id int64 39 79M | url stringlengths 31 227 | text stringlengths 6 334k | source stringlengths 1 150 ⌀ | categories listlengths 1 6 | token_count int64 3 71.8k | subcategories listlengths 0 30 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
53,223,584 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyprus%20Space%20Exploration%20Organisation | The Cyprus Space Exploration Organisation (CSEO) is a non-governmental, nonprofit, science organisation, based in Cyprus, with a global scope of service and activities. Its main functions are research and development, space advocacy, and international cooperation in the field of space exploration, astronautics and astronomy. Education and outreach are also an important part of its mission as International Astronomy Education Center (see below).
The organisation promotes and facilitates internationally scientific collaboration in space exploration, and fosters domestically collaboration with other space-faring nations in science, space and planetary missions. It was founded in 2012 and has over 1800 registered researchers, members and volunteers and over 400,000 followers on social media.
Its president is George A Danos, and the chair of CSEO's “International Council” is Prof Marcello Coradini, ESA’s head of solar system and robotic exploration (1987–2010).
CSEO is the international host of:
The International Astronomy Education Center, OAE Cyprus, of the IAU (see below),
The Mars Upper Atmosphere Network (MUAN), as international host (see below),
The Space Innovation Laboratory, under the auspices of the International Committee on Space Research (COSPAR),
The Moon Village Association (MVA) Management Support Office, as part of the institutional partnership between CSEO and MVA.
CSEO is the official representative of Cyprus to:
The Committee on Space Research (COSPAR), as Cyprus’ “National Institute” to COSPAR,
The International Astronomical Union (IAU), as Cyprus’ “National Member” to the IAU,
The Global Experts Group on Sustainable Lunar Activities (GEGSLA), as representative of the Republic of Cyprus,
The Moon Village Association, as institutional member and regional coordinator for Middle East, Africa and Greece,
The Mars Society, having established the national chapter – Mars Society Cyprus,
ActInSpace and DefInSpace as Country Lead,
Mission X, as Country Lead.
CSEO is member / partner of:
The International Astronautical Federation (IAF),
Copernicus Academy Network of EU Commission, as a founding member, (See copernicus.eu)
The Canadian Aeronautics and Space Institute (CASI),
The Italian Mars Society.
CSEO's board and council are comprised with distinguished individuals that are highly decorated for their contribution to space exploration.
Notable achievements and awards
Since 2013 multiple teams of CSEO have won internationally at NASA and other international competitions (for more details see Promoting Space Innovation and NASA Space Apps Challenge in Cyprus). Notably:
ArachnoBeeA was selected by NASA judges as the global winner of the 2015 NASA International Space Apps Challenge for the “Best Mission Concept” (May 2015).
Brute Force was selected by NASA judges as a global winner of the 2022 NASA International Space Apps Challenge for “Local Impact” (Dec 2022).
MarsSense has been recognized for its research paper and was nominated in the best four in the world for an international award, at SpaceOps 2014 (at JPL, NASA in May 2014).
NestFold was voted and chosen by the people at the 2017 NASA International Space Apps Challenge for "Global Peoples' Choice" (Jul 2017).
Hiris Guider was selected by the jury panel (representing the European Commission, the European Union Agency for the Space Programme (EUSPA) and other related industries) as 1st Winner at the 5th CASSINI Hackathon (Apr 2023).
Galactic Angels was selected by the judges of the Commandement de l'Espace as winners of the second prize at the DefInSpace 2022 competition (Jul 2022).
The Chief of International Relations of CSEO has been awarded the Distinguished Service Award 2017 of the International Astronautical Federation, for extraordinary dedication and commitment, in service of the Federation (March 2017).
The President and vice-president of CSEO have been elected corresponding members to the International Academy of Astronautics, for outstanding contribution to space exploration (July 2017).
The Head of Education and Outreach of CSEO has been elected corresponding member to the International Academy of Astronautics, for outstanding contribution to space exploration (Oct 2019).
The President of CSEO has been appointed as vice-chair of the COSPAR Panel on Innovative Solutions (PoIS) (Oct 2020).
The President of CSEO has been selected by the International Astronomical Union (IAU) to be honored with the title of “Honorary Member” of the IAU, for his significant contribution to the progress of astronomical research in his country (Aug 2021).
The President and the Head of Innovation of CSEO have been recognized by the Hellenic Foundation for Culture, of the Hellenic Republic, as Ambassadors of Hellenic Culture for the contribution to space exploration and innovation (May 2023).
The Chief Innovation Officer of CSEO, who has been organising since 2013 the NASA Space Apps Challenge (Cyprus), ActInSpace (Cyprus), DefInSpace (Cyprus) and the International Moon Village Association Hackathon (globally), that mentored and facilitated multiple global wins at NASA and EU, has been awarded by NASA at a ceremony at NASA HQ for "outstanding leadership in empowering the next generation to address challenges we face on Earth and in space" (June 2024).
Mission and goals
CSEO states its mission and vision as:Our mission and vision is to galvanise human potential into high-tech innovation and cooperation. The universe and space exploration has always fascinated the human spirit and unites humanity under the same sky. Hence we - the Cyprus Space Exploration Organisation (CSEO) - with our vision and goals as our compass have been highly active in forging international collaborations and igniting innovation and technological growth, with impressive and captivating results that are of public benefit.When joining the IAF, CSEO stated that its first mission was to promote Cyprus as one of the leading space-faring nations, and stated the following goals in relation to Cyprus:
Place Cyprus on the space industry map,
Conduct space related R & D,
Promote innovation through the development and support of a local internal market for space,
Increase local technological competitiveness,
Leverage on local intellectual human capital,
Provide education and training for the future generation of space scientists and engineers, from an early age, in & out of schools,
Enhance and promote academic and industrial collaboration, through joint project participation.
Pillars and activities
CSEO operates with the following four basic pillars: “Education and Outreach”, “R&D”, “Industry”, and “International Relations and Collaboration”.
CSEO main activities concentrate on:
Promoting scientific research and development in space exploration, astronautics and astrophysics,
Actively developing the local space industry,
Bridging academic and industrial collaboration,
Galvanizing the potential of the local and global talents into applied high-tech innovation,
Contributing to turning high-tech industry into a vibrant sector with high employment opportunities,
Bringing widespread collaboration with other space-faring nations in science, technology and space missions,
Actively encouraging and promoting internationally and domestically, the future generation of scientists, via education and outreach, with continuous in-and-out-of-school programs and media outreach.
International Space Cooperation
Mars Upper Atmosphere Network
In October 2018, the 10th Mars Upper Atmosphere Network (MUAN) workshop was organised by CSEO in Cyprus.
During this workshop it was decided that MUAN is permanently based in Nicosia, Cyprus.
MUAN Workshop Decision:At the concluding high-level session of the tenth MUAN Jubilee workshop in Nicosia, on October 19, 2018, the representatives of the participating countries and agencies (e.g. USA - NASA, RUSSIA - IKI, India, UK, France, Italy, Germany etc) unanimously decided that Nicosia, Cyprus would become the permanent base for the MUAN and be hosted by the Cyprus Space Exploration Organisation (CSEO), thus consolidating scientific efforts, mission data, gatherings, as well as coordinating simultaneous observations of upper atmosphere-and-plasma-instruments on Mars space missions.
First Online Global Moon Village Workshop and Symposium
CSEO in cooperation with the Moon Village Association, organized and hosted in Cyprus the First Online Global Moon Village Workshop and Symposium. This was keynoted by senior officials of some of the worlds leading space agencies, such as the director of the UNOOSA, the Associated Administrator of NASA, the director general of the European Space Agency, JAXA, ISRO and many others. The purpose of the symposium was to bring together the lunar stakeholders and lunar community from all over the world to discuss on-going and planned Moon programs, to facilitate international collaboration on lunar exploration, as well as to agree on Best Practices for Sustainable Lunar Activities.
Global Experts Group on Sustainable Lunar Activities (GEGSLA)
CSEO has been supportive of international collaboration for the return of humanity to the moon and the creation of bases and colonies. In this effort CSEO in cooperation with the Moon Village Association have presented at UNOOSA, during the February 2020 meetings in Vienna, the goals of the Best Practices for Sustainable Lunar Activities and invited nations to join this effort. During the First Online Global Moon Village Workshop and Symposium, hosted by CSEO in Nicosia - Cyprus in November 2020, it was announced that it was agreed by international stakeholders to form the Global Experts Group on Sustainable Lunar Activities (GEGSLA) that would invite all nations and lunar stakeholders (industry, academia and other), to participate in this international platform to address critical issues with the goal of de-risking future lunar missions and increasing global cooperation for lunar exploration and settlement. GEGSLA had its kick-off meeting on 25 February 2021. The Republic of Cyprus is represented in GEGSLA by CSEO and its President Mr George A Danos. Furthermore, the GEGSLA Implementation Support Officer is employed by CSEO as part of the ongoing cooperation agreement between CSEO and MVA.
United Nations: International Moon Day (IMD)
The United Nations General Assembly (UNGA) have approved the proclamation for the International Moon Day (IMD), celebrated every year on July 20 (when the first human set foot on the surface of the Moon in 1969), starting in 2022. The Moon Village Association and the United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs (UNOOSA) in cooperation with CSEO, officially announced the decision of the UNGA and the proclamation of the IMD at a press conference held at CSEO's offices in Cyprus, on 14 December 2021. CSEO's president stated: “Cyprus is the launchpad of the events to celebrate the International Moon Day following the successful [MVA] workshop [that CSEO hosted] earlier this month”.
In March 2022, during the International Astronautical Federation (IAF) Spring Meetings, CSEO was also announced as the first “Founding Member” of the International Moon Day.
COSPAR - Space Innovation Lab: Artificial Intelligence and Space Weather prediction
In 2020, the president of CSEO, has been appointed as vice-chair of the COSPAR Panel on Innovative Solutions (PoIS). Through this role he managed the creation of the Space Innovation Lab of COSPAR in cooperation with CSEO, bridging the science of space weather with the engineering tools of artificial intelligence, analyzing space weather data and potentially predicting dangerous storms heading towards our planet and raising a warning alarm if needed.
During the 44th COSPAR General Assembly in July 2022, as Main Scientific Organizer (MSO) of the PoIS.2 panel session, he led the effort of bridging global industry and scientific community, towards the above goals.
CSEO Discovery Alpha
In 2021, CSEO established its first space research center and was given the name CSEO Discovery Alpha.
The center houses CSEO's space research projects, research teams and hosts the majority of its innovation, educational and outreach activities. It also hosts the International Astronomy Education Center, OAE Cyprus, of the IAU (see below), the Mars Upper Atmosphere Network (MUAN) (see below), and the Space Innovation Laboratory (under the auspices of the International Committee on Space Research).
Since its opening, it has received visits form many distinguished international delegates as well as visits from EU officials, ambassadors, domestic personalities and heads of state.
The facility includes laboratories for space engineering projects, signal processing and simulation workstations as well as space qualifications equipment.
Since December 2022, the center hosts the "Apollo to Artemis" exhibition that was created with the support of the U.S. Embassy in Cyprus. The exhibition contains a piece of a moon meteorite as well as a small martian meteorite. Notably, the Apollo 17 Goodwill Moon rock, a piece of extraterrestrial history that was collected during the United States’ Apollo 17 mission in December 1972, when it was returned in Cyprus after 50 years, it was placed on its first and only public display, between December 8–15, at the "Apollo to Artemis" exhibition.
The center's public events facilities have hosted events such as the simulcast of the first space images of the James Webb Space Telescope, having been selected by NASA and ESA as one of the hosts for the global celebrations.
In July 2023, it also hosted the celebrations of the UN International Moon Day.
At the end of 2023, CSEO Discovery Alpha concluded its operations, marking the end of an era as it transitions into the Cyprus Space Research Centre.
Cyprus Space Research Centre
In December 2023, CSEO started the implementation of the Cyprus Space Research Centre, a Strategic Infrastructure project co-funded by the European Union and the Research and Innovation Foundation (RIF).
As humanity prepares to return to the Moon, CSEO's Strategic Infrastructure project leverages the Organisation's international network to create a global hub in Cyprus that will pursue space research with far-reaching effects.
Research Projects
CSEO and its spin-off companies are involved in multiple EU Horizon 2020, ESA and other funded space research programs. Some characteristic examples are:
Dating the sediments of Mars
One of the space research programs, that CSEO is participating in, involves the construction of leading-edge instrumentation for the absolute dating of Martian sediments (project IN-TIME). An announcement was made by CSEO that space equipment is aimed to be tested on the Troodos Mountains (a mountain-range that has geological similarities with the red planet), before sending this instruments to Mars to measure the age of the planet's soil (sediments).
In October 2021, CSEO in cooperation with the IN-TIME consortium (includes EU and US institutions, as well as the advisory of NASA), announced that the instrumentation of this project will be both integrated and tested in Cyprus. This was an outcome of a thorough field trip in Cyprus identifying ideal test locations, as well as negotiating the integration decision.
Assisting Economy from Space during disaster periods (like COVID-19)
Space technologies connected with Artificial Intelligence (AI) and machine learning techniques are utilized in a European consortium project to control disasters like the COVID-19 pandemic. This project will produce a prototype service based on Copernicus data, using automatic image processing supported by artificial intelligence integrated with modelling and statistic and geospatial data into an IT platform able to provide econometric and epidemiologic nowcasting and forecasting data.
Space Education
CSEO is actively involved in space-related educational activities to stimulate the interest of the younger generation in the field of science and space research. One of CSEO's pillars of primary focus is the education and empowerment of young people of all ages and backgrounds in its area of expertise, with the ultimate objective of assisting in the development of a highly skilled youth, equipped to address contemporary and future scientific challenges.
International Astronomy Education Center, OAE Cyprus
The International Astronomical Union (IAU), via its Office of Astronomy for Education (OAE), issued a call in 2020 to establish an international network of OAE Centers and Nodes to collaborate in OAE's mission to support astronomy education worldwide. CSEO proposed the creation of the “International Astronomy Education Center, OAE Cyprus”. In August 2021, an agreement was signed between CSEO and the IAU for the establishment of this center. The center has a global scope, and a specialization on the modernization of science centers and planetariums, education in space science, planetary science, climate change and the upper atmosphere.
During the signing, President Danos said “We are honoured that the IAU Office for Astronomy Education has recognised the experience of the Cyprus Space Exploration Organisation (CSEO) and has selected Cyprus to host an international astronomy education center, the OAE Center Cyprus. CSEO is committed to working with the IAU and OAE in spreading astronomy education, capacity building, seeding the next generation of scientists and engineers, who will make the next big discoveries in astronomy and cosmology. Cyprus’s location in the crossroads between three continents and CSEO’s friendly international relations, will allow this Center to act as a regional hub and education bridge, for peaceful cooperation and synergy, under one sky”.
CSEO Space Club
As part of these activities CSEO runs the CSEO Space Club in schools throughout the island. This club is an outreach and education project in Cyprus, in association with the International Space Community, for school classes and afternoon societies. It brings to schools training and educational material, as well as astronauts and space engineers in order to prepare and build the next generation of scientists and engineers.
Mission X - Train Like an Astronaut
The NASA/ESA program “Mission X - Train Like an Astronaut” is disseminated in Cyprus throughout schools by CSEO since 2017. The purpose of Mission X is to train students like astronauts, teach principles of healthy eating and exercise, and provide scientific knowledge and engineering skills needed in space exploration.
Space and Astronomy outreach
Space Week
CSEO organises Space Week annually since 2013, promoting space to the people of Cyprus.
First Cypriot Space Documentary
CSEO co-produced the First Cypriot Space Documentary with Tetraktys-Films, promoting space research on the island. It was premiered at the CYTA Headquarters in November 2016 and then on National TV channel CyBC 1 the following month.
Celebrating the 50th Apollo 11 Moon Landing Anniversary
Astronaut Dr. Anna Lee Fisher was invited to Cyprus in order to celebrate the 50th Apollo 11 Anniversary in cooperation with the US Embassy in Cyprus. The main celebration event was held at the Nicosia Municipal Theatre on 5 December 2019 and attended by over a thousand guests. The event was opened by the US Ambassador and the president of CSEO, whilst the main speaker was Astronaut Fisher. The event was also video greeted by NASA's Ambassador to Europe, Tim Tawney, and concluded with an operatic performance of Verdi's La Traviata - Brindisi by the Limassol Operatic Stage Choir.
Naming a star and its exoplanet
As part of the NameExoWorlds project, the 100 years’ celebrations of the International Astronomical Union (IAU), CSEO as National Member of the IAU, organized a campaign in Cyprus to select names for a star (HD 168746) and its exoplanet. Over 300 names were proposed by the public. These went to a public vote in November 2019 for a week. A few thousands voted and the names that were selected and approved by the IAU in December 2019, were Alasia (Αλάσια or Alashiya) and Onasilos (Ονάσιλος). Via this campaign, Alasia became one of 448 stars on the sky that have names which are officially approved by the International Astronomical Union.
2030: SpaceWorks - Series of global webinars
In September 2020, CSEO launched a global series of webinars with the goal of seeding the next generation of scientists. These webinars feature the world's brightest minds, covering space exploration, astronomy and cosmology. The webinars address the advancements and challenges expected in the next decade, in returning to the Moon, sending humans to Mars and gaining scientific knowledge that would be instrumental in protecting our own planet. The webpage of 2030: SpaceWorks states:“With these webinars we want to embrace and seed the next generation of scientists that will drive and achieve these bold goals; the scientists and engineers who will reach these new frontiers and shape humanity’s sustainable future.”The premiere episode of these webinars, featured Nobel Prize winner Sir Roger Penrose and was viewed by over 85,000 people. During this webinar Sir Roger Penrose made an announcement of new evidence supporting the theory of Conformal Cyclic Cosmology which theorizes that the Big Bang is only the beginning of our current Aeon (Universe Aeons), and that there is a sequence of Big Bangs prior to ours and more to follow at the end of our Universe's time.
The webinars are broadcast live on CSEO's Facebook Page and YouTube Channel.
CSEO spinoffs and the Cyprus Space Cluster
Startups and Spinoffs
A number of spinoff companies have been created by CSEO. The first was Space Systems Solutions (S3) Ltd that was created in 2016. Its website states:“CSEO in fulfilling its goal "To Launch Cyprus into the Space Era" and its mandate of building up domestically the space sector and creating jobs and careers in Cyprus, led by example creating a new industrial sector and new economic streams for Cyprus, and created Space Systems Solutions (S3) as its first spin-off. As such, S3 is a win-win initiative and underlines the institutional role of CSEO in the Space Sector of Cyprus.”
Cyprus Space Cluster
The Cyprus Space Cluster was founded by CSEO in August 2014 and via regular innovation competitions and the “CSEO Space Startups” programme (see below), startup companies are created, supported and added to this cluster.
Promoting space innovation
Space startups programme
CSEO as founding member of the Copernicus Academy of the European Commission (which aims to utilise space data for improving life on Earth) launched in October 2017 the “CSEO Space Startups” programme, a series of weekly innovation and entrepreneurship workshops that nurture, mentor and educate young talented Cypriots in utilising satellite data into innovative new products and commercial applications, forming startups that will be incubated into space companies.
Through these programs, CSEO engages with creative talent and expertise throughout Cyprus, in order to make space accessible but also to provide solutions to issues faced on earth today, stimulating innovation and high-tech entrepreneurship, that will benefit our citizens and the future of our planet.
ActInSpace and DefInSpace in Cyprus
Both these space entrepreneurship competitions that are organised by CNES, ESA and the French Space Command, are being hosted in Cyprus as national representative and partner.
In June 2022, the Cypriot team “Galactic Angels” that represented Cyprus in DefInSpace, won the 2nd prize in the international finals.
These competitions stimulate space innovation and entrepreneurship for young scientists and innovators.
NASA Space Apps Challenge in Cyprus
Since 2013, CSEO has been actively involved with the NASA Space Apps Challenge in Cyprus (thus far held in Limassol or Nicosia), either by holding events under its auspices or directly organising the challenge.
In 2013, the Cypriot team MarsSense placed 2nd globally for the People's Choice Award at the International Space Apps Challenge.
In 2015, the Cypriot team ArachnoBeeA that won domestically the Space Apps Challenge, went on to become global winner of the International Space Apps Challenge for the “Best Mission Concept”, thus receiving an invitation from NASA to visit the Kennedy Center at Cape Canaveral and participate as guest viewers at a space launch to the ISS.
In 2017, the level of the contestants once again being very high, the CSEO promotes the Cypriot winning teams through major media campaigns. Subsequently, one of the local winning teams, team NestFold goes on to become global winner for the People's Choice Award.
In 2018, NASA's Chief Scientist Dr James Green, who was invited to Cyprus by CSEO for the Mars Upper Atmosphere Network Space Summit, mentored the Cypriot teams at the competition in Nicosia. A team of two 14 year old pupils won the 1st prize on their concept for the colonization of the Moon.
In 2022, the Cypriot team Brute Force was selected by NASA judges as a global winner of the 2022 NASA International Space Apps Challenge for the “Local Impact” award.
In 2024, the Chief Innovation Officer of CSEO, Colm Larkin, who has been organising since 2013 the NASA Space Apps Challenge (Cyprus), ActInSpace (Cyprus), DefInSpace (Cyprus) and the International Moon Village Association Hackathon (globally), that facilitated and mentored the above wins, has been awarded by NASA at a ceremony at NASA HQ for "outstanding leadership in empowering the next generation to address challenges we face on Earth and in space".
References
External links
CSEO's Astronomy Division website
Space organizations
Scientific organisations based in Cyprus
Space advocacy organizations
Space science organizations
2012 establishments in Cyprus
Scientific organizations established in 2012
Non-profit organisations based in Cyprus | Cyprus Space Exploration Organisation | [
"Astronomy"
] | 5,097 | [
"Space advocacy organizations",
"Astronomy organizations",
"Space organizations"
] |
53,223,623 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacuum%20modulator | Vacuum Modulator is an engine load sensing device that converts engine vacuum into a transmission valve body input.
Most vacuum modulators operate with manifold vacuum (below throttle blades) that offer more vacuum at idle, and proportionately changes (rises and falls) with engine load as opposed to operating on engine speed.
Vacuum modulators in some transmissions were essential in the proper operation of many automatic transmissions. Broken springs or diaphragms would cause it either to be repaired or replaced. Some were repairable (early units) as later models would need entire replacement.
As the throttle blades are open the manifold or engine vacuum drops as ported vacuum (above throttle blades) increases. Many vacuum modulators also allow for tuning via a small blade screw driver that turns the thread to increase or decrease spring pressure against a diaphragm inside.
Engine components | Vacuum modulator | [
"Technology"
] | 171 | [
"Engine components",
"Engines"
] |
53,224,225 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ILC2 | ILC2 cells, or type 2 innate lymphoid cells are a type of innate lymphoid cell. Not to be confused with the ILC. They are derived from common lymphoid progenitor and belong to the lymphoid lineage. These cells lack antigen specific B or T cell receptor because of the lack of recombination activating gene. ILC2s produce type 2 cytokines (e.g. IL-4, IL-5, IL-9, IL-13) and are involved in responses to helminths, allergens, some viruses, such as influenza virus and cancer.
The cell type was first described in 2001 as non-B/non-T cells, which produced IL-5 and IL-13 in response to IL-25 and expressed MHC class II and CD11c. In 2006, a similar cell population was identified in a case of helminthic infection. The name "ILC2" was not proposed until 2013. They were previously identified in literature as natural helper cells, nuocytes, or innate helper 2 cells. It is believed that ILC2s are rather old cell type with ancestor populations emerging in lamprey and bony fish.
Parasitic infection
ILC2s play the crucial role of secreting type 2 cytokines in response to large extracellular parasites. They express characteristic surface markers and receptors for chemokines, which are involved in distribution of lymphoid cells to specific organ sites. They require IL-7 for their development, which activates two transcription factors (both required by these cells)—RORα and GATA3. After stimulation with Th2 polarising cytokines, which are secreted mainly by epithelia (e.g. IL-25, IL-33, TSLP, prostaglandin D2 and leukotriene D4), ILC2s begin to produce IL-5, IL-13, IL-9, IL-4 rapidly. ILC2s are critical for primary responses to local Th2 antigens e.g. helminths and viruses and that is why ILC2s are abundant in the tissues of skin, lungs, liver and gut. It has been observed that ILC2s originate in the gut, enter lymphatic vessels and then circulate in the bloodstream so they can migrate to other organs to help fight the parasitic infection. The trafficking is partly sphingosine 1-phosphate-dependent. For example, during an Nippostrongylus brasiliensis infection, ILC2s contribute to worm clearance by producing the essential cytokine IL-13. IL-13 secreted by ILC2s also promotes migration of activated lung dendritic cells into the draining lymph node, which then results in naive T cell priming and differentiation into Th2 cells.
Respiratory virus infection
It has been observed, that ILC2s are activated upon respiratory virus infections in mice and humans. For instance, during Influenza A virus infection, which induces IL-33 production, ILC2s are activated and drive airway hyper-responsiveness. Another example is an Respiratory syncytial virus infection, where ILC2s contribute by being the main source of IL-13 early in the infection leading to airway hyper-responsiveness and increased mucus production.
Allergy, atopic dermatitis, and asthma
ILC2s play a variety of roles in allergy. Primarily, they provide a source of the type 2 cytokines that orchestrate the allergic immune response. They produce a profile of signals in response to pro-allergenic cytokines IL-25 and IL-33 that is similar to those produced in response to helminthic infection. Their contribution to this signaling appears to be comparable to that of T cells. In response to allergen exposure in the lungs, ILC2s produce IL-13, a necessary cytokine in the pathogenesis of allergic reactions. This response appears to be independent of T and B cells. Further, allergic responses that resemble asthma-like symptoms have been induced in mice that lack T and B cells using IL-33. It has also been found that ILC2s are present in higher concentrations in tissues where allergic symptoms are present, such as in the nasal polyps of patients with chronic rhinosinusitis and the skin from patients with atopic dermatitis.
Barrier function
ILC2s are known to be enriched in the Fat-Associated Lymphoid Clusters (FALCs) within the mesenteries. IL-5 secreted by ILC2s is essential growth factor for B1 B cells and therefore important in the IgA antibody production. Besides the type 2 cytokines, ILC2s can also produce IL-6, which induces antibody production by B-cells, acts as a growth factor for plasmablasts and contributes in regulation of T follicular helper cells.
ILC2s are also known to be present in the FALCs within the pleural cavity. After being stimulated via IL-33 during an infection, they begin to secrete IL-5, leading to an activation of B1 B cells and the production of IgM antibodies. ILC2s are the dominant population of ILC in the lungs. By producing IL-13, they can initiate smooth muscle contraction and mucus secretion, but also goblet cell hyperplasia if the IL-13 is overexpressed. In addition, ILC2s help pulmonary wound healing after influenza infection by secreting amphiregulin. Besides lungs, ILC2 populations can also be found in human nasal and tonsil tissues.
Adipose tissue homeostasis
ILC2s are essential in the maintenance of homeostasis in lean and healthy adipose tissue. ILC2s resident in visceral adipose tissue produce IL-5, IL-13 and methionine-enkephalin peptides after prolonged exposure to IL-33. IL-5 secreted by ILC2s in adipose tissue is crucial for the recruitment and maintenance of eosinophils. Furthermore, production of IL-13 and IL-4 by ILC2 and eosinophils supports the maintenance of alternatively activated M2 macrophages and glucose homeostasis.
Research identified dysregulated responses of ILC2s in adipose tissue as a factor in the development of obesity in mice since ILC2s also play important role in energy homeostasis. Methionine-enkephalin peptides produced by ILC2s act directly on adipocytes to upregulate UCP1 and promote emergence of beige adipocytes in white adipose tissue. Beige and brown adipose tissue are specialized in thermogenesis. The process of beiging leads to increased energy expenditure and decreased adiposity.
References
Immune system
Lymphocytes | ILC2 | [
"Biology"
] | 1,438 | [
"Immune system",
"Organ systems"
] |
53,224,927 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Playing%20period | Playing period is a division of time in a sports or games, in which play occurs. Many games are divided into a fixed number of periods, which may be named for the number of divisions. Other games use terminology independent of the total number of divisions. A playing period may have a fixed length of game time or be bound by other rules of the game.
Description
The playing period is a division of time in a sports or games, in which play occurs. Many games are divided into a fixed number of periods, which may be named for the number of divisions (e.g., a half or a quarter). Other games use terminology independent of the total number of divisions (e.g., sets or innings). A playing period may have a fixed length of game time or be bound by other rules (e.g., three outs in baseball or a sudden-death goal in overtime).
Common periods
Halves and quarters
Basketball and gridiron football are among the sports that are divided into two halves, which may be subdivided into two quarters. A fifth overtime "quarter" may be played in the event of a tie at the end of the fourth quarter.
Periods
Floorball and ice hockey games are typically divided into three periods. A fourth period of overtime may be played in the event of a tie at the end of the third period.
Innings
Cricket and baseball games are divided into innings; within each of the innings, there are further subdivisions of play known as deliveries or pitches. In limited overs cricket, each of the innings lasts until either all but one of the players on the batting team are out, or a certain number of legal deliveries have occurred. Additional short innings, which are also limited in the number of legal deliveries, are played if necessary to break ties. In baseball, each inning consists of each team batting until three players on the team are out. Additional innings may be played if the game is tied after the ninth or subsequent innings.
In variations of tag such as kho-kho and atya-patya, there is a time limit for each inning, and if the game is tied, additional innings may be played on a basis akin to sudden death.
Ends
Curling contests consist of a number of ends, where each player on each team throws all of their stones.
Sets
Some sports, like volleyball or tennis are divided into a predetermined number of "sets", and the match ends when a team or individual wins the required number of sets (e.g. winning 3 sets in a best of 5). A set is usually won when a number of points is achieved by one of the competitors (25 points in volleyball or 6 games in tennis, for example), though further rules, like having a 2 points advantage, might be imposed.
See also
Sports
Game
References
Sports terminology
Units of time | Playing period | [
"Physics",
"Mathematics"
] | 575 | [
"Physical quantities",
"Time",
"Units of time",
"Quantity",
"Spacetime",
"Units of measurement"
] |
53,226,889 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planning%20permission | Planning permission or building permit refers to the approval needed for construction or expansion (including significant renovation), and sometimes for demolition, in some jurisdictions.
House building permits, for example, are subject to building codes. There is also a "plan check" (PLCK) to check compliance with plans for the area, if any. For example, one cannot obtain permission to build a nightclub in an area where it is inappropriate such as a high-density suburb. The criteria for planning permission are a part of urban planning and construction law, and are usually managed by town planners employed by local governments.
Failure to obtain a permit can result in fines, penalties, and demolition of unauthorized construction if it cannot be made to meet code. Generally, the new construction must be inspected during construction and after completion to ensure compliance with national, regional, and local building codes. Since building permits usually precede outlays for construction, employment, financing and furnishings, they are often used as a leading indicator for developments in other areas of the economy.
The number of building permits issued per year varies by country. By-right approval processes can be faster than discretionary approval processes.
In specific industries
Broadcasting
As part of broadcast law, the term is also used in broadcasting, where individual radio and television stations typically must apply for and receive permission to construct radio towers and radio antennas. This type of permit is issued by a national broadcasting authority, but does not imply zoning any other permission that must be given by local government. The permit itself also does not necessarily imply permission to operate the station once constructed. In the U.S., a construction permit is valid for three years. Afterwards, the station must receive a full license to operate, which is good for seven years. This is provided by a separate broadcast license, also called a "license to cover" by the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) in the United States. Further permission or registration for towers may be needed from aviation authorities.
In the U.S., construction permits for new commercial stations are now assigned by auction, rather than the former process of determining who would serve the community of license best. If the given frequency allocation is sought by at least one non-commercial educational (NCE) applicant, or is on an NCE-reserved TV channel or in the FM reserved band, the comparative process still takes place, though the FCC refuses to consider which radio format the applicants propose.
In Canada, the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission maintains a comparative process in issuing permits, ensuring that a variety of programming is available in each area, and that as many groups as possible have access to free speech over radio waves.
References
Building
Construction law
Urban planning | Planning permission | [
"Engineering"
] | 541 | [
"Building",
"Construction",
"Construction law",
"Urban planning",
"Architecture"
] |
53,227,661 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European%20Journal%20of%20Ecology | The European Journal of Ecology is an English-language, biannual, scientific journal founded in 2015. It publishes original, peer-reviewed papers (in categories like research articles, reviews, forum articles, policy directions) referring to any branches of ecology. All articles are open access for readers and authors are also free from any publication fees or page charges.
The journal provides a fair publication forum not only for experienced scientists, but also for beginners. Therefore, free language-correction services are provided for authors from non-English speaking regions. Reviewers are required to provide helpful and detailed advice, comments, and constructive criticism.
References
External links
EJE´s stories on SOCIAL SHORTHAND
EJE on Google Scholar
EJE on the Directory of Open Access Journals
Biannual journals
Ecology journals
De Gruyter academic journals
English-language journals | European Journal of Ecology | [
"Environmental_science"
] | 167 | [
"Environmental science journals",
"Environmental science journal stubs",
"Ecology journals"
] |
53,231,144 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ponceau%203R | Ponceau 3R (C.I. 16155) is an azo dye that once was used as a red food colorant. It is one of a family of Ponceau (French for "poppy-colored") dyes.
References
Food colorings
Azo dyes
Organic sodium salts
Naphthalenesulfonates
2-Naphthols | Ponceau 3R | [
"Chemistry"
] | 75 | [
"Organic sodium salts",
"Salts"
] |
53,231,843 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brownout%20%28software%20engineering%29 | Brownout in software engineering is a technique that involves disabling certain features of an application.
