyceps militaris, commonly known as the caterpillar fungus, is a species of fungus in the family Cordycipitaceae, and the type species of the genus Cordyceps, which consists of hundreds of species. The species was originally described by Carl Linnaeus in 1753 as Clavaria militaris. Cordyceps militaris parasitizes insects and is used in traditional Chinese medicine and modern pharmaceuticals.
Description
The fungus forms high, club-shaped and orange/red fruiting bodies, which grow out of dead underground pupae. The club is covered with the stroma, into which the actual fruit bodies, the perithecia, are inserted. The surface appears roughly punctured. The inner fungal tissue is whitish to pale orange.
Microscopic features
The spores are smooth, hyaline, long-filiform, and often septate. They decompose to maturity in 3–7 μm × 1–1.2 μm sub pores. The asci are long and cylindrical. Sometimes an anamorphic state, which is Isaria, is found. Masses of white mycelia form around the parasitized insect; however, these may not be of the same species.
Similar species
Cordyceps in the wild has more than 400 different species. Similar species include Cordyceps sobolifera, Elaphocordyceps capitata, and Elaphocordyceps ophioglossoides.
Distribution and habitat
Many authors consider C. militaris quite common, spread throughout the Northern Hemisphere, and fruiting bodies appear in Europe from August to November.
Uses
C. militaris can be cultivated in a variety of media, including silkworm pupae, rice, and liquid nutrition. It is considered inedible or "probably edible" by North American field guides. In Asia the fruiting body is cooked as a mushroom in dishes like chicken soup, pork bone soup and hot pot.
C. militaris crops can be affected by pathogenic molds that parasitize and kill the fungus.
Research
Cordyceps militaris is well known within the realm of traditional Chinese medicine. Its anti-inflammatory, anti-tumor, and anti-aging properties have been well documented. However, more thorough clinical trials of the fungus are difficult to construct, due to the biological complexity of the fungus. The medicinal properties of C. militaris can be attributed to a number of chemicals within the fungi, including cordycepin, cordymin, and many other extracts. Cordycepin is especially important, with current research investigating ways to expedite the production of the chemical within cordyceps.
C. militaris is a potential carrier of bio-metabolites for herbal drugs. Traditional medicine systems believe it "revitalizes" various systems of the body. In traditional Chinese medicine, this fungus can serve as a cheap substitute for Ophiocordyceps sinensis. Both contain cordycepin. Studies have found that excessive use of C. militaris can exert pressure on the filtering and excretory functions of the liver and kidneys, potentially leading to damage in these organs.
C. militaris contains a protein CMP18 which induces apoptosis in vitro via a mitochondrion-dependent pathway. It is thought that it might be toxic when eaten. Cooking destroys this protein.
The effects of C. militaris on general health is predicted to land it a substantial position in both medicinal areas as well as everyday diets.
Chemistry
Bai & Sheu 2018 found a new protein causing apoptosis. Song et al., 2009 finds microwave-assisted extraction to be a good technique for polysaccharide extraction from this fungus.
Like other members of the Cordyceps genus, C. militaris produces the pharmacologically active compound cordycepin. Cordycepin is a nucleoside analogue of adenosine-differing by only a single hydroxyl group. It has been shown to induce apoptosis, reduce inflammation, and inhibit RNA transcription in cell cultures. For these reasons, it is under study for its anti-metastatic properties.
References
External links
militaris
Fungi described in 1753
Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus
Fungus species | Cordyceps militaris | [
"Biology"
] | 873 | [
"Fungi",
"Fungus species"
] |
42,818,038 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhazinilam | Rhazinilam is an alkaloid first isolated in 1965 by Linde from the Melodinus australis plant. It was later isolated from the shrub Rhazya stricta as well as from other organisms.
Biological activity
Rhazinilam has activity similar to that of colchicine, taxol and vinblastine, acting as a spindle poison.
Total synthesis
Rhazinilam was first synthesized in 1973 by Smith and coworkers, and multiple subsequent times.
Trauner synthesis
References
Pyrroles
Alkaloids
Total synthesis
Plant toxins | Rhazinilam | [
"Chemistry"
] | 122 | [
"Biomolecules by chemical classification",
"Chemical ecology",
"Natural products",
"Plant toxins",
"Organic compounds",
"Chemical synthesis",
"Total synthesis",
"Alkaloids"
] |
42,818,958 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St%20Bathans%20fauna | The St Bathans fauna is found in the lower Bannockburn Formation of the Manuherikia Group of Central Otago, in the South Island of New Zealand. It comprises a suite of fossilised prehistoric animals from the late Early Miocene (Altonian) period, with an age range of 19–16 million years ago.
The layer in which the fossils are found derives from littoral zone sediments deposited in a shallow, freshwater lake, with an area of 5600 km2 from present day Central Otago to Bannockburn and the Nevis Valley in the west; to Naseby in the east; and from the Waitaki Valley in the north to Ranfurly in the south. The lake was bordered by an extensive floodplain containing herbaceous and grassy wetland habitats with peat-forming swamp–woodland. At that time the climate was warm with a distinctly subtropical Australian climate and the surrounding vegetation was characterised by casuarinas, eucalypts and palms as well as podocarps, araucarias and southern beeches.
The fossiliferous layer has been exposed at places along the Manuherikia River and at other sites in the vicinity of the historic gold mining town of St Bathans. The fauna consists of a variety of vertebrates, including fish, a crocodilian, a rhynchocephalian (a relative of tuatara), geckos, skinks, a primitive mammal, several species of bats, and several kinds of birds, especially waterbirds. Of tree-dwelling birds, parrots outnumber pigeons thirty to one. Proapteryx, a basal form of kiwi, is known from there. The Miocene ecosystem was recovering from the ‘Oligocene drowning’ a few million years earlier, when up to 80% of the current land area of New Zealand was submerged. The wildlife that lived in, on, and around the palaeolake Manuherikia was uniquely New Zealand, which strongly suggesting that some emergent land remained during this near drowning event. Marked global cooling and drying during the Miocene, Pliocene and the Pleistocene Ice Ages resulted in the extinction of the 'subtropical' elements of the St Bathans fauna. Those that survived adapted to the dynamic geological and climatic changes, and would form part of the enigmatic fauna that characterised New Zealand when humans arrived in the late 13th century.
History of excavation
Research on the St Bathans fauna is led by Trevor Worthy, a New Zealander based in Flinders University, Adelaide. Other key scientists involved include Jenny Worthy from Flinders University, Paul Scofield and Vanesa De Pietri from Canterbury Museum, and Alan Tennyson from the Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa. In 2016 Vanesa De Pietri was awarded a Royal Society of New Zealand Marsden Fast Start grant to study the shorebird fossils. This long-running (since 2000) collaborative research programme also includes scientists from the University of New South Wales in Sydney and from the University of Queensland in Brisbane.
Mammals
Surprisingly, given modern New Zealand's dearth of land mammals, there is a basal theriiform mammal, the St Bathans mammal. Several species of mystacine bats are also known, as well as a vesper bat and several incertae sedis species. This bat fauna included Vulcanops, a giant burrowing bat three times the size of today’s relatives, and more closely related to South American bats. This suggests that small land mammals were a common component of New Zealand's fauna in the Miocene, with even bats being significantly more diverse than today.
Birds
New Zealand's two modern palaeognath clades, the kiwi and moa, have early representatives in the fauna. The former is represented by the diminutive, possibly volant Proapteryx. The latter is represented by several bones and egg shells of currently unnamed species, but already identifiable as true moa, being large sized and flightless. The fact that moa are already recognisably modern in anatomy, and possibly ecology, while kiwis are fairly unspecialised and probably still flighted, confirms the previous suspicions that neither clade is closely related and that they arrived in New Zealand independently: moa arrived and became flightless earlier in the Cenozoic, while kiwi were then recent arrivals.
Anseriforms (waterfowl) dominate the fauna. At least nine species are recognised from St Bathans, making it the richest waterfowl fauna in the world. All the waterfowl species are unique to New Zealand. Bones attributable to Cape Barren goose (Cereopsis spp.), thought to represent the ancestors of extinct Pleistocene-Holocene Cnemiornis goose, and those of a second possible goose species have been found. In both instances, there is not enough material currently to erect species. Stiff-tailed ducks dominate the fauna with Manuherikia lacustrina, M. minuta, M. douglasi, Dunstanneta johnstoneorum and a further undescribed species of Manuherikia. One species of shelduck, Miotadorna sanctibathansi, has been found and is common. The dabbling duck Matanas enrightii remains poorly known as only a few fossils have been found.
Palaelodids are ancient relatives of flamingos. The new species from St Bathans (Palaelodus aotearoa) is smaller than, and morphologically distinct from, the Late Oligocene-Early Miocene Palaelodus wilsoni from Australia.
Two pigeon species have been described. Rupephaps is a large fruit pigeon, possibly related to the modern Hemiphaga species. The Zealandian dove is similar to the Nicobar pigeon.
Several Gruiformes have been described. The St Bathans adzebill (Aptornis proasciarostratus) was only slightly smaller than its more recent descendants. There were two flightless rails: the common Priscaweka parvales and uncommon Litorallus livezeyi. Priscaweka parvales was no bigger than a sparrow.
Charadriiformes, including gulls, terns, noddies, snipes, dotterels, plovers, jacanas, oystercatchers, sheathbills and the plains-wanderer, are a large group of birds that are mostly found in marine or semi-marine environments. There are about 350 species, and they are mostly small to medium-sized. Two of these are known from St Bathans, the New Zealand lake-wanderer (Hakawai melvillei), a relative of the plains-wanderer, and Sansom's plover (Neilus sansomae), a plover-like bird of uncertain affinities but possibly related to sheathbills and the Magellanic plover.
Petrels are seabirds in the order Procellariformes. This group includes albatrosses. Petrels today make up most of all species of seabird, and the order is the only order of birds to be entirely marine. One species of petrel is known from the St Bathans Fauna – a diving petrel in the same genus as modern diving petrels, the Miocene diving petrel (Pelecanoides miokuaka).
At least two herons are known: Pikaihao bartlei and Matuku otagoense. The former is a bittern, while the latter is a much larger species that appears to be basal within Ardeidae (the herons).
One eagle, similar in size to a wedge-tailed eagle, and another bird of prey, similar in size to a small hawk, have been found, but await formal description.
Two parrot genera are represented. Heracles is represented by its sole species, Heracles inexpectatus, the largest known parrot, weighing 7 kilograms and standing 1 meter tall. Nelepsittacus is represented by at least four species. These vary drastically in size, suggesting that they occupied a wide variety of ecological niches, having diversified in the relative absence of other parrots.
A New Zealand wren, Kuiornis indicator, is known from these deposits, possibly similar to the modern rifleman. Two or three other passerine species remain undescribed.
Herpetofauna (amphibians and reptiles)
The St Bathans fauna is rich in reptile and amphibian remains. Several groups present in modern New Zealand are represented, such as leiopelmatid frogs, a sphenodontian similar to the modern tuatara, geckos, and skinks. However, there are also several species not seen in modern-day New Zealand, such as a mekosuchine crocodile up to 3 metres in length and pleurodire and meiolaniid turtles. This suggests that New Zealand's herpetofauna was much richer in this epoch, probably because its climate was considerably warmer than today.
Fish
The vast majority of the bones excavated from St Bathans are those of freshwater fish such as the ancient relatives of today's bullies, galaxiids, and the extinct New Zealand grayling.
Aquatic invertebrates
As well as fishes, shellfish, including freshwater mussels, and freshwater crayfish dominated the aquatic life in the palaeolake Manuherikia. A new species of St Bathans freshwater limpet, Latia manuherikia, was described by malacologist Bruce Marshall in 2011. This was both the first known fossil Latia and the first record of this genus from the South Island.
Absent taxa
Notable examples of absent taxa include marsupials, snakes, agamid and varanid lizards, lungfish, eels, cockatoos, and all but one lineage (bellbirds and tūī) of the 80 species of Australian honeyeaters.
References
Fossils of New Zealand
Geography of Otago
Lagerstätten
Miocene paleontological sites
Paleontological sites of Otago
Prehistoric fauna by locality
Cenozoic paleobiotas | St Bathans fauna | [
"Biology"
] | 2,068 | [
"Cenozoic paleobiotas",
"Prehistoric fauna by locality",
"Prehistoric biotas"
] |
70,036,462 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anixia%20nemoralis | Anixia nemoralis is a species of fungus belonging to the Anixia genus. It was documented in 1819 by Swedish mycologist Elias Magnus Fries.
References
Agaricomycetes
Fungi described in 1819
Fungus species | Anixia nemoralis | [
"Biology"
] | 47 | [
"Fungi",
"Fungus species"
] |
70,036,838 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbicula | Orbicula is a genus of fungi belonging to the Pyronemataceae family. It consists of two species. The type species is Orbicula cyclospora, now known as Orbicula parietina. The genus was documented in 1871 by English mycologist Mordecai Cubitt Cooke.
References
Pyronemataceae | Orbicula | [
"Biology"
] | 74 | [
"Fungus stubs",
"Fungi"
] |
70,037,109 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbicula%20richenii | Orbicula richenii is a species of fungus belonging to the Orbicula genus. It was documented in 1904 by Brazilian mycologist Johannes Rick.
References
Pezizales
Fungi described in 1904
Fungus species | Orbicula richenii | [
"Biology"
] | 45 | [
"Fungi",
"Fungus species"
] |
70,037,412 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbicula%20parietina | Orbicula parietina is a species of fungus belonging to the Orbicula genus. It was given its current name in 1951 by Canadian mycologist Stanley Hughes. Originally, it was documented under the name Didymium parietinum in 1797 by German mycologist Heinrich Schrader (botanist).
References
Pezizales
Fungi described in 1797
Taxa named by Heinrich Schrader (botanist)
Fungus species | Orbicula parietina | [
"Biology"
] | 88 | [
"Fungi",
"Fungus species"
] |
70,037,435 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteriovoracales | Bacteriovoracales is an order of bacteria.
See also
List of bacterial orders
List of bacteria genera
References
Bacteria orders | Bacteriovoracales | [
"Biology"
] | 27 | [
"Bacteria stubs",
"Bacteria"
] |
70,037,474 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bdellovibrionota | Bdellovibrionota is a phylum of bacteria.
Phylogeny
The currently accepted taxonomy is based on the List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature (LSPN) and the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI).
See also
List of bacterial orders
List of bacteria genera
References
Bacteria phyla | Bdellovibrionota | [
"Biology"
] | 70 | [
"Bacteria stubs",
"Bacteria"
] |
70,037,675 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypolyssus%20natalis | Hypolyssus natalis is the single species of the Hypolyssus genus. It was documented in 1959 by Brazilian mycologist Johannes Rick. It was found on bark in Brazil.
References
Agaricomycetes
Fungi of Brazil
Fungi described in 1959
Taxa named by Johannes Rick
Fungus species | Hypolyssus natalis | [
"Biology"
] | 63 | [
"Fungi",
"Fungus species"
] |
70,037,899 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peniophorella | Peniophorella is a genus of fungus belonging to the Agaricomycetes class; it has not been assigned to an order or a family. It contains 27 species. The genus was documented in 1889 by Finnish mycologist Petter Adolf Karsten.
References
Agaricomycetes
Agaricomycetes genera | Peniophorella | [
"Biology"
] | 68 | [
"Fungus stubs",
"Fungi"
] |
70,038,822 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akash%20Bashir | Akash Bashir (22 June 1994 – 15 March 2015) was a Pakistani layman and a former student of the Don Bosco Technical Institute in Lahore, Pakistan. In December 2014, he joined the security team in charge of protecting the Church of Saint John in Lahore, in the predominantly Christian neighborhood of Youhanabad. On Sunday, 15 March 2015, he blocked a suicide bomber who was about to enter the church. The bomber detonated his bomb outside the church, killing both of them. In January 2022, he was named a Servant of God by Pope Francis, and the cause for his beatification was opened.
Life
Bashir was born in the village of Risalpur. He studied at Salesian schools in Pakistan in Youhanabad, the Christian quarter of the city of Lahore. In 2014 he volunteered as a security guard for the Church of Saint John.
Suicide bombing attempt
On 15 March 2015, two suicide bombers went to the Church of Saint John and the Christ Church of the Church of Pakistan. Bashir, who was guarding the Church of Saint John on that day, stopped the bomber at the door. The bomber detonated the bomb, killing Bashir and two others. At around the same time, a bomb went off at Christ Church of the Church of Pakistan. Seventeen people were killed and about 70 were injured. Terrorist group Tehreek-e-Taliban Pakistan Jamaatul Ahrar later claimed responsibility for the attacks.
Cause of beatification
On 31 January 2022, the beatification process of Akash Bashir was introduced by the Archdiocese of Lahore. Pope Francis declared Bashir a Servant of God. He is the second native Pakistani Servant of God in the history of the Catholic Church in Pakistan, after the martyred Catholic politician Clement Shahbaz Bhatti who was assassinated in 2011.
See also
Lahore church bombings
References
1994 births
2015 deaths
People from Lahore
Security guards killed in the line of duty
Pakistani Servants of God | Akash Bashir | [
"Biology"
] | 392 | [
"Behavior",
"Altruism",
"Human behavior",
"People who have sacrificed their lives to save others"
] |
70,038,961 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kappa%20Mensae | Kappa Mensae, Latinized from κ Mensae, is a solitary star in the southern circumpolar constellation Mensa. Its distance of 296 light years based on its parallax shift gives it an apparent magnitude of 5.45, making it faintly visible to the naked eye. However, it is receding from the Sun with a heliocentric radial velocity of .
Kappa Mensae has a stellar classification of B9 V, indicating that it is an ordinary B-type main-sequence star. At present it has 3.44 times the mass of the Sun and a diameter of . It radiates at 66 times the luminosity from its photosphere at an effective temperature of , giving it a bluish white hue. The star is very young, aged 115 million years, having completed only 33.7% of its main sequence lifetime. Kappa Mensae has a high rate of spin, rotating with a projected rotational velocity of .
References
B-type main-sequence stars
Mensa (constellation)
Mensae, Kappa
Mensa, 32
040593
27566
2129
Durchmusterung objects | Kappa Mensae | [
"Astronomy"
] | 234 | [
"Mensa (constellation)",
"Constellations"
] |
70,039,198 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light%20triad | In psychology the light triad scale quantifies empathy, compassion and altruism. The idea was first suggested by Laura Johnson in her 2018 masters thesis. The light triad comprises Faith In Humanity, Humanism and Kantianism, which correspond to the following statements:
I think people are mostly good.
I enjoy listening to people from all walks of life (Humans across all backgrounds are deserving of respect and appreciation).
When I talk to people, I am rarely thinking about what I want from them (Others should be treated as ends in and of themselves, and not as pawns in one’s own game).
The light triad was inspired by the more established dark triad which assesses negative personality and thoughts. It was expected that the light triad would be highly anticorrelated with the dark triad. That is, a high score on the light triad would correspond to a low score on the dark triad and vice versa. However researchers found that the two were only moderately anticorrelated at −0.48, showing that they are not merely opposites.
References
Further reading
Glenn Geher, "The light triad of personality", Psychology Today, 12 March 2019.
Empathy
Altruism | Light triad | [
"Biology"
] | 243 | [
"Behavior",
"Altruism"
] |
70,039,240 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rogue%20black%20hole | A rogue black hole is a black hole that is not bound by any object's gravity, allowing them to float freely throughout the universe. Since black holes emit no light, the only ways to detect them are gravitational lensing or x-ray bursts that occur when they destroy an object.
Intergalactic rogue black holes
These are objects without a host galactic group, caused by collisions between two galaxies or when the merging of two black holes is disrupted. It has been estimated that there could be 12 rogue supermassive black holes on the edge of the Milky Way galaxy.
Interstellar rogue black holes
Examples
In January 2022, a team of astronomers reported of OGLE-2011-BLG-0462/MOA-2011-BLG-191, the first unambiguous detection and mass measurement of an isolated stellar black hole using the Hubble Space Telescope together with the Microlensing Observations in Astrophysics (MOA) and the Optical Gravitational Lensing Experiment (OGLE). This black hole is located 5,000 light-years away, has a mass 7.1 times that of the Sun, and moves at about 45 km/s. While there have been other candidates, they have been detected more indirectly.
See also
Rogue star
Rogue planet
Rogue extragalactic planets
Rogue comet
Tidally detached exomoon
Stellar black hole
Primordial black hole
References
Black holes
Extragalactic astronomy | Rogue black hole | [
"Physics",
"Astronomy"
] | 288 | [
"Black holes",
"Physical phenomena",
"Extragalactic astronomy",
"Physical quantities",
"Unsolved problems in physics",
"Astrophysics",
"Density",
"Stellar phenomena",
"Astronomical objects",
"Astronomical sub-disciplines"
] |
70,045,015 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuji%20GS645 | The Fuji GS645 series was a lineup of cameras manufactured by Fujifilm of Japan. The lineup included several cameras, differentiated by their focal length and by some cosmetic features: The GS645, GS645W, and GS645S. The cameras, released between March 1983 and October 1984, are medium format and accept either 120 or 220 film. The cameras take photographs in the 6 × 4.5 frame size in portrait orientation.