Description
Brownout is used to increase the robustness of an application to computing capacity shortage. If too many users are simultaneously accessing an application hosted online, the underlying computing infrastructure may become overloaded, rendering the application unresponsive. Users are likely to abandon the application and switch to competing alternatives, hence incurring long-term revenue loss. To better deal with such a situation, the application can be given brownout capabilities: The application will disable certain features – e.g., an online shop will no longer display recommendations of related products – to avoid overload. Although reducing features generally has a negative impact on the short-term revenue of the application owner, long-term revenue loss can be avoided.
The technique is inspired by brownouts in power grids, which consists in reducing the power grid's voltage in case electricity demand exceeds production. Some consumers, such as incandescent light bulbs, will dim – hence originating the term – and draw less power, thus helping match demand with production. Similarly, a brownout application helps match its computing capacity requirements to what is available on the target infrastructure.
Brownout complements elasticity. The former can help the application withstand short-term capacity shortage, but does so without changing the capacity available to the application. In contrast, elasticity consists of adding (or removing) capacity to the application, preferably in advance, so as to avoid capacity shortage altogether. The two techniques can be combined; e.g., brownout is triggered when the number of users increases unexpectedly until elasticity can be triggered, the latter usually requiring minutes to show an effect.
Brownout is relatively non-intrusive for the developer, for example, it can be implemented as an advice in aspect-oriented programming. However, surrounding components, such as load-balancers, need to be made brownout-aware to distinguish between cases where an application is running normally and cases where the application maintains a low response time by triggering brownout.
References
Software engineering
Cloud computing | Brownout (software engineering) | [
"Technology",
"Engineering"
] | 429 | [
"Software engineering",
"Systems engineering",
"Information technology",
"Computer engineering"
] |
62,117,778 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overwatch%202 | Overwatch 2 is a 2023 first-person shooter video game produced by Blizzard Entertainment. As a sequel and replacement to the 2016 hero shooter Overwatch, the game included new gamemodes and a reduction in team size from six to five. The game is free-to-play on Nintendo Switch, PlayStation 4, PlayStation 5, Windows, Xbox One, and Xbox Series X/S and features full cross-platform play. Overwatch 2 was announced in 2019 and was playable in early access from October 2022 until officially releasing in August 2023. The game was planned to feature more story-based cooperative modes, but these were scrapped in 2023 to focus on its player-versus-player (PvP) elements. Overwatch 2 received generally favorable reviews from critics.
Gameplay
Overwatch 2 is a hero shooter, where players are split into two teams and select a "hero" from a roster of over 40 characters. Characters are organized into a "damage" class, responsible for offensive efforts; a "support" class, responsible for healing and buffing; and a "tank" class, responsible for creating space for their team. Each character has a unique set of skills, made up of active, passive, and ultimate abilities. Overwatch 2, like its predecessor, primarily centers on player versus player (PvP) combat across several different modes and maps, and includes both casual and ranked competitive matches.
The original Overwatch was designed for six-on-six team combat, with two of each class on a team. In Overwatch 2, the number of tank slots was reduced by one, bringing the total number of players per team to five. According to game director Aaron Keller, developers hoped that losing a tank would speed up gameplay as they believed that the original six players scheme rendered gameplay slow. It is also intended to ease the amount of things players and spectators need to watch out for. New maps were designed to include more cover options to compensate for reduced tank-based protection. Additionally, damage class heroes now have an increased movement speed, support heroes slowly regenerate, and tank heroes were redesigned so they could take on a more offensive role. Heroes were visually refurbished as to reflect the passage of time since the events of the first game. Overwatch 2 includes a ping system to direct the attention of teammates to specific points on the map.
The game also introduces a new PvP mode named "Push", similar to tug of war, in which teams vie for control of a robot that pushes a team's payload to the opponent's side of the map. Along with being incorporated into Unranked and Competitive play, Push has become part of the standard map rotation of the Overwatch League, replacing the Assault mode. Assault maps (colloquially referred to as "2CP", meaning "two control points"), such as Paris and Horizon Lunar Colony, are not available in the core Overwatch 2 game modes as these have been deemed unbalanced in response to community feedback. However, they are available in the form of custom games and sometimes appear in the non-competitive arcade modes, which are switched out daily.
Overwatch 2 has also introduced a new PvP mode called Clash, which is similar to its King of the Hill mode. Clash begins with a contest to capture five points on the map. Clash maps contain 5 points (A, B, C, D, E) uniformly distributed across the length of the map. Depending on who wins, the point closest to the losing team’s side will unlock after 10 seconds for either team to capture and continue the process. The last capture points A and E can be captured for a total of three points or up to the remaining number of points a team needs to win. However, earning all 3 points is intended to be difficult as the opposing team’s spawn room is close to the last capture points so enemies can come back to the fight quickly.
Overwatch 2 was released as free-to-play as opposed to the premium monetization model of its predecessor. It also discontinued loot boxes in favor of a battle pass system which is offered on a seasonal basis and corresponds with the introduction of new maps and heroes. The game also includes an in-game store where players can purchase cosmetics directly. Blizzard stated that new heroes will be introduced as rewards on the free tier of the battle pass, and players who fail to make the associated tier will have other routes to obtain the hero for free in later seasons. In addition to battle pass cosmetics, players can purchase seasonal cosmetics through the in-game store. Further, special events lasting two to three weeks have been offered, offering new cosmetics for completing various challenges as well as new cosmetics available for purchase. With Overwatch 2, Blizzard has also created collaborations with other franchises, including Blizzard's own Diablo IV, as well as content from third parties such as the anime series One-Punch Man and Cowboy Bebop and the Korean idol group Le Sserafim.
A Blizzard Battle.net account is required to play Overwatch 2, regardless of platform. Overwatch 2 features cross-progression, with in-game cosmetic items and progress being shared across PC and console versions. Unlocked cosmetic items, in-game currency, and player statistics from any Overwatch profile linked to such an account are merged, and are available on all platforms. Competitive skill ratings are separate, with console and PC ranks remaining independent of each other.
Post-release updates
Starting in Season 6, in August 2023, three story-based PvE missions were added to the game, with more planned in the future. These advance the lore and narrative of Overwatch. These missions are generally designed to complete multiple objectives, and are similar to previous short-term event missions offered previously from the first Overwatch. These missions are only available as free-to-play game modes during specific seasons, but the player can purchase permanent access to these missions separately or as part of a battle pass bundle. Further, in September 2023, special Hero Mastery missions were introduced for three heroes, with more planned in the future. These missions are aimed to help the player learn and improve their skills with the given character.
With Season 9, starting in February 2024, a major overhaul of combat and the competitive system was introduced. All heroes gained a boost in health and passive healing, while buffs were applied to all characters with guns or similar weapons. This was intended to improve survivability, remove the likelihood of a character being killed by a simple quick burst of fire as well as to prevent them from being quickly healed. In contrast to the approach since Overwatch 2s launch, which progressed a player's rank after winning 5 games or losing 15, the new system resembled the original Overwatch approach where the player's competitive ranking is adjusted after each game, with additional information as to what aspects of the match contributed to the ranking change. With these changes, Blizzard announced that all players would have their competitive ranking reset and would need to perform ten matches to gain their starting competitive rank.
Within Season 10, which was released in April 2024, new heroes are no longer tied to the battle passes, and instead free to all players, a retroactive change that includes the previous heroes released since Overwatch 2 release. Players still need to have completed the tutorial missions before gaining access to these heroes.
Development
Overwatch 2 was announced at BlizzCon on November 1, 2019, with plans that the game would maintain a "shared multiplayer environment" between it and the original Overwatch, so that players in either game could compete in the existing player versus player (PvP) game modes, retaining all unlocked cosmetics and other features. Jeff Kaplan, director for Overwatch, explained that this was a major decision and that he had to justify this "player-first standpoint" to Blizzard executives, given the current industry trend to draw in new sales. All new heroes, maps, and PvP modes were to be added to both games to maintain this shared environment.
While Activision Blizzard had anticipated Overwatch 2 would be ready by 2020 or 2021, the game's release kept switching. One reason was driven by management to convert the game into a free-to-play title, aligning with most other multiplayer games on the market, leaving the question of monetization open. Kaplan's original design for Overwatch, which allowed for players to switch to any other hero to counter opposing team composition, made it difficult to monetize the release of new heroes, drove Blizzard to consider the battle pass approach, which was meant to balance player engagement with the game through its lifetime, and revenue from selling cosmetics. A second reason for the delay was difficulty in implementing Kaplan's ideas for PvE, as the game was not designed to handle large numbers of enemy forces from both an engine and gameplay design aspect. Around 2021, Activision management put pressure on Blizzard to finish Overwatch 2, suggesting that Blizzard add more staff to Team 4, the Blizzard division created for Overwatch, as to match the team size typical for other popular free-to-play shooters. Blizzard resisted this, fearing the added time and costs to bring on new staff would take too much from the ongoing development, and wanted to avoid Activision's desire to release Overwatch in annual installments.
Due to the constant attention from Activision, the Overwatch team could not give Overwatch 2 full attention, and from 2021, several key staff members involved in its development, including Kaplan, left Blizzard. Aaron Keller took over the role for lead developer on Overwatch 2, with pressure from Activision to release it as soon as possible. To make this happen and avoid a situation similar to the Titan cancellation, Blizzard opted to decouple the PvE and PvP elements, to release the improved PvP elements by 2022 and to eventually release the PvE elements later.
By mid-2022, Overwatch 2 conversion to a free-to-play title, and its planned release date of October 4, 2022, were announced. Blizzard affirmed that Overwatch 2 live services would replace those of the original game; the original Overwatch servers would be shut down on October 2, 2022. Players retained their existing cosmetics and in-game currency, with remaining loot boxes opened automatically upon the release of Overwatch 2. At least three new heroes were announced to be added to the roster, including Sojourn, a Canadian Overwatch officer, Junker Queen, the ruler of Junkertown, and Kiriko, the protector of Kanezaka.
Overwatch 2 runs on an upgraded version of the original game's engine which allows for larger map sizes to better support the new story-based player versus environment (PvE) elements. Additionally, all of the existing heroes received visual redesigns for Overwatch 2, although Blizzard did not expect every hero to have their redesigns finished when the game launched. Twelve of the existing 31 redesigns were completed at the time of Overwatch 2s reveal.
Overwatch 2 was released for Nintendo Switch, PlayStation 4, PlayStation 5, Windows, Xbox One, and Xbox Series X/S in early access on October 4, 2022. Kaplan stated when the game was announced that they were more concerned about quality of the product than timeliness of the release. Investor documents released in November 2021 reported that the initial 2022 release window was delayed to at least 2023, intended for "giving the teams some extra time to complete production and continue growing their creative resources to support the titles after launch". Kaplan anticipated that Overwatch and Overwatch 2 will ultimately merge into a single product to avoid having any engine differences affecting player experience. Technical director John Lafleur has stated they are also interested in supporting, at minimum, cross-platform progression and are looking at the possibility of cross-platform play. In the interim from its announcement prior to release, Kaplan left Blizzard in April 2021, with Aaron Keller taking over the lead development role, while the lead developer for new heroes, Geoff Goodman, left sometime in mid-2022.
In March 2022, Blizzard stated that they had put too much focus on Overwatch 2 over the past few years to the detriment of support for the original game, and so changed plans to release Overwatch 2 in parts, with the PvP portion to be released in beta form starting in April 2022 and the PvE part to come at a later time. This would allow them to also continue to support Overwatch alongside Overwatch 2 development. Later, Blizzard announced that the first wave of Overwatch 2 invitation-only betas would begin on April 26, 2022, and end on May 17. Access to the closed beta could be earned either by signing up for a chance to participate or by watching select Twitch streamers for a limited time on April 27.
The game without its PvE mode was released as early access on October 4, 2022, for Windows, PlayStation 4 and 5, Xbox One and Series X/S, and Nintendo Switch. That day, in addition to a large number of players, the game's servers were hit with a distributed denial of service (DDOS) attack that made it difficult for many to access the game. Additionally, as part of Blizzard's efforts to reduce smurfing, the use of new accounts by experienced players as to try to game the system, the company required all players to confirm their identity through a SMS message on their cell phone linked to their account. For many with prepaid cellular plans, particularly in the United States, they cannot use SMS on their plans, and effectively locked them out of Overwatch 2, though Blizzard stated they were working to resolve that issue. By October 7, Blizzard removed the need to verify one's identity for those that had played Overwatch since at least June 2021. As a means to make up this lost time to players, Blizzard planned to offer double experience point weekends and free cosmetic items to all players.
The game was to feature PvE game modes to be released later in the game's lifecycle, differentiating it from its predecessor. Similar to the special seasonal events, they would have consist of four-player cooperative missions against non-playable characters and were to be available persistent as opposed to a seasonal basis. In this mode, players would garner experience points for their hero and unlock new passive abilities called "talents", allowing them to influence how the hero plays. However, in May 2023, the developers announced that these extensive plans for PvE had been scrapped, fearing how they would impact the PvP elements. Instead the developers plan to offer story-based events as a replacement for the scrapped PvE. According to Keller, the concept behind the PvE elements were trying to bring forward gameplay from the cancelled Titan which Overwatch was originally based on. However, Keller stated that as they started shifted development to include the PvE elements, the overall project became unfocused, and the lead developers believed that they could not deliver a polished experience and opted to discontinue work in this direction. Blizzard announced players will be required to pay $15 for these new story missions. The purchase will include in-game currency and cosmetic items. Jason Schreier of Bloomberg News reported in March 2024 that from his sources, Blizzard did not believe the PvE content sold well enough to continue, with the entire PvE having been eliminated and no further plans to continue the PvE missions going forward.
In March 2024, game director Aaron Keller announced changes to the game's premium battle pass that would make new characters free for all players. Three months later, Keller discussed that they were reconsidering the change away from 6 on 6 matches by running 6 vs 6 special events to evaluate player response. two such tests are planned for Season 14 (around December 2024), one that forced two of each class, and a second that requires a minimum of one class hero and a maximum of 3.
Reception
Overwatch 2 received "generally favorable" reviews from critics upon release according to review aggregator Metacritic.
Tyler Colp of PC Gamer was critical of Blizzard's handling of the sequel, writing that the game "intentionally or not, is trying to bury its predecessor alive." Colp added, "the original Overwatch is still in there, bruised and broken, but the weight of Blizzard's commercial and competitive expectations keeps piling up."
On the game's 5v5 gameplay dynamic, as opposed to its predecessor's 6v6 dynamic, IGNs Simon Cardy wrote: "it fully drags Overwatch 2 out of the stagnant meta swamp its predecessor found itself in over the past couple of years, but also denies itself some of the lustre of its satisfying team play." Cardy also wrote "if the pertinent question to ask about Overwatch 2 is simply if it's a fun game, then the answer right now is yes. It's still a fundamentally great hero shooter, just one that is perhaps not currently operating at the towering height of its powers."
Jessica Howard of GameSpot wrote, "Overwatch 2 takes the franchise from a genre-defining shooter to a trend-chasing one. As such, it has begun to feel less like a unique sci-fi, superhero comic book in video game form, and more like, well, a lot of other games." Chris Carter of Destructoid wrote that "Overwatch 2 doesn't have the same cachet that Overwatch 1 did, but I can still see myself jumping in for a few matches after a long evening. The charm is still there, even if the delivery system has been muddled, and the game is no longer a premium product with easy-access characters that you can readily jump in and out of. Perhaps the PVE update can change that, but it has some work to do." The team, acknowledging player feedback from the past eight seasons, revealed plans for significant updates in a candid blog to enhance competitive play, allowing players to better develop their skills and track progress through the ranks.
The game's removal of loot boxes in favor of a battle pass system received backlash. Players directed criticism toward Blizzard's decision to lock the character Kiriko as a free reward on the first season's battle pass. Following Kiriko's reveal trailer, CJ Wheeler of Rock Paper Shotgun wrote: "One look at PlayOverwatch's mentions on Twitter is, well, eye-opening. It reveals so much criticism of the battle passes, from cries of pay to win to complaints about the grind before the game's even dropped. There are quite a few accusations that Blizzard are money-hungry too." Further criticism was levied at both the pricing of cosmetic items found with the in-game shop, as well as the time it would take to unlock cosmetics solely through grinding for those players who opt against using real money within the shop. Many players and some game journalists highlighted that most other games include enough in-game currency in the battle pass to get the next one free.
Upon release of Overwatch 2 on Steam, the game received a large number of negative reviews and became the worst-rated Steam game of all time within a 48-hour time frame, leading many outlets to characterize the response as review bombing. User reviews were generally critical of Blizzard's handling of Overwatch 2 including the removal of the planned PvE content, which director Aaron Keller acknowledged. Players also expressed frustration at issues related to the company's recent history, including allegations of sexual harassment at Activision Blizzard. Nearly two-thirds of these reviews were written in Simplified Chinese, which - according to Niko Partners - stems from Blizzard's dissolution of its agreement with NetEase in China earlier in 2023, leaving Chinese players unable to play on local servers.
Over 35 million users played Overwatch 2 in its first month of release in early access, compared to Overwatch which had only 15 million players three months after release. By July 2024, both Overwatch and Overwatch 2 had over 100 million players. It was nominated for the British Academy Games Award for Multiplayer at the 19th British Academy Games Awards.
References
External links
2022 video games
Asymmetrical multiplayer video games
Blizzard games
Competitive games
Cooperative video games
Early access video games
Esports games
First-person shooter multiplayer online games
First-person shooters
Free-to-play video games
Hero shooters
Multiplayer online games
Multiplayer video games
Nintendo Switch games
Overwatch
PlayStation 4 games
PlayStation 4 Pro enhanced games
PlayStation 5 games
Science fiction video games
Superhero video games
Transmedia storytelling
Video games about robots
Video games based on Japanese mythology
Video games developed in the United States
Video game sequels
Video games set in Antarctica
Video games set in Australia
Video games set in Brazil
Video games set in China
Video games set in Cuba
Video games set in Egypt
Video games set in France
Video games set in Germany
Video games set in Gibraltar
Video games set in Greece
Video games set in India
Video games set in Iraq
Video games set in Italy
Video games set in Japan
Video games set in Jordan
Video games set in London
Video games set in Los Angeles
Video games set in Mexico
Video games set in Monaco
Video games set in Nepal
Video games set in New Mexico
Video games set in New York City
Video games set in Nigeria
Video games set in Portugal
Video games set in Rome
Video games set in Saint Petersburg
Video games set in South Korea
Video games set in Sweden
Video games set in Sydney
Video games set in Thailand
Video games set in the 2070s
Video games set in Toronto
Video games set in Venice
Video games with cross-platform play
Video games with user-generated gameplay content
Windows games
Xbox One games
Xbox One X enhanced games
Xbox Series X and Series S games | Overwatch 2 | [
"Physics"
] | 4,409 | [
"Asymmetrical multiplayer video games",
"Symmetry",
"Asymmetry"
] |
62,118,335 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bolt%20snap | A bolt snap is a type of snap hook with a manually operated bolt action slide gate of medium security used to clip a light load to a ring, eye, loop or bight to temporarily secure or suspend an object. They are used for a wide variety of applications including dog leads and for clipping scuba equipment to the diving harness. A similar but more secure device used to attach sails to a stay is known as a piston hank. It differs from a snap shackle in that the load is not carried by the gate. The bolt snap must be actively operated by the user to clip or unclip, and is not easily snagged or unintentionally clipped or unclipped by pressing or bumping against the surroundings.
The most common type has a single snap hook at one end and a swivel ring at the other, but double ended bolt snaps and single ended snaps with a swivel shackle are also available. There are a few variations on the style of the hook, gate opening and swivel style. The characteristic element of the bolt snap is the bolt action gate. This is a spring loaded rod which slides longitudinally inside the body of the clip against a compression spring to open the gate of the hook, and returns to rest against the tip of the hook by the action of the spring when released.
Bolt snaps are not generally load rated, and are not used to suspend heavy loads. Most applications are in the load range where the user can lift the object to be clipped, or can hold the load manually.
Structure
Bolt snaps are made of plastic or metal. The metal used is stainless steel or brass for diving and boating applications, with a stainless steel spring. Chrome plated zinc and plastic bodies are only suitable for light loads such as key rings, handbag straps, and leads for small dogs.
The single ended bolt snap has a hook at one end with the opening in line with a hollow shaft, at the other end of which there is a flanged pin for the swivel fitting. The swivel fitting is usually a ring, but can also be a swivel shackle body. The tip of the hook is directly in line with the central axis of the hole in the shaft, so that the piston gate makes contact with the tip when closed, and the hook curves round to point at the hole. The gate is a cylindrical "bolt" with a sliding fit in the hollow shaft. It has a short rounded tab on the side which provides a grip for finger or thumb operation. This tab slides in a short slot in the outer side of the hole in the shaft.
There is a compression coil spring in the hole in the shaft between the gate bolt and the bottom of the hole, which will return the bolt to rest against the tip of the hook when released, preventing passage of anything in either direction through the mouth of the hook when the bolt is in place. The bolt snap does not have a socket in the tip of the hook for the bolt, as the load is carried by the hook in normal service, and this type of closure is unsuited to multi-directional or highly dynamic loading.
The double ended bolt snap has a hook at each end of the body, with co-axial opposing bolts. The hook gates normally both face the same way.
Variations
Various sizes and materials may be available for the style variations listed.
Single end
With round swivel loop
Centred loop
Offset loop
Small loop
with oblong loop for webbing
Fixed loop
Swivel loop
With swivel shackle
Double end
Short or long body
Butterfly gate
Operation
The bolt snap is usually operated using one hand to manipulate the hook and gate. If the object to which it is to be clipped is unstable, like the collar on a dog, the other hand may be used to hold it in place. The hook body is generally gripped by the fingers, one of which may be passed through the swivel ring to help support and stabilise the load when applicable, and the thumb used to pull the bolt back to open the gate. The opening is then passed over the target and the bolt released, so that it snaps back to close the gate.
To remove, the same method is used, and the load must be supported to unhook while the gate is open. The clip cannot be removed under normal tensile load conditions even with the gate open.
Applications
Scuba diving
Bolt snaps are commonly used in scuba diving to clip equipment to the diver's harness for security and to keep them in place. The bolt snap style of connector is favoured because it is operable with one hand, is quick and easy to use, can support the relevant loads, and is reasonably secure against accidental operation.
Animal leads
Bolt snaps are one of the common connectors used for attaching tethers to animal collars or harnesses.
Luggage and fashion accessories
Bolt snaps are sometimes used to attach straps and handles to luggage and handbags.
See also
References
Underwater diving equipment
Fasteners | Bolt snap | [
"Engineering"
] | 1,013 | [
"Construction",
"Fasteners"
] |
62,119,898 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Value%20of%20structural%20health%20information | The value of structural health information is the expected utility gain of a built environment system by information provided by structural health monitoring (SHM). The quantification of the value of structural health information is based on decision analysis adapted to built environment engineering. The value of structural health information can be significant for the risk and integrity management of built environment systems.
Background
The value of structural health information takes basis in the framework of the decision analysis and the value of information analysis as introduced by Raiffa and Schlaifer and adapted to civil engineering by Benjamin and Cornell. Decision theory itself is based upon the expected utility hypothesis by Von Neumann and Morgenstern. The concepts for the value of structural health information in built environment engineering were first formulated by Pozzi and Der Kiureghian and Faber and Thöns.
Formulation
The value of structural health information is quantified with a normative decision analysis. The value of structural health monitoring is calculated as the difference between the optimized expected utilities of performing and not performing structural health monitoring (SHM), and , respectively:
The expected utilities are calculated with a decision scenario involving (1) interrelated built environment system state, utility and consequence models, (2) structural health information type, precision and cost models and (2) structural health action type and implementation models. The value of structural health information quantification facilitates an optimization of structural health information system parameters and information dependent actions.
Application
The value of structural health information provides a quantitative decision basis for (1) implementing SHM or not, (2) the identification of the optimal SHM strategy and (3) for planning optimal structural health actions, such as e.g., repair and replacement. The value of structural health information presupposes relevance of SHM information for the built environment system performance. A significant value of structural health information has been found for the risk and integrity management of engineering structures.
References
Infrastructure
Architecture academics | Value of structural health information | [
"Engineering"
] | 390 | [
"Construction",
"Infrastructure"
] |
62,120,907 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International%20Federation%20of%20Petroleum%20and%20Chemical%20Workers | The International Federation of Petroleum and Chemical Workers (IFPCW) was a global union federation bringing together trade union representing workers in the chemical and oil industries.
History
The secretariat was established in 1954 at a meeting in Paris, held on the initiative of the International Confederation of Free Trade Unions (ICFTU) and the Oil Workers' International Union of the United States. It was formed in response to the growth of employment in the oil industry, and was initially named the International Federation of Petroleum Workers. Most of its founder members had previously been affiliated to the International Federation of Industrial Organisations and General Workers' Unions (IFF).
The secretariat was based in Denver, and was the only global union federation to have headquarters outside Europe. By 1960, it had 43 affiliates, with a membership of more than 500,000. In 1963, the union began recruiting unions of chemical workers, and renamed itself as the "International Federation of Petroleum and Chemical Workers". This brought it into conflict with the IFF, which renamed itself as the "International Federation of Chemical and General Workers' Unions" (ICF), and the ICFTU suspended grants to both organisations.
By the late 1960s, it became known that the IFPCW was receiving regular grants from CIA funds, and it became regarded as a CIA front organisation. Faced with a loss of prestige, it discussed a potential merger with the ICF, but this did not occur, and it dissolved in 1976.
Affiliates
In 1960, the following unions were affiliated to the federation:
Leadership
General Secretaries
1954: Loyd A. Haskins
1973: Curtis Hogan
Presidents
1954: Jack Knight
1967: Luis Tovar
1973: George Sacre
References
Chemical industry trade unions
Global union federations
Trade unions established in 1954
Trade unions disestablished in 1976 | International Federation of Petroleum and Chemical Workers | [
"Chemistry"
] | 358 | [
"Chemical industry trade unions"
] |
62,122,535 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew%20Leach%20%28economist%29 | Andrew Leach is a Canadian energy and environmental economist and a contributing writer to a number of Canadian news outlets including The Globe and Mail, and Maclean's. His research areas span energy and environmental economics—including topics such as oil sands regulation, clean energy innovations, with a specific focus on climate change policies.
Education
After completing his Bachelor of Science (B.Sc.) degree in Environmental Sciences and his M.A. (Economics) from University of Guelph, he earned his Ph.D. in economics from Queen's University.
Early career
On completion of his Ph.D. at Queens University, Leach was appointed as an assistant professor at HEC Montreal, a post he held for three years. He moved to the University of Alberta in 2006.
Career
Leach is Professor of Economics and Law at the University of Alberta where he teaches courses in environmental and energy economics, environmental law and utilities law.
In 2012–2013, on a leave from the University of Alberta as Visiting Scholar, Leach spent a year at Environment Canada working on "greenhouse gas policy for the oil and gas sector."
Leach was Chair of Alberta's Climate Change Leadership Panel in 2015.
Academic research
His primary academic research interests include climate change policy, energy policy including oil sands regulation and innovations and policies related to clean energy. He has "consulted for Environment Canada, the National Roundtable on the Environment and the Economy (NRTEE), the Auditor General of Alberta, Alberta Environment, Alberta Finance and Enterprise, and Alberta Energy."
Policies
Emissions policies and pricing
In his review of the 2011 policy proposals of then NDP leadership candidate, Thomas Mulcair's plan to combat climate change, Leach said that Mulcair's plan to cap GHG emissions was not broad enough, as it placed too much emphasis on industrial polluters and did not adequately account for [[Life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions of energy sources|life cycle emissions]] or "downstream emissions" associated with fossil fuels used to heat buildings, propel cars and trucks, and run tractors." "GHG emissions are not as concentrated among large, industrial sources as most people think." He said that "agriculture (74Mt/yr), buildings (80Mt/yr), transportation (164Mt/yr), and waste (54Mt/yr) account[ed] for over half of Canadian GHGs". He added that the "industrial emissions associated with the production of electricity (126 Mt) and oil and gas (153 Mt)" produced for "domestic consumption, not exports."
In the mass media
Leach is a contributing writer for Maclean's and The Globe and Mail.
The Economist cited Leach's statistics in its January 1, 2011 article "Muck and brass: Canada's tar sands", which compared statements from a number of environmentalists, academics, and oil industry players, including the Canadian Association of Petroleum Producers (CAPP). CAPP said that by 2011, the oil sands generated only 5% of Canada's which at that time represented about 0.1% of the world total. Leach said that the oils sands "create about C$500 of value-added per tonne of , against C$20-30 from coal-fired power stations."
In a June 26, 2015 Edmonton Journal article, Leach was described as a "respected", "media-savvy" and "data-driven" energy and environmental economist—known for his "environmental pragmaticism"— whose understanding of the energy industry was greater than that of "many senior execs in the oilpatch." The article said that Leach "knows how much additional cost the industry can bear to curb emissions without rendering it uncompetitive." The NDP Alberta provincial government recruited "Leach to help steer the province’s new climate change strategy" in 2015. Leach calls for a "level playing field that discourages more emissions, no matter where they come from" but does not "demonize" the oil sands. In an interview with Gary Lamphier in March 2015, Leach said that Alberta's energy industry "has to get its head out of the oilsands or pay the price for inaction...If we believe the economy we have only exists because we can pollute without paying for it, or without compensating for the damages that creates, that's a real problem." Leach believes that the imposition of environmental regulations is necessary. Leach said that while carbon pricing is "probably the most cost effective way to achieve a particular outcome", it has limitations. Leach says that carbon pricing is not necessarily and unconditionally going to "achieve a better outcome" than with regulation or cap and trade. Leach says that a "credible emissions reduction plan" that includes all the elements of Alberta's "new fiscal regime, from taxes to royalties to carbon levies" for the oil sands is necessary in order to "secure new markets" and major investments for "big players' in Alberta's oil industry.
2019 federal election: comparing climate plans
From July through October 2019, the CBC series entitled "Election 2019: A national reckoning on climate change" consisted of five articles by Leach in which he compared the climate plans proposed by federal parties running in the 2019 Canadian federal election—the Green Party, led by Elizabeth May, the Conservative Party, led by Andrew Scheer, the New Democratic Party, led by Jagmeet Singh, the Liberal Party led by the incumbent Prime Minister Justin Trudeau, with the final summary on October 10.
Leach co-authored an October 4, 2019 Chatelaine article with the United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) scientist Katherine Hayhoe, comparing the four federal parties.
Calgary Energy Centre
Leach reviews articles posted on line by the "pro-energy corporation", the Calgary-based Canadian Energy Centre, which is funded by the government of Alberta.
Personal life
Leach is married and has two children. He is active on his energy and climate blog entitled "Rescuing the frog" and on Twitter.
References
21st-century Canadian economists
Academic staff of the University of Alberta
Living people
Queen's University at Kingston alumni
Year of birth missing (living people)
Energy economists
Climate change mitigation researchers | Andrew Leach (economist) | [
"Engineering"
] | 1,277 | [
"Geoengineering",
"Climate change mitigation researchers"
] |
62,122,982 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senescence-associated%20secretory%20phenotype | Senescence-associated secretory phenotype (SASP) is a phenotype associated with senescent cells wherein those cells secrete high levels of inflammatory cytokines, immune modulators, growth factors, and proteases. SASP may also consist of exosomes and ectosomes containing enzymes, microRNA, DNA fragments, chemokines, and other bioactive factors. Soluble urokinase plasminogen activator surface receptor is part of SASP, and has been used to identify senescent cells for senolytic therapy. Initially, SASP is immunosuppressive (characterized by TGF-β1 and TGF-β3) and profibrotic, but progresses to become proinflammatory (characterized by IL-1β, IL-6 and IL-8) and fibrolytic. SASP is the primary cause of the detrimental effects of senescent cells.
SASP is heterogenous, with the exact composition dependent upon the senescent-cell inducer and the cell type. Interleukin 12 (IL-12) and Interleukin 10 (IL-10) are increased more than 200-fold in replicative senescence in contrast to stress-induced senescence or proteosome-inhibited senescence where the increases are about 30-fold or less. Tumor necrosis factor (TNF) is increased 32-fold in stress-induced senescence, 8-fold in replicative senescence, and only slightly in proteosome-inhibited senescence. Interleukin 6 (IL-6) and interleukin 8 (IL-8) are the most conserved and robust features of SASP. But some SASP components are anti-inflammatory.
Senescence and SASP can also occur in post-mitotic cells, notably neurons. The SASP in senescent neurons can vary according to cell type, the initiator of senescence, and the stage of senescence.
An online SASP Atlas serves as a guide to the various types of SASP.
SASP is one of the three main features of senescent cells, the other two features being arrested cell growth, and resistance to apoptosis. SASP factors can include the anti-apoptotic protein Bcl-xL, but growth arrest and SASP production are independently regulated. Although SASP from senescent cells can kill neighboring normal cells, the apoptosis-resistance of senescent cells protects those cells from SASP.
History
The concept and abbreviation of SASP was first established by Judith Campisi and her group, who first published on the subject in 2008.
Causes
SASP expression is induced by a number of transcription factors, including MLL1 (KMT2A), C/EBPβ, and NF-κB. NF-κB and the enzyme CD38 are mutually activating. NF-κB is expressed as a result of inhibition of autophagy-mediated degradation of the transcription factor GATA4. GATA4 is activated by the DNA damage response factors, which induce cellular senescence. SASP is both a promoter of DNA damage response and a consequence of DNA damage response, in an autocrine and paracrine manner. Aberrant oncogenes, DNA damage, and oxidative stress induce mitogen-activated protein kinases, which are the upstream regulators of NF-κB.
Demethylation of DNA packaging protein Histone H3 (H3K27me3) can lead to up-regulation of genes controlling SASP.
mTOR (mammalian target of rapamycin) is also a key initiator of SASP. Interleukin 1 alpha (IL1A) is found on the surface of senescent cells, where it contributes to the production of SASP factors due to a positive feedback loop with NF-κB. Translation of mRNA for IL1A is highly dependent upon mTOR activity. mTOR activity increases levels of IL1A, mediated by MAPKAPK2. mTOR inhibition of ZFP36L1 prevents this protein from degrading transcripts of numerous components of SASP factors. Inhibition of mTOR supports autophagy, which can generate SASP components.
Ribosomal DNA (rDNA) is more vulnerable to DNA damage than DNA elsewhere in the genome such that rDNA instability can lead to cellular senescence, and thus to SASP
The high-mobility group proteins (HMGA) can induce senescence and SASP in a p53-dependent manner.
Activation of the retrotransposon LINE1 can result in cytosolic DNA that activates the cGAS–STING cytosolic DNA sensing pathway upregulating SASP by induction of interferon type I. cGAS is essential for induction of cellular senescence by DNA damage.
SASP secretion can also be initiated by the microRNAs miR-146 a/b.
Senescent cells release mitochondrial double-stranded RNA (mt-dsRNA) into the cytosol driving the SASP via RIGI/MDA5/MAVS/MFN1. Moreover, senescent cells are hypersensitive to mt-dsRNA-driven inflammation due to reduced levels of PNPT1 and ADAR1.
Pathology
Senescent cells are highly metabolically active, producing large amounts of SASP, which is why senescent cells consisting of only 2% or 3% of tissue cells can be a major cause of aging-associated diseases. SASP factors cause non-senescent cells to become senescent. SASP factors induce insulin resistance. SASP disrupts normal tissue function by producing chronic inflammation, induction of fibrosis and inhibition of stem cells. Transforming growth factor beta family members secreted by senescent cells impede differentiation of adipocytes, leading to insulin resistance.
SASP factors IL-6 and TNFα enhance T-cell apoptosis, thereby impairing the capacity of the adaptive immune system.
SASP factors from senescent cells reduce nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+) in non-senescent cells, thereby reducing the capacity for DNA repair and sirtuin activity in non-senescent cells. SASP induction of the NAD+ degrading enzyme CD38 on non-senescent cells (macrophages) may be responsible for most of this effect. By contrast, NAD+ contributes to the secondary (pro-inflammatory) manifestation of SASP.
SASP induces an unfolded protein response in the endoplasmic reticulum because of an accumulation of unfolded proteins, resulting in proteotoxic impairment of cell function.
SASP cytokines can result in an inflamed stem cell niche, leading to stem cell exhaustion and impaired stem cell function.
SASP can either promote or inhibit cancer, depending on the SASP composition, notably including p53 status. Despite the fact that cellular senescence likely evolved as a means of protecting against cancer early in life, SASP promotes the development of late-life cancers. Cancer invasiveness is promoted primarily through the actions of the SASP factors metalloproteinase, chemokine, interleukin 6 (IL-6), and interleukin 8 (IL-8). In fact, SASP from senescent cells is associated with many aging-associated diseases, including not only cancer, but atherosclerosis and osteoarthritis. For this reason, senolytic therapy has been proposed as a generalized treatment for these and many other diseases. The flavonoid apigenin has been shown to strongly inhibit SASP production.
Benefits
SASP can aid in signaling to immune cells for senescent cell clearance, with specific SASP factors secreted by senescent cells attracting and activating different components of both the innate and adaptive immune system. The SASP cytokine CCL2 (MCP1) recruits macrophages to remove cancer cells. Although transient expression of SASP can recruit immune system cells to eliminate cancer cells as well as senescent cells, chronic SASP promotes cancer. Senescent hematopoietic stem cells produce a SASP that induces an M1 polarization of macrophages which kills the senescent cells in a p53-dependent process.
Autophagy is upregulated to promote survival.
SASP factors can maintain senescent cells in their senescent state of growth arrest, thereby preventing cancerous transformation. Additionally, SASP secreted by cells that have become senescent because of stresses can induce senescence in adjoining cells subject to the same stresses, thereby reducing cancer risk.
SASP can play a beneficial role by promoting wound healing. SASP may play a role in tissue regeneration by signaling for senescent cell clearance by immune cells, allowing progenitor cells to repopulate tissue. In development, SASP also may be used to signal for senescent cell clearance to aid tissue remodeling. The ability of SASP to clear senescent cells and regenerate damaged tissue declines with age. In contrast to the persistent character of SASP in the chronic inflammation of multiple age-related diseases, beneficial SASP in wound healing is transitory. Temporary SASP in the liver or kidney can reduce fibrosis, but chronic SASP could lead to organ dysfunction.
Modification
Senescent cells have permanently active mTORC1 irrespective of nutrients or growth factors, resulting in the continuous secretion of SASP. By inhibiting mTORC1, rapamycin reduces SASP production by senescent cells.
SASP has been reduced through inhibition of p38 mitogen-activated protein kinases and janus kinase.
The protein hnRNP A1 (heterogeneous nuclear ribonucleoprotein A1) antagonizes cellular senescence and induction of the SASP by stabilizing Oct-4 and sirtuin 1 mRNAs.
SASP Index
A SASP index composed of 22 SASP factors has been used to evaluate treatment outcomes of late life depression. Higher SASP index scores corresponded to increased incidence of treatment failure, whereas no individual SASP factors were associated with treatment failure.
Inflammaging
Chronic inflammation associated with aging has been termed inflammaging, although SASP may be only one of the possible causes of this condition. Chronic systemic inflammation is associated with aging-associated diseases.
Senolytic agents have been recommended to counteract some of these effects. Chronic inflammation due to SASP can suppress immune system function, which is one reason elderly persons are more vulnerable to COVID-19.
See also
Cellular senescence
References
For further reading
Cellular senescence | Senescence-associated secretory phenotype | [
"Biology"
] | 2,233 | [
"Senescence",
"Cellular senescence",
"Cellular processes"
] |
62,123,474 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal%20ecology | Thermal ecology is the study of the interactions between temperature and organisms. Such interactions include the effects of temperature on an organism's physiology, behavioral patterns, and relationship with its environment. While being warmer is usually associated with greater fitness, maintaining this level of heat costs a significant amount of energy. Organisms will make various trade-offs so that they can continue to operate at their preferred temperatures and optimize metabolic functions. With the emergence of climate change scientists are investigating how species will be affected and what changes they will undergo in response.
History
While it is not known exactly when thermal ecology began being recognized as a new branch of science, in 1969, the Savanna River Ecology Laboratory (SREL) developed a research program on thermal stress due to heated water previously used to cool nuclear reactors being released into various nearby bodies of water. The SREL alongside the DuPont Company Savanna River Laboratory and the Atomic Energy Commission sponsored the first scientific symposium on thermal ecology in 1974 to discuss this issue as well as similar instances and the second symposium was held the next year in 1975.
Animals
Temperature has a notable effect on animals, contributing to body growth and size, and behavioral and physical adaptations. Ways that animals can control their body temperature include generating heat through daily activity and cooling down through prolonged inactivity at night. Because this cannot be done by marine animals, they have adapted to have traits such as a small surface-area-to-volume ratio to minimize heat transfer with their environment and the creation of antifreeze in the body for survival in extreme cold conditions.
Endotherms
Endotherms expend a large amount of energy keeping their body temperatures warm and therefore require a large energy intake to make up for it. There are several ways that they have evolved to solve this issue. For instance, following Bergmann's Rule, endotherms in colder climates tend to be larger than those in warmer climates as a way to conserve internal heat. Other methods include reducing internal temperatures and metabolic rates through daily torpor and hibernation.
Strix occidentalis
The Strix occidentalis, or the California spotted owl, has a preferred temperature range of around 18.20-35.20 °C and is less tolerant to heat than most other birds, exhibiting behaviors such as wing drooping and increased breathing at 30-34 °C. Because of this they tend to live in environments that are resistant to temperature change such as old-growth forests.
Ectotherms
Because the main source of heat for ectotherms comes from their environment, thermal requirements change from species to species depending on geographical location. Due to some species having a static preferred body temperature through generations, they are shown to exhibit behavioral adjustments in situations of drastic environment change with adjustments in physiology as a last resort. In addition, ectotherms, similarly to endotherms, are generally larger in size when living in colder climates, following the temperature-size rule.
Podarcis siculus
The Podarcis siculus otherwise known as the Italian wall lizard has a preferred temperature range of around 28.40-31.57 °C for both males and females. A strong direct relationship has been observed between their body temperatures and air temperature in the summer and a weak correlation has been observed in the spring. To control their internal temperature, seeking shade under rocks and leaves has proven to be effective.
Plants
Many processes during plant reproduction operate at specific temperature ranges making temperature important for reproductive success. Increasing the temperature of the reproductive organs in plants results in more frequent visitations from pollinators and an increase in the rate of metabolic processes. Factors that affect the capture and maintaining of heat in plants include flower orientation, size and shape, coloration, opening and closure, pubescence, and thermogenesis.
Climate change
Due to recent global climate change, thermal ecology has become a topic of interest for scientists concerning ecological response. Through observation it has been found that organisms typically respond to changes in weather and temperature by either moving to an environment in which these factors match what they are already accustomed to or staying in their current environment and consequently become acclimated to the new conditions. In a study of the fish species Galaxias platei, it was concluded that the direct impacts of climate change such as increased temperatures would most likely not pose a significant threat however indirect impacts such as habitat loss may be detrimental.
See also
Quantitative ecology
References
Subfields of ecology
Physiology
Branches of thermodynamics | Thermal ecology | [
"Physics",
"Chemistry",
"Biology"
] | 895 | [
"Branches of thermodynamics",
"Thermodynamics",
"Physiology"
] |
62,124,202 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strategic%20fair%20division | Strategic fair division studies problems of fair division, in which participants cooperate to subdivide goods or resources fairly, from a point of view in which the participants are assumed to hide their preferences and act strategically in order to maximize their own utility, rather than playing sincerely according to their true preferences.
To illustrate the difference between strategic fair division and classic fair division, consider the divide and choose procedure for dividing a cake among two agents. In classic fair division, it is assumed that the cutter cuts the cake into two pieces that are equal in his eyes, and thus he always gets a piece that he values at exactly 1/2 of the total cake value. However, if the cutter knows the chooser's preferences, he can get much more than 1/2 by acting strategically. For example, suppose the cutter values a piece by its size while the chooser values a piece by the amount of chocolate in it. So the cutter can cut the cake into two pieces with almost the same amount of chocolate, such that the smaller piece has slightly more chocolate. Then, the chooser will take the smaller piece and the cutter will win the larger piece, which may be worth much more than 1/2 (depending on how the chocolate is distributed).
The research in strategic fair division has two main branches.
One branch is related to game theory and studies the equilibria in games created by fair division algorithms:
The Nash equilibrium of the Dubins-Spanier moving-knife protocol;
The Nash equilibrium and subgame-perfect equilibrium of generalized-cut-and-choose protocols;
The equilibria of envy-free protocols for allocating an indivisible good with monetary compensations.
The price of anarchy of Nash equilibria of two mechanisms for homogeneous-resource allocation: the Fisher market game and the Trading Post game.
The other branch is related to mechanism design and aims to find truthful mechanisms for fair division, in particular:
Truthful cake-cutting;
Truthful resource allocation;
Truthful fair division of rooms and rent.
References
Fairness criteria
Game theory | Strategic fair division | [
"Mathematics"
] | 420 | [
"Game theory"
] |
62,125,301 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coral%20reefs%20of%20Jamaica | Jamaica, an island located within the Caribbean Sea, known for being a popular tourist destination because of its pristine white sand beaches, is now faced with the issue of mass coral depletion. Both environmental and human factors contribute to the destruction of these corals, which inevitably affect Jamaica's environmental sustainability and economy. Actions have been put in place to counteract the negative consequences associated with the loss of the corals, which act as a symbol of hope for the revival of Jamaica's environment.
Human behavior has a large impact on Jamaica's 479 square miles of coral reefs, which hosts 60 different species of coral. These reefs are a major tourist attraction for the country, accounting for 27 percent of its GDP. Due to Jamaica's economic reliance on its coastal reserves, the degradation of the coral reefs is much higher because of continuous habitat destruction.
Extent
Along Jamaica's of coastline are of coral reefs as of 2014. However, the reefs were once much larger. About 85% of Jamaica's coral reefs were lost between 1980–2000. Coral reef distribution on the northern coast of Jamaica extends from Morant Point in the east to Negril in the west. On the southern coast, the reefs are more restricted, occurring mostly on the eastern part of the continental shelf near Old Harbour and Port Royal. Reefs on the southern coast outside this area are small with a patchy distribution.
Coral diversity
Various species of hard coral are found in Jamaican reefs, including the following families:
Acroporidae (staghorn corals)
Agariciidae (cactus and lettuce corals)
Astrocoeniidae
Caryophylliidae
Dendrophylliidae
Meandrinidae
Mussidae
Oculinidae
Pocilloporidae
Poritidae
Rhizangiidae
Siderastreidae
Causes of decline
The coral reefs are under threat due to environmental issues such as overfishing, pollution, hurricanes, and disease. Since the 1970s, Jamaica's coral reef cover has declined more than 50 percent. In 2005, up to 95 percent of the coral was bleached in some locations.
Coral bleaching
Rising levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere directly link to increases in sea temperatures, which have been seen to have adverse effects on coral health. Climate change is a driver of coral bleaching which results from sea surface temperatures rising above normal levels, thus forcing coral polyps to discharge the algae they shared an endosymbiotic relationship with. Tropical corals prefer warmer waters and usually reside close to the surface at their maximum thermal limit, therefore when sea temperatures begin to rise above the normal scale corals become stressed. Once environmental conditions become unfavorable, the corals undergo this process as a short-term solution of survival, but prolonged exposure to said conditions can lead to mass coral deaths. Without their main energy provider, corals will experience starvation and then lose their coloration, resulting in beds of white "bleached" corals.
Pollution
Sewage pollution has led to eutrophication which results in an abundance of nutrients for microalgal populations to bloom. The United Nations Environmental Program determined that 85 percent of the sewage entering the Caribbean ocean is untreated. This raw sewage contains dissolved inorganic nutrients, pathogens, heavy metals, and toxins that can cause coral bleaching, disease, increased mortality, and decreased coral growth. A study concluded that increased nutrients such as, inorganic nitrogen and phosphorus, doubled the probability of coral diseases and tripled the probability of bleaching. An increase of inorganic nitrogen was also linked to the presence of pathogens which can lead to coral mortality. The heavy metals prevent respiration and nerve communication within the coral which also leads to coral mortality.
Ocean acidification
Another consequence of global warming is ocean acidification. CO2 dissolves into the seawater thus changing its chemical composition; this new addition of carbonic acid shifts the pH value lower, making it more acidic. Ocean acidification adversely affects corals by affecting the rate at which they can generate their skeletal structures. The basic constituent in a coral's skeleton structure is calcium carbonate which breaks down in the presence of acid. The carbon cycle then becomes disrupted and as a result there is a reduction in the concentration of carbonate ions in the seawater. Marine calcification is now inversely affected which impacts calcifying organisms such as corals as it now becomes harder to build and form their calcium carbonate structures. Without a supportive skeleton, corals will naturally be more frail and easily damaged during storm surges, while the rate of growth and recovery are both slowed. The corals also become weaker, and more susceptible to disease which significantly takes a toll on the resilience of the reefs.
Hurricanes
As sea surface temperatures rise, low pressure systems that pass over areas of warmer water are fueled by the excess heat, forming into tropical depressions and then further into high intensity hurricanes. These systems affect wave patterns and seawater movements which can cause severe damage to shallow water corals. Reefs consisting of more fragile coral structures will be more vulnerable to the destructive strengths of currents generated from storm surge swells, and result in mass coral colony wipeouts when high category hurricanes hit the island. During storms, sediments and debris can also gather in areas that could have been perfect for coral settlements, but instead become unsuitable and remain barren.
Major hurricane events include Hurricane Allen in 1980, Hurricane Gilbert in 1988, and Hurricane Ivan in 2004. In 2005, there were a record breaking 26 storms recorded that caused 26 events of bleaching in 16 of Jamaica's coral reef sites. The hurricanes affected 68 percent of Jamaica's coral reefs and 38 percent of those corals later died. In September 2005, up to 95 percent of Jamaica's corals had bleached, but only 50 percent recovered later. As a result of the 2005 hurricane, microalgal blooms took over where the corals once were.
Invasive species
The invasive species of lion-fish pose a serious threat to the sustainability of Jamaica's coral reefs as marine ecosystems become compromised with their rapid growth in population. These species of lion-fish, more specifically the Pterois volitans and Pterois miles, are not native to the Caribbean sea waters but instead originated in the Indo-Pacific. The very first reported sightings of the invasion of lion-fish in the Caribbean occurred in the 1980s off the coast of Florida. It is speculated that these fish entered Atlantic and Caribbean waterways due to aquarium releases, where people would set the species free in the sea after growing too big for the tank and rapidly multiplying.
Due to the fact that Jamaican reefs aren't the lion-fishes' natural habitat there are no known predators in the area, thereby contributing to their increasing population and inevitably affecting the ecosystem. The lion-fishes' diet is not limited to any one species of fish and their carnivorous eating habits are detrimental to Jamaica's coral reefs as they feed upon the herbivores responsible for keeping algae growth levels in check. Without proper algae regulation there could be a massive overgrowth of algae which blocks out sunlight thus preventing reefs from in turn producing oxygen through photosynthesis. Even the presence of one lone lion-fish was found to cause a 79% reduction in the recruitment of the area's native reef fishes, and its impact is further amplified by the fact that they also breed at a much faster rate than native fish, with females laying up to 2 million eggs per year each. In as little as 5 weeks, one lion-fish also has the ability to wipeout 80% of young reef fish, thereby preventing the flourishing of species of fish that are essential to maintaining healthy corals.
Aqua tourism
Tourism is an essential aspect of Jamaica's economy, but can also be unintentionally harmful to the environment when tourists aren't taught how to properly care for the island's ecosystems. Snorkeling and recreational diving are just some of the few activities tourists normally take part in and sometimes their actions can become detrimental to the corals. Without knowing any better, people swim up to the corals to touch them or snap off pieces for keep sakes which can lead to coral bleaching, as the corals become stressed and expel their algae. By swimming too close the reefs, tourists can also stir up sand and sediments with their flippers thus depositing them on the corals and inevitably hindering the process of photosynthesis.
Overfishing
Jamaica's coral reefs house 135 different species of fish. Between 1995 and 1998, fishing licenses increased by 68 percent for the Montego Bay Marine Park where 69 percent of fishers rely on fishing as their full-time income. In 1970 on Jamaica's north coast, trap fishermen set 1800 traps which was at least two times above estimated sustainability levels. Fish density dwindled to 9.8 fish per 100 m2 between 2001 and 2006. Overfishing has reduced the herbivorous fish that keep algae populations in check and it has caused a phase shift from coral reefs to algae reefs. Today, algae covers 24 percent of the reefs where corals once stood. By 1960, fish biomass was reduced by 80 percent due to overfishing. Fish that are vital to coral reef survival, such as the parrot fish, have been driven to near extinction in some regions. In addition, overfishing has also been linked to the disappearance of the black sea urchin, Diadema antillarum, which also helped to reduce microalgal presence.
Overfishing causes an unacceptable reduction in the population of fish which are essential to the proper maintenance of the reefs, such as grazers. Fish such as the native parrot fish help keep algae levels down so that the corals aren't completely encased in their bloom. It has been found that there is a direct link between thriving parrotfish populations and thriving coral populations in Caribbean reefs, with islands which have imposed parrotfish fishing bans having the healthiest reefs like Bermuda, and those without which have witnessed major coral declines like Jamaica. Without these essential species of fish, Jamaica's reefs run the risk of having total coral decimation. As a result, it is imperative that bans should be put in place to protect the parrotfish, but that's easier said than done when so many local fishermen rely on catching and selling them to make a livelihood.
Disease
The Caribbean's coral reefs have been increasingly becoming diseased by 20 percent. Coral diseases can cause tissue damage or it could even destroy the entire colony. In 1980, white-band disease killed 95 percent of the Acroporid palmata and Acroporid cervicornis colonies which placed them on the Endangered Species Act. A 2010 study concluded that sewage runoff was correlated to the white pox coral disease that destroyed the Acroporid palmata species.
Rehabilitation efforts
With all of these different factors coming into play, Jamaican (and more generally Caribbean) reefs have been affected substantially. Around 9% of the Earth's total coral population resides in the Caribbean, and it is truly saddening that over 50% of that original coral in the region has been destroyed since the 1970s with algal blooms at an all-time high since the 1990s. Jamaica in particular has lost 85% of its coral reefs between 1980 and 1990 mainly due to the chain of unfortunate human and natural disasters that struck the island during that time frame. The state of the corals didn't go unnoticed and spurred locals to take action to reverse the damage caused to the reefs. As a result, many new (grassroots-run) fisheries and coral nurseries have been established across Jamaica since around 2009, in an effort to bring back the island's marine ecosystem.
In Ocho Rios, Jamaica a group of local divers have teamed up to start this restoration process and rebuild the reefs through coral gardening. Firstly, corals are broken off into small fragments and then attached to 'underwater clotheslines' where they are left to grow. These simplistic gardening structures allow the corals to regenerate in optimal conditions as their availability to food and sunshine is maximized. During this regrowth period, the corals are frequently cleaned and any creatures that may feed on the immature coral (such as sea snails and fire-worms) are manually removed. Once the coral bit grows to about the size of a human hand, that is a sign that it is ready to my transplanted onto a rocky reef to instigate natural coral reef restoration. This process is extremely labor-intensive and requires patience, but has been seen as effective upon sightings of tropical fish returning to the reefs.
Thanks to this effort, coral populations and fish populations are rising.
See also
Environmental issues with coral reefs
References
Geography of Jamaica
Coral reefs
Environmental protection | Coral reefs of Jamaica | [
"Biology"
] | 2,589 | [
"Biogeomorphology",
"Coral reefs"
] |
62,129,266 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prime%20editing | Prime editing is a 'search-and-replace' genome editing technology in molecular biology by which the genome of living organisms may be modified. The technology directly writes new genetic information into a targeted DNA site. It uses a fusion protein, consisting of a catalytically impaired Cas9 endonuclease fused to an engineered reverse transcriptase enzyme, and a prime editing guide RNA (pegRNA), capable of identifying the target site and providing the new genetic information to replace the target DNA nucleotides. It mediates targeted insertions, deletions, and base-to-base conversions without the need for double strand breaks (DSBs) or donor DNA templates.
The technology has received mainstream press attention due to its potential uses in medical genetics. It utilizes methodologies similar to precursor genome editing technologies, including CRISPR/Cas9 and base editors. Prime editing has been used on some animal models of genetic disease and plants.
Genome editing
Components
Prime editing involves three major components:
A prime editing guide RNA (pegRNA), capable of (i) identifying the target nucleotide sequence to be edited, and (ii) encoding new genetic information that replaces the targeted sequence. The pegRNA consists of an extended single guide RNA (sgRNA) containing a primer binding site (PBS) and a reverse transcriptase (RT) template sequence. During genome editing, the primer binding site allows the 3’ end of the nicked DNA strand to hybridize to the pegRNA, while the RT template serves as a template for the synthesis of edited genetic information.
A fusion protein consisting of a Cas9 H840A nickase fused to a Moloney Murine Leukemia Virus (M-MLV) reverse transcriptase.
Cas9 H840A nickase: the Cas9 enzyme contains two nuclease domains that can cleave DNA sequences, a RuvC domain that cleaves the non-target strand and a HNH domain that cleaves the target strand. The introduction of a H840A substitution in Cas9, through which the 840th amino acid histidine is replaced by an alanine, inactivates the HNH domain. With only the RuvC functioning domain, the catalytically impaired Cas9 introduces a single strand nick, hence the name nickase.
M-MLV reverse transcriptase: an enzyme that synthesizes DNA from a single-stranded RNA template.
A single guide RNA (sgRNA) that directs the Cas9 H840A nickase portion of the fusion protein to nick the non-edited DNA strand.
Mechanism
Genomic editing takes place by transfecting cells with the pegRNA and the fusion protein. Transfection is often accomplished by introducing vectors into a cell. Once internalized, the fusion protein nicks the target DNA sequence, exposing a 3’-hydroxyl group that can be used to initiate (prime) the reverse transcription of the RT template portion of the pegRNA. This results in a branched intermediate that contains two DNA flaps: a 3’ flap that contains the newly synthesized (edited) sequence, and a 5’ flap that contains the dispensable, unedited DNA sequence. The 5’ flap is then cleaved by structure-specific endonucleases or 5’ exonucleases. This process allows 3’ flap ligation, and creates a heteroduplex DNA composed of one edited strand and one unedited strand. The reannealed double stranded DNA contains nucleotide mismatches at the location where editing took place. In order to correct the mismatches, the cells exploit the intrinsic mismatch repair (MMR) mechanism, with two possible outcomes: (i) the information in the edited strand is copied into the complementary strand, permanently installing the edit; (ii) the original nucleotides are re-incorporated into the edited strand, excluding the edit.
Development process
During the development of this technology, several modifications were done to the components, in order to increase its effectiveness.
Prime editor 1
In the first system, a wild-type Moloney Murine Leukemia Virus (M-MLV) reverse transcriptase was fused to the Cas9 H840A nickase C-terminus. Detectable editing efficiencies were observed.
Prime editor 2
In order to enhance DNA-RNA affinity, enzyme processivity, and thermostability, five amino acid substitutions were incorporated into the M-MLV reverse transcriptase. The mutant M-MLV RT was then incorporated into PE1 to give rise to (Cas9 (H840A)-M-MLV RT(D200N/L603W/T330P/T306K/W313F)). Efficiency improvement was observed over PE1.
Prime editor 3
Despite its increased efficacy, the edit inserted by PE2 might still be removed due to DNA mismatch repair of the edited strand. To avoid this problem during DNA heteroduplex resolution, an additional single guide RNA (sgRNA) is introduced. This sgRNA is designed to match the edited sequence introduced by the pegRNA, but not the original allele. It directs the Cas9 nickase portion of the fusion protein to nick the unedited strand at a nearby site, opposite to the original nick. Nicking the non-edited strand causes the cell's natural repair system to copy the information in the edited strand to the complementary strand, permanently installing the edit. However, there are drawbacks to this system as nicking the unaltered strand can lead to additional undesired indels.
Prime editor 4
Prime editor 4 utilizes the same machinery as PE2, but also includes a plasmid that encodes for dominant negative MMR protein MLH1. Dominant negative MLH1 is able to essentially knock out endogenous MLH1 by inhibition, thereby reducing cellular MMR response and increasing prime editing efficiency.
Prime editor 5
Prime editor 5 utilizes the same machinery as PE3, but also includes a plasmid that encodes for dominant negative MLH1. Like PE4, this allows for a knockdown of endogenous MMR response, increasing the efficiency of prime editing.
Nuclease Prime Editor
Nuclease Prime Editor uses Cas9 nuclease instead of Cas9(H840A) nickase. Unlike prime editor 3 (PE3) that requires dual-nick at both DNA strands to induce efficient prime editing, Nuclease Prime Editor requires only a single pegRNA since the single-gRNA already creates double-strand break instead of single-strand nick.
Twin prime editing
The "twin prime editing" (twinPE) mechanism reported in 2021 allows editing large sequences of DNA – sequences as large as genes – which addresses the method's key drawback. It uses a prime editor protein and two prime editing guide RNAs.
History
Prime editing was developed in the lab of David R. Liu at the Broad Institute and disclosed in Anzalone et al. (2019). Since then prime editing and the research that produced it have received widespread scientific acclaim, being called "revolutionary" and an important part of the future of editing.
Development of epegRNAs
Prime editing efficiency can be increased with the use of engineered pegRNAs (epegRNAs). One common issue with traditional pegRNAs is degradation of the 3' end, leading to decreased PE efficiency. epegRNAs have a structured RNA motif added to their 3' end to prevent degradation.
Implications
Although additional research is required to improve the efficiency of prime editing, the technology offers promising scientific improvements over other gene editing tools. The prime editing technology has the potential to correct the vast majority of pathogenic alleles that cause genetic diseases, as it can repair insertions, deletions, and nucleotide substitutions.
Advantages
The prime editing tool offers advantages over traditional gene editing technologies. CRISPR/Cas9 edits rely on non-homologous end joining (NHEJ) or homology-directed repair (HDR) to fix DNA breaks, while the prime editing system employs DNA mismatch repair. This is an important feature of this technology given that DNA repair mechanisms such as NHEJ and HDR, generate unwanted, random insertions or deletions (INDELs). These are byproducts that complicate the retrieval of cells carrying the correct edit.
The prime system introduces single-stranded DNA breaks instead of the double-stranded DNA breaks observed in other editing tools, such as base editors. Collectively, base editing and prime editing offer complementary strengths and weaknesses for making targeted transition mutations. Base editors offer higher editing efficiency and fewer INDEL byproducts if the desired edit is a transition point mutation and a PAM sequence exists roughly 15 bases from the target site. However, because the prime editing technology does not require a precisely positioned PAM sequence to target a nucleotide sequence, it offers more flexibility and editing precision. Remarkably, prime editors allow all types of substitutions, transitions and transversions to be inserted into the target sequence. Cytosine base editing and adenine BE can already perform precise base transitions but for base transversions there have been no good options. Prime editing performs transversions with good usability. PE can insert up to 44bp, delete up to 80, or combinations thereof.
Because the prime system involves three separate DNA binding events (between (i) the guide sequence and the target DNA, (ii) the primer binding site and the target DNA, and (iii) the 3’ end of the nicked DNA strand and the pegRNA), it has been suggested to have fewer undesirable off-target effects than CRISPR/Cas9.
Limitations
There is considerable interest in applying gene-editing methods to the treatment of diseases with a genetic component. However, there are multiple challenges associated with this approach. An effective treatment would require editing of a large number of target cells, which in turn would require an effective method of delivery and a great level of tissue specificity.
As of 2019, prime editing looks promising for relatively small genetic alterations, but more research needs to be conducted to evaluate whether the technology is efficient in making larger alterations, such as targeted insertions and deletions. Larger genetic alterations would require a longer RT template, which could hinder the efficient delivery of pegRNA to target cells. Furthermore, a pegRNA containing a long RT template could become vulnerable to damage caused by cellular enzymes. Prime editing in plants suffers from low efficiency ranging from zero to a few percent and needs significant improvement.
Some of these limitations have been mitigated by recent improvements to the prime editors, including motifs that protect pegRNAs from degradation. Further research is needed before prime editing could be used to correct pathogenic alleles in humans. Research has also shown that inhibition of certain MMR proteins, including MLH1 can improve prime editing efficiency.
Delivery method
Base editors used for prime editing require delivery of both a protein and RNA molecule into living cells. Introducing exogenous gene editing technologies into living organisms is a significant challenge. One potential way to introduce a base editor into animals and plants is to package the base editor into a viral capsid. The target organism can then be transduced by the virus to synthesize the base editor in vivo. Common laboratory vectors of transduction such as lentivirus cause immune responses in humans, so proposed human therapies often centered around adeno-associated virus (AAV) because AAV infections are largely asymptomatic. Unfortunately, the effective packaging capacity of AAV vectors is small, approximately 4.4kb not including inverted terminal repeats. As a comparison, an SpCas9-reverse transcriptase fusion protein is 6.3kb, which does not even account for the lengthened guide RNA necessary for targeting and priming the site of interest. However, successful delivery in mice has been achieved by splitting the editor into two AAV vectors or by using an adenovirus, which has a larger packaging capacity.
Applications
Prime editors may be used in gene drives. A prime editor may be incorporated into the Cleaver half of a Cleave and Rescue/ClvR system. In this case it is not meant to perform a precise alteration but instead to merely disrupt.
PE is among recently introduced technologies which allow the transfer of single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) from one individual crop plant to another. PE is precise enough to be used to recreate an arbitrary SNP in an arbitrary target, including deletions, insertions, and all 12 point mutations without also needing to perform a double-stranded break or carry a donating template.
See also
Genetics
Glossary of genetics
Human Nature (2019 CRISPR film documentary)
Synthetic biology
Unnatural Selection (2019 TV documentary)
References
Biological engineering
Biotechnology
Genetic engineering
Genome editing
Molecular biology | Prime editing | [
"Chemistry",
"Engineering",
"Biology"
] | 2,632 | [
"Genetics techniques",
"Biological engineering",
"Genome editing",
"Genetic engineering",
"Biotechnology",
"nan",
"Molecular biology",
"Biochemistry"
] |
62,129,385 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio%20Garden | Radio Garden is a non-profit Dutch radio and digital research project developed from 2013 to 2016 by the Netherlands Institute for Sound and Vision (under the supervision of Martin Luther University of Halle-Wittenberg's Golo Föllmer), by the Transnational Radio Knowledge Platform and five other European universities.
In 2016 it provided access to nearly 8,000 radio stations and The Radio Conference 2016: Transnational Encounters said that it went viral. The service reported a collection of over 40,000 stations in 2024.
Operation and functionality
The site interface shows a rotatable representation of the globe, with stations listed on clicking a location. The service is comparable in some ways to earlier long-distance shortwave listening, but stations are streamed using data packets instead of broadcast by radio waves.
The home page, titled "Live", allows the user to explore the world, listening to what local stations are broadcasting at the time, with information on the country the signal is being transmitted from.
In 2018, native apps for IOS and Android were launched. In 2019, a search function was added so users could search for any station on the site by name or location.
Concept and design
Within Radio Garden, radios are arranged by geolocation and grouped by cities. According to specialized websites, the design is formed by greenish spheres superimposed on the map, which increases in size as the region's number of broadcasters available.