History
The initial model in the lineup, the GS645, is designed with a bellows system that has been compared as returning to Fujifilm's original roots in bellows-style medium format camera design.
A similar camera lineup released soon after, the Fuji GA645 series, also has a rangefinder design but offers autofocus.
Models
There are three models in the GS645 line. The first camera introduced was the Fuji GS645. This camera is a folding camera with bellows, and a normal EBC Fujinon S 75mm 3.4 lens. The Fuji GS645W was released soon after, which removed the bellows system in favor of a wider, fixed-in-place 45mm 5.6 lens. A third version, the Fuji GS645S, was later released with a 60mm 4.0 lens, designed for use photographing family settings, which has been compared to the Holga 120 because of its size and focal length. The GS645S includes a “brush bar” around the lens to protect it from damage.
All three models take photographs in portrait orientation and include a built-in battery powered light meter. They also can accept either 120 or 220 film. All models have a fully mechanical operation, meaning they can be used without a battery. Only the GS645 and GS645S have rangefinder focusing mechanisms, while the GS645W can only be used with zone focus.
The cameras have received some criticism for their fragility, though their form factor and the quality of the lenses has received praise.
Specifications
References
Fujifilm cameras
Fujifilm rangefinder cameras
Rangefinder cameras
Cameras by format
Cameras introduced in 1983 | Fuji GS645 | [
"Technology"
] | 435 | [
"Rangefinder cameras",
"System cameras"
] |
70,045,381 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irissometry | Irissometry describes the method of detection, identification, and tracking of features in the iris and its deformations as a function of changes in pupil size and eye rotation.
Iris surface deformations
Studying deformations of the iris as pupil size varies is relevant to iris recognition algorithms used for personal identification.
The iris may also temporarily deform due to forces evoked during acceleration or deceleration of the eye ball. The iris deforms strongest in the pupillary region (near the pupil-iris border) where the iris is most elastic.
Video-based iris features for eye trackers
The elasticity of the iris subjects the shape and degree of circularity of the pupil to variations. For example, the pupil's border may slightly wobble and alter in shape within the iris during changes in pupil size and eye-movements, which can be problematic for eye trackers which base their gaze estimation on the center mass of the pupil border. The outer, ciliary region (close to the iris-Corneal limbus border) is less elastic and thus more robust to movement forces. As such, eye-trackers may improve the accuracy of gaze tracking by relying on peripheral iris features rather than the pupillary border. An open-source MATLAB-based irissometry code is available on GitHub.
See also
Pupilometer
Psychophysiology
References
Human iris
Feature detection (computer vision)
Motion in computer vision
Multimodal interaction
Human–computer interaction | Irissometry | [
"Physics",
"Engineering"
] | 296 | [
"Physical phenomena",
"Motion (physics)",
"Motion in computer vision",
"Human–machine interaction",
"Human–computer interaction"
] |
70,045,547 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WD%201054%E2%80%93226 | WD 1054–226, also known as LP 849-31, is a relatively cool magnitude 16 white dwarf star with a hydrogen atmosphere, in the small southern constellation of Crater located approximately 117 light years away at right ascension 10h57' and declination −22°53' (J2000 epoch). The name WD 1054–226 is based on the coordinates in the J1950 epoch. The star was recognized as a white dwarf along with 32 other nearby white dwarfs (or double white dwarfs) in 2007.
In 2022 it was reported that the flux of light coming from the star varies continually due to partial obscuring by a ring. The pattern of variation repeats with little change every 25.02 hours. There are dips in the light flux every 23 minutes, exactly 65 per period of 25.02 hours. The explanation of this strong 65th harmonic is unknown and the authors of the paper say that the phenomenon is puzzling. It seems to be caused by clumps of matter orbiting the star. The researchers have hypothesized that the clumps are being influenced by a moon-sized object, possibly an exoplanet. If it has a period of 25 hours then it is orbiting in the habitable zone of the system. If this is confirmed, it would be the first time that a planet has been found orbiting in the habitable zone of a white dwarf.
See also
List of exoplanets and planetary debris around white dwarfs
WD 1145+017 is the first white dwarf with transiting debris discovered
References
External links
White dwarfs
Crater (constellation) | WD 1054–226 | [
"Astronomy"
] | 333 | [
"Crater (constellation)",
"Constellations"
] |
70,045,569 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPhone%2014 | The iPhone 14 and iPhone 14 Plus are smartphones developed and marketed by Apple Inc. They are the sixteenth-generation iPhones, succeeding the iPhone 13 and iPhone 13 Mini, and were announced during Apple Event, Apple Park in Cupertino, California, on September 7, 2022, alongside the higher-priced iPhone 14 Pro and iPhone 14 Pro Max flagships. The iPhone 14 and iPhone 14 Plus feature a and display, improvements to the rear-facing camera, and satellite connectivity for contacting emergency services when a user in trouble is beyond the range of Wi-Fi or cellular networks. The iPhone 14 was made available on September 16, 2022, and iPhone 14 Plus was made available on October 7, 2022, priced at $799 and $899 respectively and was launched with iOS 16. Pre-orders for the iPhone 14 and iPhone 14 Plus began on September 9, 2022. Along with the 14 Pro and 14 Pro Max, the iPhone 14 and 14 Plus are the last iPhones to feature the Lightning port, as their successors, the iPhone 15 and 15 Plus (announced on September 12, 2023), use a USB-C port instead, per European Commission regulation.
The iPhone 14 does not have a "Mini" version like its predecessor, the iPhone 13. Instead, Apple returned to a larger model with the iPhone 14 Plus. Apple had not introduced a "Plus" model iPhone since the iPhone 8 Plus in 2017. Both iPhone 14 models (as well as iPhone 14 Pro models) sold in the United States, ended support for physical SIM cards, making them the first iPhone models since the CDMA variant of the iPhone 4 not to come with a discrete SIM card reader, requiring activation by way of eSIM. With Apple retiring the iPhone 13 in September 2024, the iPhone 14 is currently the oldest iPhone model still fully supported and sold by Apple.
To comply with mandates, the iPhone 14 models, along with the iPhone SE (third generation), were discontinued in the European Union in 2024, completing the iPhone's transition from a Lightning connection to USB-C.
History
The iPhone 14 was originally rumored to come with 6.1-inch and 5.4-inch display size options. However, when the iPhone 14 was unveiled, no smaller display option was available. This may have been due to underwhelming sales of the iPhone 12 Mini and iPhone 13 Mini. Instead, a larger 6.7-inch display size option was added to the lower-priced iPhone 14 lineup. The new 6.7-inch variant of the iPhone 14 was named "iPhone 14 Plus", rather than "iPhone 14 Max", which was predicted by previous rumors.
The iPhone 14 and iPhone 14 Plus were officially announced at Apple's "Far Out" event, along with the iPhone 14 Pro, iPhone 14 Pro Max, Apple Watch Series 8, Apple Watch SE (2nd generation), Apple Watch Ultra, AirPods Pro (2nd generation) and an update to Apple Fitness+ via a virtual press conference filmed at Apple Park in Cupertino, California on September 7, 2022.
Apple started taking pre-orders on September 9, with general availability from September 16 for the iPhone 14 and October 7 for the iPhone 14 Plus.
Design
The iPhone 14 and iPhone 14 Plus have an identical design to the iPhone 13, although the US models do not have a physical SIM tray.
The iPhone 14 and iPhone 14 Plus are available in six colors: Blue, Purple, Midnight, Starlight, Yellow, and Product Red. Purple is a new color replacing Pink used on the iPhone 13 and iPhone 13 Mini. The yellow colour option was added on March 7, 2023.
Hardware
iPhone 14 and 14 Plus are available in three internal storage configurations: 128, 256, and 512 GB. Both models have 6 GB of RAM, an increase over the previous iPhone 13 and 13 mini models' 4 GB of RAM. The iPhone 14 and 14 Plus have the same IP68 rating for dust and water resistance as their predecessors.
Chipset
The iPhone 14 and 14 Plus use a 5-nanometer Apple-designed SOC, the A15 Bionic, while the iPhone 14 Pro and 14 Pro Max have a newer A16 Bionic.
The iPhone 14's A15 chip has a 6-core CPU, 5-core GPU, and a 16-core Neural Engine. It is identical to the A15 in the previous year's iPhone 13 Pro and 13 Pro Max, which has more memory and an additional GPU core compared to the A15 in the non-Pro iPhone 13 models.
The iPhone 14 was the first flagship model since the 2008 iPhone 3G, whose chip was unchanged from the previous year. The Verge Mitchell Clark attributed the unchanged chip to an attempt to maintain costs during the ongoing chip shortage and inflation surge. Clark also said the A15 "still outperforms the latest chips from Qualcomm and Google in most benchmarks", though the older chip may lead to the iPhone 14 receiving fewer updates, similar to what happened with the iPhone 5C from 2013.
Display
The iPhone 14 features a display with Super Retina XDR OLED technology at a resolution of 2532 × 1170 pixels and a pixel density of about 460 PPI with a refresh rate of 60 Hz. The iPhone 14 Plus features a display with the same technology at a resolution of 2778 × 1284 pixels and a pixel density of around 458 PPI. Both models have typical brightness of up to 800 nits, and a max brightness of up to 1200 nits.
Cameras
The iPhone 14 and 14 Plus feature the same camera system with two cameras: one front-facing camera (12MP f/1.9), and two back-facing cameras: a wide (12MP f/1.5) and ultra-wide (12MP f/2.4) camera, with the wide and front-facing cameras having a faster aperture than the iPhone 13. The front-facing camera also has autofocus for the first time.
The cameras use Apple's latest computational photography engine, called Smart HDR 4. Users can also choose from a range of photographic styles during capture, including rich contrast, vibrant, warm, and cool. Apple clarifies this is different from a filter because it works intelligently with the image processing algorithm during capture to apply local adjustments to an image, and the effects will be baked into the photos, unlike filters which can be removed after applying.
The camera app contains Cinematic Mode, which allows users to rack focus between subjects and create (simulate) shallow depth of field using software algorithms. It is supported on wide and front-facing cameras in 4K at 30 fps and 60 fps.
An "Action mode" feature was added to extend the electrical video stabilization. When activated, a smaller crop of the image sensor is read out for video recording. While reducing the field of view, a wider area around it can be used as buffer against shakes. The area read out from the image sensor is moved between frames to counteract hand movements.
Battery
The iPhone 14 is equipped with slightly longer battery life compared to the iPhone 13. According to Apple, the iPhone 14 (3,279 mAh) can provide up to 20 hours of video playback, 16 hours of streaming video playback, and 80 hours of audio playback. Its predecessor, the iPhone 13 (3,240 mAh), is rated for up to 19 hours of video playback, 15 hours of streaming video playback, and 75 hours of audio playback. The larger iPhone 14 Plus (4,325 mAh) variant provides up to 26 hours of video playback.
Software
The iPhone 14 and 14 Plus originally shipped with iOS 16. The next-generation Qi2 wireless charging standard was added to the iPhone 14 and 14 Plus with the update to iOS 17.2. The latest version of iOS, iOS 18, which was revealed at Apple's WWDC 2024 event, was released to the public on September 16, 2024, and is compatible with the iPhone 14 and 14 Plus.
Specifications
Satellite connectivity
Apple's new Emergency SOS via satellite service for iPhone 14 and iPhone 14 Pro models uses the spectrum in L and S bands designated for mobile satellite services by ITU Radio Regulations. When an iPhone user makes an Emergency SOS via satellite request, the message is received by an orbiting satellite operated by Globalstar. The satellite then sends the message down to ground stations located across the globe.
As of November 2022, Globalstar operates a constellation of 25 satellites in low Earth orbit, with plans to enhance this in the future via its partnership with Apple.
The service became available to US and Canada on November 15, 2022, and to the UK, Germany, Ireland, and France on December 13, 2022. From May 15, 2023, the service became available in Australia and New Zealand.
Criticism
Crash Detection false positives
Crash Detection is a feature built into the iPhone 14 that is designed to detect severe car crashes and automatically initiates an emergency phone call 20 seconds after it is detected unless the user cancels it. Since its release, there have been many reports saying that the feature was automatically turned on during rollercoaster rides, due to the fact that the rides suddenly stop after going at high speeds, as happens in a car crash.
Emergency dispatchers have received many false alarm calls from iPhone 14 and Apple Watch users who have been skiing safely. In Colorado, a wave of false 9-1-1 calls led Aspen Mountain to advise device owners to upgrade their operating systems or disable the feature. In Japan's Hida Mountains, emergency dispatchers reported 134 false emergency calls, more than 14% of the total emergency call volume, between December 16, 2022, and January 23, 2023, attributed to Crash Detection triggering while an iPhone 14 owner was skiing.
Repairability
While the iPhone 14 was originally lauded for its innovative new hardware design and recommended by iFixit, concerns over software limitations on parts not authorized by Apple caused iFixit to decrease their evaluation to a 4/10 or "not recommended" in September 2023.
Release dates
iPhone 14
September 16, 2022
September 22, 2022
September 23, 2022
October 7, 2022
South Korea
October 14, 2022
October 18, 2022
Bangladesh
October 28, 2022
Nigeria
November 4, 2022
Indonesia
February 10, 2023
Colombia
June 8, 2024
Egypt
iPhone 14 Plus
October 7, 2022
October 14, 2022
October 18, 2022
November 4, 2022
Indonesia
February 10, 2023
Colombia
See also
List of iPhone models
History of the iPhone
Comparison of smartphones
Timeline of iPhone models
References
External links
– official website
Mobile phones introduced in 2022
Mobile phones with 4K video recording
Mobile phones with multiple rear cameras
Flagship smartphones
Foxconn | IPhone 14 | [
"Technology"
] | 2,197 | [
"Discontinued flagship smartphones",
"Flagship smartphones"
] |
70,046,013 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen%20cryomagnetics | Hydrogen cryomagnetics is a term used to denote the use of cryogenic liquid hydrogen to cool the windings of an electromagnet. A key benefit of hydrogen cryomagnetics is that low temperature liquid hydrogen can be deployed simultaneously both as a cryogen to cool electromagnet windings and as an energy carrier . That is, powerful synergistic benefits are likely to arise when hydrogen is used as a fuel and as a coolant. Even without the fuel/coolant synergies, hydrogen cryomagnetics is an attractive option for the cooling of superconducting electromagnets as it eliminates dependence upon increasingly scarce and expensive liquid helium. For hydrogen cryomagnetic applications specialist hydrogen-cooled electromagnets are wound using either copper or superconductors. Liquid-hydrogen-cooled copper-wound magnets work well as pulsed field magnets. Superconductors have the property that they can operate continuously and very efficiently as electrical resistive losses are almost entirely avoided. Most commonly the term "hydrogen cryomagnetics" is used to denote the use of cryogenic liquid hydrogen directly, or indirectly, to enable high temperature superconductivity in electromagnet windings.
Hydrogen cryomagnetics is especially useful where high magnetic fields are required, such as in high torque electric motors. At atmospheric pressure liquid hydrogen boils at approximately 20.3 K (-259.3 °C). Liquid hydrogen at such a temperature is significantly colder than the temperatures at which superconductivity can first be induced in a range of important high temperature superconductors including yttrium barium copper oxide (YBCO), because YBCO has a superconducting transition temperature (Tc) of 93 K. The operation of YBCO-based superconducting magnets at a temperature more than 70 K below Tc allows for the use of very high current densities and very high magnetic fields without loss of superconductivity. The materials properties of YBCO are such that it cannot be made into ductile wires although much progress has been made towards high field YBCO electromagnets based on the use of tapes rather than wires. Another superconductor suitable for hydrogen cryomagnetic use is magnesium diboride. Magnesium diboride is a conventional superconductor and it can be prepared in flexible wires facilitating its potential application in, for example, tokamak fusion reactors. Magnesium diboride has a transition temperature of 39 K. While at atmospheric pressure liquid hydrogen is cold enough to cool magnesium diboride into the superconducting state, there are advantages to pumping on the hydrogen so as to lower its temperature still further when in use such a magnet winding (this uses the same physics that says that the boiling point of water can be reduced by reducing the pressure above the liquid, see e.g.). Generally the greater the difference between conductor temperature and superconducting transition temperature the better. Liquid hydrogen is not the only way cryogenically to cool a magnet, indeed conventionally superconductors are cooled using liquid helium at 4.2K and for conventional conductor pulsed magnets (including copper) most attention has been given to liquid nitrogen at 77 K. Liquid hydrogen can be expected to drive better performance than liquid nitrogen and, as discussed below, liquid hydrogen avoids several concerns around helium availability.
Any use of hydrogen cryomagnetics requires careful consideration of hydrogen safety.
Hydrogen cryomagnetics is concept distinct from the use of higher temperature gaseous hydrogen as a coolant in power plant turbines.
Origins
The term hydrogen cryomagnetics was first used in a text panel forming part of an article by Professor WJ Nuttall and Professor BA Glowacki published in July 2008 in Nuclear Engineering International. The concept was returned to in an Institute of Physics conference held in Manchester England in April 2010. The presentation was delivered by Professor WJ Nuttall and co-authored by Professor BA Glowacki and Dr L Bromberg. The journey to the term also involved thinking around Hydrogen as a Fuel and as a Coolant – from the superconductivity perspective. Earlier related consideration of liquid hydrogen as a cryogenic coolant includes work by Glowacki and co-authors from 2005 and 2006. The concept of hydrogen cryomagnetics has been further elaborated and discussed in 2012, 2015 and 2019.
Attributes
The emergence of hydrogen cryomagnetics can be expected to benefit from the development of strong industrial interest in liquid hydrogen that can be expected to occur for other reasons, including the growth of a general hydrogen economy and the need to transport and store bulk hydrogen. Global interest is growing in the emergence of a hydrogen economy in which hydrogen is a low-carbon energy carrier sourced from renewables (green hydrogen) or alternatively from natural gas with carbon capture and storage (this is sometimes termed "blue hydrogen"). When pipelines are unavailable. the use of liquefied hydrogen for the bulk transport and distribution of hydrogen molecules has been found to be the more efficient than high pressure gas cylinders when moving the large quantities over the large distances. Hydrogen (as liquid or gas) is an energy storage system in competition with electric battery technology. Hydrogen wins out over batteries for the largest quantitites of energy stored over the longest period. Hydrogen fuel cells are win out over battery electric technologies for the heaviest forms of transportation - such as trains, trucks and buses Hydrogen technology is in competition with battery technology and gaseous hydrogen technology is in competition with liquid hydrogen technology. As these competitive forces pay out it is quite possible that a significant role will emerge for liquid hydrogen as a stationary long-term and large-scale energy storage system and fuelling system for heavier vehicles. In such scenarios, the emerging economic role of liquid hydrogen production and distribution can be expected to greatly favour the subsequent use of hydrogen in cryomagnetic applications.
Avoiding the problems of helium
The conventional way to cool superconducting magnets is to use liquid helium (atmospheric pressure boiling point 4.2K). Helium is a by product of the current natural gas industry and its fluctuating price and availability have been a cause of much concern in recent years. Improved efficiency of use, and the avoidance of waste, can be expected to stretch helium supplies. Further natural gas sourced helium cannot necessarily be expected to continue if natural gas is to be phased out on a journey to Net-Zero. There is a need for those helium using sectors that can substitute away from helium to do so. Those users that could safely switch to hydrogen cryomagnetics could see a significant reduction in operating costs and avoid risks associated with helium supply scarcity.
Better electric motors
In the twentieth century the dominant type of electric motor was an induction motor using tightly wound copper wire coils to generate the necessary internal magnetic fields. More recently, and in part spurred on by the growth in battery electric vehicles, there has been much innovation in permanent magnet motors. These rely on high field permanent magnets relying on rare earth minerals. Hydrogen cryomagnetics provides for the possibility of superconducting induction motors cooled by liquid hydrogen at approximately 20K. Such cryogenic liquid might be available on a vehicle (such as an airplane, train, truck, bus or even car) if high purity hydrogen is used for on-board fuel cell electricity generation.
Liquid hydrogen - a source of high purity hydrogen
The boil off gas from a tank of liquid hydrogen can be expected to be extremely pure and clean. In a sense the liquid hydrogen has been distilled. Extended operation of Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles, for example, relies on the need to protect fuel cell membranes and catalysts from contamination. Fuel cell degradation in use can have many causes, but nevertheless fuel purity (in normal conditions and in the case of refuelling equipment failure) can be expected to be a major concern for any system relying on high pressure hydrogen gas handling.
Potential applications
Various potential applications of hydrogen cryomagnetics have been reviewed by Mojarrad and co-workers in 2022. Some potential applications are listed below.