This idea was developed by the companies Studio Puckey and Studio Moniker in partnership with the Netherlands Institute for Sound and Vision.
On 14 March 2020 a new version, with upgraded features, was released.
Interface and conversion
The site adopted the generic .garden top-level domain, which was originally intended for gardening professionals and, as noted on specialized websites, the interface supports any modern browser and resolution. For transmission, the signal generated by the broadcaster must be converted from radio to a stream. The service requires an Internet connection. Supported conversion formats for streaming are MP3, Ogg and AAC.
Unavailability in some countries
Turkey
Radio Garden has been banned in Turkey since January 2022 upon the request of Radio and Television Supreme Council (RTÜK), ordering Radio Garden to pay the license fee or to terminate their service in Turkey.
United Kingdom
In late September/early October 2022, Radio Garden limited UK listeners to UK-only channels. The message "Stations outside the UK temporarily unavailable" can be seen at the bottom left of the screen. Most BBC Radio stations were also removed from the site, with the notable exception of the BBC World Service.
In January 2023, a further announcement was added to the site:
"Dear listener, As you may have noticed, access to international radio stations (meaning: stations outside the United Kingdom) has been restricted for users of Radio Garden in the United Kingdom. This restriction (due to licensing reasons) was initially referred to as a temporary measure, but unfortunately the restriction must be extended for an indefinite period due to copyright and neighbouring rights related matters that require clarification. Considering our main goal of providing our listeners a 'global' radio experience, it goes without saying that we strongly regret that we had to take this step."
As a consequence of this restriction, UK users who had paid for removal of advertising from 2022 onwards were offered a refund until December 2023.
References
External links
Internet properties established in 2016
Publicly funded broadcasters
Radio in the Netherlands
Internet radio | Radio Garden | [
"Technology"
] | 687 | [
"Multimedia",
"Internet radio"
] |
76,020,899 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20largest%20video%20game%20employers | This is a listing of largest video game publishers and developers by number of employees. Microsoft Gaming is the largest video game employer in the industry, followed by Ubisoft and Electronic Arts.
Among the top 41 largest video game employers, ten are based in the United States, eight in Japan, five in China, three in France, South Korea, and Sweden respectively, two in Poland and the United Kingdom, and one each in Denmark, Canada, Singapore, Ireland and Israel.
Worldwide
See also
List of largest video game publishers by revenue
List of video game publishers
List of video game developers
References
Video game industry
Video game publishers
Video game developers
Largest video game employers
Video game employers | List of largest video game employers | [
"Technology"
] | 135 | [
"Computing-related lists",
"Video game lists"
] |
76,021,092 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alex%20Pothen | Alex Pothen is an Indian-born American computer scientist and applied mathematician who is a professor at Purdue University. His research primarily focuses on combinatorial scientific computing (CSC), graph algorithms, parallel computing, and bioinformatics algorithms.
Pothen was born in Munnar, Kerala, India.
Education
Pothen completed his M.S. Degree in Chemistry at the Indian Institute of Technology Delhi in 1978 and earned a Ph.D. in Applied Mathematics and Computer Science from Cornell University in 1984.
Career
Pothen held the position of Director at the Institute for Combinatorial Scientific Computing and Petascale Simulations (CSCAPES), which received funding from the Office of Science of the U.S. Department of Energy between 2006 and 2012. Additionally, Pothen was part of the ExaGraph center, funded by the Exascale Computing Project, a joint venture of the DOE and NNSA. He is recognized as the inaugural Chair of the Activity Group on Applied and Computational Discrete Algorithms under SIAM.
Currently, Pothen is an editor of the Journal of the ACM, SIAM Journal on Scientific Computing, and Optimization Methods and Software.
Honors
Received Distinguished Alumni Award from IIT Delhi in 2009.
Fellow of the Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics (SIAM) in 2018
Awarded the George Pólya Prize in Applied Combinatorics in 2021 by Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics.
Fellow of the Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) in 2022
Fellow of the American Mathematical Society (AMS) in 2024
References
External links
Living people
Purdue University faculty
American applied mathematicians
Computer scientists
Cornell University alumni
Year of birth missing (living people) | Alex Pothen | [
"Technology"
] | 335 | [
"Computer science",
"Computer scientists"
] |
76,021,436 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wanjiku%20Chebet%20Kanjumba | Wanjiku Chebet Kanjumba is an aerospace engineer, entrepreneur, and Project PoSSUM Scientist-Astronaut Candidate Program graduate. She is the co-founder, CEO, and chairwoman of Vicillion, a global infrastructure development firm.
Education
While pursuing her bachelor's in Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University, Kanjumba enrolled at the Project Polar Suborbital Science in the Upper Mesosphere (PoSSUM) Academy, where she became the first Kenyan-born to graduate from the program.
Career
During her master's studies, Kanjumba started Vicillion with two other people, which at the time was a technology research & development lab but later developed into a global infrastructure development firm where their flagship project currently is developing and operating what is marketed as the world's first equatorial commercially operated spaceport, equipped for geosynchronous and geostationary launches.
References
Year of birth missing (living people)
Living people
Aerospace engineers | Wanjiku Chebet Kanjumba | [
"Engineering"
] | 198 | [
"Aerospace engineers",
"Aerospace engineering"
] |
76,021,562 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curium%20nitride | Curium nitride is a binary inorganic compound of curium and nitrogen with the chemical formula .
Synthesis
Curium nitride can be prepared by carbothermic nitridation of the oxide.
Physical properties
Curium nitride is solid and has a NaCl structure. It is ferromagnetic.
References
Nitrides
Curium compounds
Nitrogen compounds | Curium nitride | [
"Chemistry"
] | 76 | [
"Inorganic compounds",
"Inorganic compound stubs"
] |
76,023,439 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shen%20Qiang%20%28engineer%29 | Professor Qiang Shen is an academic and engineer. He is an expert in the research and
development of data modelling and analysis and currently serves as Pro Vice-Chancellor at
Aberystwyth University. As of 2023, he has published 450 peer-reviewed papers in electronic
engineering and computing journals. His expertise is often applied to critical intelligent decision support systems, with a focus on an increased level of automation, efficiency and reliability.
Career & research
In 2004, Shen published a paper with the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers where he and co-authors studied methodologies and approaches of Semantics-preserving dimensionality reduction techniques. In 2009, he was the recipient of the Computational Intelligence Society Outstanding Paper Award from the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers for his work on Fuzzy systems. In 2012, as part of the London 2012 Olympics celebration, the olympic torch passed through the Welsh town of Aberystwyth. Shen was selected by Aberystwyth University to be one of the two torchbearers of the olympic torch as it passed through the town. During the same year, Shen was elected as a council member of the Learned Society of Wales.
In 2017, Shen published research in the journal Remote Sensing which showed that using spectral–spatial information can considerably improve the performance of hyperspectral image (HSI) classification. Shen was part of informal hearings and meetings for the analysis of data in 2018 for Review of Government Funded Research and Innovation in Wales carried out by the Welsh Government. In 2021, he was part of the sub-panel for Computer Science and Informatics on the 2021 Research Excellence Framework. He became a Royal Academy of Engineering fellow in 2022.
The real life application of Shen's work include fields such as space exploration, counterterrorism, process monitoring, transportation management and consumer profiling. Qiang currently serves as Pro Vice-Chancellor the for Faculty of Business and Physical Sciences at Aberystwyth University.
References
Living people
Electrical engineers
Year of birth missing (living people) | Shen Qiang (engineer) | [
"Engineering"
] | 406 | [
"Electrical engineering",
"Electrical engineers"
] |
76,023,812 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial%20intelligence%20in%20architecture | Artificial intelligence in architecture describes the use of artificial intelligence in automation, design and planning in the architectural process or in assisting human skills in the field of architecture. Artificial Intelligence is thought to potentially lead to and ensue major changes in architecture.
AI's potential in optimization of design, planning and productivity have been noted as accelerators in the field of architectural work. The ability of AI to potentially amplify an architect's design process has also been noted. Fears of the replacement of aspects or core processes of the architectural profession by Artificial Intelligence have also been raised, as well as the philosophical implications on the profession and creativity.
Implications
Benefits
Artificial intelligence, according to ArchDaily, is said to potentially significantly augment the Architectural profession though its ability to improve the design and planning process as well as increasing productivity. Through its ability to handle a large amount of data, AI are said to potentially allow architects a range of design choices with criteria considerations such as budget, requirements adjusted to space, and sustainability goals calculated as part of the design process. ArchDaily said this may allow the design of optimized alternatives that can then undergo human review. AI tools are also said to potentially allow architects to assimilate urban and environmental data to inform their designs, streamlining initial stages of project planning and increasing efficiency and productivity.
The advances in generative design through the input of specific prompts allow architects to produce visual designs, including photorealistic images, and thus render and explore various material choices and spatial configurations. ArchDaily noted this could speed the creative process as well as allow for experimentation and sophistication in the design. Additionally, AI's capacity for pattern recognition and coding could aid architects in organizing design resources and developing custom applications, thus enhancing the efficiency and the collaboration between both architects and AI.
AI is thought to also be able to contribute to the sustainability of buildings by analyzing various factors and following which recommend energy-efficient modifications, thus pushing the industry towards greener practices. The use of AI in building maintenance, project management, and the creation of immersive virtual reality experiences are also thought as potentially augmenting the architectural design process and workflow.
Examples include the use of text-to-image systems such as Midjourney to create detailed architectural images, and the use of AI optimization systems from companies such as Finch3D and Autodesk to automatically generate floor plans from simple programmatic inputs.
Architect Kudless in an interview to Dezeen recounted that he uses AI to innovate in architectural design by incorporating materials and scenes not usually present in initial plans, which he believes can significantly alter client presentations. He told Dezeen he believes one should show clients renderings from the onset, with AI assisting in this work, arguing that changes in design should be a positive aspect of the client-designer relationship by actively involving clients in the process. Additionally, Kudless highlighted the AI's potential to facilitate labor in architectural firms, particularly in automating rendering tasks, thus reducing the workload on junior staff while maintaining control over the creative output.
Emergent aesthetics
In an interview for the AItopia series to Dezeen, designer Tim Fu discussed the transformative potential of artificial intelligence (AI) in architecture, there he proposed a future where AI could herald a "neoclassical futurist" style, blending the grandeur of classical aesthetics with futuristic design. Through his collaborative project, The AI Stone Carver, Fu showcased how AI can innovate traditional practices by generating design concepts that are then realized through human craftsmanship, such as stone carving by mason Till Apfel. This approach he believed celebrated the fusion of diverse architectural styles and also emphasized the unique capabilities of AI in enhancing creative design processes.
Fu told Dezeen he envisions the integration of AI in design as a means to revive the ornamentation and detailed aesthetics characteristic of classical architecture, moving away from the minimalism, which he said dominates contemporary architecture He argued that AI's involvement in the ideation phase of design allows for a reversal in the roles of machine and human, enabling architects and designers to focus on creating more intricate and ornamental structures. Fu's optimistic outlook extended to the broader impact of AI on the architectural field, seeing it as an indispensable tool that will shift rather than replace human roles, enriching the field with innovative designs that pay homage to the beauty and qualities of classical architecture not present in contemporary architecture while embracing new technologies.
Concerns
As artificial intelligence continues to expand its presence across various industries, its impact on the architectural profession has become a topic of growing discussion. These discussions focus on how AI processes may influence traditional architectural practices, potentially altering job roles, and shaping the nature of creativity. While AI-driven processes may increase efficiency in some aspects of the profession, it also raises questions about the potential loss of unique design perspectives. These thoughts have been countered by many prominent creative figures in the realm of AI Architecture such as Stephen Coorlas, Tim Fu and Hassan Ragab, who have showcased the amplification of creativity in design and potential benefits in terms of restoring creative power to the designer.
One concern is that AI-powered tools may reduce the demand for human input in certain tasks. There is speculation that this may result in a shift toward managerial or supervisory roles for architects.
In some design scenarios, algorithmically generated solutions can be adjusted to prioritize efficiency and cost-effectiveness, which some argue may overshadow the creative and contextual nuances that define individual architectural styles. As with any discipline though, it has been determined that AI can be configured to provide beneficial results based on inputs and end goals the architect or designer assigns it.
There are also concerns about the potential for AI to exacerbate inequalities within the architectural profession. For instance, larger firms with greater resources to invest in advanced AI technologies may gain a competitive edge over smaller firms and independent architects. This dynamic could contribute to industry consolidation, potentially limiting the diversity of architectural practice and stifling innovation. Ethical considerations in regard to cultural sensitivity have also been raised due to the datasets used to train AI. Without proper vetting of data or implementing failsafe overrides, AI generated outcomes can trend toward overly documented and prioritized content.
References
Applications of artificial intelligence
Architecture
Artificial intelligence art | Artificial intelligence in architecture | [
"Engineering"
] | 1,279 | [
"Construction",
"Architecture"
] |
76,024,199 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liechtenstein%20inland%20canal | The inland canal in Liechtenstein is a long artificial stream of water created between 1931 and 1943. The canal receives water from twelve Alpine streams and flows into the Alpine Rhine near the country's northern end. It is considered one of the most significant constructions in the country.
History
Plans to build an inland canal in Liechtenstein date back to the 18th-century due to increased waterlogging of the river and the restricted flow of streams in the Alpine valley. In 1834 a canal was built between Schaan and Bendern in order to address this, but there was no permanent drainage into the connecting Rhine river. In 1894, the proposal for a inland canal extensively flowing through the country was first brought up for discussion in the Landtag of Liechtenstein. After six years of reports, the plan was first adopted by engineer Josef Vogt based on the design of Austrian engineer Philipp Krapf, but was not conducted due to huge costs.
Under the initiative of the government of Josef Hoop and politician Ferdinand Risch, the Landtag accepted the proposal for the building of the canal on 7 July 1930 and then it was approved following a referendum on the topic on 14 December of the same year. The canal was intended to provide construction jobs in addition to bringing additional arable land into Liechtenstein in order to increase farming and thus more employment to the country.
The construction was conducted in various stages while several subsidiary canals were built to support it. The canal was officially completed on 3 April 1943 and the ground-breaking ceremony was conducted by Franz Joseph II and Countess Georgina von Wilczek. The total cost of the canal equated to 4.6 million Swiss francs (approximately 21.7 million in 2024).
Since 1984, the Liechtenstein government has conducted several revitalization projects of the canal and in 2000 the canal's mouth into the Rhine was redesigned into a natural formation.
See also
Geography of Liechtenstein
Notes
References
Canals opened in 1943
Cuts (earthmoving)
Macro-engineering
Economy of Liechtenstein
Austria–Liechtenstein relations
Rivers of Liechtenstein
1943 in Liechtenstein | Liechtenstein inland canal | [
"Engineering"
] | 407 | [
"Macro-engineering"
] |
76,026,176 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lomagundi-Jatuli%20Carbon%20Isotope%20Excursion | The Lomagundi-Jatuli Carbon Isotope Excursion or Lomagundi-Jatuli Event (LJE) was a carbon isotope excursion that occurred in the Paleoproterozoic between 2.3-2.1 Ga, possessing the largest magnitude and longest duration of positive δ13C values found in marine carbonate rocks. The δ13C values range from +5 to + 30‰. Carbon isotope compositions in marine carbonates typically fluctuate around zero per mil (‰) through time. To coincide with the LJE global δ13Ccarb levels, the amount of buried organic carbon would have needed to double or triple, and over millions of years.
Measuring δ13Ccarb values within marine carbonate rocks provides scientists with a window into the history of fluxes in the global carbon cycle over the course of Earth history.
In the context of the global carbon cycle, "flux" refers to the movement or flow of carbon between different reservoirs or components of the Earth system. This includes the atmosphere, oceans, terrestrial biosphere (plants and soil), and geosphere (rocks and sediments). These carbon fluxes are driven by various processes, including photosynthesis (which removes CO2 from the atmosphere and incorporates it into plant biomass), respiration and decay (which return CO2 to the atmosphere), weathering of rocks (which can transfer carbon from the geosphere to the hydrosphere and atmosphere), and the dissolution and precipitation of carbonate minerals in the ocean
Understanding these fluxes, especially within the LJE, is crucial for studying the global carbon cycle. They determine the concentration of carbon dioxide in the Earth's atmosphere, which in turn influences the planet's climate. While the LJE's high δ13Ccarb values were first thought to show a substantial local increase in organic carbon (forg) in the localities in which the elevated values were found, marine carbonate outcrops with similarly elevated values have since been found around the world, shifting consideration that this event reflects a global increase.
Changes in carbon fluxes can lead to significant variations in atmospheric CO2 levels and thus have been a major focus of research, and debate, especially in the context of anthropogenic climate change.
Locations and duration
Assuming this excursion is globally synchronous in its commencement and termination, the duration has been dated to range from a maximum of 249 ± 9 Myr (2306 ± 9 Ma to 2057 ± 1 Ma) to a minimum of 128 ± 9.4 Myr (2221 ± 5 Ma to 2106 ± 8 Ma).
Table 1: Lomagundi-Jatuli Event localities presenting similarly elevated δ13C values, formations of occurrence, dated age of formation, and procedural method of δ13C value analysis.
The extremely positive carbon isotope values having occurred during the LJE can be seen on all continents, with the notable exception of Antarctica, having stratigraphic thickness ranging from several to tens of meters The highly elevated δ13C values were first found in the Lomagundi Group in Zimbabwe and the Jatuli group in Fennoscandia at a time when the LJE was first hypothesized to have been a local event.
Table 2: Carbonate lithology within global formations, including associated δ13Ccarb variation (‰) values, and stratigraphic thicknesses of each.
Methods
Scientists choose which geochronology method is best suited for the types of rocks and sediments they work with. Attempting to find the age of marine carbonate rocks is not without challenge, especially in the use of uranium (U) and lead (Pb). These rocks do not have an initially high composition of uranium, and contain too much lead, both of which can further undergo modification over geologic time (diagenetic overprinting).
Isotope Dilution-Thermal Ionization Mass Spectrometry (ID-TIMS) has been utilized for the analysis of marine carbonate rock δ13 values due its precision <1‰ (single analysis or weighted mean dates) in evaluating 206Pb/238U dates. This method involves a two-step process: isotope dilution, where a known amount of isotopically enriched tracer is mixed with the sample to quantify the concentration of elements, and thermal ionization mass spectrometry, where the sample is ionized at high temperatures to measure the isotopic ratios of elements.
Secondary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS) is a form of desorption mass spectrometry, which is used to analyze the composition of solid surfaces and thin films by sputtering the surface of the specimen with a focused primary ion beam and collecting and analyzing ejected secondary ions. The principle behind SIMS is straightforward but involves sophisticated instrumentation and techniques to achieve detailed surface compositional analysis at the micro to nano scale.
Thermal Ionization Mass Spectrometry (TIMS) is a highly precise and sensitive analytical technique used primarily for isotopic analysis (Rhenium-Osmium) and the determination of elemental concentrations in samples. TIMS operates on the principle of thermal ionization, where a sample is vaporized and ionized in a high-temperature environment, allowing for the separation and measurement of isotopes based on their mass-to-charge ratios.
The Re-Os (Rhenium-Osmium) geochronology method is based on the decay of 187Re to 187Os, which occurs over a long half-life, making it suitable for dating geological samples that range in age from millions to billions of years. This method is particularly useful for dating organic-rich rocks, such as black shales, and relies on the principle that the ratio of these isotopes in a sample will change over time due to the radioactive decay of 187Re to 187Os. By measuring the present-day isotope ratios and knowing the decay rate of 187Re, scientists can calculate the age of the sample.
One of the challenges in Re-Os geochronology is dealing with the error correlations that arise from measuring these isotopes, particularly because 188Os, which is used in the denominator of the isotope ratio calculations, is associated with larger mass spectrometer uncertainties. This issue can lead to strong error correlations and potentially obscure geologically significant trends.
Genesis of the LJE
Synchronous, global-scale disturbance
The global view concludes that during the Lomagundi carbon isotope excursion carbonates were deposited world-wide with large amounts of 13C enrichment. The hypothesis that the LJE is related to the Great Oxidation Event (GOE), with the LJE causing a large deviation in the global carbon reservoir, which in turn led to disequilibrium of the carbon cycle and released oxygen.
To explain this global 13C enrichment, the oxidation of siderite (FeCO3, with other Fe(2+) carbonate minerals), was proposed as a hypothesis because it produces 4 times the amount of CO2 than it consumes O2. The oxidation of siderite was the driver for the carbon needed in burial and further oxidation, as well as the accumulation of O2, making the length of the LJE dependent on the size of the Archean siderite reservoir.
Another hypothesis to explain the global nature of the LJE, is large tectonic change leading to increased degassing of volcanic CO2, which could have increased deposition of carbonates and organic matter, due to higher weathering rates and nutrients to the ocean. Similar to a tectonic change, the formation of subaerial continents or global glaciations could have also enhanced volcanic CO2 leading to the same outcome of CO2 and O2 in carbonates and atmosphere. Supporting this, there is evidence for the first large continental plates around 2.2-2.1 Gyr experiencing rifting and a global orogeny. During this time frame there was an increase in seawater 87Sr/ 86Sr, which indicates there was higher levels of continental erosion. To reinforce the effect of high 87Sr/86Sr, the first known glaciations occurred during 2.2-2.1 Gyr as well which favours weathering rates by lowering sea level.
Localized, Facies driven process
This hypothesis acknowledges that there is a global change to the carbon cycle, and agrees that it was a globally synchronous event, but with the idea that different facies environments drive the high C-isotope values. This meaning that the values of d13C and changes in the values are because of processes in individual basins, depending on where the locality is along a carbonate platform/slope. Using 13C carbonate data from locations worldwide and the stratigraphic descriptions, the values can be organized into open marine, nearshore marine-inner shelf and intertidal-coastal-sabka, with a noticed correlation between facies and 13C carbonate values. For open marine the mean 13C carbonate value was +1.5 ± 2.4‰, +6.2 ± 2.0‰ for inner-shelf, and +8.1 ± 3.8‰ for intertidal settings. Using this hypothesis, the extremely positive d13C values can be explained by changes in local dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) pools, influenced in individual basins, not representative of world-wide change in ocean DIC.
Localized, Diagenesis or Methanogenesis
For a global carbon isotope excursion, sedimentary organic carbon (shales) tend to show a trend as well, as an excursion would affect the d13C value of the biosphere and therefore sedimentary organic matter. Between 2.60 and 1.60 Ga there is no trend within organic carbon. Fluctuations in d13C can be linked to isotopic alteration from breakdown of organic matter due to diagenesis and metamorphism.
A process in sediment columns that can contribute to carbonates with high levels of 13C, methanogenesis, could have caused carbonates enriched in 13C, creating an explanation for the d13C values reaching +28‰. To explain the LJE, a deeper methanic zone in oceans during the start of ocean oxygenation (the GOE) would push pore water DIC to higher d13C values. The carbonates forming at this time would record d13C enrichment.
References
Wikipedia Student Program
Isotope excursions | Lomagundi-Jatuli Carbon Isotope Excursion | [
"Chemistry"
] | 2,105 | [
"Isotope excursions",
"Isotopes"
] |
76,026,654 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benson-Lehner%20Corporation | Benson-Lehner Corporation was an early digital technology company that initially made plotters and other input-output devices that were purchased by branches of the U.S. government during the Cold War. It later marketed high-speed precision cameras used for similar military applications, including nuclear bomb and missile testing. Benson-Lehner’s executives were almost entirely WW2 veterans. Its founders were Bernard Benson, a former British Spitfire pilot, and George Lehner, a UCLA psychology professor and inventor. Benson-Lehner was initially based in Santa Monica and had manufacturing plants in England and France. It was later headquartered in West Los Angeles and Van Nuys.
Business model
Benson-Lehner's primary business was producing and selling electronic plotting machines that would take tables of X and Y-coordinate data and plot them out on paper, providing a graphical representation of the data.
Other Products
Computyper — Benson-Lehner developed an electromechanical calculator suitable for accounting and data processing functions as a "side job", done more as an engineering exercise than anything else. This machine integrated a modified Friden, Inc. electromechanical calculator with a solenoid-activated electric typewriter, the IBM Model B, together with relay and stepper switch logic, to make an automatic calculating machine that used the typewriter to input and print the results of calculations on punch paper. Benson-Lehner called the machine the "Computyper". The company tried in vain to market the machine, but didn't meet with much success, and sold the business unit to Friden. Friden kept the Computyper name (calling it the Friden Computyper), and began making refinements to the Benson-Lehner design, creating different versions of the Computyper that had successively more features.
High-Speed Film Camera — Benson-Lehner also developed a photo instrumentation business, which included high speed 16mm, 35mm, and 70mm motion picture cameras for aerospace applications.
Key Figures
Bernard Benson—Benson, who co-founded the company with Lehner, had worked at Douglas Aircraft in Santa Monica previously. During WW2 Benson flew Spitfire fighter planes for the RAF. Variously termed "eccentric" and "brilliant", Benson fathered 10 children, built a hardened bomb shelter on his beachfront property in Malibu, and wrote and illustrated various books extolling world peace.
George F.G. Lehner—Lehner, who co-founded the company with Benson, was a UCLA psychology professor. In 1941 he enlisted in the U.S. Army, where he reached the rank of Major, working in the aviation psychology program on the selection of pilots, bombardiers and navigators. He later obtained a patent for a reading accelerator designed to improve reading speed and comprehension. Apart from his inventions, his professional expertise was in the areas of interpersonal competence, executive development, and team and organization effectiveness.
George M. Ryan—Ryan was employed by Benson-Lehner twice, first as a developer of the "Computyper" product and later as its president. He had served as a U.S. Army officer in WW2 prior to earning an accounting degree. Subsequent to his tenure with Benson-Lehner, Ryan headed a number of technology companies, including CADO Systems.
Ed Jessup—Jessup served as Benson-Lehner's general counsel in conjunction with his practice at Ervin, Cohen & Jessup LLP in Beverly Hills. Jessup had served as a U.S. Navy officer during WW2 in both the Atlantic and Pacific theaters. He went on to a distinguished 70 year legal career.
Donald Prell—Prell joined Benson-Lehner as its vice president of Application Engineering, but he functioned in more of a general executive capacity, overseeing staff and executive hiring and participating directly in the marketing of the company's products to the military. Prell had served as a junior officer in the U.S. Army in Europe during WW2 where he'd been wounded and captured by the Germans. Upon his return to studies at UCLA after the war, he changed his academic focus from mathematics to psychology, eventually leading him to do graduate work at the University of London under Hans Eysenck, where he devised both written and oral intelligence tests. These tests became an integral part of Benson-Lehner's recruiting process.
Leonard M. Sperry—Sperry was an investor in and director of Benson-Lehner. Sperry also invested in Max Palevsky's other computer ventures while Palevsky was consulting with Benson-Lehner. Sperry was a significant civic leader in Los Angeles. Upon his death, his widow created the Leonard M. Sperry Center for Intergroup Cooperation in Rome, in conjunction with the Vatican.
Max Palevsky—Palevsky was a key consultant for Benson-Lehner in its early years of operation. Later, Ryan granted Palevsky use of the company's offices while he worked on separate projects. During World War II Palevsky served with the Army Air Corps doing electronics repair work on airplanes in New Guinea. He later attended the University of Chicago on the G.I. Bill, earning bachelor’s degrees in mathematics and philosophy in 1948. He went on to do graduate work in mathematics and philosophy at the University of Chicago, the University of California, Berkeley, and UCLA. After his involvement with Benson-Lehner, Palevsky became wealthy as the founder of Scientific Data Systems. His fortune enabled investments in films and donating to liberal political causes.
Guy H. Hearon, Jr. -- Hearon joined Benson-Lehner to found their high-speed film unit. Hearon served with the U.S. Army during WW2 in the Pacific Theater Prior to joining Benson-Lehner, Hearon worked for Mitchell Camera Corp designing motion picture cameras and at Hughes Aircraft designing radar antennas for the F-86 military aircraft. He then worked for Vought Camera Corp in Beverly Hills as Chief Engineer. He designed the first 16mm pulse and high-speed instrumentation cameras for the aerospace industry. Hearon was a Vice President of Benson-Lehner Corp, where he developed their photo instrumentation business, which included high speed 16mm, 35mm, and 70mm motion picture cameras for aerospace applications.
Jean Mourier (France) was involved in Benson in early 1956. He was a skilled technician in the C.E.V of Bretigny (Paris region). When he was in USA in 1954 for studies in the University of Toledo; since he was already in the US, he was mandated by the head of CEV to learn the Benson-Lehner technology. The objective was to be able to install and maintain the equipment purchased by the C.e.v. After having installed various Benson-Lehner machines in the C.e.v de Bretigny (Centre d'éssai en vol), Bernard Benson asked Jean Mourier to create a subsidiary in France to sell and maintain its products in Europe. This subsidiary was successful between 1956 and 1966.
Legacy
The company was acquired by United Gas Corporation in 1964 to further that entity’s strategic interest in operating data processing centers for military and civil government agencies. Benson retired to France, where he purchased a chateau in the Dordogne and became involved with world peace initiatives. He eventually donated his chateau to an order of Tibetan monks.
References
1950 establishments in California
1965 disestablishments in California
1965 mergers and acquisitions
American companies established in 1950
American companies disestablished in 1965
Computer companies established in 1950
Computer companies disestablished in 1965
Defunct computer companies based in California
Defunct computer companies of the United States
Defunct computer hardware companies
History of photography
History of technology | Benson-Lehner Corporation | [
"Technology"
] | 1,581 | [
"Science and technology studies",
"History of science and technology",
"History of technology"
] |
76,027,809 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clathrin-independent%20endocytosis | Clathrin-independent endocytosis refers to the cellular process by which cells internalize extracellular molecules and particles through mechanisms that do not rely on the protein clathrin, playing a crucial role in diverse physiological processes such as nutrient uptake, membrane turnover, and cellular signaling.
While clathrin-coated endocytosis is the most efficient and dominant means of cellular cargo entry, endocytic pathways can operate without the presence of the clathrin triskelion. In the absence of clathrin in a plasma membrane, there are many elements of response that allow for the internalization of essential molecules for cellular function.
The induction of clathin-independent endocytosis involves physical and chemical signaling cascades to induce mechanical responses in the plasma membrane of a cell. Ligands can induce the cross linking of surface cell receptors, phosphorylation of downstream relay molecules, and membrane curvature that helps engulf and process external cargo inside the cell.
Toxins also play an important role in clathrin-independent endocytosis, causing curvature and budding from the membrane upon crosslinking of the receptors.
Mechanisms
The mechanisms of clathrin-independent endocytosis can be separated into dynamin-dependent and dynamin-independent. Others have their own separate pathways completely. All involve highly specialized and technical methods that recruit proteins, enzymes, etcetera to create the mechanical strength and force a cell needs to invaginate and endocytose various cargo necessary for proper cellular functions.
Dynamin dependent
Caveolar
Caveolar dynamin-dependent endocytosis relies of caveolae, which are invaginations of the cell plasma membrane made up of GPI-anchored proteins, sphingolipids, and cholesterol. A part of the cavin family, caleoles provide integral structure for the cell membrane and associates with lipids, such as cholesterol, and PIP2 to form lipid membrane rafts. In caveolar dynamin-dependent endocytosis, actin stress fibers and actin binding in response to a loss in cell adhesion help to internalize caveolae and its contents. Microtubules are stabilizes by beta-1 integrins and integrin signaling that promote the recycling of caveolae.
Using electron microscopy imaging techniques, the Cavin 1 marker is a particularly good indicator of the pathways that the caveolae vesicle takes. The dynamic nature of such vesicles show that they have a life time from 2 seconds up to 7 minutes and about 85% of cavin 1 protein was digested, indicating that the cavin-positive buds were internalized and degraded. The imaging techniques aided in research about the caveolar destiny and budding as it relates to the Cavin 1 protein.
RhoA-regulated
RhoA is a small GTPase mechanism that aids in the correct sorting of the beta chain of the interleukin-2-receptor (IL-2R-B). This pathway is known to be a key player in the dynamics of actin cytoskeleton dynamics and for recruiting actin machinery in other endocytic pathways as well. Activated RhoA is commonly coupled with Rac and the two combined cause an increase in clathrin-independent endocytosis and pinocytosis. It has recently been found that lipid rafts that contain active forms of Rac and RhoA also localize caveolae.
Inhibition of dynamin dependent endocytosis
Sphingolipids plays a key role in the efficiency and effectiveness of endocytic mechanisms independent of clathrin. In the event of depletion or sequestration of sphingolipids, especially cholesterol, both caveolae-mediated and RhoA-regulated endocytosis would not be able to proceed. Because lipid rafts have the ability to cluster and contain active signaling molecules, lipid rafts play and integral role in the invagination process. In the absence of such lipids, the cellular membrane environment is not appropriate for cell signaling and endocytosis.
In addition, the denaturing of temperature dependent dynamin can render dynamin dependent pathways blocked.
Dynamin independent
CDC42-regulated
CDC42 is a small, Rho family GTPase involved in the pinching off and remodeling of the cellular plasma membrane. CDC42-regulated dynamin independent pathways are the main route of non-clathrin, non-caveolar uptake of fluid-phase internalization. Most CDC42-regulated endocytic pathways have large and wide surface invaginations and sometimes involves the recruitment of actin-polymerization machinery that further aid in the pinching off of the vesicle wall.
In epithelial cells the regulation and maintenance of the apical plasma membrane is regulated by CDC42 which binds to and activates PAR6 to dictate the location and positioning of tight junctions and adherens junctions. Alternatvly, CDC42 can trigger a signaling casade via FBP17 and CIP4 that downstream can active RhoA and Rac1.
ARF6-regulated
Although an explicit role of ARF6 has not been found, the Arf family GTPase has been proven to be a crucial factor in actin remodeling and regulating endosome dynamics by influencing and altering the recycling rates of various membrane components. This can lead to the infolding of the plasma membrane and uptake of external cargo. ARF6 is involved in the uptake of major histocompatibility class 1 proteins.
While it is assumed ARF6 is not needed for endocytosis, it is required for recycling. When ARF6 is inactivated, it allows for vesicle coatings to be returned to the membrane surface, but when it is over expressed or overactive, it can cause a cyclical activity that traps the cargo in the internal vesicles.
Fast endophilin-mediated endocytosis
Fast endophilin-mediated endocytosis is a form of clathrin-independent endocytosis uses cargo capture by cytolytic proteins to allow for endophilin and receptor endocytosis.
Endophilin, a BAR protein, is typically bound in distinct patches to the plasma membrane by lamellipodin. However, without receptor activation, these patches disassemble, typically within 5–10 seconds, and move to a new, random, nearby location to reassemble, The complex continues to probe the membrane until the correct ligand binds and the cargo is sorted to a FEME carrier. While the exact mechanisms by which the receptors sorts the cargo to the specific carriers, it is suggested that during cargo capture, the endphillion levels rise to be greater than the critical concentration (Cc) and initiate bending of the membrane.
As endophillin levels rise, the FEME pathway requires lipid phosphatidylinositl 3,4-bisphosphate (PI(3,4)P2) and lamellipodin that binds to the PI(3,4)P2 and SH3 domain of the leading edge on endophillin.
It may also be possible that the binding of a ligand causes receptor clustering near the binding and causes a collapse or bending of the local membrane.
FEME has the ability to internalize G-protein coupled receptors (GCPRs), receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs), and cytokine receptors on a cell's surface.
CLIC/GEEC endocytic pathway
Clathrin-independent carriers (CLICs) are prevalent tubulovesicular membranes responsible for non-clathrin mediated endocytic events. They appear to endocytose material into GPI-anchored protein-enriched early endosomal compartment (GEECs). Collectively, CLICs and GEECs compose the Cdc42-mediated CLIC/GEEC endocytic pathway, which is regulated by GRAF1, as well as many others.
The clathrin-independent carrier pathway is the main pathway to endocytose cargo and relies heavily GPI-anchored proteins, integrins, and proteins to create membrane tension and fluidity. Crescent shaped tubular clathrin-independent carriers (CLICs) mature into glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI)-anchored protein-enriched early endocytic compartments(GEECs).
Role of glycolipid-lectin
Glycolipid-lectin, of the galectin family, facilitate tubular endocytic pits drive CLIC/GEEC endocytosis. Glycolipid-lectin binds onto cargo via a carbohydrate, and oligomerizes. This oligomerization allows the Glycolipid-lectin-protein-cargo complex to interact with glycosphingolipid(GSL)-binding subunits and causes a bending of the membrane. Proteins like galectin-3, galectin 8, and GSL-dependent cellular endocytosis of CD166 are all known to use Glycolipid-lectin.
Endophilin-A2
Another pathway mediated through FEME and the use of endophilins is a toxin pathway that includes Shiga (STxB), a glycosphingolipid (GSL)-binding toxin, and cholera toxin B. These toxins have the ability to induce membrane invagination upon binding to their surface receptor. It was previously thought that cortical actin dynamics aided in the curvature upon binding. However, it is now believed that Endophilin-A2 is also a key factor in stabilization for the scission of STxxB endosomes. With the help of action and dynamin, endophilin-A2 uses microtubulue-associated motor proteins to control the rate and length of endosomal scission.
In model organisms
Fungi
Fungi use a homolog of RhoA, called Rho1, to carry out a similar pathway to RhoA-regulated endocytosis. In yeast cells, Rho1 requires an effector known as Bri 1 to induce cell wall stress, leading to cargo internalization.
Myo2, a type of myosin, has also been found to be important for microtubule motors protein function, which help the cell membrane contract and invaginate. These include proteins like dynein and dynactin.
In fungi calls laking Arp2/3, clathin-independent endocytosis seems to be the dominant form of endocytosis as well.
Plants
Plant cells use for clathrin-dependent and clathin-independent endocytosis to internalize membrane proteins and other cargo. Actin polymerization plays a key role in this endocytosis as demonstrated by the roles of Flotillin 1 (Flot1), which is a sterol and sphinoglipid enriched membrane region that collapses during invagination.
References
Cellular processes
Membrane biology
Cell anatomy | Clathrin-independent endocytosis | [
"Chemistry",
"Biology"
] | 2,320 | [
"Membrane biology",
"Cellular processes",
"Molecular biology"
] |
76,031,128 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portland%20Women%20in%20Technology | Portland Women in Technology (also known as PDX Women in Tech, PDX WIT, or PDXWIT) was a 501(c)(3) nonprofit organization based in Portland, Oregon with the mission of advancing inclusion in the technology industry. They hosted four to six events per month, which ranged from member-driven events to monthly happy hours. In 2021, all formerly in-person PDXWIT events became virtual due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The organization is to be dissolved in April 2024 due to lack of funding.
History
Founding
After attending the Grace Hopper Celebration of Women in Computing in November 2011, Megan Bigelow was both inspired but also disheartened she had to attend a specific conference to be surrounded by a number of women in technology. Bigelow initially posted on LinkedIn about regular happy hour events to continue meeting women in technology. Bigelow eventually founded the organization, along with Kasey Tonsfeldt, in 2012 when Bigelow discovered her salary was 30% less than a man with an equivalent job title. The organization became an established nonprofit six years after being a community group.
Mission statement
PDXWIT's original mission statement was "We encourage women, non-binary and underrepresented people to join tech and support and empower them so they’ll stay in tech." In 2021, they updated their mission statement to "We are building a better tech industry by creating access, dismantling inequities and fueling belonging." The motivations to make this update came from not wanting to focus on certain underrepresented populations and to also emphasize focus on improving the culture around the tech industry.
Executive director changes
In 2018, Elizabeth Stock was chosen as PDXWIT's first executive director.
In February 2020, founder and board president Megan Bigelow leaves the organization in order to focus on her personal life.
In May 2022, executive director Elizabeth Stock stepped down from the position after four years to prioritize their family. During Stock's tenure, PDXWIT's corporate sponsors increased from 25 to 90 and the operating budget increased from $100,000 to $500,000. Rihana Mungin led the organization in the interim, alongside Dawn Mott and Isabel Rodriguez.
In December 2022, Hazel Valdez was chosen to be the CEO, who had previously worked with the group from 2017 to 2020. Her vision for the organization included collaborating with other community organizations to obtain funding and to take PDXWIT national.
Impact
Board update
PDXWIT's mission for inclusion started with their own board. Upon reflection two years after being an established nonprofit, their board realized most of their work has been focused on the challenges for white women, instead of the BIPOC or LGBTQ-identifying communities they initially aimed to serve. As a result, PDXWIT developed new interview screening criteria, updated their outreach efforts, and shared their interview questions ahead of time. A product of their change showed when comparing their 2018 board composition (100% cisgender straight women and 80% white) with their 2020 board composition (80% BIPOC and with LGBTQ representation).
State of the Community Survey
PDXWIT surveys the technology community to better understand challenges it faces.
Scholarship
In 2018, PDXWIT announced they received a $10,000 grant from The Folley Family Foundation to award scholarships of up to $2,500. The intent of this scholarship is to help cover costs for travel, registration, or per diem for individuals attending tech and women-in-business events.
Events
PDXWIT would host four to six events per month. Some events include: marquee events, monthly happy hours, annual summer soirée, a quarterly hiring event called Get Hired Up, and member-driven events that include discussions and workshops.
In 2021, all formerly in-person PDXWIT events became virtual due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Some events, like Get Hired Up, were altered to adjust for virtual gatherings.
Community
Since its founding in 2011, PDXWIT had over 8,000 members, hosted over 400 events, and paired over 1,200 aspiring technology workers with mentors.
In 2016, PDXWIT was asked by Oregon Public Broadcasting (OPB) to help write accurate job descriptions.
In December 2023, Cambia Health Solutions helped host PDXWIT's Winter Soirée & Awards Ceremony to celebrate those who have helped advance women in technology. PDXWIT was able to raise $2,000 from the event.
Dissolution
On February 6, 2024, PDXWIT's board announced their vote to shut down the organization due to "falling corporate funding for sponsorship". Lack of sponsorship renewals, failed return on investment in fundraising opportunities, and competition for limited nonprofit funding among corporate entities all contributed to this decision.
References
External links
PDXWIT 2022 State of the Community Survey
PDXWIT 2020 State of the Community Survey and its archive
Portland, Oregon
Non-profit organizations based in Oregon
Diversity in computing
Women in technology | Portland Women in Technology | [
"Technology"
] | 1,052 | [
"Women in technology",
"Computing and society",
"Women in science and technology",
"Diversity in computing"
] |
76,031,966 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geodesy%20%28book%29 | Geodesy, also called Bomford's Geodesy, is a textbook on geodesy written by Guy Bomford. Four editions were published, in 1952, 1962, 1971, and 1980 respectively. Bomford retired in 1966, though continued publishing editions of the book.
Content
Geodesy is formatted as a textbook on the topic of geodesy, with particular emphasis on its applications to triangulation. For content on applied geodesy, it is assumed the reader can use a theodolite and a micrometer. The book also discusses the overlap between geodesy and the study of geophysics.
Due to a limit on space, the first edition intentionally leaves out information on the history of geodesy, only including it when essential to understanding the current practices. In the same edition's acknowledgements, J. de Graaff-Hunter was noted for often discussing the book's content with Bomford. Excluding appendices and following sections, the first edition is 391 pages long.
The book's second edition included information on the tellurometer, which had been introduced after the first edition's publication, and its relevance to triangulation. This edition also covered more details on how the development of electronic computers impacted the field of geodesy. These updates brought the book more up to date in regards to technology and techniques developed since the first edition's publication. The book's third edition was a major rewrite of the second edition, as technology including electromagnetic distance measurement, computers, and artificial satellites had advanced so far since the previous edition.
The fourth and final edition was published in 1980.
Reception
A review of the second edition published in the Bulletin Géodésique stated that the book was worth purchasing for those that found use of the first edition. J. C. Harrison, reviewing for Science, stated that a second edition was "most welcome" to make sure the books stayed current with the changing field. The review's main complaints were that the book focused too heavily on only British perspectives, and that it downplayed the utility of magnetic surveys.
Reviewing the third edition for Geophysical Journal International, A. H. Cook described the editions as "the leading work on geodesy in the English language," and reviewed the edition as "surely maintain[ing] the reputation of its predecessors." The rest of the review remained positive, concluding by describing the book as "impeccable." Peter J. Smith's review in Nature focused on the differences between this edition and the prior ones, and highlighting how the third edition described the use of new technology.
A positive review was published in Geological Magazine by A. H. C., who described the fourth edition as "as comprehensive and up to date as ever." Some negative points were brought up in J. W. Esson's review, published in Geological Journal, which complained the book explained processes but not their importance—the review described the book as "all technique but no passion." However, Esson went on to evaluate the book as "an invaluable reference" and "an unrivalled monolith."
Footnotes
References
Primary sources
Secondary sources
1952 non-fiction books
English-language non-fiction books
Earth sciences textbooks
Books about mathematics
Oxford University Press books
Geodesy | Geodesy (book) | [
"Mathematics"
] | 681 | [
"Applied mathematics",
"Geodesy"
] |
76,032,166 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PHerc.%20Paris.%204 | PHerc. Paris. 4 is a carbonized scroll of papyrus, dating to the 1st century BC to the 1st century AD. Part of a corpus known as the Herculaneum papyri, it was buried by hot-ash in the Roman city of Herculaneum during the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD. It was subsequently discovered in excavations of the Villa of the Papyri from 1752–1754. Held by the Institut de France in its rolled state, it is now known to be a cornerstone example of non-invasive reading, where in February 2024, an announcement was made that the scroll's contents can be unveiled with the use of non-invasive imaging and machine learning artificial intelligence, paving the way towards the decipherment and scanning of other Herculaneum papyri and otherwise heavily damaged texts.
Background and provenance
The Villa of the Papyri was buried during the eruption of Vesuvius in 79 AD, subjecting the scrolls to temperatures of 310–320°C, compacting them and converting them to charcoal. The first scrolls were uncovered in 1752, with subsequent excavations uncovering more scrolls. There were attempts to unroll the scrolls, as the contents were realized to contain writings by classical philosophers from schools such as Epicureanism.
PHerc. Paris. 4 was amongst a set of six scrolls that entered its present day location at the Institut de France. They were a diplomatic gift, made to commemorate peace between the Kingdom of Naples and Sicily, under the reign of Ferdinand IV and Napoleon, with the negotiations mediated by Charles Alquier.
In 1803, a tribute of vases and the scrolls arrived in France under the supervision of Francesco Carelli and was personally exhibited to Napoleon and Joséphine whereupon they entered the collection of the Institut.
Of the scrolls that entered the collection, PHerc. Paris. 3 and Paris. 4 remain intact. Paris. 1 is in fragments and bits, Paris. 2 is better preserved, Paris. 5 exploded upon unpeeling, and Paris. 6 crumbled.
Unscrolling and reading
The 20th century yielded progress in the readings of Herculaneum texts utilizing microscopes, digital photography and multispectral filters approaching the usage infrared spectroscopy to gain better clarity of the texts.
In 2015, PHerc. Paris. 1 and PHerc. Paris. 4 were studied side by side, with Paris. 1 having a history of successful limited readings in 1986–1987, with sequences of letters such as "ΠIΠTOIE" and words such as "EIΠOI" (Greek: "would say") proving decipherable.
Utilizing a pre-filtered X-ray beam with a double Laue monochromator to convert to a mono-chromatic X-ray beam, the first letters of the unrolled scroll were identified.
After the virtual unrolling of the En-Gedi Scroll in 2015, Brent Seales, a computer scientist at the University of Kentucky, spearheaded the effort to uncover the Herculaneum corpus through non-invasive means.
On 15 March 2023, Nat Friedman, former CEO of GitHub, and Daniel Gross of Cue, upon hearing a lecture by Seales, launched the Vesuvius Challenge to utilize machine learning and new imaging techniques of the papyri using the Diamond Light Source particle accelerator to create an improved scan of the PHerc. Paris. 4, which was completed in 2019 and subsequently released to the public. The scans were completed at a resolution of 4-8 μm per voxel.
The Vesuvius Challenge raised , with an objective of clear readings of the scroll and the future aim of reading other carbonized, sealed fragments of the Herculaneum corpus, with a distant idea towards excavating more portions of the Villa of the Papyri in order to recover more scrolls.
In October 2023, 21 year old college student and SpaceX intern Luke Farritor and physicist Casey Handmer identified the word "porphyras" (πορϕυρας) or "purple" on the scroll utilizing neural networking to differentiate the paper and the ink; Farritor subsequently won for his find.
On 5 February 2024, the Grand Prize, for reading PHerc. Paris. 4, was awarded to Farritor, ETH Zurich robotics student Julian Schilliger, and Free University of Berlin Egyptian Ph.D student Youssef Nader for recovering 11 columns of text, or 2000 characters total, which is about 5% of the contents of the scroll.
The uncovered text is believed to be written by Epicurean philosopher Philodemus, and is an unrecorded text about pleasure and how it is affected by the abundance or scarcity of items, to which Philodemus disagreed writing "As too in the case of food, we do not right away believe things that are scarce to be absolutely more pleasant than those which are abundant".
The text revealed from the scroll was published in a paper for Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik.
Reactions
Università degli Studi di Napoli Federico II papyrology professor Federica Nicolardi praised the discovery declaring: "It's extremely exciting to be reading entire words, not just sequences of letters, from within a scroll", and expressing confidence in further future decipherment of the scroll.
Seales described of the decades of work in non-invasive decipherment that "[w]ith humility, we acknowledge the non-linear – and often unpredictable – outcomes of research, which is rarely expected, and not ever guaranteed, to lead directly to success".
In an interview with Time, Nat Friedman described the contents of the scroll as "a 2000 year old blog post, arguing with another poster", and "it's ancient Substack, and people are beefing with each other, and I think that's just amazing".
The goal of the Vesuvius Challenge for 2024 is towards deciphering 90% of the scroll's contents in addition to other fragments held by the Institut de France.
References
Epicureanism
Herculaneum
1752 archaeological discoveries
2023 archaeological discoveries
Papyrology
1st-century manuscripts
Machine learning
Greek-language papyri
Applications of artificial intelligence
Eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD | PHerc. Paris. 4 | [
"Engineering"
] | 1,302 | [
"Artificial intelligence engineering",
"Machine learning"
] |
76,034,034 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Promethium%20nitride | Promethium nitride is a binary inorganic compound of promethium and nitrogen with the chemical formula .
Physical properties
PmN crystals are of cubic system with Fm3m space group.
References
Nitrides
Promethium compounds
Nitrogen compounds | Promethium nitride | [
"Chemistry"
] | 50 | [
"Inorganic compounds",
"Inorganic compound stubs"
] |
76,036,587 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bitter%20Springs%20anomaly | The Bitter Springs anomaly (BSA) represents a sharp drop in δ13Ccarb concentrations on average by 8‰, for 8 million years during the Tonian period. This marks a noticeable deviation from the relatively high values of the time. The anomaly is named after the Bitter Springs formation in Australia where it was first documented. It has since been found in several other locations worldwide including Norway, Greenland, and Canada, all in carbonate platform environments.
Geology of the anomaly
The first documentation of the BSA in Australia is present between 30 and 60 meters. Lithology here varies between halite, gypsum, dolomite, stromatolite dolomites and limestones. Here δ13Ccarb fluctuates from upwards of 6‰ down to −4‰. In North-Western Canada, the BSA is contained within the Ram Head formation, which has been confined to 1005–775 Myrs in age via zircon dating. The anomaly spans a section of approximately 175 meters, marked by high energy stromatolite and ooid deposits. δ13Ccarb values drop on average from 7‰ to −2‰. In Norway and Greenland it is present within the Grusdievbreen to Svanbergfjellet formations of the Akademikerbreen group. Values range from 6‰ to −3‰. Here more precise dating shows the anomaly to have occurred from 810 to 802 Myrs. In Norway the anomaly is represented by a 250-meter section as opposed to a mere 22 meters in Greenland. Both are of the same carbonate ramps to rimmed carbonate platform deposits of limestone and dolostone. Notably, the anomaly is associated with flooding plains in Canada, and the Scandinavian manifestations are capped by sub-aerial exposure surfaces on both ends.
Mechanisms and controversies
Several mechanisms for the anomaly have been proposed. Iodine ratio analysis has been used to suggest a shift towards euxenic ocean conditions during the time of the anomaly. This represents a shift of some kind in oceanic chemistry. It is possible the BSA relates to the proliferation of eukaryotic life, as evidence for their ecological importance seems to only appear afterwards. Evidence supports the possibility of large paleomagnetic shifts of 55 degrees around the time of the anomaly. This has been tentatively linked to tectonic activity associated with the breakup of the super continent Rodinia. Such events would have had a large impact on the oceans, possibly reflected in the observed sea level changes and deep sea upwelling.
As only several formations are known to document the anomaly at this time, it is still unknown if it was global or constrained to shallower depths of carbonate platforms. More instances of the BSA would have to be documented before such a conclusion could be reached.
The BSA broadly resembles other Tonian δ13Ccarb excursions, whose causes are often tied to both glaciation and the proliferation of eukaryotes.
References
Wikipedia Student Program
Tonian
Isotope excursions
Carbon | Bitter Springs anomaly | [
"Chemistry"
] | 608 | [
"Isotope excursions",
"Isotopes"
] |
76,036,693 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate%20shelters | Climate shelters are a place of refuge for populations that seek shelter from extreme climate events exacerbated by the effects of urban heat islands. They include cooling centers, but also encompass parks and other outdoor spaces designed to provide a harbor for cooler temperatures than surrounding areas. Several cities have designed programs to implement urban climate shelters.
Purpose
Climate shelters are essential urban facilities aimed at facilitating adaptation to extreme weather events, particularly heat waves, which have been increasingly linked to elevated mortality rates. These shelters, whether situated indoors or outdoors, are designed to maintain a safe and comfortable temperature for individuals vulnerable to extreme weather conditions.
Benefits
Climate shelters offer crucial protection for communities vulnerable to climate-related disasters like floods, storms, and extreme temperatures. These designs not only reduce the risk of damage but also prove cost-effective in the long run by preventing losses. For economically disadvantaged communities, access to affordable resilient housing is particularly vital, as it helps safeguard their homes and livelihoods.
Innovative solutions, often identified through competitions, have shown that even simple and low-cost design features can significantly enhance the resilience of homes. Moreover, both qualitative and quantitative analyses consistently demonstrate that investments in resilient housing yield high benefit-cost ratios across various scenarios. This emphasizes the economic justification for prioritizing such initiatives.
They remain a crucial component of broader climate adaptation strategies, offering tangible benefits in terms of risk reduction, cost savings, and community resilience. By investing in resilient housing, we not only protect lives and property but also contribute to sustainable development and climate resilience in vulnerable communities.
Challenges
Despite the clear advantages, barriers to accessing resilient housing persist, primarily due to challenges in securing affordable financing and ensuring builders are adequately trained and aware of resilient design principles. Addressing these barriers is essential to ensure that vulnerable populations can benefit from the protection offered by resilient shelters.
Climate shelters face numerous challenges, stemming primarily from the dynamic and often unpredictable nature of climate change itself. Firstly, there's the issue of design and construction - shelters must be resilient to extreme weather events such as hurricanes, floods, or wildfires, while also being adaptable to changing conditions over time. This demands innovative engineering solutions and materials that can withstand harsh environmental conditions. Secondly, there's the logistical challenge of placement and maintenance. Identifying suitable locations for shelters involves complex considerations of geography, population density, and vulnerability to climate risks. Additionally, maintaining shelters in remote or disaster-prone areas can be costly and resource-intensive. Moreover, ensuring equitable access to shelters for marginalized communities poses another significant challenge, requiring proactive policies and strategies to address socio-economic disparities. Finally, there's the overarching challenge of funding and political will, as the implementation of climate shelters often requires substantial investment and long-term commitment from governments and other stakeholders.
It is difficult for cities with Climate Shelter programs to ensure their services are accessible to all populations, especially those without adequate structures or parks nearby in which to construct shelters. In Barcelona, the organization Barcelona Social Emergency and Urgent Care Centre (CUESB) oversees the city's social services pertaining to heat-related events. If risk is at a maximum, CUESB is able to transport vulnerable populations to areas where they can obtain access to climate shelters.
Through the lens of intersectional climate justice, including surveys conducted within the climate-exposed community of La Prosperitat, it has been revealed that the current climate shelters may not fully meet the needs and expectations of the most vulnerable populations. Marginalized groups face intersecting vulnerabilities that often go unaddressed, primarily due to disparities in access to coping mechanisms compounded by their social positions.
Notably, low-income residents and individuals originating from Global South countries are disproportionately affected by housing inadequacies and energy poverty, rendering them the most susceptible and least equipped to cope with extreme temperatures. Furthermore, women exhibit heightened sensitivity to climate impacts and express greater concerns regarding present and future risks.
References
Wikipedia Student Program
Heat waves
Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning
Urban planning
Climate change adaptation | Climate shelters | [
"Engineering"
] | 834 | [
"Urban planning",
"Architecture"
] |
76,036,800 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petronel%20Nieuwoudt | Petronel Nieuwoudt is a South African wildlife conservationist. In 2011, she established the Care For Wild rhinoceros sanctuary in Mpumalanga, South Africa. It is the largest such sanctuary in the world. She is also the chief executive officer of the foundation.
Early life
Raised in the 1970s on a rural farm in Roedtan, Limpopo, Nieuwoudt attended Rand Afrikaans University between 1988 and 1991. Her father ran the farm; her mother was a teacher.
Career
Niewoudt joined the public-relations department of the South African Police Service's Endangered Species Protection Unit in 1991, and later became captain. She founded The Game Capture School, which educated people on the capture, treatment and management of wildlife.
She next founded Sondela Wildlife Centre, in Bela-Bela, which was in operation from 2005 to 2007, followed by Tamboti Wildlife Centre, in Mookoopong, between 2007 and 2010.
In 2011, Petronel relocated from Limpopo to Mpumalanga, where she established Care For Wild Africa, a rehabilitation centre for indigenous African wildlife which has become the largest rhinoceros sanctuary in the world. The sanctuary gained its first orphan rhinoceros the following year. Four others followed shortly thereafter.
In 2014, South African National Parks invited Petronel to form a partnership to assist in the rescue, rehabilitation and protection of orphaned animals. Nieuwoudt set in motion a registration of her sanctuary as a non-profit organisation.
References
External links
"KP: Why 'rhino mother' Petronel is a hero" – BBC Radio 5, 20 May 2019
Living people
People from Limpopo
South African women
Wildlife conservation
South African ecologists
South African chief executives
Women chief executives
Year of birth missing (living people) | Petronel Nieuwoudt | [
"Biology"
] | 369 | [
"Wildlife conservation",
"Biodiversity"
] |
76,036,942 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blackwell%27s%20informativeness%20theorem | In the mathematical subjects of information theory and decision theory, Blackwell's informativeness theorem is an important result related to the ranking of information structures, or experiments. It states that there is an equivalence between three possible rankings of information structures: one based in expected utility, one based in informativeness, and one based in feasibility. This ranking defines a partial order over information structures known as the Blackwell order, or Blackwell's criterion.
The theorem states equivalent conditions under which any expected utility maximizing decision maker prefers information structure over , for any decision problem. The result was first proven by David Blackwell in 1951, and generalized in 1953.
Setting
Decision making under uncertainty
A decision maker faces a set of possible states of the world and a set of possible actions to take. For every and , her utility is . She does not know the state of the world , but has a prior probability for every possible state. For every action she takes, her expected utility is
Given such prior , she chooses an action to maximize her expected utility. We denote such maximum attainable utility (the expected value of taking the optimal action) by
We refer to the data as a decision making problem.
Information structures
An information structure (or an experiment) can be seen as way to improve on the utility given by the prior, in the sense of providing more information to the decision maker. Formally, an information structure is a tuple , where is a signal space and is a function which gives the conditional probability of observing signal when the state of the world is . An information structure can also be thought of as the setting of an experiment.
By observing the signal , the decision maker can update her beliefs about the state of the world via Bayes' rule, giving the posterior probability
where . By observing the signal and updating her beliefs with the information structure , the decision maker's new expected utility value from taking the optimal action is
and the "expected value of " for the decision maker (i.e., the expected value of taking the optimal action under the information structure) is defined as
Garbling
If two information structures and have the same underlying signal space, we abuse some notation and refer to and as information structures themselves. We say that is a garbling of if there exists a stochastic map (for finite signal spaces , a Markov matrix) such that
Intuitively, garbling is a way of adding "noise" to an information structure, such that the garbled information structure is considered to be less informative.
Feasibility
A mixed strategy in the context of a decision-making problem is a function which gives, for every signal , a probability distribution over possible actions in . With the information structure , a strategy induces a distribution over actions conditional on the state of the world , given by the mapping
That is, gives the probability of taking action given that the state of the world is under information structure – notice that this is nothing but a convex combination of the with weights . We say that is a feasible strategy (or conditional probability over actions) under .
Given an information structure , let
|
be the set of all conditional probabilities over
actions (i.e., strategies) that are feasible under .
Given two information structures and , we say that yields a larger set of feasible strategies than if
Statement
Blackwell's theorem states that, given any decision-making problem and two information structures and , the following are equivalent:
: that is, the decision maker attains a higher expected utility under than under .
There exists a stochastic map such that : that is, is a garbling of .
:, that is yields a larger set of feasible strategies than .
Blackwell order
Definition
Blackwell's theorem allows us to construct a partial order over information structures. We say that is more informative in the sense of Blackwell (or simply Blackwell more informative) than if any (and therefore all) of the conditions of Blackwell's theorem holds, and write .
The order is not a complete one, and most experiments cannot be ranked by it. More specifically, it is a chain of the partially-ordered set of information structures.
Applications
The Blackwell order has many applications in decision theory and economics, in particular in contract theory. For example, if two information structures in a principal-agent model can be ranked in the Blackwell sense, then the more informative one is more efficient in the sense of inducing a smaller cost for second-best implementation.
References
Decision theory
Economics theorems
Mathematical theorems | Blackwell's informativeness theorem | [
"Mathematics"
] | 905 | [
"Mathematical theorems",
"Mathematical problems",
"nan"
] |
76,037,060 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honor%20board | Honor Board, Board of Honor (Russian: Доска почета) in Russia and in Soviet Union is a special board; a stand with the names and photographs (later) of persons who graduated from educational institutions with honors, honorary military personnel, scientists, best employess, and so on.
The honor board was usually a wide shield covered with red cloth, and was located at the entrance or in the lobby of a building owned by the organization.
History
The history of honor boards can be traced back centuries. Already in the 14th century, after the liberation of China from the Mongol yoke, the founder of the new Ming dynasty, Emperor Hongwu, ordered the construction of two pavilions in each village of the empire, one of which would display the good deeds of the residents, and the other would contain a list of offenses committed by the villagers. In the same pavilions, village elders dealt with civil cases and tried violators.
In the Russian Empire, in military educational institutions, marble plaques were used as measures to encourage and “excite competition and striving for military valor in students,” it was ordered to have: in the recreational halls of all institutions - gray marble plaques, with the names of the most outstanding pupils of each graduation, and in the churches of the institutions there are black marble plaques to place the names of all former pupils who “fell in the name of honor or died from wounds received in battle, in whatever officer rank they suffered the glorious death of a warrior.”
During the Chinese Civil War, red and black boards became widespread in the Chinese Red Army and the “liberated areas” already in the 1930s.
In the first years of Soviet power, the Honor Board was called the red board, while as its opposite there was a black board (board of shame; see also Blacklisting (Soviet policy)), on which drunkards, truants and slackers were listed. The honor board was provided for by the “Internal Labor Regulations”, which managed the labor regulations in Soviet institutions, enterprises and organizations. In addition, there were city, district, regional, regional and republican honor boards.
With the collapse of the USSR and the change in the political and economic system in the early 1990s, the use of honor boards remained in Russia, in the Russian Armed Forces.
Gallery
References
Award items
Monuments and memorials
Types of monuments and memorials
Mass media technology | Honor board | [
"Technology"
] | 488 | [
"Information and communications technology",
"Mass media technology"
] |
76,037,464 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protactinium%20nitride | Protactinium nitride is a binary inorganic compound of protactinium and nitrogen with the chemical formula .
Synthesis
The compound can be obtained from the reaction of protactinium metal and nitrogen:
Also by heating protactinium tetrachloride or pentachloride in ammonia gas.
Physical properties
PaN crystals are of cubic system with Fm3m space group.
References
Nitrides
Protactinium compounds
Nitrogen compounds | Protactinium nitride | [
"Chemistry"
] | 92 | [
"Inorganic compounds",
"Inorganic compound stubs"
] |
76,037,823 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H.%20H.%20Martyn%20%26%20Co. | H. H. Martyn & Co was a wood and stone carving company based in Cheltenham, England. It provided a service for architects and grew to employ more than a thousand people. It decorated the interiors of many famous ocean liners. During the First World War it diversified into aircraft production and was responsible for the establishment of Gloster Aircraft Company. In 1934 the company was sold to Maple & Co.. It continued to win prestigious contracts both before and after the Second World War. At a time of declining demand, the company closed in 1971.
History
In 1874, Herbert Henry Martyn (1842–1937) left his employer and set up in business with a stonemason colleague. During his lifetime his company grew to employ more than a thousand people. He left because he resented the injustice of his employer in ascribing some of his work to others. Martyn had grown up in poverty but became a skilled craftsman specialising in wood and stone carving with an extensive experience of working in churches and carving memorials and gravestones. In 1888 the company was established as an association of art craftsmen. Together with his business partner Alfred Jeffrey Ems he worked on several churches. In 1900 he established a limited company. At this time, at the age of 30, his son Alfred Willie Martyn (A. W.) was made managing director. A. W.'s goal was to provide a complete service for architects. By then the company had diversified into decorative plaster work, joinery, cabinet making, wrought iron work and casting in bronze and gun metal.
Starting in 1909 with the SS Orvieto and her sister ship SS Otranto, the company took on interior fitting and furnishing work for passenger ships, including the RMS Lusitania and the SS Empress of Asia.
After the outbreak of the First World War, A. W. investigated the possibility of involving the company in the production of wooden airframes, and soon they were active in making fuselages and wings for a variety of aircraft. Much of the work was carried out by women. In 1917 the Gloucestershire Aircraft Company (later known as Gloster Aircraft) was established.
The period immediately after the war proved difficult for the company, but they were fortunate to obtain a contract for the extension of the Lalbagh Palace in India. In the years following the war, commemoration proved to be culturally important, and the company was involved in the creation of many war memorials, including the Cenotaph in Whitehall.
A. W. resigned from the board of both H. H. Martyn and Gloster Aircraft in 1927 after "acute differences of opinion with several of the board members", and in 1934 the business was sold to Maples of London.
Despite the lack of family involvement, many aspects of the business continued to flourish in the following years, although the depression in the 1930s took its toll. Among many other liners, both the Queen Mary and the Queen Elizabeth contained furniture and fittings from Martyns. Numerous decorative contracts ranged from royal commissions to public buildings, universities, cathedrals, offices, country houses and banks, hotels, cinemas, shops and theatres. During the 1930s the Corinthian capitals above the entrance to the Geological Museum, now part of the Science Museum, were carved by Martyns, and they also built the bronze main entrance and the aluminium bronze screens to the reading room for Cambridge University Library. As part of the reconstruction of the Bank of England the bronze figure of Ariel on the dome by Charles Wheeler was cast by Martyns.