Fusion energy
The concept of applied hydrogen cryomagnetics first emerged in connection with magnetically confined nuclear fusion. WJ Nuttall had proposed in 2004 that the commercialisation of fusion energy might be via the international oil companies rather than via electricity. For technical and economic reasons fusion energy might be a viable means to produce liquid hydrogen for the hydrogen economy in ways reminiscent of today's liquefied natural gas economy. Conventional tokamak fusion is likely to require very large amounts of expensive and scarce liquid helium to cool superconducting magnets. Liquid helium is a key consumable in the conventional paradigm. Noting the potential abundance of liquid hydrogen at a future fusion facility owned by one of today's international oil companies it would seem natural to use the cryogenic hydrogen to help break the dependence on helium. Hydrogen cryomagnetics has the potential to facilitate tokamak fusion energy. These ideas came together as a concept known as 'Fusion Island' developed by WJ Nuttall, BA Glowacki and RH Clarke. The Fusion Island concept was outlined further in 2008 and 2021. Commonwealth Fusion Systems in Massachusetts is actively exploring superconducting magnet technologies cooled to liquid hydrogen temperatures.
Aviation
Another significant opportunity for hydrogen cryomagnetics lies in low emissions aviation. Airbus, Rolls-Royce and collaborators have been pioneering the use of liquid hydrogen in aircraft propulsion. Writing in Aviation Week in April 2021, Thierry Dubois observed: "Airbus has launched an ambitious demonstration program for the use of superconducting technology. It is aiming at a major efficiency improvement. The idea stems from both the difficulty of designing an electric-propulsion architecture with conventional wiring and the opportunity to use liquid hydrogen as a cold source. Superconducting materials require cryogenic temperatures." Hydrogen cryomagnetics permits the on aircraft use of hydrogen fuel cell technology to generate electricity to drive high torque HTS based electric motors capable of driving propellers or ducted fans at high efficiency. The Advanced Superconducting Motor Experimental Demonstrator (ASuMED) programme funded by the European Union, is working on a 99% efficient superconducting aircraft engine with a power-to-weight ratio of 20 kW/kg. Researchers at Moscow Aviation Institute have proposed a design for a 5MW hydrogen cryomagnetic aero engine. Even before the benefits to be obtained from the use hydrogen cryomagnetic superconducting induction motors hydrogen is attracting much interest as a low emission aviation fuel of the future. Airbus has an active hydrogen program as do other major industrial concerns in global aviation.
Metals processing industry
Hydrogen cryomagnetics has potentially beneficial synergistic links with the emerging low emission steel industry as being pioneered by SSAB in Sweden. Hydrogen is being developed as an alternative to coking coal for the reduction of iron ores to produce pig iron ('smelting'). The use of hydrogen for such purposes would greatly strengthen links between hydrogen and steel making. With that in mind, if a forge were to have access to cryogenic liquid hydrogen then large scale magnetic induction forging based upon hydrogen cryomagnetic technology could be extremely economically attractive, especially for billet heating.
References
Cryogenics
Cryogenics | Hydrogen cryomagnetics | [
"Physics"
] | 2,298 | [
"Applied and interdisciplinary physics",
"Cryogenics"
] |
70,047,385 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hopeanol | Hopeanol is a highly cytotoxic resveratrol-derivative with the molecular formula C29H20O9 which has been isolated from the bark of the tree Hopea exalata (now Hopea reticulata).
References
Further reading
Hopeanol
Methyl esters | Hopeanol | [
"Chemistry"
] | 62 | [] |
70,048,281 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bactobolin | Bactobolin is a cytotoxic, polyketide-peptide and antitumor antibiotic with the molecular formula C14H20Cl2N2O6. Bactobolin was discovered in 1979.
References
Further reading
Organochlorides
Amides
Amines
Lactones
Polyketide antibiotics | Bactobolin | [
"Chemistry"
] | 68 | [
"Functional groups",
"Organic compounds",
"Bases (chemistry)",
"Amines",
"Amides",
"Organic compound stubs",
"Organic chemistry stubs"
] |
70,048,646 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treasury%20Building%20%28Dublin%29 | The Treasury Building is an office block and historic site at the corner of Grand Canal Street Lower and Macken Street in Dublin.
Boland's Bakery
The site used to be the main site for Boland's Bakery and site was occupied during the Easter Rising by Éamon de Valera.
Treasury Holdings
During the late 1980s, the building was redeveloped by Treasury Holdings. The building was stripped back to a concrete structure and converted into offices.
Aspiration sculpture
Rowan Gillespie was commissioned to create a sculpture for the outside wall of the building. The statue, named 'Aspiration', was originally of a naked man climbing the outside wall, but Johnny Ronan insisted that the sculpture be changed to a woman. The statue was made of fibreglass. The sculpture was removed in 2020 when the building was sold.
Fianna Fáil
During 2007 the building was used by Fianna Fáil as their headquarters for the 2007 election.
National Asset Management Agency
After the Post-2008 Irish economic downturn, the Irish government created the National Asset Management Agency as a bad bank to deal with the collapse of the property bubble in Ireland. In 2011 the registered office of NAMA was the Treasury building.
Google
Google bought the building from Ronan Group Real Estate in February 2020. In February 2022 Dublin City Council granted planning permission to Google Ireland to increase the height of the building from six to eight storeys.
References
Buildings and structures in Dublin (city)
Dublin Docklands
Information technology places
Places in Dublin (city) | Treasury Building (Dublin) | [
"Technology"
] | 297 | [
"Information technology",
"Information technology places"
] |
70,049,477 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ignavibacteriales | The Ignavibacteriales are an order of obligately anaerobic, non-photosynthetic bacteria that are closely related to the green sulfur bacteria.
Taxonomy
The currently accepted taxonomy is based on the List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature (LPSN) and National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI).
Family Ignavibacteriaceae Iino et al. 2010
Ignavibacterium Iino et al. 2010
I. album Iino et al. 2010
Family Melioribacteraceae Podosokorskaya et al. 2013
Melioribacter Podosokorskaya et al. 2013
M. roseus Podosokorskaya et al. 2013
"Stygiobacter" Podosokorskaya et al. 2023
"S. electus" Podosokorskaya et al. 2023
See also
List of bacteria genera
List of bacterial orders
References
Bacteria orders | Ignavibacteriales | [
"Biology"
] | 188 | [
"Bacteria stubs",
"Bacteria"
] |
61,871,893 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yellow%2C%20red%20and%20orange%20goods | Yellow, red and orange goods are a three-part classification for consumer goods which is based on consumer buying habits, the durability of the goods, and the ways that the goods are sold. The classifications are for yellow goods, red goods, and orange goods, with orange goods being goods that have a mix of yellow and red characteristics. The classification of goods into yellow, red, and orange categories is roughly equivalent to the categories of shopping goods, convenience goods, and specialty goods.
Yellow goods
Yellow goods (also called "shopping goods" or "white goods") are durable consumer items such as large household appliances that have a long period of useful life, and which are replaced rarely. While yellow goods are sold in low volumes, they have high profit margins. Yellow goods have a higher unit value than convenience goods and people buy them less often; as such consumers spend more time comparison shopping for yellow goods than for red goods. As well, there is a much greater role for personal selling (from salespeople) for yellow goods than for red goods, and there is more selective distribution of yellow goods. Yellow goods often need to be adjusted or customized by the store before they are delivered to the customer.
The consumer goods term "yellow goods" is different from the construction and agricultural industry term of the same name, which refers to bulldozers, tractors, and similar equipment.
Red goods
Red goods (also called "convenience goods") such as food are consumed completely when the consumer uses them; as a result, they are replaced frequently and sold in high volumes. Red goods have low profit margins. Red goods need heavy advertising and competitive pricing, along with a well-developed selling organization to manage the widespread and numerous points of sale. As red goods are widely available through a wide distribution network, consumers do not have to spend much time searching for them.
Orange goods
Orange goods (also called "specialty goods") are moderately durable goods that wear out with regular use and have to be replaced, such as clothing. Orange goods are unique, so consumers need to make more effort to acquire these items; as such exclusive distributor arrangements and franchises are often used to sell them.
References
Goods (economics) | Yellow, red and orange goods | [
"Physics"
] | 444 | [
"Materials",
"Goods (economics)",
"Matter"
] |
61,872,938 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenylcarbylamine%20chloride | Phenylcarbylamine chloride is a chemical compound that was used as a chemical warfare agent. It is an oily liquid with an onion-like odor. Classified as an isocyanide dichloride, this compound is a lung irritant with lachrymatory effects.
Synthesis
Phenylcarbylamine chloride is produced by chlorination of phenyl isothiocyanate.
See also
Chloropicrin
Phosgene
References
Lachrymatory agents
Pulmonary agents
Phenyl compounds
Imino compounds
Organochlorides | Phenylcarbylamine chloride | [
"Chemistry"
] | 118 | [
"Chemical weapons",
"Organic chemistry stubs",
"Organic compounds",
"Lachrymatory agents",
"Organic compound stubs",
"Pulmonary agents"
] |
61,872,977 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xiaomi%20Mi%20MIX%20Alpha | The Xiaomi Mi MIX Alpha is an Android-based smartphone designed by Xiaomi. Xiaomi describes it as a concept phone, but planned on bringing it into small-scale production. It was scheduled to be released in December 2019, but has been cancelled due to manufacturing complexities.
Design
A 7.92-inch (201.2mm) big screen 2088 × 2250 Super AMOLED display is used which wraps around the edges and nearly spans the entire width of both sides. There are virtual volume buttons in place of physical ones, although there is a physical power button on the top. Navigation buttons and the status bar are also located on the edges of the device. A sapphire vertical strip is placed on the rear which houses the cameras, flash and connectivity antennas. The frame is a titanium alloy, while the display is a 3-section glass laminate.
Specifications
Hardware
The Mi Mix Alpha is powered by the Qualcomm Snapdragon 855+ CPU and the Adreno 640 GPU, sharing its chipset with the Mi 9 Pro. It has a single configuration of 12 GB of LPDDR4X RAM and 512 GB of non-expandable UFS 3.0 storage. A USB-C port is located on the bottom which is capable of recharging the 4050mAh battery at up to 40W. An optical in-display fingerprint is used, and facial recognition is also supported.
Camera
A triple camera setup is used, consisting of a wide lens, a telephoto lens and an ultrawide lens like most flagships, while lacking a front-facing camera, however, the rear-facing cameras serve this purpose. Notably, it is the first smartphone with a 108 MP sensor. The other two lenses use 12 MP and 20 MP sensors respectively. None of the lenses have OIS, but HDR is supported. Along with normal recording modes, the device is capable of recording 8K video at 30 fps, 4K video at 60 fps and 30 fps, and 1080p slow-motion video at 480 and 960 fps.
Software
The Mi Mix Alpha runs on MIUI 11, which is based on Android 10.
References
Android (operating system) devices
Phablets
Mobile phones introduced in 2019
Mi MIX Alpha
Flexible displays
Mobile phones with multiple rear cameras | Xiaomi Mi MIX Alpha | [
"Materials_science",
"Mathematics",
"Technology"
] | 472 | [
"Mobile technology stubs",
"Flexible displays",
"Crossover devices",
"Mobile phone stubs",
"Phablets",
"Planes (geometry)",
"Thin films"
] |
61,874,514 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederica%20Perera | Frederica Perera (born 1941) is an American environmental health scientist and the founder of the Columbia Center for Children's Environmental Health at the Columbia University Mailman School of Public Health. Her research career has focused on identifying and preventing harm to children from prenatal and early childhood exposure to environmental chemicals and pollutants. She is internationally recognized for pioneering the field of molecular epidemiology, incorporating molecular techniques into epidemiological studies to measure biologic doses, preclinical responses and susceptibility to toxic exposure.
Biography
Born in Boston, Massachusetts, Perera received her bachelor's degree in Liberal Arts from Harvard University/Radcliffe College in 1963. She received her DrPH in Environmental Health Sciences from Columbia University in 1976 and a PhD in Environmental and Social Policy from Columbia University in 1981.
In 1982, Perera joined the faculty of Columbia University Mailman School of Public Health in the Department of Environmental Health Sciences. In 1998, she founded the Columbia Center for Children's Environmental Health to conduct community-based research on environmental risks to childhood's health.
Research
Since the late 1980s, Perera has led studies applying molecular and imaging techniques within longitudinal cohort studies of pregnant women and their children in the U.S., Poland, and China, with the goal of identifying preventable environmental risk factors for developmental disorders, asthma, obesity, and cancer in childhood. These exposures include toxic chemicals, pesticides, and air pollution, with particular focus on the adverse effects of prenatal and early childhood exposures. This research has revealed that the prenatal period of development is especially vulnerable to toxic environmental exposures and that prenatal exposures such as air pollutants, chemicals in plastics, pesticides and flame retardants are linked to neurodevelopmental problems, obesity and/or asthma in childhood. The research also found that stress and maternal hardship can increase the harm from chemical exposures. The research has demonstrated the benefits of policies and other interventions to reduce or eliminate such exposures.
In 1982, Perera co-authored a seminal paper that defined the nascent field of molecular epidemiology, which uses biomarkers such as DNA adducts to understand the links between environmental exposures and disease with the goal of prevention—an approach she uses in her own research. Perera was also among the first to report evidence that prenatal exposures to environmental toxicants result in adverse health outcomes in childhood and adolescence.
Perera has written extensively on the multiple threats to children's health and future well-being from fossil fuel combustion emissions, both from climate change and toxic air pollution, and the benefits of government action on health, the economy, and equity.
Research findings by Perera and colleagues have been used to support, pass, and enforce laws that protect environmental and public health. Through a longstanding partnership with WE ACT for Environmental Justice, the center's findings have been used to influence policy in the areas of air pollution, asthma initiatives, secondhand smoke, residential pesticides, and chemical reform.
Perera has received numerous honors, including the 20th Annual Heinz Award in the Environment for her lifetime achievement in research for the protection of children's health.
References
1941 births
Living people
Columbia University alumni
Radcliffe College alumni
Harvard University alumni
People from Boston
20th-century American women scientists
21st-century women scientists
American women environmentalists
American environmentalists
American environmental scientists
21st-century American women | Frederica Perera | [
"Environmental_science"
] | 699 | [
"American environmental scientists",
"Environmental scientists"
] |
61,874,774 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NGC%201460 | NGC 1460 is a barred lenticular galaxy with a peanut-shaped bar approximately 65 million light-years away from Earth in the constellation of Eridanus. It was discovered by astronomer John Herschel on November 28, 1837. It is a member of the Fornax cluster.
NGC 1460 is host to a nuclear star cluster with an estimated mass of around 6.7 × 107 M☉, and is also host to a supermassive black hole with an estimated mass of around 6 × 106 M☉. It is also home to a population of around 39 observed globular clusters. There is also a population of 89 planetary nebulae, with 39 of them being observed in the center of the galaxy and 50 of them being observed in the halo of the galaxy.
See also
NGC 4598 - similar looking galaxy
List of NGC objects (1001–2000)
References
External links
Barred lenticular galaxies
Astronomical objects discovered in 1837
Fornax Cluster
Eridanus (constellation)
1460
13805 | NGC 1460 | [
"Astronomy"
] | 205 | [
"Eridanus (constellation)",
"Constellations"
] |
61,875,122 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/N-Chloropiperidine | N-Chloropiperidine is the organic compound with the formula C5H10NCl. A colorless liquid, it is a rare example of an organic chloramine, i.e. a compound with an N-Cl bond. It is prepared by treatment of piperidine with calcium hypochlorite. Typical of chloramines, the compound is so reactive that it is generated and used in situ rather than being isolated. The compound undergoes dehydrohalogenation to afford the cyclic imine.
References
Nitrogen–halogen compounds
Chlorine(−I) compounds
1-Piperidinyl compounds | N-Chloropiperidine | [
"Chemistry"
] | 133 | [
"Organic compounds",
"Organic compound stubs",
"Organic chemistry stubs"
] |
61,875,198 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calonarius%20aureofulvus | Calonarius aureofulvus is a species of fungus in the family Cortinariaceae.
Taxonomy
It was described by Austrian mycologist Meinhard Michael Moser in 1952 who classified it as Cortinarius aureofulvus and then reclassified it as Phlegmacium aureofulvum in 1960.
In 2022 the species was transferred from Cortinarius and reclassified as Calonarius aureofulvus based on genomic data.
Habitat and distribution
The species is native to Europe.
References
External links
aureofulvus
Fungi of Europe
Fungi described in 1952
Taxa named by Meinhard Michael Moser
Fungus species | Calonarius aureofulvus | [
"Biology"
] | 136 | [
"Fungi",
"Fungus species"
] |
61,875,249 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cortinarius%20psittacinus | Cortinarius aureofulvus is a fungus in the genus Cortinarius native to Belgium. It was described by Austrian mycologist Meinhard Michael Moser in 1970.
References
External links
psittacinus
Fungi of Europe
Fungi described in 1970
Taxa named by Meinhard Michael Moser
Fungus species | Cortinarius psittacinus | [
"Biology"
] | 65 | [
"Fungi",
"Fungus species"
] |
61,875,272 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cortinarius%20canabarba | Cortinarius canabarba is a fungus of the genus Cortinarius native to Europe. It was described by Austrian mycologist Meinhard Michael Moser in 1966.
References
External links
canabarba
Fungi of Europe
Fungi described in 1966
Taxa named by Meinhard Michael Moser
Fungus species | Cortinarius canabarba | [
"Biology"
] | 62 | [
"Fungi",
"Fungus species"
] |
61,878,385 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon%20nanohoop | Carbon nanohoops are a class of molecules consisting of aromatic sections curved out of planarity by the inherent cyclic geometry of the molecule. This class of molecules came into existence with the synthesis of cycloparaphenylenes by Ramesh Jasti in the lab of Carolyn Bertozzi and since then has been expanded into cyclonaphthylenes, cyclochrysenylenes, and even cyclohexabenzocoronenylenes. Moreover, several nanohoops containing such antiaromatic units as dibenzo[a,e]pentalene and pyrrolo[3,2-b]pyrrole are reported. Carbon nanohoops often map on to a certain chirality of carbon nanotube. If the diameter is adequate, these molecules can host a fullerene. For example, [10]cycloparaphenylene can host a C60 fullerene.
References
Cyclophanes
Nanomaterials | Carbon nanohoop | [
"Materials_science"
] | 205 | [
"Nanotechnology",
"Materials science stubs",
"Nanotechnology stubs",
"Nanomaterials"
] |
61,878,439 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramesh%20Jasti | Ramesh Jasti is a professor of organic chemistry at the University of Oregon. He was the first person to synthesize the elusive cycloparaphenylene in 2008 during post doctoral work in the laboratory of Professor Carolyn Bertozzi. He started his laboratory at Boston University where he was the recipient of the NSF CAREER award. His early lab repeatedly broke the record for the synthesis of the smallest cycloparaphenylene known. In 2014, he moved his laboratory to the University of Oregon where he expanded his focus to apply the molecules he discovered in the areas of organic materials, mechanically interlocked molecules, and biology. He is the Director of the Materials Science Institute at the University of Oregon.
Awards and honors
Fred Morrison Scholarship (1994)
Thieme Journal Award (2012)
American Chemical Society Young Academic Investigator Award (2013)
Boston University Ignition Award (2013)
Boston University Materials Science and Engineering Innovation Award (2013)
National Science Foundation CAREER Award (2013)
Alfred P. Sloan Fellowship (2013)
Boston University Innovation Professorship (2013)
Camille Dreyfus Teacher-Scholar Award (2014)
References
Organic chemists
University of Oregon faculty
Living people
Year of birth missing (living people) | Ramesh Jasti | [
"Chemistry"
] | 244 | [
"Organic chemists"
] |
61,878,475 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beihai%20Tunnel%20%28Dongyin%29 | The Beihai Tunnel () is a tunnel in Dongyin Township, Lienchiang County, Taiwan.
History
The armed forces started the construction of the tunnel in 1968 and completed it in 1970. It was constructed by hand and dynamite. In February 2001, the tunnel was handed over to Matsu National Scenic Area Administration which then renovated it. The tunnel was opened to the public in August 2001.
Architecture
The tunnel spans over 193 meters long, 10 meters wide and 12 meters high. At the end of the tunnel, there are statues of eight workers who perished during the construction.
See also
List of tourist attractions in Taiwan
Zhaishan Tunnel
Beihai Tunnel (Beigan)
Beihai Tunnel (Nangan)
References
1970 establishments in Taiwan
Dongyin Township
Military history of Taiwan
Tunnels completed in 1970
Tunnels in Lienchiang County
Tunnel warfare | Beihai Tunnel (Dongyin) | [
"Engineering"
] | 169 | [
"Military engineering",
"Tunnel warfare"
] |
61,879,080 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ovum%20quality | Ovum quality is the measure of the ability of an oocyte (the female gamete) to achieve successful fertilisation. The quality is determined by the maturity of the oocyte and the cells that it comprises, which are susceptible to various factors which impact quality and thus reproductive success. This is of significance as an embryo's development is more heavily reliant on the oocyte in comparison to the sperm.