Although the Martyns Sunningend factory in Cheltenham was no longer suitable for constructing aircraft in the Second World War, it was involved in the construction of Airspeed Horsa gliders.
After the war, the task of commemoration of the fallen largely consisted of adding panels to existing memorials, but in the case of the Commandos this was not possible, because they were only established in June 1940. The Commando Memorial was created by Scott Sutherland, cast by Martyns, and unveiled by the Queen Mother in 1952. Other notable statues cast by Martyns include the statue of Sir Winston Churchill in the Guildhall, London by Oscar Nemon and the equestrian statue of Robert the Bruce, Bannockburn by Pilkington Jackson which was unveiled by the Queen in 1964. The House of Commons of the United Kingdom was destroyed by German bombing during the war. Martyns created the new Speaker's Chair, the Dispatch Boxes, and the table on which the boxes sit. The pulpit and sounding board in St Paul's Cathedral were carved and built by Martyns, and used for the first time on the occasion of the state funeral of Sir Winston Churchill in 1965. Two life-size racehorses by John Skeaping were cast by Martyns, Hyperion in 1962 and Chamossaire in 1966. The statue of Hyperion is now located in the grounds of the National Horse Racing Museum, while that of Chamossaire is in Snailwell.
In the years after the war, shipping companies worked to make good the losses of passenger liners they had incurred. There was also the need to refit liners, such as the Queen Mary, which had been taken over for war service. One particularly notable new ship was the RMS Caronia, for which all the decorative metalwork was provided by Martyns. Later work included the iconic spiral staircase on the , and the provision of panelling, ceilings, and fittings on the QE2.
To meet the needs of their customers, Martyns employed sculptors. Robert Lindsey Clark, who started as an apprentice at Martyns and then studied at Lambeth School of Art. He returned to Martyns before 1901 and became their head of sculpture and art director in about 1905. He exhibited widely and was made a member of the Royal British Society of Sculptors. Walter Gilbert left the Bromsgrove Guild and joined Martyns in October 1918, continuing his prolific output.
Martyns had a sports field consisting of five tennis courts, two football pitches, a cricket ground and a running track. It also had two pavilions, with a bar, recreation and changing rooms. It was an early facility, covenanted to the workforce. In 1971, at a time of declining demand, Maples sold Martyns to a company which closed it down, enabling the latter to profit from the sale of the sports field.
Although the company office was gutted by bombing in 1940, and there was also a purge of material when the factory closed down, a significant collection of material about the company is still available in Gloucestershire Archives.
Ship contracts
The following table is derived from Chapter 13 of The Best, and is intended to illustrate the scope of the work carried out by Martyns on ocean liners. As the author admits: Although Martyns ship work contracts were probably its most extensive activity, and incorporated some of its finest work, research has proved to be difficult because of the short life of many of the ships owing to the war, and also because few records survive. In many cases, even where records exist, only the architect, and not the company or the men producing the work is mentioned.
It is also sad that, although at one time there was an extensive library of photographs showing the work the company had done, it would seem that these too, like many of the ships, have disappeared without trace.
The task of identifying the ships has been further complicated by the fact that ship names were re-used - there were, for example, three ships called the Empress of Britain were built in 1905, 1930 and 1955 respectively. The events of the 20th Century also had an impact on the use of the ships. For example, the Empress of Asia became an armed merchant cruiser in the First World War and a troopship in the Second World War before being sunk by Japanese dive-bombers in 1942.
War memorials
The following table has been gleaned from The Best. Given the company's origins, it was natural that it would apply its skills to the task of creating the many memorials that were needed after the First World War. Relatively few new memorials were created after the Second World War, but existing ones were extended to commemorate the fallen.
Architectural work and sculpture
The following table lists some of the many works described in The Best. It is not intended to be comprehensive.
See also
Re Denley's Trust Deed, 1969 English trusts law case, concerning the company sportsground
Plymouth Naval Memorial
Ullet Road Unitarian Church
References
Aircraft component manufacturers of the United Kingdom
Architectural design
Architectural sculpture
British sculpture
Bronze sculptures
Casting (manufacturing)
British royal warrant holders
Cheltenham
Defunct furniture manufacturers
Defunct manufacturing companies of England
Government buildings in the United Kingdom
Interior design
Libraries of the University of Cambridge
Listed buildings in the United Kingdom
Metalworking
Monumental masons
Passenger ships of the United Kingdom
Religious buildings and structures in London
Ships built in Belfast
Ships built on the River Clyde
Ships built on the River Mersey
Ships built in Barrow-in-Furness
War monuments and memorials | H. H. Martyn & Co. | [
"Engineering"
] | 1,806 | [
"Design",
"Architectural design",
"Architecture"
] |
76,038,206 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cohost | Cohost (stylized in all lowercase letters as cohost or cohost!) was a social media website publicly launched in June 2022. It is owned by a not-for-profit software company named Anti Software Software Club.
On 9 September 2024, it was announced that it would enter a read-only state on 1 October 2024 and be discontinued at the end of 2024. Registration was closed the day of the announcement. The shutdown was later postponed to accommodate an archiving effort. The website shut down on 12 January 2025.
History
The idea for Cohost was conceptualized in 2019, and the mascot for the website was created in 2020. It was launched in a closed beta in February 2022. Early access registration via invite code was allowed in June of that year. Starting around November, anyone was allowed to register, but new users had to sit through a waiting period before their account was activated.
Cohost was reported as having financial issues in March 2024 after temporarily losing contact with the person funding it, but the site was stated to have backup plans and they were able to reestablish contact with their funder.
In September 2024, it was announced that Cohost would be shutting down at the end of 2024, with the site entering a read-only state on 1 October 2024. The reason given was lack of funding and developer burnout.
Features
Cohost featured posts similar in style to Twitter but without a character limit. Users could like, comment, and repost but some interactions were hidden, including like counts on posts and the followers and follower counts of users. There was no trending timeline or algorithm-based timeline; the website instead featured a chronological timeline and a tagging system where searchable hashtags could be attached to posts. The website supported Markdown and editing of HTML and CSS within posts. There was also a monthly subscription service called Cohost Plus (stylized as cohost Plus!) which offered an increased file size limit and other features, but mainly served as a way to support the development of the website. There were plans to implement a tip jar feature and a subscription feature similar to Patreon, where users could subscribe to creators and other users on the site for access to exclusive posts, but the feature (named eggbux) was canceled due to the payment processor Stripe changing their terms and conditions.
Users
The active userbase was around 20,000 in February 2023 to 38,000 in July in 2023. The February 2023 report gave the number of registered users at 130,000. A report by the staff in November 2023 gave the number of registered users as 203,805 and the number of monthly active users as 21,142. The August 2024 report gave the total register user count as 227,000 with the monthly active user count as 16,846 and 3,046 of those being Cohost Plus subscribers.
Reception
Cohost generally received positive reception. The site was praised for allowing users to edit HTML and CSS in posts, allowing users to make games and so-called "CSS crimes." It was also been given praise for allowing users to edit posts after they are posted, a lack of ads, and navigable web design. Some reviewers noted the lack of a proper search feature and the lack of a dedicated mobile app.
See also
Mastodon (social network)
Bluesky (social network)
Tumblr
GeoCities
References
2022 establishments in the United States
American social networking mobile apps
American social networking websites
Defunct social networking services
Real-time web
Internet properties established in 2022
Internet properties disestablished in 2024 | Cohost | [
"Technology"
] | 751 | [
"Real-time web",
"Real-time computing"
] |
71,695,746 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omotenashi | is a Japanese expression that roughly describes concepts of hospitality as well as mindfulness. The term developed particularly around the roles of the host at a Japanese tea ceremony.
The term gained increased awareness internationally through the 2020 Summer Olympics in Tokyo.
See also
Marebito
References
Human communication
Culture of Japan
Japanese words and phrases
Tourism in Japan | Omotenashi | [
"Biology"
] | 66 | [
"Human communication",
"Behavior",
"Human behavior"
] |
71,696,261 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HD%2030432 | HD 30432, also known as HR 1526, is a solitary, orange hued star located in the southern constellation of Caelum, the chisel. It has an apparent magnitude of 6.04, making it faintly visible to the naked eye if viewed under ideal conditions. Based on parallax measurements from the Gaia spacecraft, the object is estimated to be 310 light years distant. It appears to be approaching the Solar System, having a fairly constrained radial velocity of . Eggen (1993) lists it as a member of the old disk population.
HD 30432 has a stellar classification of K1 III, indicating that it is an evolved giant star. It is currently on the red giant branch, fusing a hydrogen shell around an inert helium core. It has 2.8 times the mass of the Sun and is estimated to be 455 million years old. At that age, the star has expanded to 9.5 times the radius of the Sun and now has a cool effective temperature of . Despite the low temperature, HD 30432 shines with a luminosity 39 times that of the Sun from its photosphere. It has a metallicity 16% below solar levels, making it slightly metal deficient. Like most giants, HR 1526 spins slowly, with its projected rotational velocity being lower than .
References
K-type giants
Caelum
Caeli, 15
030432
022144
1526
CD-39 01624 | HD 30432 | [
"Astronomy"
] | 297 | [
"Caelum",
"Constellations"
] |
71,697,341 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avrom%20I.%20Medalia | Avrom Izak Medalia (3 February 192320 June 2002) was a Cabot scientist known for contributions to understanding electrical conductivity and dynamic properties of carbon black filled rubbers
Education
Medalia was a graduate of the Boston Latin School. In 1942, he received the A.B. degree in chemistry from Harvard University. He then studied synthetic rubber and emulsion polymerization under I. M. Kalthoff at the University of Minnesota, receiving a Ph.D. in analytical chemistry in 1948.
Career
Medalia's first post-academic position was with the Brookhaven National Laboratory from 1949 to 1952. He was associate director of sponsored research at Boston University from 1952 to 1955. He started at Cabot in 1956 and continued there until his retirement in 1984. At Cabot, he held various positions in research and management.
His most cited work concerned the effect of carbon black on the dynamic properties of rubber, in particular the Payne effect. He also did highly influential work on the electrical conductivity of carbon black filled rubber.
In 1978, he was awarded the Gold Medal of the Plastics and Rubber Institute. He was the 1987 recipient of the Melvin Mooney Distinguished Technology Award.
References
1923 births
2002 deaths
Polymer scientists and engineers
20th-century American engineers
Harvard University alumni
Boston Latin School alumni | Avrom I. Medalia | [
"Chemistry",
"Materials_science"
] | 260 | [
"Polymer scientists and engineers",
"Physical chemists",
"Polymer chemistry"
] |
71,697,452 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phageome | A phageome is a community of bacteriophages and their metagenomes localized in a particular environment, similar to a microbiome. Phageome is a subcategory of virome, which is all of the viruses that are associated with a host or environment. The term was first used in an article by Modi et al. in 2013 and has continued to be used in scientific articles that relate to bacteriophages and their metagenomes. A bacteriophage, or phage for short, is a virus that can infect bacteria and archaea, and can replicate inside of them. Phages make up the majority of most viromes and are currently understood as being the most abundant organism. Oftentimes scientists will look only at a phageome instead of a virome while conducting research. Variations due to many factors have also been explored such as diet, age, and geography. The phageome has been studied in humans in connection with a wide range of disorders of the human body, including IBD, IBS, and colorectal cancer.
In humans
Although bacteriophages cannot infect human cells, they are found in abundance in the human virome. Phageome research in humans has largely focused on the gut, however it is also being investigated in other areas like the skin, blood, and mouth. The composition of phages that make up a healthy human gut phageome is currently debated, since different methods of research can lead to different results. At birth, the human phageome, and the overall virome in general, is almost non-existent. The human phageome is thought to be brought about in newborns through prophage induction of bacteria passed on from the mother vaginally during birth. However, phages can be introduced through breastfeeding, made evident through studies finding near-exact matches of crAssphage sequences between mother and child. Variations in the human gut phageome continue across the lifespan. Siphoviridae and Myoviridae are the most abundant in infants and their numbers wane into childhood, whereas Crassvirales dominate in adults. The phageome can also experience changes as a result of diet, which can introduce new phages present in our foods. For example, in those with gluten-free diets, crAssphage were noted in higher abundance along with decreases in the families of Podoviridae. Global geographical differences in phageome composition have been noted, with further variation found within individuals living in rural and urban locations. For instance, residents in Hong Kong, China were found to have less phages associated with targeting pathogenic bacteria in comparison to those in Yunnan province. Furthermore, residing for longer periods of time in urban regions correlated with increases of Lactobacillus and Lactococcus phages.
In disease
Changes in the phageome have been seen in various disorders affecting the human body. In the gut, unique changes in the phageome have been described in both inflammatory bowel disease and irritable bowel syndrome. Even further specific changes exist in subtypes of the two disorders. IBS subtypes of IBS-D and IBS-C saw increases in different species belonging to Microviridae and Myoviridae. In Ulcerative colitis and Crohn's disease, which are subtypes of IBD, differences in levels of Caudovirales richness and species have been found. Furthermore, phages that target Acinetobacter have been found in the blood of patients with Crohn's disease. This is thought to occur due to the compromised, inflamed gut barrier allowing for bacteriophage transfer. In the mouth, periodontitis has been associated with Myoviridae residing under the gums along with a currently unspecified bacteriophage in the Siphoviridae family. Phageome changes have also been described in metabolic disorders including type-1 diabetes, type-2 diabetes and metabolic syndrome. In type-1 diabetes, overall shifts have been seen in Myoviridae and Podoviridae. The genome of bacteriophages residing in the gut in Type-2 diabetes patients have been shown to contain numerous genes implicated in disease development. Total phage representation in the virome is higher in individuals with Cardiovascular disease than healthy controls, totaling 63% and 18% respectively. Lastly, researchers studying Colorectal cancer have observed increased richness in a variety of phage genera, with the most notable differences seen in Inovirus and Tunalikevirus.
See also
Virosphere
References
Microbiology
Bacteriophages
Wikipedia Student Program
Microbiomes | Phageome | [
"Chemistry",
"Biology",
"Environmental_science"
] | 978 | [
"Microbiomes",
"Environmental microbiology",
"Microbiology",
"Microscopy"
] |
71,697,901 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annals%20of%20Pure%20and%20Applied%20Logic | The Annals of Pure and Applied Logic is a peer-reviewed scientific journal published by Elsevier that publishes papers on applications of mathematical logic in mathematics, in computer science, and in other related disciplines.
The editors of Annals of Pure and Applied Logic include mathematicians Ulrich Kohlenbach at TU Darmstadt in Germany, Thomas Scanlon at University of California, Berkeley,
and Philip Scott at the University of Ottawa.
References
Mathematical logic journals
Elsevier academic journals
English-language journals
Logic journals | Annals of Pure and Applied Logic | [
"Mathematics"
] | 95 | [
"Mathematical logic",
"Mathematical logic journals"
] |
71,698,097 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coastal%20hydrogeology | Coastal Hydrogeology is a branch of Hydrogeology that focuses on the movement and the chemical properties of groundwater in coastal areas. Coastal Hydrogeology studies the interaction between fresh groundwater and seawater, including seawater intrusion, sea level induced groundwater level fluctuation, submarine groundwater discharge, human activities and groundwater management in coastal areas.
The freshwater-seawater interface is a dynamic boundary where freshwater mixes with seawater. An interface in Coastal Hydrogeology refers to the location that freshwater from aquifer meets seawater. Steady freshwater-seawater interface is an equilibrium stage where the boundary locates in a relatively fixed location, while seawater intrusion or a strong recharge rate breaks the equilibrium, leading to an unsteady freshwater-seawater interface. Mixing of groundwater and seawater creates a special chemical system that is a good indicator to show the interaction and the interface.
Human activities such as pumping of groundwater and land reclamation break the equilibrium, leading to seawater intrusion, development of a seepage zone or pollution of the ocean. The interaction between groundwater system and the ocean is complex. Preventive actions and engineering measurements are adopted to mitigate the impacts.
Freshwater-Seawater Interface
Freshwater – Seawater interface or saltwater interface is an essential aspect in Coastal Hydrogeology that tries to figure out the location of the transition zone or mixing zone between freshwater and seawater. A sharp interface is formed when the transition zone is thin or narrow. Coastal aquifers can be classified in the same three categories as all aquifer systems: Sedimentary Aquifers, Hard Rock Aquifers and Limestone Aquifers.
Ghijben – Herzberg Principle
The Ghijben – Herzberg Principle formulated the water table and the boundary of groundwater in an island or unconfined aquifer should form a lens-shape. This principle can estimate the bottom boundary of the interface which provides a general idea of the capacity of an aquifer. By estimating the capacity of an aquifer, we can find out the available groundwater resource in some regions.
Freshwater-Seawater Interface in Coastal Aquifers
It is assumed that the aquifers below are homogeneous in the different models so that the hydraulic conductivity of each aquifer is uniform.
The above figures simulate possible coastal aquifers. In reality, it is complex. Due to complex geology - non-uniform rock layers and weathering, both confined and unconfined aquifers can be found within a coast. It is possible to have multiple confined aquifers at the bottom and an unconfined aquifers at the top of a coast.
Seawater Intrusion
Seawater intrusion is a process where seawater intrudes into a freshwater aquifer. Natural or anthropogenic factors can cause seawater intrusion. Salinization of a freshwater aquifer can be caused by the inflow of seawater due to a change in groundwater pressure, reduction in water recharge, reduction in groundwater discharge, or other sources of salt entering the aquifer. The transition zone or the interface would shift either to the land or shift vertically. Sea level rise, flooding or tsunami also leads to saltwater intrusion into the freshwater aquifer.
Pumping-Induced Saltwater Up-coning
Pumping of groundwater from a well near the interface could cause seawater up-coning where seawater intrudes vertically to the aquifer. When the pumping rate exceeds the maximum pumping rate or critical pumping rate, seawater would be pumped out.
Effects of Heterogeneity and Anisotropy
Aquifers should be anisotropic and heterogeneous. A high permeability layer is associated with the freshwater flow. If the hydraulic conductivity of an aquifer in a vertical direction is lower than the horizontal direction, the transition zone would shift more in a horizontal direction.
Tides
Tides can push the transition zone towards the land and widen the transition zone. Tides can strengthen the freshwater seawater mixing due to dampening of the tidal pressure forming the non-uniform flow of groundwater. The greater the tidal amplitude, the greater the mixing effect. Less dampening in an aquifer would lead to a more uniform flow.
Other factors
Geological structures that cross-cut different layers such as faults or dykes can affect the direction and velocity of seawater intrusion. Dykes, an igneous unit that is impermeable or low in hydraulic conductivity might stop the intrusion of seawater. Faults also affect the direction of water flow which is studied by Fault Zone Hydrogeology. Both regular and catastrophic flooding can cause downward intrusion of seawater recreating the transition zone of the fresh-salt water. Diffusion would also be responsible for seawater intrusion, as there is a net flow of solutes from high concentration to low concentration. For example, a complete salinization of a 10 m thick layer of freshwater takes thousands of years through diffusion. Other factors can be pumping-induced seawater intrusion.
Submarine Groundwater Discharge
Submarine groundwater discharge (SGD) is the groundwater flows across the interface of the aquifer and the sea. It refers to the flow of water shifting towards the sea. Nearshore submarine groundwater discharge is defined as a range of 0 to 10 m, embayment SGD is defined as 10 m to 10 km and offshore SGD is defined as more than 10 km. Topography, salinity and temperature convention and tidal pumping are responsible for the driving force for the submarine groundwater discharge.
Topography-Driven Flow
The topography and geology of an area affect the permeability and flow network of groundwater. For an unconfined aquifer, groundwater discharges would be near shore and discharge decreases with the propagation towards the sea. For confined aquifers, groundwater can flow further towards the sea to the embayment zone or even develop submarine springs.
Groundwater Tidal Dynamics
Periodic sea level changes by tides would cause a fluctuation in the groundwater level of a coastal aquifer system. The tidal signal of sea tides becomes more attenuated and delayed with increasing distance to the land. Water level fluctuations in the wells can be caused by the degree of connection between the ocean and the aquifer; groundwater flows well connected to the sea; alternating loading and unloading of the sea tide leads to plastic deformation. Tidal efficiency of the magnitude of the oscillation of water level in a well to the oscillation of sea level is about 42% to 44%. For example, if the magnitude of the oscillation of the sea level is 1 meter, the magnitude of the oscillation of water level will be 0.42 to 0.44 meter. However, the further away from the coast, the groundwater fluctuation would be lower.
Chemistry of Coastal Groundwater Systems
The coastal groundwater system consists of terrestrial (freshwater) groundwater, seawater and a mixture of two. Rainfall is the main source of the recharge of terrestrial groundwater. In the mixing zone, dilution occurs that results in the different chemical compositions of water there.
Salinity
Marine, natural terrestrial and anthropogenic terrestrial is the source of salinity. The total dissolved solids (TDS) of the ocean are between 33 and 36.5 gl−1. The TDS of standard seawater at 25oC is 36gl−1. TDS of seawater would be lower near the coast as there is fresh water supply through a river. The charge in TDS of seawater can indicate the existence of groundwater supply, submarine spring and the transition zone.
Electrical Conductivity
Electrical conductivity (EC) is another way to explain salinity. Electrical conductivity shows the ability of water to carry electrical current. Higher electrical conductivity reflects a higher concentration of dissolved ions. Electrical conductivity increases by 2% when the temperature increases by 1oC.
Chemical Composition of Terrestrial Groundwater
Terrestrial groundwater is dominated by cations: potassium (K+), sodium (Na+), calcium (Ca+) and magnesium (Mg+) and anions: chlorine (Cl−), bicarbonate (HCO3-) and sulfate (SO42-). Each ion has a concentration of >1mgl−1. The chemical composition highly depends on the geology which is the composition of local rocks and the chemical composition of recharge sources like rainfall and rivers. Fresh groundwater is likely alkaline as there is calcium and magnesium.
Chemical Composition of Seawater
Seawater is dominated by sodium (Na+) and chlorine (Cl−). The chemical composition of seawater has small variability between different oceans due to the long residence time which facilitates mixing.
Chemical Processes in Coastal Aquifer
Physical and chemical reactions occur in coastal aquifers, including oxidation-reduction reactions, mineral dissolution and precipitation, acid-base reactions, ion exchange, and gases dissolution and exsolution. Those chemical processes also happen in terrestrial aquifer system. The rate of different chemical processes depend on temperature and pressure of different part of the aquifers. Rain is the major recharge for different aquifers. Thus, groundwater would be acidic. Groundwater becomes less acidic with increases flow path or flow distance.
Ion Exchange
Seawater mainly contains sodium and chlorine while fresh groundwater is dominated by calcium and bicarbonate. Cation exchange occurs in the transition zone given by the chemical equation:
Na++1/2Ca-X2 → 1/2Ca2++Na-X,
where X is the exchange site on the soil particles. Compared to seawater, the water in the transition zone would have excess calcium and be depleted in sodium. Compare with fresh water, it is the opposite case. Other cations like magnesium and potassium exchange as well. Magnesium and calcium would be exchanged for sodium.
In a limestone aquifer, calcite dissolves due to the acidity of groundwater. With the presence of magnesium, dolomite may form in the transition zone.
Mineral Dissolution and Precipitation
As rain is acidic, it dissolves different minerals. For example, rain dissolves calcite or dolomite inside the aquifer. In the transition zone where fresh groundwater meets seawater, dolomitization occurs due to abundant magnesium of seawater. Lead to precipitation of dolomite.
Reduction-Oxidation Reactions
Reduction-Oxidation reactions (Redox) takes place in the recharge areas where organic matter is available. Oxygen dissolves into freshwater when rainfall or river penetrates soil with organic matter. Oxygen may lost under redox reactions and microbiological processes. Oxidation of pyrite or sulphide minerals also consume the dissolved oxygen inside water. Dissolved oxygen concentration level in groundwater decreases during long travel distance. Anaerobic conditions occur in deep confined aquifer. Under anaerobic conditions, sulphate reduction, methanogenesis and ferric iron reduction might occur. Leading to dissolve of iron, manganese, nitrogen dioxide, nitrogen, methane and hydrogen sulfide into groundwater.
Chemical and Isotopic Indicators
The change in the chemical composition of groundwater is an indicator of seawater intrusion. It prevents the multi-sources of chloride, leading to a change in salinity of groundwater. Chemical concentration ratios including Na/Cl, Ca/Cl, Mg/Ca, Cl/Br, Ca/Mg and Cl/HCO3 can be used to distinguish the seawater intrusion.
Anthropogenic Impacts
Reclamation
Land reclamation is a way to create flat land in coastal areas for coastal urban development. Reclamations affect regional groundwater flow systems, the location of groundwater discharge zones, seepage zones, groundwater divide, the interface between seawater and fresh groundwater and the water chemistry. It takes years to decades to reach a new equilibrium after reclamation.
Reclamation – Chemical and Groundwater Change
Land-fill materials would change the equilibrium of the coastal areas. Land-fill materials interact with groundwater, seawater and marine sediments chemically and physically. Fill materials can be sand, completely weathered igneous rock or even waste. The placement of fill materials and diversity of fill materials can make the aquifer heterogeneous. It is difficult to determine the chemical change in groundwater in a general way. It depends on the fill materials.
The groundwater discharge after reclamation decreases as the fill increases subsurface flow path length. As a result, the water level elevation in the upstream or attitude would rise. Rainfall recharges the new land and increases the storage capacity of the land. Increasing the water level and seaward groundwater discharge and shifting the water divide in the future. Lengthening of the groundwater flow paths can dissolve the pollutants inside the marine mud and bring the pollutants to the ocean.
Sea Level Changes to Coastal Hydrogeology
Sea level rise and flooding would push the interface towards the land. Thus, seawater intrudes the land vertically and horizontally. A reduction in the recharge area leads to a reduction in the discharge of groundwater and groundwater level. For islands, sea level rise would reduce the freshwater volume resulting in a smaller freshwater lens. Sea level rise also increases the coastal erosion rate leading to shoreline retreat.
Seawater Intrusion Management
Seawater intrusion leads to social and economic loss. It is important to promote seawater intrusion management to prevent seawater intrusion including increases in freshwater recharge, pumping control, well design improvement, building barriers and land and water management.
Increase of Freshwater Recharge
For areas that have sufficient fresh water supply, fresh water can be injected into the aquifers named aquifer storage and recovery (ASR). Apart from injection to pumping wells, infiltration basins or canals are used for infiltration and the replenishment of groundwater.
Well Design Improvements
Improvements on the location and design of a well can minimize the effect of seawater intrusion. For example, building a well that is close to the water table, having a well that far away from the transition zone. Multiple wells with low pumping rate, horizontal pumping wells and radial wells can be built to reduce the chance of seawater intrusion. As well as calculating the maximum pumping rate and critical pumping rate of a well. Prevent the pumping rate from exceeding the limit which is over-pumping.
Engineered Barriers
Engineered barriers can be built to reduce freshwater flow to the sea and seawater intrusion into the aquifer. Engineered barriers can be hydraulic barriers or physical barriers. Hydraulic barriers operate by injecting fresh water into the well or pumping saltwater from the well. Water from rivers, precipitation, and treated wastewater can be injected into the well. The location of the injection well should be far away from the pumping well to prevent the neutralization of pumping and injection of water. Physical barriers are impermeable walls, that cut off the interaction between fresh groundwater and seawater. Cut-off walls have been built since the 1970s. Slurry walls and grout walls are a type of cut-off walls. Slurry walls are made of water, soil and bentonite or concrete, forming an impermeable wall. Grout walls are made of cement, bentonite or silicate reagents.
See also
Hydrogeology
Fault zone hydrogeology
Groundwater
Groundwater recharge
Saltwater intrusion
Salinity
Total dissolved solids
Tides
Submarine groundwater discharge
Well
Isotope hydrology
References
Hydrology
Oceans | Coastal hydrogeology | [
"Chemistry",
"Engineering",
"Environmental_science"
] | 3,097 | [
"Hydrology",
"Environmental engineering"
] |
71,698,731 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D-Orbit | D-Orbit (as in de-orbit) is a private aerospace company headquartered in Italy with subsidiaries in Portugal, UK, US and a joint venture in the US, D-Orbit USA.
D-orbit is mainly active in the Space tug also known as orbital transfer vehicle (OTV) market. While this concept has existed for several decades, it is only in the last few years that more examples are being produced and used.
D-Orbit has been operating commercial ION missions since September 2020, deploying satellites for customers like Planet Labs, EnduroSat, Elecnor Deimos, University of Southern California, SatRevolution, and Kleos, and operating payloads for the German HPS, High Performance Space Structure Systems, the Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias (IAC), and the Swiss data security company Cysec SA.
History
D-Orbit was founded in 2011 by Luca Rossettini, currently serving as chief executive officer (CEO), and Renato Panesi, currently serving as chief commercial officer (COO).
The company's initial focus was the development of a smart and autonomous decommissioning motor for satellites and launcher stages called D3 (D-Orbit Decommissioning Device). In 2015, the D3 project was partially funded by the European Union under the framework of Horizon 2020.
This provided the origin of the D-orbit name, being just a contraction of the term "de-orbit", which denotes an orbital manoeuver that pulls a spacecraft out of its operational orbit and inserts it into a reentry trajectory that will eventually cause it to burn up upon atmospheric entry.
In 2017, the company began the development of ION Satellite Carrier, an orbital transfer vehicle able to host a batch of satellites, transport them across orbits, and release each one of them, individually, into a custom orbital slot and operate third-party payloads.
The OTV performed its first commercial mission in September 2020.
In 2022, the company planned to go public via a SPAC with a valuation of $1.4bn, however this was cancelled.
In June 2022, the company gained an award of around 1.95 million Euros from the European Space Agency though a 'Boost! award'.
In January 2024, D-Orbit raised €100M in Series C funding, from Marubeni Corporation, Avantgarde, CDP Venture Capital SGR, Seraphim Space, United Ventures, Indaco Venture Partners, Neva SGR SpA, and others.
Products and space launches
The initial plan was to create a product to deorbit satellites at the end of their life. However the company has moved on to space tugs also known as 'orbital transfer vehicles' (OTV). D-orbit developed the ION Satellite Carrier formerly known as 'ION CubeSat Carrier'. The company aims to address the space logistics needs of customers by reducing the time needed to transfer a single spacecraft or a batch of satellites belonging to a constellation from a parking orbit to their designated operational slot. The company's core solution is D-Orbit's proprietary launch and deployment orbital transfer vehicle (OTV) ION Satellite Carrier to perform last-mile delivery of the customer's satellites. D-Orbit's OTV is also able to perform in-orbit demonstration (IOD) of third-party payloads hosted onboard thanks to a plug-and-play mechanical, electrical, and data interface that streamlines integration and in-orbit operations.
Main product: ION Satellite Carrier
ION Satellite Carrier is a satellite platform with a configurable payload bay that can be equipped with a combination of proprietary or third-party launch dispensers, third-party payloads, microsatellites, and instruments like lenses and antennas to be tested in orbit.
Through the course of a mission, ION Satellite Carrier can travel across orbits characterized by different orientation, altitude, and local time of ascending node (LTAN), deploy the satellites on board into custom, individual orbital slots and perform experiments on hosted payloads in the designated operating envelope.
In early 2024 D-Orbit announced an upcoming "in-space technological demonstration" of a radically new development. The RocketStar Drive harnesses the power of nuclear fusion to improve the performance of RocketStar’s “water-fueled pulsed plasma thruster.” In the process, boronated water is injected into the exhaust plume of a pulsed plasma thruster, developing ionizing radiation and increased the base propulsion by 50%. This new concept has already validated in two Small Business Innovation Research (SBIR) Phase 1 and Phase 2 tests. In space tests are expected during an upcoming SpaceX Transporter rideshare mission, likely to launch between July and October 2024.
Launches
The first mission was launched in September 2020 with the successful deployment of 12 SuperDove satellites for Earth-imaging company Planet Labs.
In January 2021, D-Orbit launched a second ION mission, Pulse, which successfully deployed 20 satellites after performing a 10km orbit raise and demonstrated the ability to change the local time of the ascending node (LTAN).
During its third mission, launched in June 2021, the company deployed six satellites and demonstrated 12 hosted payloads, including D-Orbit's proprietary in-orbit cloud computing platform and data storage service built in collaboration with Swedish-based AI company Unibap, which performed 23 SpaceCloud compatible applications.
The fourth mission, Dashing Through the Stars, launched in January 2022, deployed six satellites and tested several in-space cloud applications on an upgraded version of its in-orbit cloud platform.
The fifth mission, Spacelust, launched on 1 April 2022, deployed 4 satellites for Kleos Space, 3 satellites for the University of Chile and one for Upmosphere.
The sixth mission, Infinite Blue launched on 25 May 2022, deployed Guardian for Aistech Space and SBUDNIC for Brown University. There were also hosted payloads from Cryptosat and Genergo for in-orbit demonstration.
Two of D-Orbit's space tug's were launched on SpaceX's Transporter-6 mission on 3 January 2023, to release nine satellites: four cubesats for a data relay and asset tracking constellation owned by the Swiss company Astrocast, two for Futura which includes NPS Spacemind, Kelpie, a 9-pound (4-kilogram) CubeSat to provide maritime tracking services for Orbcomm, Sharjah Sat 1 for Sharjah Academy for Astronomy, and TauSat 2 for Tel Aviv University. There are also third-party hosted payloads by the Instituto de Astrofisica de Canarias, Genergo, Cryptosat and an undisclosed customer's hosted payload.
The ninth space tug, SVC009 Eclectic Elena was launched on 31 January 2023 as a rideshare on the Starlink 2-6 mission and the mission was called Starfield. There was an in orbit demonstration of a satellite simulator for EBAD and hosted payloads for HPF, EPFL, and StardustMe.
As of January 2023, the company has launched nine spacecraft and brought over 100 payloads to space.
References
External links
Official website
Space
Space tugs
Private spaceflight companies
Aerospace companies of Italy | D-Orbit | [
"Physics",
"Mathematics"
] | 1,490 | [
"Spacetime",
"Space",
"Geometry"
] |
71,698,846 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thaxterogaster%20austrovaginatus | Thaxterogaster austrovaginatus is a species of ectomycorrhizal fungus in the famlily Cortinariaceae.
Taxonomy
It was originally described by Bruno Gasparini in 2007 and classified as Cortinarius austrovaginatus based on a holotype specimen collected by mycologist Genevieve Gates at Jackson's Bend, Mt Wellington, Tasmania, Australia. The species also occurs in New Zealand, where it is reported to have a semi-secotioid habit. Cortinarius austrovaginatus was placed in Section Austrovaginati, along with two New Zealand species C. conei and C. medioscaurus. This Section is of interest because it contains an agaricoid (C. medioscaurus), semi-secotioid (C. austrovaginatus) and a secotioid (C. coneae) species.
In 2022 the species was transferred from Cortinarius and reclassified as Thaxterogaster austrovaginatus based on genomic data.
Description
The pileus of Thaxterogaster austrovaginatus is up to 60 mm in diameter, with a viscid cuticle, fibrillose, the colour ranges from brown/vinaceous to pale lilac-brown with buff margin, and the cap has remnants of the white veil stained with the rusty spores. The lamellae are close, moderately thick, adnate, livid vinaceous when young and lilac brown at maturity. The gill margin is heterogeneous, whitish irregular and crenulated. The stipe is 30–36 mm tall and 8–12 mm wide, robust, fibrillose, cylindrical, lilac to livid vinaceous, with heavy rusty chocolate-brown spore deposit, densely covered with velar remains. The bulb is marginate, ampullaceous to slightly turbinate, violet, but covered with a white sheath of the universal veil forming a volva. The universal veil is white and submembranaceous. The cortina is white, abundant and permanent. The cap tissue does not react to the application of alkali solutions.
Habitat and distribution
The species was described from Nothofagus forests in Tasmania. In New Zealand it has myrtaceous hosts.
Etymology
The specific epithet austrovaginatus is derived from the Latin austro, meaning from the south, and vaginatus, meaning sheathed, and it refers to this species being a southern species similar in appearance to the South American species, Cortinarius vaginatus.
See also
List of Cortinarius species
References
Cortinarius
Fungi described in 2007
Fungi native to Australia
Fungi of New Zealand
Fungus species | Thaxterogaster austrovaginatus | [
"Biology"
] | 564 | [
"Fungi",
"Fungus species"
] |
71,700,481 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QQ%20Vulpeculae | QQ Vulpeculae is a cataclysmic variable binary star system in the northern constellation of Vulpecula, abbreviated QQ Vul. It has a brightness that fluctuates around an apparent visual magnitude of 14.7, which is too faint to be viewed with the naked eye. The distance to this system is approximately 981 light years based on parallax measurements.
This system was detected as a soft X-ray source using the HEAO-1 satellite during 1977–78. The Einstein Observatory was then used in 1981 to more precisely position the source, which was designated E 2003+225. In 1982, J. A. Nousek and associates observed the optical counterpart and found it varied in brightness with a period of , displaying strong emission lines of hydrogen and helium. They identified it as a variable of the AM Herculis type. The system shows a brightness variation of 0.7 magnitude during each orbit, plus a short-term flickering of 0.2 magnitudes.
The accepted model for this class of variable is a binary system with a red dwarf secondary in a close orbit with a magnetic white dwarf. The red dwarf is overflowing its Roche lobe and matter is streaming onto the white dwarf. The magnetic field of the white dwarf draws this material toward the magnetic poles, and the material is heated to a sufficient temperature to emit X-rays. In 1985, a weak, extended radio source was detected at the location of this system, suggesting it may be a remnant of a past nova event. X-ray observations in 1991 suggested there are separate regions of hard and soft X-ray emission, indicating matter is being accreted along two poles. The soft X-ray site is likely at the magnetic pole furthest from the secondary star.
The strength of the magnetic field in the white dwarf is estimated at . Over long periods, the system has been shown to switch between states of high and low brightness. K. Mukai and associates in 1986 suggested that the primary dip in the light curve is due to the geometry of the system in combination with a partial eclipse of the primary accretion region by the accretion column. The secondary dip may be caused by the limb of the white dwarf partially eclipsing the active accretion region. The rotation period of the white dwarf appears to be locked to the orbital period.
References
Further reading
Polars (cataclysmic variable stars)
Red dwarfs
White dwarfs
Vulpecula
Vulpeculae, QQ | QQ Vulpeculae | [
"Astronomy"
] | 514 | [
"Vulpecula",
"Constellations"
] |
71,700,840 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Other%20effective%20area-based%20conservation%20measures | Other effective area-based conservation measures (OECMs) are sites outside of protected areas that are governed and managed in ways that deliver the long-term in situ conservation of biodiversity. As of March 2023, 856 such sites have been reported to the World Database on Other Effective Area-based Conservation Measures, managed by the UN Environment Programme World Conservation Monitoring Centre. OECMs cover of the Earth's surface, accounting for on land and in the ocean.
Definition and criteria
An OECM is defined by the Convention on Biological Diversity as:
[A] geographically defined area other than a Protected Area, which is governed and managed in ways that achieve positive and sustained long-term outcomes for the in situ conservation of biodiversity, with associated ecosystem functions and services and where applicable, cultural, spiritual, socio–economic, and other locally relevant values.
There are four criteria for identifying OECMs:
The area is not currently recognized as a protected area;
The area is governed and managed;
The area achieves sustained and effective contribution to in situ conservation of biodiversity; Criterion
Associated ecosystem functions and services and cultural, spiritual, socio-economic and other locally relevant values are conserved and respected.
Under the four criteria above, there are 26 sub-criteria.
History
The term "other effective area-based conservation measures" was first used in Target 11 of the Convention on Biological Diversity’s Strategic Plan for Biodiversity, agreed to in Nagoya, Japan, in 2010. Target 11 stated:
By 2020, at least 17 per cent of terrestrial and inland water areas and 10 per cent of coastal and marine areas, especially areas of particular importance for biodiversity and ecosystem services, are conserved through effectively and equitably managed, ecologically representative and well connected systems of protected areas and other effective area-based conservation measures, and integrated into the wider landscapes and seascapes. (Emphasis added)
In 2014, Harry Jonas, Ashish Kothari and other authors affiliated with the ICCA Consortium – ICCA stands for "Indigenous and Community Conserved Area" – argued that “defining ‘other effective area-based conservation measures’ offers a unique opportunity to better recognize areas that deliver the conservation of biodiversity outside of protected areas.” In 2015, the International Union for Conservation of Nature World Commission on Protected Areas established a Task Force, co-chaired by Harry Jonas and Kathy MacKinnon (2016-2020), to provide technical advice to the Convention on Biological Diversity. It submitted its advice to the Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity in January 2018. That advice, together with a report on marine OECMs, was considered at two workshops hosted by the Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity in February 2018.
Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity negotiated a draft decision at the 22nd meeting of the Subsidiary Body on Scientific, Technical and Technological Advice, and adopted Decision 14/8 on ‘Protected areas and other effective area-based conservation measures’ at the 14th meeting of the Conference of the Parties, which contains the definition and criteria for identifying OECMs.
‘Other effective area-based conservation measures’ are referenced in Target 3 of the Global Biodiversity Framework. The Framework was agreed upon in December 2022 at the 15th Conference of the Parties to the UN Convention on Biological Diversity in Montreal, Canada. Integration of OECMs into global biodiversity targets had been a topic of discussion in the lead-up to the conference. Target 3 calls on Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity to:
"Ensure and enable that by 2030 at least 30 per cent of terrestrial, inland water, and of coastal and marine areas, especially areas of particular importance for biodiversity and ecosystem functions and services, are effectively conserved and managed through ecologically representative, well-connected and equitably governed systems of protected areas and other effective area-based conservation measures, recognizing indigenous and traditional territories, where applicable, and integrated into wider landscapes, seascapes and the ocean, while ensuring that any sustainable use, where appropriate in such areas, is fully consistent with conservation outcomes, recognizing and respecting the rights of indigenous peoples and local communities, including over their traditional territories."
Global extent
The World Database on Other Effective Area-based Conservation Measures is managed by the UN Environment Programme World Conservation Monitoring Centre. As of April 2024, 856 sites have been identified and reported to the World Database. OECMs cover of the Earth's surface, accounting for on land and in the ocean.
Locally managed marine areas (LMMAs) are one form of OECM; examples of these exist in Mozambique and Madagascar.
Relationship between OECMs and protected areas
Protected areas and OECMs are distinct but complementary within landscapes, seascapes and river basins. Protected areas have a primary conservation objective, i.e., they are areas dedicated to the conservation of biodiversity and managed accordingly. In contrast, OECMs do not need to be dedicated to the conservation of nature but must deliver the effective and long-term in situ conservation of biodiversity. OECMs can deliver long-term in situ conservation through ancillary conservation, secondary conservation, and sometimes primary conservation in places that cannot, or will not, be recognized as protected areas.
OECMs are intended to take a more inclusive approach to biodiversity conservation that traditional protected areas, by permitting some small-scale area management. This is achieved by accounting for the needs of other rights holders such as small scale fisheries and low-impact agroforestry. Traditional protected areas have attracted controversy over Indigenous rights and displacement; OECMs are intended to be more equitable to human needs.
See also
Governance of protected areas
UNESCO Biosphere Reserve
External links
Protected Planet - the most complete and up to date database of OECMs and protected areas around the world.
Good Practice Guidance on OECMs - Guidelines by IUCN.
Convention on Biological Diversity homepage
ICCA Consortium homepage
International Union for Conservation of Nature homepage
References
Environmental conservation
Convention on Biological Diversity
Indigenous peoples and the environment | Other effective area-based conservation measures | [
"Biology"
] | 1,200 | [
"Convention on Biological Diversity",
"Biodiversity"
] |
71,701,863 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LP%20890-9 | LP 890-9, also known as SPECULOOS-2 or TOI-4306, is a high proper motion red dwarf star located away from the Solar System in the constellation of Eridanus. The star has 12% the mass and 15% the radius of the Sun, and a temperature of . It is extremely faint and, with an apparent magnitude of 18, is the faintest star with exoplanets discovered by the Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite.
Planetary system
In 2022, two exoplanets were discovered in orbit around this star. The first planet, LP 890-9 b, was initially identified using TESS. Further observations using SPECULOOS confirmed this planet and discovered a second planet, LP 890-9 c. Both planets are likely terrestrial planets, somewhat larger than Earth. The outer planet LP 890-9 c orbits within the habitable zone, and is a favorable target for atmospheric characterization using JWST.
LP 890-9 c orbits near the inner edge of the conservative habitable zone, and models differ as to whether the planet is more likely to resemble Earth or Venus. Spectra from JWST should make it possible to distinguish between these two scenarios. The planet is tidally locked. While the planet's location in the habitable zone suggests a strong possibility of an Earth-like atmosphere and climate, the planet's large size may count against its habitability. In addition, the planet is close enough to its star that powerful radiation may reduce its habitability.
See also
Proxima Centauri - Closest star to the Sun, a red dwarf that hosts terrestrial planets with one inside the habitable zone
Teegarden's Star - A nearby red dwarf with two terrestrial planets in the habitable zone, in the constellation of Aries
TRAPPIST-1 - An ultra-cool red dwarf in the constellation of Aquarius
Wolf 359 - A planet hosting nearby ultra-cool red dwarf in the Leo constellation
Notes
References
Eridanus (constellation)
M-type main-sequence stars
Planetary systems with two confirmed planets
J04163114-2818526
4306 | LP 890-9 | [
"Astronomy"
] | 439 | [
"Eridanus (constellation)",
"Constellations"
] |
71,702,018 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple%20Watch%20Ultra | Apple Watch Ultra is a line of sport smartwatches produced by Apple Inc. as part of the Apple Watch product line. Introduced in September 2022, they are marketed towards endurance athletes and outdoor recreation, and carry a rugged form factor with a wider band, a larger, brighter display, multi-band GPS, a larger battery, water temperature sensor, and additional functionality for diving.
Hardware
The Apple Watch Ultra hardware is generally similar to the main Apple Watch line (with the first-generation model based on Apple Watch Series 8), but is differentiated by their rugged titanium casing, a larger 49 mm band, and a larger display with a flat crystal and higher brightness of up to 2,000 nits. It supports multi-band GPS on L1 and L5. The Ultra includes a new, orange-colored "Action" button, which can be mapped to different functions, as well as an emergency siren feature. Apple Watch Ultra contains a battery 76% larger than that of Series 8, which Apple rated at 36 hours of usage without using power saving modes (as opposed to Apple's rating of 18 hours on the main line). A power saving mode which reduces the amount of heart rate readings and GPS polling can extend its battery life to around 60 hours. All Apple Watch Ultra models include cellular connectivity.
Apple Watch Ultra has a water temperature sensor, and carries WR100 and EN13319 certification. Apple rates the device for diving to depths of up to ; a new "Depth" app is included for displaying depth and water temperature information, while Apple partnered with Oceanic Worldwide to release the subscription-based "Oceanic Plus" app for more advanced dive computer functionality.
Models
The first-generation Apple Watch Ultra was unveiled September 7, 2022 alongside Apple Watch Series 8, and began shipping September 23, 2022.
Apple Watch Ultra 2 was unveiled on September 22, 2023, alongside Apple Watch Series 9; alongside the updated hardware inherited from Series 9, its screen brightness was further increased to 3,000 nits. In December 2023, Apple Watch Series 9 and Ultra 2 were temporarily pulled from the U.S. market due to patent litigation by Masimo. They returned to sale on January 18, 2024, with models sold after this date having blood oxygen monitoring features disabled. On September 9, 2024 Apple unveiled a black colour option for the Apple Watch Ultra 2, as well as a sleep apnea detection feature.
Reception
Victoria Song of The Verge felt that the first-generation Apple Watch Ultra was "a great first attempt at a rugged smartwatch" and "legitimately good for weekend warriors and intermediate athletes", noting features such as the Action button (which she believed should be added to the main Apple Watch line as well) and multi-band GPS, and the larger screen being easier to read. She felt that the Ultra benefitted from the new mapping and compass features (such as BackTrack) introduced by watchOS 9. She noted that Apple's battery life estimations were conservative in comparison to real-world use, where she regularly got closer to 48 hours of battery life during regular exercise use without using power saving modes, and another Verge staff member reported 56 hours via general, non-fitness use at home. However, she noted that the Apple Watch line still lacked certain features (including longer battery life, offline maps and trail navigation, and transflective displays) and fitness metrics in comparison to competitors such as Garmin and Polar, but that watchOS still "runs circles around fitness watches in terms of connectivity and simplicity".
References
Apple Watch
Wearable devices
Computer-related introductions in 2022
Smartwatches | Apple Watch Ultra | [
"Technology"
] | 739 | [
"Smartwatches",
"Apple Watch"
] |
71,702,287 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPhone%2014%20Pro | The iPhone 14 Pro and iPhone 14 Pro Max are smartphones that were developed and marketed by Apple Inc. They are the sixteenth generation flagship iPhones, succeeding the iPhone 13 Pro and Pro Max. The devices were unveiled alongside the iPhone 14 and 14 Plus during the Apple Event at Apple Park in Cupertino, California, on September 7, 2022, and were made available on September 16, 2022.
The iPhone 14 Pro and iPhone 14 Pro Max were the first iPhones to have a new type of display cutout called "Dynamic Island", replacing the notch design that has been in use since the iPhone X was introduced. Along with the iPhone 14, iPhone 14 Pro models add bidirectional satellite connectivity to contact emergency services when out of range of Wi-Fi and cellular networks.
Along with the iPhone 14 and 14 Plus, these were the last iPhones to use a Lightning port; the iPhone 14 Pro models were discontinued in September 2023, and their successors, the iPhone 15 Pro and 15 Pro Max, replaced the Lightning port with USB-C. iPhone 14 Pro models (as well as the iPhone 14 models) sold in the United States dropped support for physical SIM cards, making them the first iPhone models since the CDMA variant of the iPhone 4 to lack a discrete SIM card reader.
History
On November 6, 2022, COVID-19 affected product assembly in Chinese factories, resulting in longer shipment times for some customers.
On September 12, 2023, Apple discontinued and removed iPhone 14 Pro and iPhone 14 Pro Max from their official website following the announcement of the iPhone 15 Pro, and 15 Pro Max as their successors.
In May 2024, Apple began selling refurbished iPhone 14 Pro models on their official website.
Design
The design of the iPhone 14 Pro and iPhone 14 Pro Max is almost identical to older iPhone models, such as the iPhone 12 Pro and 13 Pro. The iPhone 14 Pro and iPhone 14 Pro Max have a new front camera called the Dynamic Island. The Dynamic Island can now bubble up alerts instead of having a notification. This new feature is on the new iPhone 15 series (iPhone 15, iPhone 15 Plus, iPhone 15 Pro, iPhone 15 Pro Max). The iPhone 14 Pro and 14 Pro Max are available in four colors: Silver, Space Black, Gold and Deep Purple. Deep Purple replaced the Sierra Blue color used on the iPhone 13 Pro and iPhone 13 Pro Max.
It is the final iPhone model in the exterior design to come with the stainless steel form factor along with the gold color option. Following the launch of the iPhone 15 Pro and iPhone 15 Pro Max, the gold color option has been replaced by the new natural titanium color option alongside the silver color replaced by the new white titanium and the space black color (formerly the graphite color (used in the iPhone 12 Pro and iPhone 13 Pro) and the space gray color (used in the iPhone X, iPhone XS and iPhone 11 Pro) replaced by the new black titanium.
The iPhone 14 Pro and iPhone 14 Pro Max are available in four colors: Space Black, Silver, Gold, and Deep Purple.
Specifications
Hardware
Chipset
The iPhone 14 Pro and Pro Max feature a new A16 Bionic system on a chip (SoC), built on TSMC's N4 fabrication process, superseding the A15 Bionic seen on the iPhone 13 and 13 Pro lineup, the 3rd generation iPhone SE, and the iPhone 14 and 14 Plus.
Camera
The camera sensors and lenses on the main and ultra-wide cameras have been upgraded. The main camera features a new 48-megapixel quad-pixel sensor that is 65% larger than the one on the iPhone 13 Pro. It defaults to 12 megapixels, achieved through a process called pixel binning. However, users can access the full capabilities of the sensor by activating the ProRAW feature. The ultra-wide camera features a new larger 12-megapixel sensor that has 100% focus pixels. The lens has also been improved for optical clarity and features a larger aperture.
The new camera system also incorporates a new "Photonic Engine" for improved image and video quality. Additionally, the video feature now includes Action Mode, which offers video stabilization that can be accessed through the top right corner of the screen. The resolution of the picture can now be customized.
The TrueDepth camera has gained autofocus and a larger aperture. It is also capable of focusing on multiple subjects simultaneously.
Display
The iPhone 14 Pro and Pro Max feature a Super Retina XDR OLED display with a typical maximum brightness of 1,000 nits. However, it can go all the way up to 1,600 nits while watching HDR videos, and 2,000 nits outdoors. The display has a refresh rate of 120 Hz and uses LTPO technology. The iPhone 14 Pro has a resolution of 2556×1179 pixels at 460 pixels per inch (ppi), while the Pro Max variant has a resolution of 2796×1290 pixels at 460 ppi. Both variants have an "always on display" feature, with an adaptive ProMotion 120 Hz refresh rate that can reduce down to 1 Hz to save battery life while in "always on" mode.
Both models feature a new design for the area that surrounds the front-facing camera, which Apple previously referred to as the "TrueDepth camera array" and many users referred to as the "notch". The new design is called the "Dynamic Island", which is now a pill-shaped cutout slightly detached from the top of the screen. This design was achieved by moving Face ID hardware components and some sensors previously housed in the "notch" behind the display, including the ambient light sensor, flood illuminator and proximity sensor. To make this new hardware blend more seamlessly with the software, software features are added to make the pill shape change shape and size according to app and features being used to display certain alerts and notifications.
Battery
The iPhone 14 Pro has a 3200 mAh battery that provides 23 hours of video playback and 20 hours of streaming video playback. The Pro Max variant has a 4323 mAh battery that provides 29 hours of video playback and 25 hours of streaming video playback.
Connectivity
In addition to all the connectivity options offered on previous models, the iPhone 14 Pro and Pro Max can now use satellite connectivity to make calls or send texts in an emergency. The feature is marketed as "Emergency SOS". It uses the spectrum in L and S bands designated for mobile satellite services by ITU Radio Regulations. When an iPhone user makes an Emergency SOS via satellite request, the message is received by an orbiting satellite operated by Globalstar. The satellite then sends the message down to ground stations located across the globe.
As of November 2022, Globalstar operates a constellation of 24 satellites in low Earth orbit, with plans to enhance this in the future via its partnership with Apple.
The service became available to the public on November 15, 2022. On the same day, Apple announced that it will be extended to France, Germany, Ireland, and the UK in December 2022.
On September 12, 2023, during a launch event, Apple announced Roadside Assistance via satellite, the next feature to make use of the satellite connection capabilities of the iPhone 15 series that was just revealed, as well as the iPhone 14 series. Through a collaboration with AAA, it allows users to request car assistance dispatch in areas without cell service.
Software
Like the iPhone 14 and 14 Plus, the iPhone 14 Pro and Pro Max were shipped with iOS 16. They also support iOS 17 and iOS 18 which was released to the public in September, 2024. The next-generation Qi2 wireless charging standard has been added to the iPhone 14 series of devices with the update to iOS 17.2.
Detailed specs
Reception
The iPhone 14 Pro has received generally good reviews. Patrick Holland from CNET gave a generally positive review of the phone, highlighting the camera improvements as well as the functionality of the Dynamic Island, though wishing that more functionality for the feature was added. Holland additionally noted a bug on the new Apple Weather app that was later fixed, and how the battery was not improved from the previous year's Pro iPhones, though still deemed it Apple's best offer in iPhone technology of the year.
Holland's opinion was echoed by Tom's Guide writer Jordan Palmer, praising the cameras especially, though noting poorer battery performance and the inconvenience of having no physical SIM card. Palmer still deemed the iPhone 14 Pro the best phone under $1000. The lack of a SIM card slot was a concern similarly shared by IGN reviewer Kevin Lee, though Lee, like Palmer and Holland, praised the new technology as well as the lack of a price increase compared with the iPhone 13 Pro.
References
External links
– official website
Mobile phones introduced in 2022
Products and services discontinued in 2023
Mobile phones with 4K video recording
Mobile phones with multiple rear cameras
Discontinued flagship smartphones | IPhone 14 Pro | [
"Technology"
] | 1,823 | [
"Discontinued flagship smartphones",
"Flagship smartphones"
] |
71,702,453 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C13H16FNO | {{DISPLAYTITLE:C13H16FNO}}
The molecular formula C13H16FNO (molar mass: 221.28 g/mol) may refer to:
2-Fluorodeschloroketamine
3-Fluorodeschloroketamine | C13H16FNO | [
"Chemistry"
] | 62 | [
"Isomerism",
"Set index articles on molecular formulas"
] |
71,703,236 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arachnomyces%20flavidulus | Arachnomyces flavidulus is a species of ascomycete fungus discovered in 1912 by botanist Carlo Luigi Spegazzini. It was recovered from rotting Eucalyptus globulus leaves from a park in Buenos Aires, Argentina.
Morphology
The fungus has a sparse, superficial, sulphurous matrix surrounding its surface. Attached to the fruiting body is a subiculum (wool-like mycelium growth), very thin and loose, formed by irregularly branched slender hyphae (1.5-2 μm). The perithecia are scattered, globose or globose-depressed, 250-500 μm in diameter, lacking an opening or ostiole, of yellow color, fragile, densely covered in yellowish brittle hairs of thinly membranous indistinct composition. The asci are subglobose, tiny, clustered, measuring 12 μm in diameter, with rapidly flowing octospores. These spores are globose to ellipsoid in shape, very thinly coated and light, 4 to 3 μm wide. The species appears similar to Eurotium.
Taxonomy
A. flavidulus was listed as a doubtful species since 1970 because it produces ascospores that differ from other Arachnomyces members.
References
Fungi described in 1912
Fungi of Argentina
Eurotiomycetes
Fungus species | Arachnomyces flavidulus | [
"Biology"
] | 289 | [
"Fungi",
"Fungus species"
] |
71,703,542 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HD%20212710 | HD 212710, also known as BD+85 383, SAO 3721, HR 8546, HIP 109693 is a star in Cepheus with an apparent magnitude of 5.258 and a spectral type of B9.5 Vn, indicating that it is a B-type main sequence star, giving it a blue hue. It's about 254 light-years far away from the solar system. It has about 2.61 times the mass of sun, 2.387 times the radius of sun and is 53.79 times as luminous as sun.
Nomenclature
This star doesn't have a Bayer or Flamsteed designation.
It has a Chinese name, "Great Tianhuang Emperor" (Chinese: 天皇大帝, tiānhuángdàdì) which means "The Emperor of Heaven". It is an independent constellation in the system of Chinese constellations, belonging to the Purple Forbidden enclosure.
References
8546
212710
Cepheus (constellation) | HD 212710 | [
"Astronomy"
] | 204 | [
"Constellations",
"Cepheus (constellation)"
] |
71,703,760 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tianhuang%20Emperor%20%28constellation%29 | is an ancient Chinese constellation, located in the Purple Forbidden enclosure, surrounded by the , is one of the symbols of the emperor in astrology (also related to the emperor, there are Northern Pole, , and .) .
Although the present-day Polaris (Alpha Ursae Minoris) is located at the tip of the handle of a ladle (the tail of a small bear), around 1100 B.C. the north pole distance of Beta Ursa Minoris was about 6.5 degrees and was the closest to the North Pole of the heavens and was called .
And apart from being an object of worship, there was also a constellation named the Tianhuang Emperor. The name is found in "Kaiyuan Zyutsukyou" (The Divination Sutra), "Volume 69: Gan Ji Zhong Guan Zui". In the "Book of Jin (晋書)", there is a description in the "Astronomical Records" that "one star in the mouth is said to be the Tianhuang Emperor. This "mouth" refers to the quadrilateral of the constellation , which guards the Emperor's palace, the Purple Palace where the Emperor resides, and is depicted by its second star (Ursa Major, 4th magnitude), first star (Alpha Polaris, 2nd magnitude), fifth star (Cepheus HD5848, 4th magnitude), and sixth star (HD217382, 5th magnitude). The Emperor is the 5th magnitude star (HD212710) in the quadrilateral. In the "Wakan sansai zue", the Emperor is also depicted in the position of the "mouth", but this drawing is inaccurate. Schlegel, a Dutch orientalist, identified Alpha Ursa Minor as the Tianhuang Emperor. However, according to Osaki, the identification by Schlegel "cannot be considered a first-class source."
References
Chinese constellations
Astronomy in China | Tianhuang Emperor (constellation) | [
"Astronomy"
] | 406 | [
"Constellations",
"Chinese constellations",
"Astronomy in China",
"History of astronomy"
] |
71,706,735 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ACM%20Conference%20on%20Recommender%20Systems | ACM Conference on Recommender Systems (ACM RecSys) is an A-ranked peer-reviewed academic conference series about recommender systems. It is held annually in different locations, and organized by different organizers, but a Steering Committee supervises the organization. The conference proceedings are published by the Association for Computing Machinery. Acceptance rates for full papers are typically below 20%. This conference series focuses on issues such as algorithms, machine learning, human-computer interaction, and data science from a multi-disciplinary perspective. The conference community includes computer scientists, statisticians, social scientists, psychologists, and others.
The conference is sponsored every year by ten to 20 Big Tech companies such as Amazon, Netflix, Meta, Nvidia, Microsoft, Google, and Spotify.
While an academic conference, RecSys attracts many practitioners and industry researchers, with industry attendance making up the majority of attendees, this is also reflected in the authorship of research papers. Many works published at the conference have direct impact on recommendation and personalization practice in industry affecting millions of users.
Recommender systems are pervasive in online systems, the conference provides opportunities for researchers and practitioners to address specific problems in various workshops in conjunction with the conference, topics include responsible recommendation, causal reasoning, and others. The workshop themes follow recent developments in the broader machine learning and human-computer interaction topics.
The conference is the host of the ACM RecSys Challenge, a yearly competition in the spirit of the Netflix Prize focussing on a specific recommendation problem. The Challenge has been organized by companies such as Twitter, and Spotify. Participation in the challenge is open to everyone and participation in it has become a means of showcasing ones skills in recommendations, similar to Kaggle competitions.
Notable Events
Netflix Prize, 2009
The Netflix Prize was a recommendation challenge organized by Netflix between 2006 and 2009. Shortly prior to ACM RecSys 2009, the winners of the Netflix Prize were announced. At the 2009 conference, members of the winning team (Bellkor's Pragmatich Chaos) as well as representatives from Netflix convened in a panel on the lessons learnt from the Netflix Prize
ByteDance Paper, 2022
In 2022, at one of the workshops at the conference, a paper from ByteDance, the company behind TikTok, described in detail how a recommendation algorithm for video worked.
While the paper did not point out the algorithm as the one that generates TikTok's recommendations, the paper received significant attention in technology-focused media.
List of conferences
Past and future RecSys conferences include:
Key Numbers and History
The ACM Recommender Systems Conference (RecSys) has experienced significant growth since its first event in 2007. The number of paper submissions has steadily increased over the years. From an initial 35 submissions in 2007, the conference has seen over 250 submissions annually in recent years. While the number of submissions has increased, the conference's acceptance rate has become more selective, declining from 46% in its inaugural year to a range of 17-24% in more recent editions.
References
External links
Computer science conferences
Association for Computing Machinery conferences | ACM Conference on Recommender Systems | [
"Technology"
] | 629 | [
"Computing stubs",
"Computer science",
"Computer science conferences",
"Computer conference stubs"
] |
71,708,395 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translational%20Research%20Institute%20for%20Space%20Health | The Translational Research Institute for Space Health (TRISH) is a virtual, applied research consortium that pursues and funds translational research and technologies to keep astronauts healthy during space exploration, with the added benefit of potential applications on Earth. TRISH is specifically focused on human health in preparation for deep space exploration efforts, including National Aeronautics and Space Administration's (NASA) Artemis missions to the Moon, and future human missions to Mars. TRISH also supports research to collect and study biomedical data gathered on commercial spaceflight missions to better understand the effect of spaceflight on the human body.
The consortium is led by Baylor College of Medicine's Center for Space Medicine, and includes Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and California Institute of Technology, with funding awarded to scientists and organizations around the United States. TRISH works directly with NASA's Human Research Program (HRP) to establish and coordinate research efforts that align with NASA’s goal of safely furthering human exploration while mitigating risks to human health.
History
TRISH was founded in 2016, and Baylor College of Medicine was selected as the lead institution in an agreement with a maximum potential value of $246 million for a six-year performance period. TRISH succeeded the National Space Biomedical Research Institute (NSBRI), a similar research institute also led by Baylor College of Medicine.
In 2021, NASA opted to renew TRISH, granting additional funding of up to $134.6 million between 2022 and 2028. When NASA reviewed TRISH in December 2020, it found that “TRISH had developed and transitioned 34 completed astronaut health and protection projects to NASA and had connected 415 first-time NASA researchers with opportunities to develop space health solutions.”
TRISH supports NASA's Human Research Program (HRP), founded in 2005, as outlined in TRISH's strategic plan. The goals of the HRP are to provide knowledge and technology to mitigate risks to human health and performance and develop tools to enable safe and productive human space exploration.
Effects of space on the human body
In January 2023, The Washington Post reported an interactive feature on the known effects of space travel to the human body, and noted TRISH's work. In the article, former TRISH Chief Medical Officer Emmanuel Urquieta stated “Space is just not very hospitable to the human body,” explaining that humans evolved on Earth with abundant gravity and low radiation, whereas space is characterized by minimal gravity and higher radiation exposure.
This environment can lead astronauts to experience space adaptation syndrome, muscle atrophy, decreased blood volume, altered immunity and DNA damage from radiation exposure, loss of bone, sensory changes, psychological stress, and inflammation, among other potential complications. Interventions to prevent these outcomes include routine exercise while in space, as well as pharmaceutical and dietary supplements. Additionally, changes in blood flow and digestion rate are likely to affect how the body processes and tolerates medications, an area requiring further study.
Trips to the Moon and Mars will require astronauts to spend more time in space than ever before, potentially exacerbating known deleterious effects of space travel to the human body. In April 2022, NPR's Brendan Byrne described one of TRISH's goals as “to understand how and why the body changes while in space and prepar[e] future astronauts for those health effects. That's important to understand if space agencies like NASA want to send humans to places like the Moon or Mars. Those trips could be longer than Vande Hei [‘s] almost yearlong mission. And the environments on the lunar surface and the red planet will be harsh, with limited medical resources.”
Leadership
TRISH's leadership includes executive director Dorit B. Donoviel, chief scientific officer Jennifer Fogarty, and chief medical officer Emmanuel Urquieta.
TRISH's board of directors includes chair Jeffrey P. Sutton, along with members Barbara Wold, and Thomas Heldt.
Consortium members
Baylor College of Medicine
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
California Institute of Technology
Research areas
TRISH researchers pursue scientific research in several fields, including:
Cellular and Molecular Biology
Behavioral Health
Environment, Food and Medication
Medical Technology
Radiation
Involvement with private spaceflight missions
As part of its EXPAND (Enhancing eXploration Platforms and Analog Definition) Program, TRISH has partnered with several commercial space providers on private spaceflight missions to gather spaceflight participant health data before, during, and after space travel. These may include tests on motor function, eye health, motion sickness, and cognitive wellbeing, among others.