Factors
Age
Advanced maternal age represents a significant consideration for ovum health, and is currently regarded as the largest risk factor underlying instances of aneuploidy in human populations. The mechanisms by which ovum health degenerates with age are incompletely understood. Extended meiotic arrest, a decline in mitochondrial function, and oxidative stress are key factors associated with ageing that are damaging to oocyte quality, identified in studies utilising both human and animal oocytes.
Meiotic arrest and loss of cohesion
The formation of human gametes involves two separation events, known distinctly as Meiosis I, in which paired homologous chromosomes are separated, and Meiosis II, in which sister chromatids are divided. Meiosis I is a slightly elongated process, during which homologous chromosomes align, pair, and recombine.
While male gametes (sperm) are continuously produced throughout life, the female ovarian reserve is fully formed during early development. Oocytes (but not spermatocytes) then undergo a prolonged arrest at the end of diplotene, until meiosis resumes at the beginning of the menstrual cycle. It is during this prolonged arrest that age-dependent changes or deterioration may occur.
During the oocyte's prolonged arrest, chromosomes exist as bivalents. This means that homologous chromosomes have paired, and are being held together by chiasmata (the physical crossovers between chromosome arms). The cohesin complex, a ring like structure associated with sister chromatids, helps to hold them in close proximity, therefore generating sister chromatid cohesion. This cohesion is later broken by the enzyme separase, allowing the chiasmata to be broken and homologous chromosomes to segregate in a normal way. Age-related degeneration of the inhibitors and regulators of separase, may lead to inappropriate and premature cohesin degradation before anaphase. As a result, homologous chromosomes may align independently on the meiotic spindle, risking aneuploidy that represents a key mechanism of reduced reproductive success.
Mitochondrial changes
As the most mitochondria-dense cells in the body, ova depend upon these organelles for early embryonic development, proliferation and their competence for fertilisation. Therefore, age-related changes to mitochondrial function naturally represent a significant influence on ovum quality and female fertility.
Specific changes that occur with age include a reduction in quantity of mitochondrial DNA, as well as an increase in mitochondrial DNA mutations. Animal studies have demonstrated these genetic abnormalities, in addition to physical changes in the mitochondria themselves and reduced ATP production. Further investigation is required to establish definitive evidence for decreasing developmental potential as a result of aging mitochondria, however the accumulation of mitochondrial abnormalities over time in the female ovum has been established, and appears linked in some way to declining ova health.
Obesity
Studies show that obesity affects the quality of the ovum. It is a disease which decreases the fertility of the female. This is mainly due to causing a disturbance to maternal hormonal levels. It is also possible for the uterus to have different levels of receptivity with regards to oocyte attachment, as a result of a disturbance to the function of the endometrium. Furthermore, ingesting higher levels of carbohydrates and increased levels of glucose in the diet has been related to a higher chance of infertility because of the ovary failing to release oocytes at ovulation. Obesity also has been linked to early miscarriages, deaths of the foetus, new-born or deaths where the baby is born dead and there is an increased chance of the babies having birth defects.
In the IVF procedure a hormone called gonadotropin (GnRH) is given to the female to stimulate the ovaries to release oocytes. In obese patients, their obesity negatively affects the ovaries responsiveness to this hormonal stimulant leading to doctors having to administrate an increased dose of the hormone and the duration of stimulation is increased. Less mature oocytes are harvested. Moreover, obesity leads to decreased pregnancy rates after IVF and a smaller chance of the oocyte implanting to the uterine wall. They also have an increased chance of the cycle being cancelled.
Damage from lipotoxicity
An overload of fatty acids in the body due to increased ingestion can lead to lipotoxicity. These extra fatty acids are not stored by the body and instead they circulate and damage the surrounding tissue. Levels of excess Fatty acids are higher in obese women. The fatty acid will damage other cells, except for the adipocytes, by producing more reactive oxygen species. This causes the cell to self-destruct (apoptosis).
Stress
Psychological stress
Psychological stress can contribute both directly and indirectly to decreased oocyte quality. Increased stress leads to an increased production and release of cortisol, a stress hormone, which directly inhibits the biosynthesis of estradiol in the ovary. A decrease in estradiol as well as oxidative stress leads to apoptosis of the granulosa cells off the oocyte which deteriorates oocyte quality.
References
Sexual reproduction
Fertility | Ovum quality | [
"Biology"
] | 1,185 | [
"Behavior",
"Sexuality",
"Sexual reproduction",
"Reproduction"
] |
61,879,941 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aminochlorination | In organic synthesis, aminochlorination is a reaction that installs both a chlorine atom and an amino (or amido) group to give an 2-aminoalkyl chloride. The reaction typically is effected by combining alkene substrates with chloramines. An alternative implementation involves Pd(II)-induced nucleophilic attack of the amine on the alkene followed by oxidation by a cupric chloride.
References
Organic synthesis | Aminochlorination | [
"Chemistry"
] | 97 | [
"Chemical reaction stubs",
"Organic synthesis",
"Chemical synthesis"
] |
61,881,318 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew%20Rader | Andrew Alan Rader is a Canadian author and aerospace engineer. Rader was the Season 2 winner of the Discovery series, Canada's Greatest Know-It-All. Originally from Ottawa, Canada, Rader now works for SpaceX as a Mission Manager in Los Angeles.
Education
Rader attended Carleton University from 1999 until 2005, receiving bachelor's and master's degrees in aerospace engineering there. He spent the following four years studying aeronautics and astronautics engineering at MIT, specializing in long-duration spaceflight, and receiving his Ph.D. in 2009.
Career
Rader worked as a research engineer at Canada's National Research Council from 2003 to 2005. After moving to the US, he worked as a research engineer at MIT from 2005 to 2010.
After graduating from MIT, Rader worked as a Spacecraft Systems Engineer at COM DEV from 2010 to 2014. In 2014, Rader moved to Los Angeles to take a job at SpaceX where he now holds the position of Mission Manager.
Rader was a candidate for the Canadian Astronaut Corps in 2009 and 2017. He wrote about the experience in an article for Motherboard called "What It's Like to Be in the Running to Be an Astronaut." He was also in consideration for a one-way mission to Mars as part of the Mars One project in 2014. Natalie Angier interviewed him about the process for a New York Times story entitled A One-Way Trip to Mars? Many Would Sign Up.
Books
Rader self-published his first five books via successful crowdfunding campaigns on Kickstarter. His first book to be released by a major publisher is the non-fiction chronicle of human exploration, Beyond the Known: How Exploration Created the Modern World and Will Take us to the Stars, released by Simon & Schuster on November 12, 2019.
His non-fiction books for adults include:
2019 - Beyond the Known: How Exploration Created the Modern World and Will Take us to the Stars
2014 - Leaving Earth: Why One-way to Mars Makes Sense
He is also the author of a series of science books for children:
2015 - Epic Space Adventure, successfully funded via Kickstarter on November 30, 2015
2016 - Mars Rover Rescue, successfully funded via Kickstarter on November 30, 2016
2017 - Rocket Science, successfully funded via Kickstarter on December 5, 2017
2018 - Europa Excursion, successfully funded via Kickstarter on December 8, 2018
Selected research publications
Rader, A., Newland, F., and Ross, A. (2011). An Iterative Subsystem-Generated Approach to Populating a Satellite Constellation Tradespace. AIAA Space 2011, Long Beach, CA, September 2011.
Rader, A., Oman, C., and Merfeld, D. (2011). Perceived tilt and translation perception during variable-radius swing motion with congruent or conflicting visual and vestibular cues. Experimental Brain Research. Vol. 210: 173-184. (Expanded PhD Thesis Version)
Rader, A., Ross, A., and Rhodes, D. (2010). A Methodological Comparison of Monte Carlo Methods and Epoch-Era Analysis for System Assessment in Uncertain Environments. 4th Annual IEEE Systems Conference, San Diego, CA, April 2010.
Rader, A., Oman, C., and Merfeld, D. (2009). Motion Perception During Variable-Radius Swing Motion in Darkness. Journal of Neurophysiology Vol. 102. No. 4., 2232-2244
Cummings, M.L., Tsonis, C., and Rader, A. (2008). The Impact of Multi-layered Data-blocks on Controller Performance. Air Traffic Control Quarterly (ATCA). Vol. 16, No. 2.
Rader, A., Newman, D., and Carr, C. (2007). Loping: A strategy for reduced gravity human locomotion? Proceedings from the 37th International Conference on Environmental Systems (ICES)
Rader, A., Afagh, F., Yousefi-Koma, A. and Zimcik, D. G. (2007). Optimization of Piezoelectric Actuator Configuration on a Flexible Fin for Vibration Control using Genetic Algorithms. Journal of Intelligent Material Systems and Structures. Vol. 18: 1015 - 1033. (Expanded Masters Thesis Version)
Rader, A., Yousefi-Koma, A., Afagh, F., and Zimcik, D. (2005). Optimization of selective piezoelectric actuator configuration on a flexible fin using a genetic algorithm. Proceedings from the 12th Annual SPIE International Symposium on Smart Structures and Materials.
Rader, A., Afagh, F., Yousefi-Koma, A., and Zimcik, D. (2004). Optimization of piezoelectric actuator configuration using a genetic algorithm for three-dimensional surface fitting of the frequency response function. Proceedings from the 15th Annual ICAST Conference on Adaptive Structure and Technologies.
Rader, A., Clements, G., and Langlois, R. (2002). Dynamics of a Quarter-Car Suspension. Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering Laboratory Manual. Carleton University.
References
Living people
Writers from Los Angeles
Writers from Ottawa
MIT School of Engineering alumni
SpaceX people
Canadian children's writers
21st-century Canadian male writers
Carleton University alumni
Aerospace engineers
Canadian game designers
Year of birth missing (living people) | Andrew Rader | [
"Engineering"
] | 1,120 | [
"Aerospace engineers",
"Aerospace engineering"
] |
61,881,692 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blastobotrys%20elegans | Blastobotrys elegans is a species of fungus.
History and taxonomy
The genus Blastobotrys was incorrectly identified as a hyphomycete and classified within "Deuteromyces" (Fungi imperfecti) by Klopotek in 1967, with Blastobotrys nivea as the type species. Based on the unique manner, that Blastobotrys displayed dual orders of conidia, von Klopotek concluded, that it must differ from other conidia producing genera like Tritirachium and Rhinocladellia.
Then in 1985, the morphological and physiological characteristics of Blastobotrys were defined and distinguished from other closely related species Sporothrix and Trichosporiella, by de Hoog, Rantio-Lehtimäki and Smith. As a result, the genus Sporothrix was reserved for anamorphs of Ophiostomatales; and the genus Blastobotrys, for other saccharomycetous yeasts. They had also discovered several new species of fungi, including Blastobotrys elegans and Trichomonascus teleomorphs that related to anamorphs of Blastobotrys.
In 1995, after performing D1/D2 analysis, Kurtzman and Robnett reclassified Blastobotrys in the Saccharomycetales order, within the Trichomonascaceae family. They had suspected a strong relation between Blastobotrys species and other anamorphs like Arxula, Candida species and Sympodiomyces. This theory was finally confirmed correct in 2014, by Daniel, Lachance and Kurtzman, through their multilocus sequence analysis on related species of anamorphic genera. All species of Arxula and Sympodiomyces and several species of Candida were found to be members of the Trichomonascus clade and were subsequently transferred to the Blastobotrys genus.
Kurtzman and Robnett proposed, that since Blastobotrys has taxonomic priority, all anamorphic species of Trichomonascaceae should be assigned to this genus. Similarly, Trichomonascus, the telemorphic state of Blastobotrys, represents the ascosporic genus Trichomonascaceae and takes taxonomic priority over Stephanoascus. Therefore, all teleomorphs of Trichomonascaceae should be assigned to Trichomonascus.
Habitat
Blastobotrys elegans was first isolated by mycologists de Hoog, Rantio-Lehtimäki and Smith in 1985, Finland, from indoor air.
Description
Physiology
Blastobotrys elegans exhibits yeast like growth consisting of very dense, outwardly growing hyphae. It is a feminine, anamorphic ascomycete that reproduces asexually, through conidia. It has no known recorded teleomorphic state. Like many Blastobotrys species, B. elegans is characterized by bearing globular primary conidia which synchronously produce distinct, secondary globular conidia. The conidia develop on specialized hyphae called conidiophores, which grow upwards and obliquely. For the most part, budding cells are absent in B. elegans.
Morphology
A strain of B. elegans, labelled CBS 530.83A, was grown at 20-22°C on 4% malt extract/0.5% yeast extract agar and the following traits were observed from its growth. During the early growth phase (after 10 days), several dull white colonies, measuring around 3-5 mm in diameter can be observed. In the later stages of growth, bigger farinose patches begin to appear. They then grow into large, elevated, cerebriform patches. Even as B. elegans growth progresses, it does not emit any noticeable odors. Normally, the species does not usually produce budding cells, however they can form on scattered giant cells.
Hyphae are translucent, about 2-3 μm wide, grow outwards unevenly and septate every 20-40 μm. As cylindrical denticles continue to develop, conidia will form at their apical ends. B. elegans produces primary conidia and secondary conidia, that typically develop simultaneously. Primary conidia are spherical, measure 2.8-4.2 μm in diameter and lack setae. Primary conidia are also densely packed with spherical secondary conidia that measure 1.8-3.4 μm in diameter and also lack setae.
Growth tests
All Blastobotrys species, including B. elegans, can grow on cellobiose, D-galactose, D-glucitol, D-glucose, D-mannitol, D-xylose, erythritol, glycerol, ribitol and trehalose. Therefore, when only looking at growth tests, it is very challenging to differentiate B. elegans from other Blastobotrys species.
It is worth mentioning, that B. elegans also grows on adenine, arbutin, D-ribose, ethanol, ethylamine, glycine, isobutanol, lactose, n-Hexadecane, maltose, succinate and uric acid. It is unable to grow on D-arabinose, inositol, isoleucine, L-rhamnose, lactate, leucine, melezitose, melibiose, methyl-α-D-glucopyranoside, putrescine, raffinose and sucrose. Other, conditions resulting in negative growth include: on nitrate, at 37°C, without vitamins and in diazonium blue B.
Anaerobic metabolism
Sugars are normally fermented by all Blastobotrys species. Interestingly, B. elegans is the only Blastobotrys species discovered, without the ability to ferment sugar in anaerobic conditions. Subsequently, with the absence of respiration, there is no observed B. elegans growth on D-galactose, D-glucose, D-xylose, lactose, maltose, raffinose, starch and trehalose. It is also unable to ferment insulin.
Comparative genomic studies
DNA sequencing and BLAST searching were conducted to phylogenetically characterize endosymbiotic yeasts isolated from the guts of basidiocarp-feeding beetles. While it was disclosed, that none of the isolated fungal strains had DNA sequences identical to ones in GenBank; a yeast taxon related to (92% similarity) B. elegans, occurred in 6/22 cloned sequences from the beetle family, Neomida. Further, a yeast taxon related to (91% similarity) Trichomonascus farinosus (originally named Stephanoascus farinosus), occurred in 1/22 clones. In other words, 30% of the clones from Neomida, were discovered to be similar to species of Trichomonascus (teleomorph) and its anamorphic genus Blastobotrys.
Two more novel strains of Blastobotrys, very closely related to B. elegans were isolated, and both strains were also found to grow closely with insects. Blastobotrys meliponae is found in the honey of the bee, Melipona scutellaris and Blastobotrys bombycis is found in the gut of the silkworm larva, Bombyx mori.
Another comparative DNA sequencing study, found significant nucleotide similarity (<81.7%) between six strains of Trichomonascus ciferrii isolates (obtained from human ear swabs) and other Trichomonascus/Blastobotrys species.
Pathogenicity and toxicity
While B. elegans appears to be closely related to many pathogenic fungi, it has not been recorded to cause disease or damage in a host.
References
Saccharomycetes
Fungus species | Blastobotrys elegans | [
"Biology"
] | 1,680 | [
"Fungi",
"Fungus species"
] |
61,882,775 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caterina%20Ducati | Caterina Ducati is a Professor of Nanomaterials in the Department of Materials at the University of Cambridge. She serves as Director of the University of Cambridge Master's programme in Micro- and Nanotechnology Enterprise as well as leading teaching in the Nanotechnology Doctoral Training Centre.
Early life and education
Ducati was born in Milan. She studied at the University of Milan, where she earned an undergraduate degree in physics. Her research project involved designing a time-of-flight mass spectrometer for supersonic cluster beams under the supervision of Paolo Milani. She moved to the University of Cambridge Department of Engineering for her graduate studies, where she worked with John Robertson. Her doctorate considered nanostructured carbon for electrochemistry as well as the relationship between morphology, crystallographic phases and electronic properties in nanomaterials. This included the development of carbon nanotubes and investigations into their growth models using transmission electron microscopy.
Research and career
In 2003 Ducati was awarded a Knowledge Transfer Partnership fellowship working on the 4151 programme with Alphasense Limited. In 2004 she was made a Royal Society Dorothy Hodgkin fellow, where she started to research metal oxide nanostructures for catalysis. She was simultaneously awarded a Sackler junior fellowship. She was subsequently awarded a Royal Society University Research Fellowship to explore electron microscopy of nanostructures, and was based in Churchill College, Cambridge. This involved developing transmission electron microscopy to study the nanoscale properties of solar cells, which allows better understanding of how electrons move through a structured anode.
In 2009 Ducati was made a lecturer in the Department of Materials at the University of Cambridge. She researches the degradation of nanostructured solar cells, and lithium-ion batteries in collaboration with Paul Midgley and Clare Grey. She was awarded a European Research Council Starting Grant to study photoactive nanomaterials and devices, and a Proof of Concept grant to study metal – metal oxide nanocomposites for air purification. She was elected to AcademiaNet in 2011. Ducati has worked with the Institute of Physics Electron Microscopy and Analysis group and the Nanoscale Physics and Technology Group. She worked with Rachel Oliver on the delivery of Master's course in Micro- & Nanotechnology Enterprise.
She was promoted to Professor of Nanomaterials in 2019 and serves as Tutor and Director of Studies of Materials Science in Trinity College, Cambridge. She has led activities at Trinity to improve the representation of women scientists.
Awards
In 2018, Ducati was awarded the Royal Microscopical Society Medal for Innovation in Applied Microscopy for Engineering and Physical Sciences.
Personal life
Ducati has two sons born in 2003 and 2007.
References
Living people
Italian women scientists
Italian women physicists
University of Milan alumni
Alumni of the University of Cambridge
Fellows of Trinity College, Cambridge
Italian materials scientists
Women materials scientists and engineers
Year of birth missing (living people) | Caterina Ducati | [
"Materials_science",
"Technology"
] | 583 | [
"Women materials scientists and engineers",
"Materials scientists and engineers",
"Women in science and technology"
] |
61,883,154 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cockade%20of%20Italy | The cockade of Italy () is the national ornament of Italy, obtained by folding a green, white and red ribbon into a using the technique called (pleating). It is one of the national symbols of Italy and is composed of the three colours of the Italian flag with the green in the centre, the white immediately outside and the red on the edge. The cockade, a revolutionary symbol, was the protagonist of the uprisings that characterized the Italian unification, being pinned on the jacket or on the hats in its tricolour form by many of the patriots of this period of Italian history. During which, the Italian Peninsula achieved its own national unity, culminating on 17 March 1861 with the proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy. On 14 June 1848, it replaced the azure cockade on the uniforms of some departments of the Royal Sardinian Army (becoming the Royal Italian Army in 1861), while on 1 January 1948, with the birth of the Italian Republic, it took its place as a national ornament.
The Italian tricolour cockade appeared for the first time in Genoa on 21 August 1789, and with it the colours of the three Italian national colours. Seven years later, the first tricolour military banner was adopted by the Lombard Legion in Milan on 11 October 1796, and eight years later, the birth of the flag of Italy had its origins on 7 January 1797, when it became for the first time a national flag of an Italian sovereign State, the Cispadane Republic.
The Italian tricolour cockade is one of the symbols of the Italian Air Force, and is widely used on all Italian state aircraft, not only military. The cockade is the basis of the parade frieze of the Bersaglieri, cavalry regiments, Carabinieri and Guardia di Finanza, and a reproduction of it in fabric is sewn on the shirts of the sports teams holding the Coppa Italia () that are organized in various national team sports. It is tradition, for the most important offices of the State, excluding the President of the Italian Republic, to have a tricolour cockade pinned to their jacket during the military parade of the Festa della Repubblica, which is celebrated every 2 June.
Colour position
The Italian tricolour cockade, by convention, has the green in the centre, the white in an intermediate position and red in the periphery. This custom derives from one of the conceptual characteristics of the cockades, which can be imagined as flags rolled around the flagpole seen from above.
In the case of the Italian tricolour cockade, the green is located in the centre because in the flag of Italy this colour is the one closest to the flagpole. The tricolour cockades with red and green in the opposite position are those of Iran and Suriname. Conversely, the national ornament of Bulgaria and Maldives, starting from the centre, are arranged white, green and red, while that of Madagascar, starting from the centre, is arranged white, red and green.
The Hungarian cockade has the same arrangement of colours as the Italian tricolour cockade, having the colour position reversed like the Iranian cockade and the Surinamese one is an urban legend. Other cockades identical to the Italian one, even in the arrangement of the colours, are the national ornaments of Burundi, Mexico, Lebanon, Seychelles, Algeria and Turkmenistan.
History
The premises
The first cockades were introduced in Europe in the 15th century. The armies of the European states used them to signal the nationality of their soldiers to discern allies from enemies. These first cockades were inspired by the distinctive coloured bands and ribbons that were used in the Late Middle Ages by knights, both in war and in tournaments, which had the same purpose, namely to distinguish the opponent from the fellow soldier.
The Italian tricolour cockade, which later became a revolutionary symbol par excellence during the insurrectional uprisings of the 18th and 19th centuries, was often worn by the patriots who participated in the uprisings that marked the Italian unification that was characterized by those social ferments that led to the political and administrative unity of the Italian peninsula in the 19th century; for this reason it is considered one of the national symbols of Italy.
The Italian tricolour cockade, as well as all similar ornaments made in the same period in other countries, main characteristic was that of being able to be clearly visible, thus giving way to unequivocally identify the political ideas of the person who wore it, as well as that of being, in case of need, better hideable than, for example, a flag.
The Italian tricolour cockade was inspired by the French tricolour cockade, as well as the flag of Italy is inspired by the French one, introduced by the French Revolution in the autumn of 1790 on French Navy warships. Other national tricolour European flags were also inspired by the French flag because they were also linked to the ideals of the revolution.
The French tricolour cockade originated during the Revolution and over time became one of the symbols of change. Later, the meaning of change assigned to the French tricolour cockade crossed the Alps and arrived in Italy together with the use of the cockade and all the values of the French Revolution, which were perpetrated by the Jacobinism of the origins, including the ideals of social renewal the basis of the advocacy of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen of 1789. Subsequently also political, with the first patriotic ferments directed at national self-determination which subsequently led, on the Italian peninsula, to the Italian unification.
The French tricolour cockade was born on 12 July 1789, two days before the storming of the Bastille, when the revolutionary journalist Camille Desmoulins, while hailing the Parisian crowd to revolt, asked the protesters what colour to adopt as a symbol of the French Revolution, proposing the green hope or the blue of the American Revolution, symbol of freedom and democracy. The protesters replied "The green! The green! We want green cockades!" Desmoulins then seized a green leaf from the ground and pointed it to the hat as a distinctive sign of the revolutionaries.
The green, in the primitive French cockade, was immediately abandoned in favor of blue and red, or the ancient colours of Paris, because it was also the colour of the king's brother, Count of Artois, who became monarch after the First Restoration with the name of Charles X of France. The French tricolour cockade was then completed on 17 July 1789 with the addition of white, the colour of the House of Bourbon, in deference to King Louis XVI of France, who was still ruling despite the violent revolts that raged in the country: the French monarchy was in fact abolished later, on 10 August 1792.
The birth of the Italian national colours
The leaves used as the first cockades
The first sporadic demonstrations in favor of the ideals of the French Revolution by the Italian population took place in August 1789 with the organization of protests in various places on the Italian peninsula, especially in the Papal States. The rioters, in these early uprisings, had makeshift cockades made of green leaves pinned on their clothes in imitation of the similar protests that took place in France at the dawn of the revolution.
The use of cockades during the protests that took place in Italy was not an isolated case. It is documented that on 12 November 1789 the Prussian government forbade the Westphalian population to use cockades because they were viewed with suspicion given their meaning closely linked to the protest movements that were flaring up in France, and their use therefore went beyond the French borders and spread gradually across Europe. This also happened due to gazettes, printed in various European countries, that gave ample prominence to the fact that the cockade had become, in France, one of the most important symbols of the insurrectional uprisings and of the people's struggle against the absolutist regime that ruled at the time.
As for the Italian uprisings, noteworthy were the revolts that took place in Fano and Velletri just before 16 August, in Rome between 16 and 28 August, and in Frascati just before 30 August, all of which took place in the Papal States. In Rome, in particular, cockades, which were formed from laurel leaves, were pinned on the hats. The rioters demanded the lowering of the price of basic necessities with the threat of unleashing riots comparable to the violent Parisian protests in case of refusal of the authorities to satisfy these requests.
The Milanese gazette Staffetta di Sciaffusa defined the protests in the Papal States as "[a] dance of green cockades" in an article published on 16 August 1789. From September 1789 there was no more news, in the Italian riots, of the cockade formed with the leaves which was replaced by cockades of green fabric.
The first Italian tricolour cockade
During the first weeks of the revolutionary season, it remained a common belief in Italy that the green, white and red flag was the flag waved by the French rioters. The Italian insurgents therefore used these colours as a simple imitation of the protests that were taking place in France and that were aimed at – in both nations – to the same objectives, namely to achieve better living conditions and to obtain civil and political rights, which have always been denied by absolutist regimes. The Italian gazettes of the time had in fact created confusion on the events of the French riots, in particular by omitting the replacement of green with blue and red and thus reporting the erroneous news that the French tricolour was green, white and red.
The error about the colours of the French cockade took root among the demonstrators because the newspapers did not correct the error immediately although at the time, in Italy, about 80 newspapers were printed, five of which in Milan alone. The news published were, at the beginning, also contradictory. For example, the Milanese gazette La Staffetta di Sciaffusa reported the news that the green French cockade made up of leaves had been replaced, the next day, by a red and white cockade (instead of blue and red).
Even on the subsequent and definitive French blue, white and red cockade, which was made on July 17, the newspapers made confusion reporting, as in the case of Il Corriere di Gabinetto, that it was only red and blue or, according to other newspapers, such as La Gazzetta Enciclopedica di Milano, which was white and pink. More precise information, subsequently reported by all the Italian newspapers, correctly informed that there are three colours of the French cockade, however their shades erroneously cited as green, white and red cockades.
The first documented trace of the use of the green, white and red cockade, which however does not specify the arrangement of the colours on the ornament, is dated 21 August 1789. In the historical archives of the Republic of Genoa it is reported that eyewitnesses had seen some demonstrators wandering around the city with "the new French white, red and green cockade introduced recently in Paris". The use of the term "new cockade" is indicative of the French makeshift cockades made of leaves to those in two and subsequently three colours, despite ignoring the real chromatic composition.
The use of the cockade was viewed with suspicion and aversion by the Genoese state authorities, since it recalled those social impulses that were beginning to spread in Europe; the popular ferments had in fact frequently rebellious and destabilizing connotations. The Italian flag was therefore born as a form of popular protest against the absolutist regimes that ruled the peninsula at the time and not as a patriotic manifestation of Italianness, given that it was still far from the birth of that national awareness that then led to the unification of Italy.
It is also not excluded that the green, white and red cockade, with the erroneous belief in the use of green instead of blue, an inaccuracy perhaps caused by the previous use of green leaves, was born before 21 August, and in a different city than Genoa. The revolutionary ferments of the French events probably arrived in Italy before that date, it being understood that we do not yet have documented traces of this possible first realization of the tricolour cockade. It is proven by written evidence that the first revolutionary uprisings, in Italy, took place in August in the Papal State, but the sources relating to these events do not mention tricolour cockades, but only ornaments composed with leaves.
Finally, when the correct information on the chromatic composition of the French cockade arrived in Italy, the Italian Jacobins decided to keep green instead of blue, because it represented nature, and therefore metaphorically also natural rights, that is equality and freedom, both principles dear to them. Although the green, white and red tricolour, when introduced, simply had an imitative value, it was taken as a symbol of the Italian homeland during the popular uprisings of the early 19th century.
The tricolour cockade becomes one of the national symbols of Italy
The adoption in Italy of the green, white and red cockade was not immediate and univocal by the Italian patriots. Other appearances, still sporadic, of alternative cockades to the Genoese one after that of 1789 took place the following year, when they appeared in the red and white Grand Duchy of Tuscany, and in 1792 in Porto Maurizio, in the Republic of Genoa, red and white again. The first appearance of the Italian tricolour cockade abroad took place in 1791 in Toulon, France, brought by some Genoese sailors.
Later the green, white and red cockade always spread to a greater extent, gradually becoming the only ornament used in Italy by the rioters. The patriots began to call it "Italian cockade" making it become one of the symbols of the country. In fact, the error of gazette headlines on the colours of the French tricolour cockade was clarified, and consequently the connotations of uniqueness were assumed, green, white and red adopted by the Italian patriots as one of the most important symbols of the insurrectional and political struggle, aimed at completing the national unit taking the name of "Italian tricolour". The green, white and red tricolour thus acquired a strong patriotic value, becoming one of the symbols of national awareness, a change that gradually led it to enter the collective imaginary of the Italians.
The use of the Italian tricolour was not limited to the presence of green, white and red in a cockade, the latter, having been born on 21 August 1789, heralded by seven years the first tricolour war flag, which was chosen by the Lombard Legion on 11 October 1796, which is associated with the first official approval of the Italian national colours by the authorities. In this case Napoleon, and eight years later with the adoption of the flag of Italy, which was born on 7 January 1797, when it first assumed the role of the national flag of a sovereign Italian state, the Cispadane Republic.
The subsequent adoption by the Italian patriots of the green, white and red tricolour was immediate, unambiguous and devoid of political contrasts. In France the opposite happened since the French tricolour was taken as a symbol first by the Republicans, then by the Bonapartists that were in antagonism with the Monarchists and the Catholics, who had the royal white flag with the fleur-de-lis of France as their reference flag.
The cockade of the Bologna revolt
From a historical perspective, given the judicial process and the clamor that followed, were the tricolour cockades made in 1794 by two students of the University of Bologna, Luigi Zamboni from Bologna and Giovanni Battista De Rolandis from Asti, who placed themselves at the head of an insurrectional attempt to free Bologna from papal rule. In addition to the two students, there were also two medical doctors, Antonio Succi and Angelo Sassoli, who then betrayed the patriots by referring everything to the papal police, and four other people (Giuseppe Rizzoli, known as Dozza, Camillo Tomesani, Antonio Forni Mago Sabino and Camillo Galli). Luigi Zamboni had previously expressed the desire to create a tricolour flag that would become the flag of a united Italy.
During this revolt attempt, which took place between 13 and 14 November 1794 (or, according to other sources, 13 December 1794), the demonstrators led by De Rolandis and Zamboni flaunted a red and white cockade (which are also the colours of the municipal coat of arms of Bologna) having a green lining. These cockades were made by Zamboni's parents. These cockades had green in the centre, white immediately outside and red on the edge.
During the recruitment work, De Rolandis and Zamboni managed to convince 30 people to participate in their attempt at insurrection. The two, to carry out the attempted revolt, purchased some firearms which later proved to be of poor quality. The goal was to spread a leaflet intended to give rise to Bologna and Castel Bolognese, proclaiming that there was no effect whatsoever.
After failing to raise the city, the revolutionaries tried to take refuge in the Grand Duchy of Tuscany, but the local police first captured them in Covigliaio and then handed them over to the papal authorities. After the capture of the fugitives, the latter launched an action "" (a prosecution for fomenting armed treasonous conspiracy throughout the state) at the (the Inquisition of Bologna). The trial involved all the participants in the insurrectional attempt, the family of Zamboni and the Succi brothers.
Zamboni was found dead in a cell nicknamed "Inferno" ("Hell"), which he shared with two common criminals, probably killed by them on the orders of the police or perhaps suicide after an unsuccessful escape attempt on 18 August 1795.
De Rolandis was publicly executed, after being subjected to interrogation preceded and followed by ferocious torture, on 26 April 1796. Zamboni's father died almost 80 years after suffering terrible torture, while his mother was first whipped through the streets of Bologna and then sentenced to life imprisonment. The other defendants, where they had minor penalties, were freed shortly thereafter by the French, who in the meantime had invaded Emilia driving out the pontiffs. The bodies of De Rolandis and Zamboni were then solemnly buried in Bologna in the Giardino della Montagnola on the direct order of Napoleon, before being dispersed in 1799 with the arrival of the Austrians.
The historic cockade, which is owned by the De Rolandis family, has been exhibited for some time in the National Museum of the Italian Risorgimento in Turin. In 2006, during some renovations, it was transferred to the European Student Museum of the University of Bologna, where it is still preserved.
Free use during the Napoleonic era
The tricolour cockade appeared, after the events of Bologna, during Napoleon's entry into Milan on 15 May 1796. These cockades, having the typical circular shape, possessed red on the outside, green on an intermediate position and white in the centre. These ornaments were worn by the rioters even during the religious ceremonies officiated inside the Milan Cathedral as thanks for the arrival of Napoleon, who was seen, at least initially, as a liberator. The tricolour cockades then became one of the official symbols of the Milanese National Guard, which was founded on 20 November 1796, and then spread elsewhere along the Italian peninsula. The tricolour cockade was particularly linked to the Jacobin movement, which made it one of its most important symbols.
Precisely on the occasion of the first adoption of the green, white and red flag by a sovereign Italian state, the Cispadane Republic, which is dated 7 January 1797 and which was decreed by an assembly held in a hall of the town hall of Reggio Emilia, it was decided that the tricolour cockade, also considered one of the official symbols of the newborn Napoleonic state, should have been worn by all citizens. On that occasion, Giuseppe Compagnoni, who is celebrated as the "father of the Italian flag", proposed the adoption of the Italian flag and cockade.
In Bergamo, civilians were obliged to wear a tricolour cockade pinned to their clothes, a coercion that was sanctioned, on 13 May 1797, also in Modena and Reggio Emilia. Even without the need for obligations on the part of the authorities, the cockade spread more and more among the population, who wore it with pride, laying the foundations, together with other factors, for the Italian unification. By decree of 18 May 1797, the Provisional Municipality of Venice noted that "the nation had adopted...the tricolour cockade green, white, and red" and adopted it for its own use as well.
On 29 June 1797, with the merger of the Cispadane Republic and the Transpadane Republic, the Cisalpine Republic was born, a pro-French state body that extended over Lombardy, on part of Emilia and Romagna and which had Milan as its capital. The event, which took place at the lazaretto of Milan, was characterized by a riot of flags and tricolour cockades.
Its use during the Italian unification
The first riots
With the fall of Napoleon and the restoration of the absolutist monarchical regimes, the national colours of Italy, and with it the tricolour cockade, went underground, becoming the symbol of the patriotic ferments that began to spread in Italy and the symbol which united all the efforts of the Italian people towards freedom and independence. The social ferments that led to the birth of Italian patriotism originated in the Napoleonic era, during which the ideals of the French Revolution spread, including the concept of self-determination of the people.
Although the pre-Napoleonic regimes had been restored, liberal ideas often resulted in the will of the people to free themselves from foreign domination by constituting a unitary and independent state body. As in the Italian case, while the demand for greater civil and political rights on the part of the population did not stop with the reconstitution of the absolutist states, the uprisings that would have characterized the 19th century resurfaced.
The use of the tricolour cockade was forbidden by the Austrians in the Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia together with the use of the green, white and red flag under death penalty. The purpose of this provision, quoting the textual words of Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria, was to "make people forget that they are Italian". The tricolour cockade appeared, for the first time after the Napoleonic era, during the uprisings of 1820–21 in the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies pinned on the hats or clothes of Italian patriots; its reappearance was therefore still sporadic and limited to a specific territory. The tricolour cockade appeared again during the revolts of 1830–31, pinned on the clothing of Italian patriots, which took place mainly in the Papal States, in the Duchy of Modena and Reggio and in the Duchy of Parma and Piacenza, in which there was a profusion of handkerchiefs and of tricolour cockades. Also in this case, its appearance was limited to some states of the Italian peninsula.
In this context, in 1820, on the occasion of the solemn celebrations linked to the granting of the constitution by Ferdinand I of the Two Sicilies, the members of the royal family wore tricolour cockades. The uprisings of 1820–21 had in fact the greatest consequences in the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia, where the uprisings were led for a short period by Charles Albert of Piedmont-Sardinia, who had not yet become king, and in the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. The latter, in particular, the Sicilian Parliament, was also reopened and the Neapolitan Parliament was convened for the first time.
If the riots of the 14th and 15th centuries were driven by humanism, with all the effects of chance, including the link with classicism, the patriotic revolts of the 19th century, with their ideas of independence and freedom, and iconic symbols, among which there were the cockades, were instead inspired by Romanticism.
The revolutions of 1848
Tricolour cockades continued to be the protagonists, pinned on the chest or on the hats of patriots, in the popular uprisings that followed such as the case of the Five Days of Milan (18–22 March 1848), during which they had a wide diffusion among the insurgents, many of whom were religious. The Milanese clergy actively supported the patriotic demands of their faithful.
In this context, on 23 March 1848, the king of Piedmont-Sardinia Charles Albert of Piedmont-Sardinia issued a proclamation with decisive political connotations with which the Sardinian sovereign assured the provisional government of Milan formed following the five days that his troops, ready to come to his aid, would have used the Italian tricolour as a war flag:
The Milanese then welcomed Charles Albert of Piedmont-Sardinia and his troops with a profusion of flags and tricolour cockades. On 14 June 1848, a circulaire from the Ministry of War of the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia, decreed the replacement of the Savoy blue cockade, in all military areas in which it was used, with the tricolour cockade:
The blue cockade was until then placed on the hat of the uniform of the Carabinieri, on the frieze of the Bersaglieri caps and on the headgear of the cavalry regiments. On the hat of the Carabinieri the blue cockade was present since the foundation of the military branch, which is dated 1814, for the cavalry its introduction is ascribable to 1843 while for the Bersaglieri to 1836.
Specifically, the excerpt from the circulaire dated 14 June 1848 stated that the blue cockade would be replaced:
In the institutional context, the blue cockade had a different fate. The Statuto Albertino of the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia, which was promulgated on 4 March 1848 by Charles Albert of Piedmont-Sardinia, hence the name, and which later became the fundamental law of the Kingdom of Italy, provided in article 77 that the blue cockade was the national one alone. This article remained in force until 1 January 1948 when the Albertine Statute was replaced by the Constitution of the Italian Republic, which sanctioned the use of the tricolour cockade in all official seats of the Republic.
During the revolutions of 1848 of the tricolour cockades, it appeared in all Italian pre-unification states, from the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia pinned on the hats or clothes of Italian patriots, to the Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia, from the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, to the Papal States, from the Grand Duchy of Tuscany, to the Duchy of Parma and Piacenza and to that of Modena and Reggio. The tricolour cockade was among the symbols most frowned upon by the authorities, for example, Charles II, Duke of Parma, although he was not among the most reactionary sovereigns (so much so that he granted relative freedom of the press), he forbade its use in his duchy.
In the official context, the cockade became one of the official symbols of the Kingdom of Sicily, a state which became independent from the Bourbon kingdom during the Sicilian revolution of 1848.
The unification of Italian peninsula
During the Second Italian War of Independence the territories that were gradually conquered by Victor Emmanuel II of Piedmont-Sardinia and Napoleon III of France acclaimed the two sovereigns as liberators waving green, white and red flags and wearing tricolour cockades. The regions ready to ask for annexation to the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia through the plebiscites of the unification of Italy also expressed their desire to be part of a united Italy with the waving of flags and the use of cockades on their clothes.
The tricolour cockades were also present during the Expedition of the Thousand (1860), starting to appear on the jackets of the Sicilians who gradually swelled the ranks of the Garibaldians. In particular, they made their debut shortly before Giuseppe Garibaldi's conquest of Palermo, and then followed the hero of the two worlds in his victorious campaign in the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies.
Tricolour cockades were given to the inhabitants of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, just before each movement of insurrection, so that they would have a distinctive sign with an unequivocal meaning. They were also pinned on the cap of the official uniform of the body of public order established by Giuseppe Garibaldi in the lands that were progressively conquered.
Tricolour cockades were made by some Milanese patriots, led by Laura Solera Mantegazza, to finance the Expedition of the Thousand. Each tricolour cockade, which was sold for one lira, was associated with a numbered ticket bearing on the front the effigy of Giuseppe Garibaldi, the Italian tricolour and the words "Soccorso a Garibaldi", while on the back the words "Soccorso alla Sicilia". 24,442 cockades were sold, a result below expectations perhaps due to an unfounded rumor spread among the supporting population that part of the profit obtained from the sale of the cockades would go to Giuseppe Mazzini, a patriot disliked by some of the Milanese.
The use of tricolour cockades continued even after the Italian unification conquests ended. In the territories then subject to plebiscites, even after the popular consultation, the use of green, white and red ornaments pinned on clothes and caps was very common. On 17 March 1861, there was the proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy, the formal act that sanctioned, with a normative act of the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia, the birth of the unified Kingdom of Italy.
Subsequent uses
Aeronautical and military field
After the Italian unification, the tricolour cockade continued to be used in the military field on the parade headdresses of the aforementioned departments of the Italian armed forces and was also introduced in the aeronautical field.
After the entry of the Kingdom of Italy in the First World War, the Italian Supreme Military Command realized the inadequacy of the markings previously used on Italian aircraft, therefore it ordered to paint the vertical empennage with the tricolour and the intrados of the wings with green, white and red sections for the recognition of nationality. Much more often, however, the central section was not painted white, remaining the colour of the canvas. As a further mark, the tricolour cockade, in the roundel version with the external red, the central white and the internal green, was established on 21 December 1917, being placed on the sides of the fuselage and above the upper wing.
The following period, tricolour cockades appeared that had a green perimeter and a red central disc with a position of the colours that was inverted compared to that conventionally used. Following complaints from the Allies, aimed at avoiding confusion between cockades used on the planes of the British Royal Flying Corps and with the aircraft of the French Aéronautique Militaire, which operated in the same theater of war.
Often the aircraft purchased from France kept however, for practicality, some rosettes with the red on the outside, simply superimposing the green on the central blue, therefore the reverse of the nationally produced airplanes. The Italian tricolour cockade was used discontinuously until 1927, when it was replaced by a cockade depicting the fasces, one of the most identifying symbols of fascism.
In the aeronautical field, the tricolour cockade with red outwards and green in the centre returned to use, without being changed, in 1943, during the Second World War, on the occasion of the establishment of the Italian Co-belligerent Air Force. After the fall of fascism, there was the immediate disappearance of all the symbols linked to it, including the fasces.
The tricolour cockade, which was then widely used on all Italian state aircraft, not only military, is still today one of the symbols of the Italian Air Force. In 1991, the low visibility tricolour cockade was introduced, which is characterized by a narrower white band than the other two.
Also in the military field, the tricolour cockade has been the basis of the parade frieze of the Bersaglieri, cavalry regiments, Carabinieri (when it replaced the Italian blue cockade in this role), and of the Guardia di Finanza since 14 June 1848. The latter was founded in 1862, therefore after the change of the cockade in 1848, the Guardia di Finanza has always had, as the basis of its frieze, the tricolour cockade.
Institutional context
It is tradition for the most important offices of the Italian State to have pinned on the jacket, during the military parade of the Festa della Repubblica celebrated every 2 June, a tricolour cockade.
Sport
In Italian sport, the tricolour cockade became the distinctive symbol of the successes in national cups starting in the 1950s; the cockade is sewn on the jersey of the team holding the trophy for the following season.
The Italian tricolour cockade made its debut in football in the 1958–59 season on Lazio jerseys. In football, starting from the 1985–86 season, the cockade used for the teams holding the Coppa Italia underwent a change. The version with the inverted colours began to be used, that is with the green outside and the red in the centre. From the 2006–07 season the conventional typology was restored, the one with red on the outside and green in the centre. In football, the cockade is also a symbol, again in the roundel shape, of the victories in the Coppa Italia Serie D, in the Coppa Italia Dilettanti and — with green on the outside and red on the inside — in the Coppa Italia Serie C.
The cockade of Italy in music
A famous song written by Francesco Dall'Ongaro and set to music by Luigi Gordigiani was dedicated to the tricolour cockade:
Italian azure cockade
The Italian azure cockade was one of the representative ornaments of Italy, obtained by circularly pleating an azure ribbon. Coming from the Savoy blue, the colour of the Italian royal family from 1861 to 1946, the azure cockade remained officially in use until 1 January 1948, when the constitution of the Italian Republic came into force, after which it was replaced, in all official offices, from the Italian tricolour cockade.
The azure cockade originates from at least in the 17th century, as evidenced by some documents which confirm its presence on military uniforms in use at the time of Victor Amadeus II of Sardinia. Other sources testify to its use even in the 18th century.
The Albertine Statute of the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia, which was promulgated on 4 March 1848, and which later became the fundamental law of the Kingdom of Italy, foresaw that the azure cockade was the only national one. In this way the azure, historical colour of the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia and even before the Duchy of Savoy, was kept alongside the tricolour cockade born in 1789, and which was instead very common among the population.
On 14 June 1848, during the First Italian War of Independence, a circulaire from the Ministry of War decreed the replacement of the azure cockade, which until then had been placed on the hat of the uniform of the Carabinieri, with "the cockade to the three Italian national colours in accordance with the established models". This was not an exception; similarly the tricolour cockade replaced the azure one, for example, on the frieze of the Bersaglieri caps and on the headdresses of the soldiers of the cavalry regiments. On the hat of the Carabinieri the azure cockade was present since the founding of the branch, which is dated 1814, while for the cavalry branch its introduction can be ascribed to 1843,
The azure cockade was instead used during the Sardinian campaign in central Italy in 1860, the siege of Gaeta (also dated 1860), the repression of post-unitary brigandage (1860–70) and the Third Italian War of Independence (1866), in all cases pinned on the uniforms of the generals and that of the officers of the Royal Italian Army.
The blue cockade was officially in use until 1 January 1948, when the Constitution of the Italian Republic came into force, being replaced, in all official locations, by the Italian tricolour cockade.
Historical evolution of the cockade of Italy
In the institutional context
In the military field
In the aeronautical field
In the sports field
See also
Flag of Italy
National symbols of Italy
Tricolour Day
Citations
References
External links
Italy
Culture of Italy
Italian unification
National symbols of Italy
Sport in Italy
Sports symbols | Cockade of Italy | [
"Mathematics"
] | 7,631 | [
"Cockades",
"Symbols"
] |
61,883,319 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perfect%20digital%20invariant | In number theory, a perfect digital invariant (PDI) is a number in a given number base () that is the sum of its own digits each raised to a given power ().
Definition
Let be a natural number. The perfect digital invariant function (also known as a happy function, from happy numbers) for base and power is defined as:
where is the number of digits in the number in base , and
is the value of each digit of the number. A natural number is a perfect digital invariant if it is a fixed point for , which occurs if . and are trivial perfect digital invariants for all and , all other perfect digital invariants are nontrivial perfect digital invariants.
For example, the number 4150 in base is a perfect digital invariant with , because .
A natural number is a sociable digital invariant if it is a periodic point for , where for a positive integer (here is the th iterate of ), and forms a cycle of period . A perfect digital invariant is a sociable digital invariant with , and a amicable digital invariant is a sociable digital invariant with .
All natural numbers are preperiodic points for , regardless of the base. This is because if , , so any will satisfy until . There are a finite number of natural numbers less than , so the number is guaranteed to reach a periodic point or a fixed point less than , making it a preperiodic point.
Numbers in base lead to fixed or periodic points of numbers .
The number of iterations needed for to reach a fixed point is the perfect digital invariant function's persistence of , and undefined if it never reaches a fixed point.
is the digit sum. The only perfect digital invariants are the single-digit numbers in base , and there are no periodic points with prime period greater than 1.
reduces to , as for any power , and .
For every natural number , if , and , then for every natural number , if , then , where is Euler's totient function.
No upper bound can be determined for the size of perfect digital invariants in a given base and arbitrary power, and it is not currently known whether or not the number of perfect digital invariants for an arbitrary base is finite or infinite.
F2,b
By definition, any three-digit perfect digital invariant for with natural number digits , , has to satisfy the cubic Diophantine equation . has to be equal to 0 or 1 for any , because the maximum value can take is . As a result, there are actually two related quadratic Diophantine equations to solve:
when , and
when .
The two-digit natural number is a perfect digital invariant in base
This can be proven by taking the first case, where , and solving for . This means that for some values of and , is not a perfect digital invariant in any base, as is not a divisor of . Moreover, , because if or , then , which contradicts the earlier statement that .
There are no three-digit perfect digital invariants for , which can be proven by taking the second case, where , and letting and . Then the Diophantine equation for the three-digit perfect digital invariant becomes
for all values of . Thus, there are no solutions to the Diophantine equation, and there are no three-digit perfect digital invariants for .
F3,b
By definition, any four-digit perfect digital invariant for with natural number digits , , , has to satisfy the quartic Diophantine equation . has to be equal to 0, 1, 2 for any , because the maximum value can take is . As a result, there are actually three related cubic Diophantine equations to solve
when
when
when
We take the first case, where .
b = 3k + 1
Let be a positive integer and the number base . Then:
is a perfect digital invariant for for all .
is a perfect digital invariant for for all .
is a perfect digital invariant for for all .
b = 3k + 2
Let be a positive integer and the number base . Then:
is a perfect digital invariant for for all .
b = 6k + 4
Let be a positive integer and the number base . Then:
is a perfect digital invariant for for all .
Fp,b
All numbers are represented in base .
Extension to negative integers
Perfect digital invariants can be extended to the negative integers by use of a signed-digit representation to represent each integer.
Balanced ternary
In balanced ternary, the digits are 1, −1 and 0. This results in the following:
With odd powers , reduces down to digit sum iteration, as , and .
With even powers , indicates whether the number is even or odd, as the sum of each digit will indicate divisibility by 2 if and only if the sum of digits ends in 0. As and , for every pair of digits 1 or −1, their sum is 0 and the sum of their squares is 2.
Relation to happy numbers
A happy number for a given base and a given power is a preperiodic point for the perfect digital invariant function such that the -th iteration of is equal to the trivial perfect digital invariant , and an unhappy number is one such that there exists no such .
Programming example
The example below implements the perfect digital invariant function described in the definition above to search for perfect digital invariants and cycles in Python. This can be used to find happy numbers.
def pdif(x: int, p: int, b: int) -> int:
"""Perfect digital invariant function."""
total = 0
while x > 0:
total = total + pow(x % b, p)
x = x // b
return total
def pdif_cycle(x: int, p: int, b: int) -> list[int]:
seen = []
while x not in seen:
seen.append(x)
x = pdif(x, p, b)
cycle = []
while x not in cycle:
cycle.append(x)
x = pdif(x, p, b)
return cycle
See also
Arithmetic dynamics
Dudeney number
Factorion
Happy number
Kaprekar's constant
Kaprekar number
Meertens number
Narcissistic number
Perfect digit-to-digit invariant
Sum-product number
References
External links
Digital Invariants
Arithmetic dynamics
Articles with example Python (programming language) code
Base-dependent integer sequences
Diophantine equations | Perfect digital invariant | [
"Mathematics"
] | 1,311 | [
"Recreational mathematics",
"Mathematical objects",
"Arithmetic dynamics",
"Equations",
"Diophantine equations",
"Number theory",
"Dynamical systems"
] |
62,829,726 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chalais-Meudon | Chalais-Meudon is an aeronautical research and development centre in Meudon, to the south-west of Paris. It was originally founded in 1793 in the nearby Château de Meudon and has played an important role in the development of French aviation.
Balloons
The story of aviation at Chalais-Meudon starts in October 1793 when the French Public Safety Committee ordered the construction of an observation balloon capable of carrying two observers. The old royal grounds at Meudon were allocated for this work, with the Château de Meudon chosen as the centre, with Nicolas-Jacques Conté as director. Two French Balloon Corps balloon companies had already been created, and the new organisation's role was to build balloons and train their pilots and operators.
The first balloon, the Entreprenant, was built within four months, and on 31 October 1794, the National School of Ballooning was created, with Conté as its director. Many other balloons were then built in a short period, including, in 1795, l’Intrépide which, with the First Balloon Company, was captured by Austrian troops in 1796, and is now on display at the Austrian Military Museum in Vienna - the oldest aircraft in Europe. They were all spherical hydrogen balloons with a diameter of at least . Conté himself had improved production methods for hydrogen and the treatment of the gas bags.
In 1798 Napoleon sent one of the balloon companies in one ship to Egypt. It was sunk by the British at Aboukir and all the equipment was lost. The two balloon companies were disbanded soon afterwards, and work on balloons at Meudon ceased.
In 1877, balloons had regained their importance after their successful use in the Siege of Paris (1870–71). Léon Gambetta, the Minister for War, who had himself escaped from Paris by balloon, created a commission of air communications, and Colonel Charles Renard was put in charge of military ballooning. In 1877, he became director of the l'Etablissement Central de l'Aérostation Militaire (Central Establishment of Military Ballooning), and he created corps of balloonists, with a research centre at Meudon.
This was a new development in the grounds of the château and on the edge of the forest of Meudon. It included a hexagonal lake, the Étang de Chalais, hence the location was named Chalais-Meudon. A large series of buildings was planned. It included the Research Laboratory for Military Ballooning which became the Military Aeronautical Laboratory.
The Universal Exhibition in Paris in 1878 had a huge Great Gallery of Machines, designed by Henri de Dion. Renard brought the structure to Chalais-Meudon for use as a balloon store and workshop. It was named Hangar Y (all buildings at the site were allocated a letter) and the building nearest to it, which was used for the production of hydrogen, was named Building Z. Hangar Y has dimensions of: length , width , height .
Balloons continued to be developed and built here, with great expansion of balloon manufacturing during World War I. Balloon parks were created, with steam winches used to move the balloons, and most of the components were built on site, including wicker baskets and hydrogen generators. Especially important at that time were the Caquot balloons, produced for all the allied countries. The designer, Albert Caquot went on to plan the Chalais-Meudon wind tunnel and to propose the aviation museum (see below). Balloon production ended in 1918.
Airships
Hangar Y was at first used for balloons, but Renard soon started work on airships, which the building could also accommodate. This was therefore the world's first airship hangar, and one of very few that remain in Europe.
The first airship to be built was La France. In building it, Renard collaborated with Arthur Constantin Krebs, one of France's most notable inventors. Its first flight was on 9 August 1884. Taking off from outside Hangar Y, it flew over Villacoublay before returning and landing safely at its takeoff point, a flight of about taking 23 minutes. This was the first ever fully controlled closed-circuit flight by a flying machine. It was propelled by an electric motor, but the batteries were so heavy that even the designers recognised that it was, at the time, a dead end, and after a further six successful flights, its development was abandoned.
Another airship was built here in 1895, named the Général Meusnier after Jean Baptiste Meusnier who had a concept for a dirigible balloon in 1784. Neither project flew.
There was a lot of airship activity in the early 20th century. In 1901 Alberto Santos-Dumont based his Number 6 airship here. Many airships visited for demonstrations or testing, including those from the Lebaudy brothers. Their Patrie was here in 1906–7, followed by La République in 1908–9.
Airships built by the Military Airship Factory 1912 - 1918
Data from
Conducting a reconnaissance mission, the French (airship) Fleurus became the first Allied aircraft to fly over Germany during World War I.
The army found that airships were becoming decreasingly useful during WWI, and on 1 January 1918 all airships were transferred to the navy. Construction and delivery of the CM series for the navy was completed, but CM.6 to CM.8 had also been ordered, but were not built.
The last airship to use Hangar Y was the Voliris 900. This modern commercial airship, long, was assembled, inflated and given a public presentation here in 2002. It was then dismantled and moved to Clermont-Ferrand for flight testing the following year.
Kites
Émile Dorand was a balloonist and engineer, who had been at Chalais-Meudon since 1907 and was appointed head of the Military Aeronautical Laboratory. After that closed, he was appointed as the first director of the Service Technique de l'Aéronautique (STAé) on 28 February 1916. This was still based at Chalais-Meudon, and he continued with one of his interests – kites.
He had developed ever-larger kites, capable of supporting a man, and some were powered, with a nacelle (fuselage structure) which was suspended underneath large wings, and which had a steerable engine and propeller at the front. While these showed some promise, and kites were being used by the army, the concepts were being overtaken by other ideas, so the interest in kites only lasted from around 1908 to 1916, by when all kite equipment had been returned to Chalais-Meudon, never to be used again.
Aircraft
One of the earliest experiments with aeroplanes at Chalais-Meudon was conducted by Victor Tatin who in 1879 developed a model monoplane, with a wing span of , powered by a compressed air engine. Tied to a central pole in a circular track it took off and flew for about entirely under its own power - the first model aeroplane ever to do so.
From 1902 to 1905 Renard invited several aviation experimenters to have devices built or tested at Chalais-Meudon. They included Léon Levavasseur, Ernest Archdeacon and Ferdinand Ferber. In 1910 the laboratory acquired around 20 aircraft and started training military pilots. More facilities for research and testing were installed, including test benches and wind tunnels.
Marcel Bloch worked at the laboratory during World War I, developing a propeller named the Éclair and, with Henry Potez who was the Dorand's assistant at the STAé, and Louis Coroller, formed a company, the Société d'Études Aéronautiques to produce the SEA series of fighters. On 12 January 1918 Commander Caquot replaced Colonel Durand as director of the STAé.
At the end of WWI the STAé itself moved to the Issy-les-Moulineaux, about to the north-east of Chalais-Meudon, taking some of the research activities with it, but retaining some activities at Chalais-Meudon. Its activities continued between the wars, but with only a small flying field available much of the aircraft testing was moved to the nearby Villacoublay airfield about to the south-west, and the rest of the aircraft testing, and some other research activities went to Issy.
During the occupation of World War II, German researchers used the facilities, including the Great Wind Tunnel, for testing their own aircraft and interesting captured French designs such as the Payen PA-22.
In 1946, the engine testing service moved back to Chalais-Meudon and became the Centre d'Essai des Moteurs et Hélices (CEMH).
Wind Tunnel
In 1929 Albert Caquot began planning for what was then the largest wind tunnel in the world. It was designed by Antonin Lapresle, who was a colleague of Gustave Eiffel who had built two wind tunnels with great success in Paris in 1909 and 1912. Building started in 1932 and it was completed in 1934. It was capable of testing complete aircraft up to span. Built of reinforced concrete, it was powered by six fans of each, and airspeeds could reach .
Named the S1Ch wind tunnel, and also called La Grande Soufflerie (The Great Wind Tunnel), it has been used for testing cars and buildings, as well as aircraft including the Dassault Mirage III, the Caravelle and Concorde. It closed in 1977 and is preserved as a historic monument.
Museum
In 1919, Albert Caquot proposed the setting up of an aeronautical museum, and items were collected at Issy-les-Moulineaux and at Chalais-Meudon, with many items preserved from the balloon, engine and aviation activities that had taken place at those locations. The items were soon gathered into the balloon basket hangar at Chalais-Meudon, which opened to the public in 1921. The Musée de l’Air was the world's first aviation museum, and the collection constantly grew.
After WWII the decision was made to move the crowded museum to larger premises. With the building of the Charles de Gaulle Airport at Roissy, Le Bourget Airport had an increasing amount of space available, and the collection was gradually moved there. The process started in the early 1970s, and the new museum opened to the public in 1975. The Chalais-Meudon museum was finally closed in 1981. Now renamed the Musée de l’Air et de l’Espace, it continues to thrive at Le Bourget.
Modern use
In 1946, the STAé was replaced by the Office National d'Etudes et de Recherches Aérospatiales (ONERA), and it took over most of the Chalais-Meudon site, where it remains to this day.
Hangar Y was designated a historic monument in 1982, but has fallen into disrepair. Some maintenance has taken place, and there are plans for it to be restored to become the European Centre for Balloons and Airships and a cultural and education centre.
References
- Total pages: 216
Aerospace research institutes
Aeronautics organizations
Airship hangars
Military research installations
Aviation history of France
Wind tunnels
Aerospace museums in France
1793 establishments in France | Chalais-Meudon | [
"Engineering"
] | 2,283 | [
"Aeronautics organizations"
] |
62,830,666 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lactarius%20alachuanus | Lactarius alachuanus is a member of the large genus Lactarius (order Russulales), known as milk-caps. Found in North America, the species was first described in 1938 by American mycologist William Alphonso Murrill. It is associated with oaks (Quercus spp.).
See also
List of Lactarius species
References
alachuanus
Fungi of North America
Fungi described in 1938
Fungus species | Lactarius alachuanus | [
"Biology"
] | 90 | [
"Fungi",
"Fungus species"
] |
62,830,845 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NGC%201803 | NGC 1803 is a barred spiral galaxy located around 192 million light-years away in the constellation Pictor. NGC 1803 was discovered in 1834 by John Herschel, and it is 87,000 light-years across.
See also
Galaxy
References
External links
NGC 1803 on SIMBAD
1803
Barred spiral galaxies
Pictor
016715 | NGC 1803 | [
"Astronomy"
] | 66 | [
"Pictor",
"Constellations"
] |
62,831,562 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2-Picolylamine | 2-Picolylamine is an organic compound with the formula H2NCH2C5H4N. A colorless liquid, it is a common bidentate ligand and a precursor to more complex multidentate ligands such as tris(2-pyridylmethyl)amine. It is usually prepared by hydrogenation of 2-cyanopyridine. One such complex is Baratta's catalyst RuCl2(PPh3)2(ampy) (ampy = 2-picolylamine) for transfer hydrogenation. Salts of the complex [Fe(pyCH2NH2)3]2+ exhibit spin crossover behavior, whereby the complex switches from high to low spin configurations, depending on the temperature.
Safety
The oral in quail is low, being 750 mg/kg.
References
2-Pyridyl compounds
Amines | 2-Picolylamine | [
"Chemistry"
] | 184 | [
"Amines",
"Bases (chemistry)",
"Functional groups"
] |
62,833,203 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swiftships | Swiftships is a shipbuilding and marine engineering company headquartered in South Louisiana, USA. Company operates globally and specialized in the construction of small to medium sized vessels made of steel, aluminum or fiberglass. Swiftships is involved in ship design, construction, repair and maintenance activities.
History
Founded by Fred Sewart in 1942, Swiftships began as Sewart Machine Works and then as Sewart Seacraft in 1946. Company became a supplier of “Swift Boats” to the US Navy during the Vietnam War (Swiftships delivered 193 Fast Patrol Crafts to the US Navy throughout the conflict). The mission objective of the Swift Boat was to provide the Navy with a fast boat that could patrol the river shores for enemy soldiers.
In 1969 the company was renamed as Swiftships.
Since 2004 and for the next years, Swiftships built ships for the oil and gas industry of the Gulf of Mexico and restored vessels for the Dominican Republic.
Company has created its first fully unmanned surface vehicle in 2015, called Anaconda (AN-1), and later the Anaconda (AN-2), for which Swiftships teamed with the University of Louisiana at Lafayette and augmented technology developers.
Since 1942 Swiftships has designed and built over 600 naval vessels and commercial platforms.
Co-production
In 2008 the company signed a contract with the Egyptian Navy, initiating a co-production program, building vessels in-country. The partnership includes a yard in Alexandria, where the company produces patrol crafts.
In 2009, Swiftships was awarded a contract by the U.S. Navy to provide Follow on Technical Support on behalf of the Iraqi Navy that included the establishment of a Ship Repair Facility in Umm Qasr, Iraq.
Yards
In 2020, Swiftships operates 3 yards in USA and 1 co-production yard (JV) with Egyptian Navy in Alexandria, Egypt:
Morgan City, Louisiana
New Iberia, Jennerate, Louisiana
Freeport, Texas
Egyptian Shipyard Repair Building Co. - partnership with the Egyptian Navy to co-produce Swift vessels in Egypt under an approved MLA by the United States government.
Products
Ship types include:
Fast Patrol Vessels: company supplied vessels to Iraq (Swiftships Model 35PB1208 E-1455), Bahrain, US governments and other.
Landing Craft: company has long-term agreement with a US government to build up to 32 new series LCU 1700 Class.
Corvettes: Swiftships started program with Pakistan Navy to build multi-purpose naval platforms, 75 meter corvette, for security and high threat missions.
Fast Supply Vessels: to Rodi Marine and other commercial groups.
Unmanned Surface Vessels- Anaconda (AN-2)
References
Shipbuilding companies
Marine engineering organizations
Companies based in Louisiana
American companies established in 1942
PTF boat | Swiftships | [
"Engineering"
] | 561 | [
"Marine engineering organizations",
"Marine engineering"
] |
62,833,608 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xenobot | Xenobots, named after the African clawed frog (Xenopus laevis), are synthetic lifeforms that are designed by computers to perform some desired function and built by combining together different biological tissues. There is debate among scientists whether xenobots are robots, organisms, or something else entirely.
Existing xenobots
The first xenobots were built by Douglas Blackiston according to blueprints generated by an AI program, which was developed by Sam Kriegman.
Xenobots built to date have been less than wide and composed of just two things:
skin cells and heart muscle cells, both of which are derived from stem cells harvested from early (blastula stage) frog embryos.
The skin cells provide rigid support and the heart cells act as small motors, contracting and expanding in volume to propel the xenobot forward.
The shape of a xenobot's body, and its distribution of skin and heart cells, are automatically designed in simulation to perform a specific task, using a process of trial and error (an evolutionary algorithm).
Xenobots have been designed to walk, swim, push pellets, carry payloads, and work together in a swarm to aggregate debris scattered along the surface of their dish into neat piles.
They can survive for weeks without food and heal themselves after lacerations.
Other kinds of motors and sensors have been incorporated into xenobots.
Instead of heart muscle, xenobots can grow patches of cilia and use them as small oars for swimming.
However, cilia-driven xenobot locomotion is currently less controllable than cardiac-driven xenobot locomotion.
An RNA molecule can also be introduced to xenobots to give them molecular memory: if exposed to specific kind of light during behavior, they will glow a prespecified color when viewed under a fluorescence microscope.
Xenobots can also self-replicate. Xenobots can gather loose cells in their environment, forming them into new xenobots with the same capability.
Potential applications
Currently, xenobots are primarily used as a scientific tool to understand how cells cooperate to build complex bodies during morphogenesis. However, the behavior and biocompatibility of current xenobots suggest several potential applications to which they may be put in the future.
Xenobots are composed solely of frog cells, making them biodegradable and environmentally friendly robots.
Unlike traditional technologies, xenobots do not generate pollution or require external energy inputs during their life-cycle. They move using energy from fat and protein naturally stored in their tissue, which lasts about a week, at which point they simply turn into dead skin cells. Additionally, since swarms of xenobots tend to work together to push microscopic pellets in their dish into central piles, it has been speculated that future xenobots might be able to find and aggregate tiny bits of ocean-polluting microplastics into a large ball of plastic that a traditional boat or drone could gather and bring to a recycling center.
In future clinical applications, such as targeted drug delivery, xenobots could be made from a human patient’s own cells, which would virtually eliminate the immune response challenges inherent in other kinds of micro-robotic delivery systems.
Such xenobots could potentially be used to scrape plaque from arteries, and with additional cell types and bioengineering, locate and treat disease.
Gallery
See also
Artificial life
Hybrot
References
External links
Webpage summarizing and linking to all of the xenobot papers
Xenobot Lab website
"These Researchers Used A.I. to Design a Completely New 'Animal Robot'" from Scientific American
Artificial life
Robots
Microbiology
2020 in science
2020 robots
Microtechnology | Xenobot | [
"Physics",
"Chemistry",
"Materials_science",
"Technology",
"Engineering",
"Biology"
] | 760 | [
"Machines",
"Microtechnology",
"Robots",
"Microbiology",
"Materials science",
"Physical systems",
"Microscopy"
] |
62,834,990 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dichloramine-T | Dichloramine-T or N,N-Dichloro-p-toluenesulfonamide is a chemical used as a disinfectant starting at the beginning of the 20th century. The chemical contains toluene substituted by a sulfonamide grouping, which in turn has two chlorine atoms attached to the nitrogen.
Production
Dichloramine-T was first made by Frederick Daniel Chattaway in 1905.
Dichloramine-T can be made from para-toluenesulfonamide and bleaching powder, or chlorine.
Properties
Dichloramine-T degrades with exposure to light or air.
References
Sulfonamides
Chlorides
P-Tosyl compounds
Tertiary amines
Nitrogen–halogen compounds | Dichloramine-T | [
"Chemistry"
] | 160 | [
"Chlorides",
"Inorganic compounds",
"Salts"
] |
62,836,041 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phosphorus%20monoxide | Phosphorus monoxide is an unstable radical inorganic compound with molecular formula PO.
Phosphorus monoxide is notable as one of the few molecular compounds containing phosphorus that has been detected outside of Earth. Other phosphorus containing molecules found in space include PN, PC, PC2, HCP and PH3. It was detected in the circumstellar shell of VY Canis Majoris and in the star forming region catalogued as AFGL 5142. The compound has been found to have been initially produced in star-forming regions, and speculated to be carried by interstellar comets throughout outer space, including to the early Earth.
Phosphorus monoxide plays a role in the phosphorescence of phosphorus.
Discovery
In 1894 W. N. Hartley was the first to report an observation of ultraviolet emission from a phosphorus compound, that was later expanded on by Geuter. The source of the spectral lines and bands were known to be related to phosphorus, but the exact nature was unknown. In 1927 H. J. Emeléus and R. H. Purcell determined that the cause was a phosphorus oxide. But it was in 1921 that P. N. Ghosh and G. N. Ball determined that the oxide was phosphorus monoxide.
Phosphorus monoxide is believed to be the most abundant phosphorus-containing molecule found in interstellar clouds. Phosphorus was identified as a cosmically abundant element in 1998 after researchers found a cosmic ratio of phosphorus to hydrogen (P/H) of about 3×10−7. Even with the prevalence of phosphorus in interstellar clouds, very few phosphorus bearing molecules had been identified and found in very few sources; phosphorus nitride, PN, and the free radical CP were found in a carbon rich envelope of IRC +10215 in 1987. This suggested that more phosphorus containing molecules had to be found in interstellar space. While examining the oxygen-rich shell of the supergiant star VY Canis Majoris (VY CMa) the presence of PO was detected. VY CMa was studied using the Submillimeter Telescope (SMT) of the Arizona Radio Observatory (ARO). The telescope was able to observe the rotational frequencies of PO. ARO's 10 m SMT was able to measure the rotational transitions of PO showing J=5.5→4.5 at 240 GHz and J=6.5→5.5 at 284 GHz toward the evolved star, each consisting of well-defined lambda-doublets. Since the detection of PO towards the envelope of the VY CMa supergiant in 2001, PO has been found in many more interstellar clouds and is found in abundance around oxygen-rich shells.
Formation
PO is formed when phosphorus is burnt in oxygen or ozone. It is a transient molecule observed in hot flames, or can be condensed into noble gas matrix. PO can be formed in an inert gas matrix in the photolysis of P4S3O, a phosphorus oxysulfide.
On Earth, phosphorus monoxide can be prepared for study by spraying phosphoric acid into a flame. Because commercial acetylene gas contains some phosphine, an oxy-acetylene flame will have weak PO emission bands in its spectrum also. In the flame, PO oxidises back to P4O10.
Reactions
Phosphorescence
As white phosphorus oxidises it gives out a greenish-white glow. The glow happens as PO is oxidised by one of these reactions: PO + O• → PO2; or PO + O2 →PO2 + O•. The possible ways that PO appears in this process is by breakup of the P2O molecule which in turn may come from P4O.
Ligand
Phosphorus monoxide can act as a ligand on transition elements such as molybdenum, ruthenium and osmium. The phosphorus forms a triple bond with the metal. The first to be discovered was on a nickel-tungsten cluster. The WNi2P2 cluster was oxidised by a peroxide to yield a μ3-coordination, where each phosphorus atom is bound to three metal atoms.
Properties
Bond
Phosphorus monoxide is a free radical with phosphorus double bonded to oxygen with phosphorus having an unpaired
valence electron. The bond order is about 1.8. The P=O bond in PO has a dissociation energy of 6.4 eV. The bond length of the PO double bond is 1.476 Å, and free PO shows an infrared vibrational frequency of 1220 cm−1 due to the stretching of the bond. The free radical nature of PO makes it highly reactive and unstable compared to other phosphorus oxides that have been further oxidized.
Spectrum
The visible to ultraviolet spectrum of phosphorus monoxide has three important bands. There is a continuum band near 540 nm. The β-system near 324 nm is due to the D2Σ→2Π transition. The γ-system has bands near 246 nm due to a A2Σ→2Π transition. Peaks in this band occur at 230, 238, 246, 253, and 260 nm in the ultraviolet. All these bands can be emission, absorption, or fluorescence depending on the method of illumination and temperature. There is also a C'2Δ state.
The γ-system band can be broken down into sub-bands based on the different vibrational transitions. (0,0), (0,1) and (1,0) are designations for the sub-bands produced by the transition between two vibration states, as the electronic transition occurs. Each of these contains eight series termed branches. These are oP12, P2, Q2, R2, P1, Q1, R1 and sR21.
Molecule
The ionisation potential of PO is 8.39 eV. When ionised, PO forms the cation PO+. The adiabatic electron affinity of PO is 1.09 eV. On gaining an electron the PO− ion forms.
re in the ground state is 1.4763735 Å.
The dipole moment of the molecule is 1.88 D. The phosphorus atom has a slight positive charge calculated as 0.35 of the electron.
See also
Nitric oxide
Phosphorus mononitride
References
Phosphorus oxides
Free radicals | Phosphorus monoxide | [
"Chemistry",
"Biology"
] | 1,274 | [
"Senescence",
"Free radicals",
"Biomolecules"
] |
62,837,205 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journal%20of%20Waterway%2C%20Port%2C%20Coastal%2C%20and%20Ocean%20Engineering | The Journal of Waterway, Port, Coastal, and Ocean Engineering is a bimonthly peer-reviewed scientific journal published by the American Society of Civil Engineers. It covers all aspects of civil engineering related to ocean, coastal, and river waters.
Abstracting and indexing
The journal is abstracted and indexed in Civil Engineering Database, EBSCO databases, Ei Compendex, Inspec, ProQuest databases, Science Citation Index Expanded, and Scopus.
History
The Transactions of the American Society of Civil Engineers was established in 1874 as the official journal of the American Society of Civil Engineers. By 1956, the society's growth and specialization required more coverage, and the journal was split into 12 specialized journals. The journal has undergone several name changes since:
Journal of Waterway, Port, Coastal, and Ocean Engineering (1983–present)
Journal of the Waterway, Port, Coastal and Ocean Division (1977-1982)
Journal of the Waterways, Harbors, and Coastal Engineering Division (1970-1976)
Journal of the Waterways and Harbors Division (1956-1969)
References
External links
Civil engineering journals
American Society of Civil Engineers academic journals
Bimonthly journals
Academic journals established in 1956
English-language journals | Journal of Waterway, Port, Coastal, and Ocean Engineering | [
"Engineering"
] | 243 | [
"Civil engineering journals",
"Civil engineering"
] |
62,837,964 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biosaline%20agriculture | Biosaline agriculture is the production and growth of plants in saline rich groundwater and/or soil. In water scarce locations, salinity poses a serious threat to agriculture due to its toxicity to most plants. Abiotic stressors such as salinity, extreme temperatures, and drought make plant growth difficult in many climate regions. Integration of biosaline solutions is becoming necessary in arid and semiarid climates where freshwater abundance is low and seawater is ample. Salt-tolerant plants that flourish in high-salinity conditions are called halophytes. Halophyte implementation has the potential to restore salt-rich environments, provide for global food demands, produce medicine and biofuels, and conserve fresh water.
Uses
Crops: Various halophytes, such as Mesembryanthemum crystallinum, and Salsola soda, are vegetables that can be grown for human consumption. Other halophytes, such as Bassia hyssopifolia and Panicum turgidum can be used as forage or fodder to feed livestock, performing as efficiently as commonly used feed.
Desalination/Restoration: Biosaline agriculture can be a sustainable solution to traditional agricultural because it allows ecosystem restoration. Halophytes have properties that can desalinate, capture heavy metals in soil, and don't require fresh water to produce. By planting multiple cycles of halophytes, the ground can be restored to a healthier state for traditional agriculture use. Ecosystem restoration can occur through transfer of halophyte to salt sensitive plants. This increases the salt tolerance of glycophytes, salt sensitive species that make up the majority of agriculture crops.
Medicines: Biosaline agriculture can be used to grow plants with anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and anticancer properties. Examples of these species include the Arthrocnemum indicum and Limoniastrum monopetalum. Additionally, various halophytes such as the Heliotropium curassavicum, can promote wound healing.
Biofuel: Research is ongoing about the benefits of halophyte use in biofuel production. Some species produce nearly 40% oil per seed and species like the Karelinia caspia, can produce high amounts of methane.
See also
References
Agriculture
Halophytes
Earth sciences | Biosaline agriculture | [
"Chemistry"
] | 471 | [
"Halophytes",
"Salts"
] |
62,838,132 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dependency%20network%20%28graphical%20model%29 | Dependency networks (DNs) are graphical models, similar to Markov networks, wherein each vertex (node) corresponds to a random variable and each edge captures dependencies among variables.
Unlike Bayesian networks, DNs may contain cycles.
Each node is associated to a conditional probability table, which determines the realization of the random variable given its parents.
Markov blanket
In a Bayesian network, the Markov blanket of a node is the set of parents and children of that node, together with the children's parents. The values of the parents and children of a node evidently give information about that node. However, its children's parents also have to be included in the Markov blanket, because they can be used to explain away the node in question. In a Markov random field, the Markov blanket for a node is simply its adjacent (or neighboring) nodes. In a dependency network, the Markov blanket for a node is simply the set of its parents.
Dependency network versus Bayesian networks
Dependency networks have advantages and disadvantages with respect to Bayesian networks. In particular, they are easier to parameterize from data, as there are efficient algorithms for learning both the structure and probabilities of a dependency network from data. Such algorithms are not available for Bayesian networks, for which the problem of determining the optimal structure is NP-hard. Nonetheless, a dependency network may be more difficult to construct using a knowledge-based approach driven by expert-knowledge.
Dependency networks versus Markov networks
Consistent dependency networks and Markov networks have the same representational power. Nonetheless, it is possible to construct non-consistent dependency networks, i.e., dependency networks for which there is no compatible valid joint probability distribution. Markov networks, in contrast, are always consistent.
Definition
A consistent dependency network for a set of random variables with joint distribution is a pair where is a cyclic directed graph, where each of its nodes corresponds to a variable in , and is a set of conditional probability distributions. The parents of node , denoted , correspond to those variables that satisfy the following independence relationships
The dependency network is consistent in the sense that each local distribution can be obtained from the joint distribution . Dependency networks learned using large data sets with large sample sizes will almost always be consistent. A non-consistent network is a network for which there is no joint probability distribution compatible with the pair . In that case, there is no joint probability distribution that satisfies the independence relationships subsumed by that pair.
Structure and parameters learning
Two important tasks in a dependency network are to learn its structure and probabilities from data. Essentially, the learning algorithm consists of independently performing a probabilistic regression or classification for each variable in the domain. It comes from observation that the local distribution for variable in a dependency network is the conditional distribution , which can be estimated by any number of classification or regression techniques, such as methods using a probabilistic decision tree, a neural network or a probabilistic support-vector machine. Hence, for each variable in domain , we independently estimate its local distribution from data using a classification algorithm, even though it is a distinct method for each variable.
Here, we will briefly show how probabilistic decision trees are used to estimate the local distributions. For each variable in , a probabilistic decision tree is learned where is the target variable and are the input variables. To learn a decision tree structure for , the search algorithm begins with a singleton root node without children. Then, each leaf node in the tree is replaced with a binary split on some variable in , until no more replacements increase the score of the tree.
Probabilistic Inference
A probabilistic inference is the task in which we wish to answer probabilistic queries of the form , given a graphical model for , where (the 'target' variables) (the 'input' variables) are disjoint subsets of . One of the alternatives for performing probabilistic inference is using Gibbs sampling. A naive approach for this uses an ordered Gibbs sampler, an important difficulty of which is that if either or is small, then many iterations are required for an accurate probability estimate. Another approach for estimating when is small is to use modified ordered Gibbs sampler, where is fixed during Gibbs sampling.
It may also happen that is rare, e.g. when has many variables. So, the law of total probability along with the independencies encoded in a dependency network can be used to decompose the inference task into a set of inference tasks on single variables. This approach comes with the advantage that some terms may be obtained by direct lookup, thereby avoiding some Gibbs sampling.
You can see below an algorithm that can be used for obtain for a particular instance of and , where and are disjoint subsets.
Algorithm 1:
(* the unprocessed variables *)
(* the processed and conditioning variables *)
(* the values for *)
While :
Choose such that has no more parents in than any variable in
If all the parents of are in
Else
Use a modified ordered Gibbs sampler to determine
Returns the product of the conditionals
Applications
In addition to the applications to probabilistic inference, the following applications are in the category of Collaborative Filtering (CF), which is the task of predicting preferences. Dependency networks are a natural model class on which to base CF predictions, once an algorithm for this task only needs estimation of to produce recommendations. In particular, these estimates may be obtained by a direct lookup in a dependency network.
Predicting what movies a person will like based on his or her ratings of movies seen;
Predicting what web pages a person will access based on his or her history on the site;
Predicting what news stories a person is interested in based on other stories he or she read;
Predicting what product a person will buy based on products he or she has already purchased and/or dropped into his or her shopping basket.
Another class of useful applications for dependency networks is related to data visualization, that is, visualization of predictive relationships.
See also
Relational dependency network
References
Graphical models
Algorithms | Dependency network (graphical model) | [
"Mathematics"
] | 1,243 | [
"Algorithms",
"Mathematical logic",
"Applied mathematics"
] |
62,838,163 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donald%20Landry | Donald W. Landry is an American scientist who is the Hamilton Southworth Professor of Medicine, Chair of the Department of Medicine at Columbia University and Physician-in-Chief at NewYork-Presbyterian Hospital/Columbia University Irving Medical Center since 2008. He is also past founding director of the Division of Experimental Therapeutics, and past director of the Division of Nephrology. Landry completed his Ph.D. in organic chemistry with R.B. Woodward at Harvard University in 1979 and then obtained the M.D. degree from Columbia University in 1983. After completing his residency in internal medicine at the Massachusetts General Hospital/Harvard Medical School, he returned to Columbia for training as an NIH Physician-Scientist, 1985–90, and has remained as a member of the Columbia faculty.
Personal life
His wife, Maureen, is a clinical psychologist and psychoanalyst. They have two sons, Christopher and Michael. He is the oldest of 4, having 3 younger brothers, Robert, Thomas and John.
Work and achievements
Landry directed the Doris Duke Clinical Research Fellowship Program's Columbia site and co-directed the Advanced Pathophysiology course for 4th-year medical students at the Columbia College of Physicians and Surgeons, both for over a decade. Landry was a member of the President's Council on Bioethics and is co-chair of the Witherspoon Council for Ethics and the Integrity of Science. He is a founder of Tonix Pharmaceuticals (NASDAQ: TNXP), a member of the Board of Directors of Sensient Technologies, and chair of the scientific advisory board of Applied Therapeutics, Inc., which was founded based on his patents and now trades on NASDAQ. He is co-founder of Tegrigen Therapeutics, a biotech start-up focused on integrin targets.
Landry was elected to membership of the American Society for Clinical Investigation and the Association of American Physicians. He is listed in Who's Who in the World and in 2015 was inducted at the Smithsonian as an elected Fellow of the National Academy of Inventors. Landry received the Presidential Citizens Medal, the nation's second-highest civilian honor, from President George W. Bush at the Oval Office in 2008 "for diverse and pioneering research and his efforts to improve the well-being of his fellow man."
Research
Landry has focused on novel approaches to intractable health problems, combining medicine and organic chemistry. His work on cocaine addiction led to the discovery of an artificial enzyme to degrade cocaine. His report on the enzyme, published in Science, was chosen by the American Chemical Society as one of the 25 most important chemistry papers in the world for 1993. An agent (Cocaine esterase) he co-developed to treat cocaine overdose has entered clinical trials from Tonix Pharmaceuticals. He founded the Columbia Organic Chemistry Collaborative Center and it is through this Center that he conducts his current work on drug discovery.
Landry discovered a new hormone deficiency syndrome: vasopressin deficiency in vasodilatory shock. In pioneering the use of vasopressin to treat septic shock and vasodilatory shock after cardiopulmonary bypass, he changed clinical practice for these life-threatening conditions. He also founded ICU nephrology at Columbia, introducing continuous renal replacement therapy to treat renal failure in patients with shock.
Landry developed an alternative method for the production of human embryonic stem cells that relies on harvesting live, normal cells from embryos that—by objective, peer-reviewed criteria—have died of natural causes. Cells harvested from dead embryos would be covered under the established ethics governing transplantation of essential organs from deceased donors.
References
Columbia University Vagelos College of Physicians and Surgeons alumni
Lafayette College alumni
Harvard University alumni
Living people
Year of birth missing (living people)
American nephrologists
Stem cell researchers
Presidential Citizens Medal recipients | Donald Landry | [
"Biology"
] | 790 | [
"Stem cell researchers",
"Stem cell research"
] |
62,841,562 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niobium%28III%29%20chloride | Niobium(III) chloride also known as niobium trichloride is a compound of niobium and chlorine. The binary phase NbCl3 is not well characterized but many adducts are known.
Synthesis
Nb3Cl8 is produced by reduction of niobium(V) chloride with hydrogen, or just by heating.
Salt-free reduction of dimethoxyethane solution of NbCl5 with 1,4-disilyl-cyclohexadiene in the presence of 3-hexyne produces the coordination complex NbCl3(dimethoxyethane)(3-hexyne):
NbCl5 + C6H6(SiMe3)2 + C2Et2 + dme → NbCl3(dme)(C2Et2) + C6H6 + 2 Me3SiCl
An impure dimethoxyethane (dme) adduct of niobium trichloride was produced by reduction of a dme solution of niobium pentachloride with tributyltin hydride:
NbCl5 + 2 Bu3SnH + MeOCH2CH2OMe → NbCl3(MeOCH2CH2OMe) + 2 Bu3SnCl
Structure
Nb3Cl8 has a hexagonal close packed array of chloride ions. Triangles of niobium occur in octahedral spaces in the chloride array. The compositions with higher chloride have some niobium atoms missing from the structure, creating vacancies and giving rise to nonstoichiometric compounds. NbCl4 has this pattern of vacancies stretched until the niobium atoms are in pairs rather than triangles. So NbCl3 can be considered as a solid solution of Nb3Cl8 and Nb2Cl8.
The colour of niobium trichloride varies depending on the niobium:chloride ratio. NbCl2.67 is green, while NbCl3.13 is brown.
Reactions
When heated to over 600 °C niobium trichloride disproportionates to niobium metal and niobium pentachloride.
Adducts
NbCl3(dimethoxyethane) has received significant attention as a reagent for reductive coupling of carbonyls and imines. It is sold as a 1,2-dimethoxyethane complex. Nb(III) adducts are also known for 1,4-dioxane and diethyl ether.
Niobium(III) chloride forms a series of compounds with the formula Nb2Cl6Lx with Nb=Nb double bond. With tertiary phosphines and arsines, the complexes are edge-share bioctahedra, e.g., Nb2Cl6(PPhMe2)4.
Thioethers form adducts with one bridging thioether (R2S). These face-sharing bioctahedra have the formula Nb2X6(R2S)3 (X = Cl, Br).
References
Niobium(III) compounds
Chlorides
Non-stoichiometric compounds | Niobium(III) chloride | [
"Chemistry"
] | 673 | [
"Non-stoichiometric compounds",
"Chlorides",
"Inorganic compounds",
"Salts"
] |
62,842,020 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Log%209%20Materials | Log9 Materials is an Indian nanotechnology company, headquartered in Bangalore, operating in the areas of sustainable energy and filtration. With 16 patents around Graphene, Log9 Materials has developed Aluminium–air battery, aluminium fuel cells for both mobility and stationary energy applications. Log9 was awarded "Most Innovative Technology Company of 2018" by the Department of Science and Technology (India), Government of India.
History
Log9 was founded by Akshay Singhal along with Kartik Hajela in 2015 and has acquired 16 patents in graphene synthesis and graphene products. It is the first start-up to be incubated by IIT Roorkee in its business incubator TIDES. In 2017, Log9 secured its first round of funding led by Gems Partners, a micro venture capital fund, to establish its own research & development center in Bangalore and tied up with the Indian Institute of Science to build products jointly using the latter's analytical and research capabilities.
The company has set up its subsidiary in Mumbai by the name of Log9 Spill Containment, a graphene-based product development company that specializes in oil and chemical spill containment solutions.
In 2017, Indian defence tied up with Log9 for the deployment of nanotechnology.
In 2022, Log9 develops indigenous LFP and LTO batteries in its R&D facility.
In 2023, Log9 launched India's first commercial Li-ion cell manufacturing facility at its campus in Jakkur, Bengaluru.
On April, 2024, Log 9 received BIS certification for its LTO batteries. In September 2024, Musashi Seimitsu Industry Co.,Ltd, Japan has announced a strategic partnership with Log9 Materials, The partnership aims to revolutionize the electric vehicle (EV) market, by combining Musashi's high-performance e-Axle system and Log9's battery technology creating an integrated powertrain solution tailored specifically for electric two-wheelers and three-wheelers.
Funding
In 2019, Log9 Materials raised $3.5 Million Series A funding led by Sequoia Capital and Exfinity Venture Partners.
Awards
2018: Awarded "Most Innovative Technology Company of 2018" by Department of Science and Technology (India)
References
External links
Official website
Nanotechnology companies
Technology companies established in 2015
Companies based in Bengaluru
Manufacturing companies based in Bengaluru
Chemical companies of India
Indian companies established in 2015
Manufacturing companies established in 2015
2015 establishments in Karnataka | Log 9 Materials | [
"Materials_science"
] | 495 | [
"Nanotechnology",
"Nanotechnology companies"
] |
62,843,105 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grayshift | Grayshift is an American mobile device forensics company which makes a device named GrayKey to crack iPhones, iPads, and Android devices. In 2023, it merged with the Canadian firm Magnet Forensics.
History
Grayshift was co-founded by David Miles, Braden Thomas, Justin Fisher, and Sean Larsson. The company is funded by private investors PeakEquity Partners and C&B Capital. As of 2023, it was majority controlled by investment firm Thoma Bravo.
Grayshift was founded in 2016, and as of 2018 was a privately held company based in Atlanta, Georgia, with fewer than 50 employees.
In 2023, it was announced that Grayshift would merge with the Canadian firm Magnet Forensics, following the latter's acquisition for $1.35 billion by investment firm Thoma Bravo, which also owned the majority of Grayshift at the time. The merger was completed later the same year.
GrayKey
In 2017, rumors started to circulate that Grayshift had created a device able to unlock iPhones, following the Apple–FBI encryption dispute where US law enforcement agencies unsuccessfully tried to compel Apple to write software that would enable the government bypass these devices' security and unlock the phones.
The GrayKey product has been used by the FBI and U.S., British and Canadian local police forces. In 2022, the company stated that GrayKey was being used "by thousands of law enforcement and government defense agencies across 30 countries worldwide, including France, United Kingdom, Germany, Sweden, Spain, and Italy".
According to media reports, GrayKey costs US$15,000 to US$30,000 per copy depending on the functional options chosen. As of 2018, the device consisted of a gray box, 4 inches by 4 inches by 2 inches in size, with two Lightning cables. In 2022, photos of the "GrayKey 2.0" device were revealed in an FCC filing.
The GrayKey reportedly provides support retrieving information from iPhones running iOS 9 and later. Around 2019, Apple modified iOS so that external device connections must be authorized by the iPhone owner after it has been unlocked. On newer iPhone models, only unencrypted files and some metadata might be extracted. With earlier models, full data extraction, such as decrypting encrypted files, is possible. As of 2021, GrayKey was able to perform successful brute-force attack against iOS devices in some situations, with Grayshift being "constantly in a cat-and-mouse game with Apple", which continually works to fix the security exploits used by GrayKey. In 2022, Motherboard concluded that "while it’s unclear exactly how it achieves it, GrayKey bruteforces the iPhone or Android phone’s passcode and unlocks it—essentially hacking the phone—allowing customers to access and extract data from the phones."
In 2018, hackers obtained the GrayKey source code, and attempted to extort a payment of 2 bitcoins from Grayshift after leaking "small chunks of code".
GrayKey with Android support was released in early 2021. According to a March 2024 announcement, Graykey has "full support" for iOS 17 devices, Samsung's Galaxy S24 smartphones, and Google's Pixel 6 and Pixel 7 devices.
References
External links
2022 FCC filing with photos of the GrayKey device
Companies based in Atlanta
Computer security
Forensics organizations
Computer security software companies | Grayshift | [
"Technology"
] | 711 | [
"Computer security stubs",
"Computing stubs"
] |
62,843,915 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steelcote%20Manufacturing%20Company%20Paint%20Factory | The Steelcote Manufacturing Company Paint Factory, at 801 Edwin in St. Louis, Missouri, was built in 1922. It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2007.
The paint factory is significant in part as "the only remaining extant site of the four Steelcote Manufacturing Company sites"; the firm operated only in St. Louis during its independent existence.
It was designed by architects Hellmuth & Hellmuth, a firm founded by George W. Hellmuth (1870-1955) and his brother Harry Hellmuth. It is believed to be the first building in St. Louis constructed with a floating foundation, implementing a technique created by architects Burnham and Root of Chicago.
It was built by Joseph Bright Construction Co.
The listing includes 801 Edwin and also "Steelcote Square Number 5" (3418 Gratiot).
There is an office building built in 1922.
The main building is a five-story industrial warehouse/factory building, built an exposed concrete structure. It has concrete piers; it is three bays wide and five bays deep. Between the piers are steel industrial windows above concrete sills above red brick. Its first three floors were completed in 1924; the top two floors and two "penthouses" were added in 1929. One penthouse is the top of the elevator system.
In 2018, renovations began on the factory building to turn it into rental lofts by Pier Property Group, who still owns it today; other buildings in the complex are also being renovated for future shopping and housing. The building opened for occupancy in 2020. Today it is known and included as Steelcote Square, which includes the two sister properties, Steelcote Flats (Mill Creek Flats) and Steelcote Crossing.
References
Industrial buildings and structures in Missouri
Industrial buildings and structures on the National Register of Historic Places in Missouri
Warehouses on the National Register of Historic Places
National Register of Historic Places in St. Louis
Buildings and structures completed in 1929
Paint and coatings industry
1929 establishments in Missouri
Buildings and structures in St. Louis | Steelcote Manufacturing Company Paint Factory | [
"Chemistry"
] | 410 | [
"Coatings",
"Paint and coatings industry"
] |
54,299,918 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Femisphere | The femisphere is a solid figure that has one single surface, two edges, and four vertices.
Description
The form of the femisphere is reminiscent of that of a sphericon but without straight lines. Instead of that, it has circular arcs of arbitrary radius. For this reason, when rolled over a sphere, it contacts the whole surface area of it in a single revolution.
The area of a femisphere of unit radius is .
Wooden femispheres can be made by turning them on a wood lathe.
See also
Sphericon
References
External links
Femispheres images
Geometric shapes | Femisphere | [
"Mathematics"
] | 127 | [
"Geometric shapes",
"Mathematical objects",
"Geometric objects"
] |
54,300,574 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVFEFE%20Act | The Communications Over Various Feeds Electronically for Engagement Act (COVFEFE Act), House Bill H.R. 2884, was introduced in the United States House of Representatives on June 12, 2017, during the 115th United States Congress. The bill was intended to amend the Presidential Records Act to preserve Twitter posts and other social media interactions of the President of the United States and require the National Archives to store such items. H.R. 2884 was assigned to the House Oversight and Reform Committee for consideration. While in committee, there were no roll call votes related to the bill. The bill died in committee.
U.S. Representative Mike Quigley, Democrat of Illinois, introduced the legislation due to Donald Trump's routine use of Twitter, stating "In order to maintain public trust in government, elected officials must answer for what they do and say; this includes 140-character tweets. If the president is going to take to social media to make sudden public policy proclamations, we must ensure that these statements are documented and preserved for future reference". If enacted, the bill "would bar the prolifically tweeting president from deleting his posts, as he has sometimes done".
The COVFEFE Act would have also treated a president's personal social media accounts (e.g., Trump's "@realDonaldTrump" Twitter account) the same as official social media accounts (e.g., the "@POTUS" Twitter account).
Background
The bill title refers to "covfefe", a word in a May 31, 2017 tweet that Trump sent at 12:06 AM EDT, reading "Despite the constant negative press covfefe". This incomplete tweet was liked and retweeted hundreds of thousands of times, making it one of the most popular tweets of 2017, as people speculated on its meaning. The tweet was deleted at 5:48 AM EDT. At 6:09 AM EDT, Trump's account tweeted "Who can figure out the true meaning of 'covfefe' ??? Enjoy!"
During the May 31 White House press briefing, Hunter Walker of Yahoo! News asked White House press secretary Sean Spicer about the tweet and if there was any concern about the president sending out incoherent tweets that stay up for hours. Spicer responded, "I think the president and a small group of people know exactly what he meant" and offered no other explanation. This unexpected response spawned additional media attention and criticism for its cryptic meaning, with commentators unsure whether or not Spicer was joking.
Callum Borchers of The Washington Posts The Fix noted that the Trump administration deliberately responded in a way that encouraged the media and the public to focus on covfefe instead of other controversies like the Russia investigation, resignation of White House communications director Michael Dubke, or U.S.-Germany relations.
Legal significance of Trump's tweeting
Trump's tweets have been legally significant in the past. White House Press Secretary Sean Spicer stated that Trump's tweets are "considered official statements by the President of the United States".
Some of his tweets have contradicted his agenda by undercutting or contradicting statements of public officials as well as the arguments of U.S. Department of Justice attorneys seeking to defend Trump's decisions in court. A federal appellate court cited one of Trump's tweets in upholding a lower court's order blocking Trump's Executive Order 13780 from going into effect in 2017. Courts have been clear that Twitter statements can be used as evidence of intent.
Before Trump's "@realDonaldTrump" Twitter account was suspended, he blocked a number of users, preventing them from viewing his tweets or posting public replies. A group associated with Columbia University filed a lawsuit on behalf of blocked users, called Knight First Amendment Institute v. Trump. Plaintiffs successfully argued that @realDonaldTrump reply threads constituted a "designated public forum" akin to a public meeting, and therefore blocking users based on their political viewpoints violated their constitutional right to freedom of speech. The Second Circuit upheld this ruling on July 9, 2019.
Regardless of the failure of the bill, Trump's tweets have been archived in accordance with the Presidential and Federal Records Act Amendments of 2014.
See also
Presidential Records Act Amendments of 2007
References
Further reading
Wamsley, Laurel (June 12, 2017). "The Covfefe Act Has a Silly Name—But It Addresses a Real Quandary". The Two-Way. NPR.
External links
Full text of the bill from Congress.gov
Donald Trump and social media
Proposed legislation of the 115th United States Congress
Social media
Works about Donald Trump
2010s in American politics
Twitter | COVFEFE Act | [
"Technology"
] | 996 | [
"Computing and society",
"Social media"
] |
54,300,666 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyridine%20alkaloids | Pyridine alkaloids are a class of alkaloids, nitrogen-containing chemical compounds widely found in plants, that contain a pyridine ring. Examples include nicotine and anabasine which are found in plants of the genus Nicotiana including tobacco.
Alkaloids with a pyridine partial structure are usually further subdivided according to their occurrence and their biogenetic origin. The most important examples of pyridine alkaloids are the nicotine and anabasine, which are found in tobacco, the areca alkaloids in betel and ricinine in castor oil.
References
External links | Pyridine alkaloids | [
"Chemistry"
] | 132 | [
"Pyridine alkaloids",
"Alkaloids by chemical classification"
] |
54,300,674 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glen%20Kuban | Glen Jay Kuban (born 1957) is an American computer programmer and independent investigator from Brunswick, Ohio. He is known for his work in Paluxy River dinosaur footprints.
Kuban became interested in studying dinosaur footprints in 1980 when he began studying the Paluxy River prints, which he had expected to be human. After studying these prints and conducting field work on them he confirmed the results of an earlier study by creation scientists from Loma Linda University that they appeared to be dinosaurian, not human. One reason he reached this conclusion was that the prints had shallow indentations that corresponded to dinosaurian toes, not human ones, and detailed analysis of the distinctive colorations in each purportedly human print revealed these prints to be dinosaurian. After cleaning and mapping the trails during his field work there, he tried, unsuccessfully, to convince certain creationists to look at them. After carefully studying the tracks, he determined that all of the purportedly human prints there were actually dinosaurian, writing, "I have concluded that no genuine human tracks have been found in the Paluxy riverbed." Kuban was the first to identify the larger imprint as the impression of the metatarsal bones.
References
External links
Color Distinctions and Other Curious Features of Dinosaur Tracks Near Glen Rose, Texas (presented by Kuban at the First International Conference on Dinosaur Tracks and Traces in Albuquerque in 1986)
Living people
American computer programmers
American critics of creationism
People from Brunswick, Ohio
1957 births | Glen Kuban | [
"Technology"
] | 297 | [
"Computing stubs",
"Computer specialist stubs"
] |
54,301,406 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gregory%20L.%20Hillhouse | Gregory Lee Hillhouse (March 1, 1955 – March 6, 2014) was an inorganic chemist with a long-standing interest in the chemistry of organotransition metal compounds at the University of Chicago. Much of his work focused on creating organometallic compounds to stabilize and isolate reactive intermediates, molecules that are proposed to exist briefly during a larger catalytic reaction progress.
Biography
Hillhouse was born on March 1, 1955, in Greenville, South Carolina. He attended the University of South Carolina in 1976 and received his Ph.D. from Indiana University Bloomington in 1980. He then became a postdoctoral research associate at California Institute of Technology, before taking a position in the department of chemistry at the University of Chicago in 1983.
He died from cancer at his home in Chicago on March 6, 2014, aged 59.
Research
Organometallic nickel complexes
While the early work of Hillhouse focused on early-transition metal chemistry, his later career efforts were dedicated towards base metals. For example, in 2001 Hillhouse and co-workers synthesized a complex that refuted the notion that it was impossible for late transition metals like nickel to form multiple bonds with heteroatoms. The result was a molecule that he affectionately referred to as “Double Nickel,” which possessed an indisputable nickel-nitrogen double bond. Later the group published a study showcasing that one can also synthesize and isolated an electronically similar phosphinidine species. Additionally, using bulky N-heterocyclic carbene (NHC) ligands, Hillhouse and co-workers showed that one can stabilize a linear two-coordinate Ni-based imido species. His group has also showcased how some of these and similar complexes can undergo redox chemistry forming Ni(I) and Ni(III) species.
Personal life
Hillhouse was gay, although he did not come out openly in his professional career until later in his life. In his career as a teacher and mentor, he served as a role model for younger LGBTQ+ chemists.
References
Chemists from South Carolina
Inorganic chemists
American LGBTQ scientists
University of Chicago faculty
University of South Carolina alumni
Indiana University Bloomington alumni
1955 births
2014 deaths | Gregory L. Hillhouse | [
"Chemistry"
] | 442 | [
"Inorganic chemists"
] |
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