TRISH-funded researchers have collected biomedical data from spaceflight participants aboard the Inspiration4 mission, the Axiom Mission 1, and Space Adventures’ MZ Mission. TRISH researchers have also collected biomedical data from astronauts on the Polaris Dawn, Ax-2, and Ax-3 missions. In 2024, TRISH has also entered an agreement with Blue Origin to collect biomedical data during suborbital missions.
Biomedical data gathered from private spaceflight participants adds to the diversity and volume of data available for space health researchers. TRISH maintains a centralized research database, the EXPAND Program, which hosts pre-, in-, and post-flight health data from multiple commercial space flights.
Outreach
TRISH leadership regularly appears at conferences and workshops, including SXSW, HRP's annual Investigator's Workshop, and conferences and meetings hosted by the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR), Aerospace Medical Association (AsMA), International Astronautical Congress, and others.
Funding for researchers and companies
TRISH offers funding for innovative research and technology projects through several mechanisms. TRISH's open solicitations are housed on the Institute's Grant Research Integrated Dashboard (GRID), an online portal, or the NASA NSPIRES portal. Previous solicitation topics have requested proposals on topics such as endogenous repair, metabolic manipulation, microphysiological systems, such as Tissue on a Chip, technologies in support of autonomous health care, and the training of postdoctoral fellows and future scientists in the field.
External links
Translational Research Institute for Space Health
The Human Body in Space
Open Funding Opportunities With TRISH
TRISH Strategic Plan
References
Consortia
Space exploration | Translational Research Institute for Space Health | [
"Astronomy"
] | 1,247 | [
"Space exploration",
"Outer space"
] |
71,710,152 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TESS%20Hunt%20for%20Young%20and%20Maturing%20Exoplanets | TESS Hunt for Young and Maturing Exoplanets (THYME) is an exoplanet search project. The researchers of the THYME collaboration are mainly from the United States and search for young exoplanets using data from the Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite (TESS). The new discoveries should help to understand the early evolution of exoplanets. As of March 2023 the collaboration produced 9 papers announcing the discovery of exoplanets.
Paper number 8 adapted the backronym to "Transit Hunt for Young and Maturing Exoplanets", because it used data from the Kepler space telescope.
List of discoveries
References
Exoplanet search projects | TESS Hunt for Young and Maturing Exoplanets | [
"Astronomy"
] | 141 | [
"Astronomy projects",
"Exoplanet search projects"
] |
71,710,173 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time%20in%20the%20Republic%20of%20the%20Congo | The Republic of the Congo observes a single time zone year-round, denoted as West Africa Time (WAT; UTC+01:00).
IANA time zone database
In the IANA time zone database, the Congo is given one zone in the file zone.tab—Africa/Brazzaville. "CG" refers to the country's ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 country code. Data for the Congo directly from zone.tab of the IANA time zone database; columns marked with * are the columns from zone.tab itself:
See also
Time in Africa
Time in the Democratic Republic of the Congo
List of time zones by country
References
External links
Current time in the Congo at Time.is
Time in the Congo at TimeAndDate.com
Time by country
Geography of the Republic of the Congo
Time in Africa | Time in the Republic of the Congo | [
"Physics"
] | 168 | [
"Spacetime",
"Physical quantities",
"Time",
"Time by country"
] |
71,710,534 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tamar%20Flash | Tamar Flash is an Israeli neuroscientist and control theorist whose research concerns biological motor control, including the motion of the human arm, the effects of neurological damage on motion, and the use of robotics to study biological motion. She holds the Dr. Hymie Moross Professorial Chair in the Faculty of Mathematics and Computer Science at the Weizmann Institute of Science.
Education and career
Flash is originally from Ramat Gan. She studied physics at Tel Aviv University, graduating in 1972, and earned a master's degree there in 1976. Beginning in 1978, she studied medical physics and medical engineering at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT); she completed her Ph.D. there in 1983.
After postdoctoral research at MIT, she joined the Weizmann Institute of Science in 1985. There, she held the Corinne S. Koshland Career Development Chair from 1987 to 1991. She was promoted to associate professor in 1991 and to full professor in 1998, and was given the Hymie Moross Professorial Chair in 2003. She chaired the Department of Computer Science and Applied Mathematics from 2004 to 2006.
Recognition
Flash was elected to the International Neuropsychological Society in 1994. She was named as an international honorary member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 2016.
References
External links
Home page
Year of birth missing (living people)
Living people
People from Ramat Gan
Israeli neuroscientists
Israeli women neuroscientists
Control theorists
Tel Aviv University alumni
Massachusetts Institute of Technology alumni
Academic staff of Weizmann Institute of Science
Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences | Tamar Flash | [
"Engineering"
] | 324 | [
"Control engineering",
"Control theorists"
] |
71,710,816 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nettie%20Metcalf | Nettie Metcalf (née Williams; October 13, 1859 – 1945) was an American farmer from Warren, Ohio. She is best known for creating the Buckeye chicken breed, which was officiated by the American Poultry Association in February 1905. Metcalf attended poultry meetings across North America and became President of the American Buckeye Club. She is the only woman recorded by the American Poultry Association to create a chicken breed.
Personal life
Nettie Williams was born in Warren, Ohio in 1859. She was a descendant of William Williams, a Connecticut politician and Founding Father who signed the Declaration of Independence.
On March 6, 1879, she married Francis "Frank" C. Metcalf. They had three children.
Metcalf may have experienced occupational burnout as a result of the high demands for Buckeyes, leading to her move from Ohio to California. In 1917, she explained:
By 1917, she had moved to California with her husband. Her husband died on November 17, 1929.
Buckeye chickens
Metcalf created the Buckeye chicken breed in the 1890s, which she first named "Buckeye Reds." She described them as having "a modified Cornish shape, with the very darkest of red plumage."
Her goal was to create a practical breed that was able to survive harsh Ohio winters.
Creation of breed
In 1879, she began housekeeping with a flock of Brown Leghorn chickens. However, she was dissatisfied with their temperament, stating they "scratched and destroyed more than their necks were worth, laid only in the spring, and hid their nests then in the most out-of-the-way places they could find." When Metcalf would suggest slaughtering them, her husband would claim it was the wrong time of year, because according to Metcalf, "they were always scrawny and in poor condition."
After reading poultry literature, she tried domesticating Black Langshans and Plymouth Barred Rocks for a profit. She then mixed the Barred Rocks with Buff Cochins to produce what she called "a big, lazy fowl." Afterwards, she bought eggs from a breeder of B. B. Red Games, later speculating that his chickens were not purebred and mixed with Indian Game. That year's mating produced red birds, which were new to Ohio. She tried to reproduce the red birds and was "laughed at" presumably by neighbors for the attempt, but "determined to 'show folks' or die trying." She worked in a 9 foot by 12 foot coop in her 100-acre farm.
While attempting to replicate the red birds, Metcalf was concerned with the negative effects of inbreeding, and her surmises were proven correct when the four progenitors produced an irregular flock with "Green legs and feathered legs, buff chicks, black chicks, and even red and black barred chicks; single combs and pea combs, and no combs at all, but fighters from away back."
Metcalf's neighbors were amused by the flock, but she claimed one neighbor "quit laughing and decided to help me out." However, the neighbor's husband, Van, "didn't want any of those Metcalf mongrels on the place."
The neighbor's husband, Van, put a Barred Rock rooster on one side of a high fence and the buckeye game on the other and went in for tea and supper. When the neighbor expressed concern, her husband replied, "Let them fight; my big rooster will soon knock the spots off that little scamp." However, later in the day, they found the Barred Rock rooster dead with his eyes gouged out and the Buckeye on top. Van said, "Well, I swan" (a euphemism for "I swear"). Van went on to become a breeder of buckeyes.
Rhode Island Reds
In the winter of 1896, Metcalf learned of the existence of Rhode Island Reds, which were bred during the second half of the 19th century. Realizing other farmers had also attempted to breed red chickens, Metcalf exchanged birds and eggs with East Coast breeders to discover that the Buckeyes were a darker mahogany color, and Buckeyes had single and pea combs as opposed to rose and single combs.
Officiating breed
In 1902, Metcalf exhibited her breed at a poultry show in Cleveland, Ohio. On August 24, 1903, the president and secretary of the American Poultry Association inspected the buckeye breed and advised Metcalf to continue breeding them, as it was a distinct breed from Rhode Island Reds.
In 1904, she and her husband displayed the chickens at a poultry show in Rochester, New York. Buckeyes were admitted as an American Poultry Association breed in February 1905.
In 1907, she attended the American Poultry Association's first mid-summer meeting in Niagara Falls, which involved sending telegrams to other members. The 1908 APA revision committee advised that Buckeye should be dropped from the standard, but this was voted down in Niagara, New York in 1909.
Legacy
In 1909, the American Buckeye Club was established to preserve the Buckeye breed. As of 2024, the website of the organization is accessible.
The 2001 Encyclopedia of Historic and Endangered Livestock and Poultry Breeds mentions Nettie Metcalf and claims she created Buckeyes by crossing Cornish Games, Brahmas, and Black Breasted Gamefowl.
In the early 21st century, the Shumaker Farm Buckeye Chickens website compiled images relevant to Nettie Metcalf's life and work.
In 2003, the Buckeye breed became endangered, with less than 72 breeding birds on record. In 2005, the American Livestock Breeds Conservancy began a program to restore the breed as backyard birds.
In 2013, Nettie Metcalf's life and chicken breed was the episode topic of agriculture podcast The Urban Chicken.
See also
Caroline Rose Foster, contemporary woman farmer in New Jersey
Rosella Rice, contemporary Ohioan writer
Chicken breeds recognized by the American Poultry Association
Buckeye chicken
References
20th-century American women farmers
20th-century American farmers
Chicken breeds originating in the United States
Breeding
Farmers from Ohio
History of Ohio
1859 births
People from Warren, Ohio
1945 deaths
Place of death missing
19th-century American farmers
19th-century American women farmers | Nettie Metcalf | [
"Biology"
] | 1,285 | [
"Behavior",
"Breeding",
"Reproduction"
] |
71,711,287 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Von%20Neumann%27s%20elephant | In recreational mathematics, von Neumann's elephant is a problem consisting of constructing a planar curve in the shape of an elephant from only four fixed parameters. It originated from a discussion between physicists John von Neumann and Enrico Fermi.
History
In a 2004 article in the journal Nature, Freeman Dyson recounts his meeting with Fermi in 1953. Fermi evokes his friend von Neumann who, when asking him how many arbitrary parameters he used for his calculations, replied,
By this he meant that the Fermi simulations relied on too many input parameters, presupposing an overfitting phenomenon.
Solving the problem (defining four complex numbers to draw an elephantine shape) subsequently became an active research subject of recreational mathematics. A 1975 attempt through least-squares function approximation required dozens of terms. An approximation using four parameters was found by three physicists in 2010.
Construction
The construction is based on complex Fourier analysis.
The curve found in 2010 is parameterized by:
The four fixed parameters used are complex, with affixes , , , .
The affix point is added to make the eye of the elephant and this value serves as a parameter for the movement of the "trunk".
See also
Epicycloid
Curve fitting
References
External links
"Fitting an Elephant" at the Wolfram Demonstrations Project site
Curves
Recreational mathematics | Von Neumann's elephant | [
"Mathematics"
] | 268 | [
"Recreational mathematics"
] |
71,712,303 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amanita%20hygroscopica | Amanita hygroscopica (/æməˈnaɪtə /ha͡ɪɡɹəskˈo͡ʊpi͡ə), also known as the pink-gilled destroying angel is a deadly poisonous fungus, one of many in the genus Amanita.
Taxonomy
The species was first described by William Chambers Coker in 1917.
Description
The cap is wide and hemispheric. The gills are adnate, crowded, medium broad, entire, white, unchanging.
The stem is about , narrowing upward, smooth, glabrous, white, unchanging when bruised. The ring is fixed from the top of the stem, very short, skirt-like, grooved by the gills above, white, persistent. The bulb is ovoid, white, . The volva is neither appressed nor widely spreading, the edge is either 3-lobed or ragged. The mushroom is odorless and tasteless.
Similar species
A. hygroscopia resembles several edible species, most notably Agaricus campestris.
Toxicity
The principal toxic constituent is α-Amanitin, an elective inhibitor of RNA polymerase II and III, which causes liver and kidney failure. 15% of those poisoned will die within 10 days and those who survive are at risk of lifelong, permanent liver damage.
There is no antidote for amanitin poisoning; treatment is mainly supportive (gastric lavage, activated carbon, and fluid resuscitation). In severe cases the only effective treatment may be a liver transplant.
Amatoxins, the class of toxins found in these mushrooms, are thermostable: they resist changes due to heat, so their toxic effects are not reduced by cooking.
See also
List of Amanita species
List of deadly fungi
References
hygroscopica
Fungi of the United States
Deadly fungi
Fungi described in 1917
Fungus species | Amanita hygroscopica | [
"Biology"
] | 391 | [
"Fungi",
"Fungus species"
] |
71,713,594 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue%20Mountains%20and%20Southern%20Highlands%20Basalt%20Forests | The Blue Mountains and Southern Highlands Basalt Forests are a sclerophyll temperate forest community that stretch from the northern fringes of the Blue Mountains to the Southern Highlands in New South Wales, Australia. Featuring both wet and dry sclerophyll forests, as well as small rainforest pockets, the community features tall (30m+) and open eucalypt forests and woodlands that lie on igneous rock (Blue Mountains Basalts).
Rainforests of the Blue Mountains, which cover just 1% of the area, feature the descendants of the forests that used to cover the ancient supercontinent of Gondwana.
Geography
Part of the Eastern Australian temperate forests, the region is found on extremely fertile soils, between 750 m and 1050 m in elevation, in areas with annual rainfall of 950 to 1350 mm, mostly in the Blue Mountains and Southern Highlands region, but it is also spread into Wolgan, Morton National Park, Meryla State Forest, Wollemi, and the basalt tops of Mount Irvine, Mount Wilson, Mount Tomah, Mount Banks and Mount Hay, with probable disjunct outliers north towards Mount Cameron and Mount Monundilla. Between 30 and 50% of the vegetation's original occurrence is estimated to remain.
The Wet Sclerophyll Basalt Forests of the Sydney Basin Bioregion, existing as a scattered remnant, also occurs in the ecoregion but in small percentage, such as in areas like the Yengo National Park, the Mount Gibraltar Reserve, Robertson, Moss Vale, Bundanoon and Wingello, which also lie on fertile soils derived from basalts.
Forest subregions
Other small basalt forest patches in the region include:
Southern Escarpment Wet Sclerophyll Forests
Robertson Basalt Tall Open Forest
Mount Gibraltar Forest
Robertson Basalt Brown Barrel
Montane Basalt Cap Forest
Robertson Basalt Tall Forest
Mount Gibraltar Forest
Moist Basalt Cap Forest
There are three categories of rainforest found in the Greater Blue Mountains:
Northern Warm Temperate Rainforests (lowers slopes of the Blue Mountains, Wollemi, and Kanangra-Boyd National Park)
Cool Temperate Rainforests (upper slopes of Mount Tomah and Mount Wilson, the upper gorges of western Kanangra-Boyd National Park and Jenolan Karst Conservation Reserve)
Dry Rainforests (the gorges of the Kowmung and Shoalhaven Rivers, near the tributaries of the Hawkesbury River, and in protected rocky limestone pockets in Wollemi and Yengo).
The wet sclerophyll forests only inhabit 6% of the Blue Mountains landscape, and have had once occupied the Oberon area.
Ecology
The canopy mixture is multivariate, but is normally predominated by species such as Eucalyptus fastigata, Eucalyptus blaxlandii, Eucalyptus cypellocarpa and Eucalyptus radiata subsp. radiata. Other locally common trees include Eucalyptus oreades, Acacia melanoxylon and Eucalyptus viminalis. A thin to dense layer of shrubs, vines, and various understorey of native grasses, forbs, twiners and ferns exist.
The wet sclerophyll parts of the ecoregion feature shrubs such as Polyscias sambucifolia, Coprosma quadrifida, Senecio linearifolius, Daviesia ulicifolia and Leucopogon lanceolatus, including vines such as, Eustrephus latifolius, Rubus parvifolius, Rubus rosifolius, Smilax australis, Hardenbergia violacea and Hibbertia scandens. Ferns include Pteridium esculentum, Blechnum cartilagineum and Pellaea falcata.
The temperate rainforests feature plant species such as Ceratopetalum apetalum, Livistona australis, Acmena smithii, Acacia elata, Syncarpia glomulifera, Doryphora sassafras and Hedycarya angustifolia, with the dry rainforests containing Backhousia myrtifolia, Ficus rubiginosa, Rapanea variabilis and Alectryon subcinereus.
Fauna
Mammals include wallabies, pademelons, native rats, Antechinus spp, Tachyglossus aculeatus, Vombatus ursinus, Macropus giganteus and Pteropus poliocephalus. Birds include Ninox strenua, Tyto tenebricosa, Monarcha melanopsis, Leucosarcia melanoleuca, Lopholaimus antarcticus, Chalcophaps indica, Macropygia amboinensis and Rhipidura rufifrons. Threatened reptile species is Varanus rosenbergi.
See also
Western Sydney Dry Rainforest
Southern Sydney sheltered forest
References
Forests of New South Wales
Environment of New South Wales
Eastern Australian temperate forests
Temperate broadleaf and mixed forests
Ecoregions of New South Wales
Sclerophyll forests
Old-growth forests | Blue Mountains and Southern Highlands Basalt Forests | [
"Biology"
] | 1,020 | [
"Old-growth forests",
"Ecosystems"
] |
56,075,256 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graph-encoded%20map | In topological graph theory, a graph-encoded map or gem is a method of encoding a cellular embedding of a graph using a different graph with four vertices per edge of the original graph. It is the topological analogue of runcination, a geometric operation on polyhedra. Graph-encoded maps were formulated and named by .
Alternative and equivalent systems for representing cellular embeddings include signed rotation systems and ribbon graphs.
The graph-encoded map for an embedded graph is another cubic graph together with a 3-edge-coloring of . Each edge of is expanded into exactly four vertices in , one for each choice of a side and endpoint of the edge. An edge in connects each such vertex to the vertex representing the opposite side and same endpoint of ; these edges are by convention colored red. Another edge in connects each vertex to the vertex representing the opposite endpoint and same side of ; these edges are by convention colored blue. An edge in of the third color, yellow, connects each vertex to the vertex representing another edge that meets at the same side and endpoint.
An alternative description of is that it has a vertex for each flag of (a mutually incident triple of a vertex, edge, and face). If is a flag,
then there is exactly one vertex , edge , and face such that , , and are also flags. The three colors of edges in represent each of these three types of flags that differ by one of their three elements. However, interpreting a graph-encoded map in this way requires more care. When the same face appears on both sides of an edge, as can happen for instance for a planar embedding of a tree, the two sides give rise to different gem vertices. And when the same vertex appears at both endpoints of a self-loop, the two ends of the edge again give rise to different gem vertices. In this way, each triple may be associated with up to four different vertices of the gem.
Whenever a cubic graph can be 3-edge-colored so that the red-blue cycles of the coloring all have length four, the colored graph can be interpreted as a graph-encoded map, and represents an embedding of another graph .
To recover and its embedding, interpret each 2-colored cycle of as the face of an embedding of onto a surface,
contract each red--yellow cycle into a single vertex of , and replace each pair of parallel blue edges left by the contraction with a single edge of .
The dual graph of a graph-encoded map may be obtained from the map by recoloring it so that the red edges of the gem become blue and the blue edges become red.
References
Topological graph theory | Graph-encoded map | [
"Mathematics"
] | 548 | [
"Topology",
"Topological graph theory",
"Mathematical relations",
"Graph theory"
] |
56,075,910 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dihydrofluoxymesterone | Dihydrofluoxymesterone (developmental code name U-7265) is an androgen and anabolic steroid (AAS) which was never marketed. It was assessed in the treatment of breast cancer in women in at least one clinical study in the 1970s and showed effectiveness similar to that of other AAS. The drug is the 5α-reduced analogue and metabolite of fluoxymesterone.
See also
Oxofluoxymesterone
References
5α-Reduced steroid metabolites
Abandoned drugs
Cyclohexanols
1-Methylcyclopentanols
Anabolic–androgenic steroids
Androstanes
Hepatotoxins
Hormonal antineoplastic drugs
Human drug metabolites
Ketones
Organofluorides
Diols | Dihydrofluoxymesterone | [
"Chemistry"
] | 164 | [
"Ketones",
"Functional groups",
"Drug safety",
"Human drug metabolites",
"Chemicals in medicine",
"Abandoned drugs"
] |
56,076,029 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxofluoxymesterone | Oxofluoxymesterone (developmental code name U-6596), or ketofluoxymesterone, is an androgen and anabolic steroid (AAS) which was never marketed. It was assessed in the treatment of breast cancer in women in the 1970s and showed effectiveness similar to that of other AAS. The drug is the 11-dehydrogenated analogue and a metabolite of fluoxymesterone.
See also
Dihydrofluoxymesterone
References
Abandoned drugs
Tertiary alcohols
Anabolic–androgenic steroids
Androstanes
Diketones
Hepatotoxins
Hormonal antineoplastic drugs
Human drug metabolites
Organofluorides | Oxofluoxymesterone | [
"Chemistry"
] | 153 | [
"Chemicals in medicine",
"Drug safety",
"Human drug metabolites",
"Abandoned drugs"
] |
56,077,156 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fire%E2%80%93vegetation%20feedbacks%20and%20alternative%20stable%20states | The relationships between fire, vegetation, and climate create what is known as a fire regime. Within a fire regime, fire ecologists study the relationship between diverse ecosystems and fire; not only how fire affects vegetation, but also how vegetation affects the behavior of fire. The study of neighboring vegetation types that may be highly flammable and less flammable has provided insight into how these vegetation types can exist side by side, and are maintained by the presence or absence of fire events. Ecologists have studied these boundaries between different vegetation types, such as a closed canopy forest and a grassland, and hypothesized about how climate and soil fertility create these boundaries in vegetation types. Research in the field of pyrogeography shows how fire also plays an important role in the maintenance of dominant vegetation types, and how different vegetation types with distinct relationships to fire can exist side by side in the same climate conditions. These relationships can be described in conceptual models called fire–vegetation feedbacks, and alternative stable states.
Fire–vegetation feedbacks
Vegetation can be understood as highly flammable (pyrophilic) and less flammable (pyrophobic). A fire–vegetation feedback describes the relationship between fire and the dominant vegetation type. An example of a highly flammable vegetation type is a grassland. Frequent fire will maintain grassland as the dominant vegetation in a positive feedback loop. This happens because frequent fire will kill trees trying to establish in the area, yet the intervals between each fire will allow for new grasses to establish, grow into fuel, and burn again. Therefore, frequent fire on a grassland area will maintain grass as the dominant vegetation and not permit the encroachment of trees. In contrast, fire will occur less frequently and less severely in closed canopy forests because the fuels are more dense, shaded, and therefore more humid thereby not igniting as easily. The closed canopy of the dominant forest vegetation will also limit the growth of certain species, and permit the growth of shade-tolerant plants.
Alternative stable states and fire
The ecological theory of alternative stable states describes how different ecosystems can exist side by side, and how they can shift as a result of disturbance. Applied to fire ecology, the theory describes how flammable and less-flammable vegetation types can exist side by side, and are maintained by different relationships with fire. If the frequency and intensity of fire in each vegetation type is not disturbed, then the dominant vegetation type will be maintained, and considered stable. This theory also describes how dominant vegetation can rapidly shift to another vegetation type via fire suppression, an increase in fire severity, introduction of invasive species, and other management disturbances. These effects, which can cause a vegetation type to shift, are described as destabilizing transitions.
The theory of fire and alternative stable states has been researched in many places across the globe in recent decades. The study of fire regimes and alternative stable states requires inquiry on many levels; paleoecological research into vegetation patterns, evidence of fire, and climate over millennia; research on anthropogenic burning; and research on the impacts of management such as fire suppression, grazing, and forestry.
Alternative stable states and fire across the globe
Klamath Mountains
An example of alternative stable states and fire can be found in the Klamath Mountains, in northwestern California. The fire regime of this area before European settlement burned in intervals of 5–75 years, and Native Americans, including the Karuk Tribe, used, and continue to use, fire to manage the landscapes. Three dominant vegetation types are common and neighboring in this region; scleropyhll shrub land, conifer forests, and plantation conifer forests. Sclerophyllous vegetation is medium to tall shrubs and trees, and are considered pyrogenic and recover quickly after fire due to a number of fire adaptations, such as re-sprouting lignotubers and seeds that survive fire. Closed conifer forests contain a medium to tall overstory of conifers and a shade-tolerant understory. Conifer-dominated forests burn less frequently, and can have low to high severity fire events. High severity events can be stand-replacing events that kill all dominant vegetation. Plantations in this area grow the commercially valuable Douglas fir, are densely and uniformly spaced, do not usually have hardwoods, and have grass and shrubs in the understory. These plantations are more flammable than neighboring mixed conifer forests.
When patches of mixed conifer forest are killed by high severity fire events, sclerophyll vegetation can establish first and create a new alternative stable state with its own self-reinforcing feedback with fire. Therefore, a high severity fire event is considered a destabilizing transition between mixed conifer forest and a sclerophyll shrub land. Conversely, if a long period of time between fires occurs in sclerophyll vegetation, conifers can establish and the state can switch to a less flammable mixed conifer forest, which will be maintained by lower severity and less frequent fires. Therefore, fire suppression in a sclerophyll shrub land is considered a destabilizing transition, as it causes the fire dependent sclerophyll shrub land to switch to a mixed conifer forest. The establishment of a conifer plantation creates an alternative stable state that has higher pyrogenicity than a mixed confer forest, creating the potential for more frequent and higher severity fire that can affect neighboring mixed conifer forests. The establishment of a conifer plantation in a previous sclerophyll shrubland or mixed conifer forest and the related effects of increased fire severity also create destabilizing transitions in this alternative stable states model.
Tasmania
Recent studies of alternative stable states in southwestern Tasmania include the role of soil fertility and topography in relationship to fire, vegetation, and reinforcing feedbacks. Four vegetation types exist in the studied area of southwestern Tasmania; moorland, shrubland, wet sclerophyll, and rainforest. Patches of rainforest are surrounded by a patchwork of more flammable vegetation types. Rainforests were found to be located in valleys and south-facing slopes, areas which were found to be less likely to burn. Both topography and fire play a role in maintaining these alternative stable states. Soil nutrients were reduced in areas of higher flammability, and were found to accumulate in the forested areas that burnt less frequently.
Management implications
As demonstrated by alternative stable states theories and research, fire exclusion and other management practices impact neighboring vegetation types via destabilizing transitions. Land managers and the public will need to consider the destabilizing effects of management practices such as prolonged fire suppression, and plantation establishment after fires, on neighboring fire dependent ecosystems.
References
Feedback
Wildfire ecology
Ecology terminology | Fire–vegetation feedbacks and alternative stable states | [
"Biology"
] | 1,376 | [
"Ecology terminology"
] |
56,077,815 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Szeged%20index | In chemical graph theory, the Szeged index is a topological index of a molecule, used in biochemistry. The Szeged index, introduced by Iván Gutman, generalizes the concept of the Wiener index introduced by Harry Wiener.
The Szeged index of a connected graph G is defined as
If e is an edge of G connecting vertices u and v, then we write e = uv or e = vu. For , let and be respectively the number of vertices of G lying closer to vertex u than to vertex v and the number of vertices of G lying closer to vertex v than to vertex u.
Szeged index plays an important role in information theory. One way to measure a network structure is through the so-called topological indices. Szeged index has been shown to correlate well with numerous biological and physicochemical properties.
Examples
The Szeged index of Dendrimer Nanostar of the following figure can be calculated by
References
Mathematical chemistry
Cheminformatics
Graph invariants | Szeged index | [
"Chemistry",
"Mathematics"
] | 205 | [
"Drug discovery",
"Applied mathematics",
"Graph theory",
"Molecular modelling",
"Mathematical chemistry",
"Theoretical chemistry",
"Computational chemistry",
"Graph invariants",
"Cheminformatics",
"nan",
"Mathematical relations"
] |
56,077,966 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FUNTORO | FUNTORO is a Taiwan-based subsidiary brand of the Micro-Star International (MSI) group and global provider of telematics and infotainment solutions for commercial vehicles and venues. It also supplies global OE manufacturers including Mercedes Benz, MAN, Scania and IRIZAR as well. It designs, develops and supplies Fleet management services, a Cloud management platform, commercial digital AD products, Media on Demand Infotainment products, Stadium & Arena products and Hospitality products to commercial sectors, public transportation and automotive industries. An estimated 1,000,000+ terminals across 38+ countries run the system on commercial vehicles, railway, stadium and other venues.
History
2008 -FUNTORO was founded. It was initially focused on Automotive Electronics’ research, development and software integration. After becoming part of MSI (Micro-Star International) Group, FUNTORO acquired experience and resources of embedded system and vehicle Telematics, resulting in a product-line expansion. In the same year FUNTORO officially launched Media on Demand products to provide passengers with multimedia entertainment and information for intercity long-distance buses.
2009 -FUNTORO expanded its business territory to Europe, UAE, Southeast Asia and obtained highest market share in Turkey and Latin America. In the same year, FUNTORO also released Telematics products for commercial vehicles providing functions like fleet management, safety monitoring, vehicle information, driver behavior and Cloud management platform for fleet managers.
2010 - FUNTORO MOD products entered the intercity bus market in Japan and started to cooperate with the biggest coach bus body builder in China- Yutong. In the same year, equipped with FUNTORO Telematics products, a new generation of citybus in Taichung City makes commuters' daily life more convenient and informative.
2011- started a cooperation with Autosound – the leading provider of bus and coach multimedia systems in United Kingdom.
2012 - in cooperation with municipal government of Brazil, establishes a new series of city buses for its public transportation infrastructure in Rio de Janeiro. In the same year, FUNTORO cooperates with top 3 bus operators in Mexico – Primera Plus, Transpais and Omnibus de México.
2013 - partners with two of the biggest bus fleet in Latin America – Cruz del Sur and Tur-bus to equip buses traveling between all major cities in Peru, Chile and Colombia with FUNTORO Infotainment products. Meanwhile, Lux Express and Student Agency, biggest international coach operators in the Baltic region & Czech Republic, launched their new luxury buses with FUNTORO solution.
2013 - FUNTORO Railway Infotainment products started operation on railway routes in Central and Eastern Europe.
2014 - Sightseeing bus “SKYBUS” in Kyoto, Hop-on Hop-off Sightseeing bus in Shanghai, Vienna Sightseeing Tram "Ring Tram" implement FUNTORO products. Taiwan Taxi implements FUNTORO Smart AD products, generating additional advertising revenue in the amount of multi-millions US dollars per year.
2015 - Vodafone Park stadium in Istanbul, Turkey implemented FUNTORO Stadium & Arena products as a part of its modernization project. The project was awarded "Project of the Year Award at The Stadium Business Design & Development Summit" in 2017. Launched a new generation of Telematics products for Heavy duty trucks, coaches & buses.
2016 - Sombat Tour in Thailand and Alsa, the biggest bus operators in Spain, implement FUNTORO Infotainment solution in their first-class coach buses.
2016 - officially became a subsidiary-brand of MSI. Meanwhile, FUNTORO Hospitality products experience a steady growth in Hotel industry in Southeast Asia & Europe
2017 - started a cooperation with MAN, providing Telematics products along with a Cloud management platform for their Heavy duty trucks. Conducted a railway modernization project with Government of India
References
Micro-Star International
Computer companies of Taiwan
Computer hardware companies
Taiwanese brands
2008 establishments in Taiwan
Multinational companies headquartered in Taiwan
Companies based in New Taipei | FUNTORO | [
"Technology"
] | 802 | [
"Computer hardware companies",
"Computers"
] |
56,080,368 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EPC%20Groupe | EPC Groupe (Explosifs Produits Chimiques S.A.) is a French multinational company that trades in explosives and drilling; It is one of the world’s leaders in explosives manufacture, storage and distribution and in particular drilling and blasting.
History
It was founded in 1893 by Eugène-Jean Barbier and its first implantation was in Saint-Martin-de-Crau (France).
Structure
It is headquartered in La Défense (France). It has over fifty subsidiary companies around the world.
United Kingdom
In the UK it has two sites, in Somercotes, Derbyshire and Great Oakley, Essex, known as EPC-UK. It began in the UK in 1905. The UK head office is south of the A38, at the B600 junction. It started in the UK as Explosives and Chemical Products (ECP), later part of Exchem. It has a 12,000 acre test site on the Essex coast at Hamford Water in Tendring. Exchem had a subsidiary in Essex, Thames Nitrogen, that made explosives.
Products
It produces around 145,000 tonnes of explosive annually.
References
External links
EPC Groupe
EPC Groupe UK
1893 establishments in France
Chemical companies of France
Companies based in Derbyshire
Demolition
Explosives manufacturers
Manufacturing companies based in Paris
Manufacturing companies established in 1893
Mining companies of France
Mining engineering companies | EPC Groupe | [
"Engineering"
] | 279 | [
"Demolition",
"Mining engineering",
"Engineering companies",
"Construction",
"Mining engineering companies"
] |
56,080,466 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NGC%20511 | NGC 511, also occasionally referred to as PGC 5103 or UGC 936, is an elliptical galaxy in the constellation Pisces. It is located approximately 499 million light-years from the Solar System and was discovered on 26 October 1876 by French astronomer Édouard Stephan.
Observation history
Stephan discovered the object with the 31" silver-glass reflecting telescope at the Marseille Observatory. He described his discovery as diffuse, with two faint stars on the west side. The description and position given in his notes matches UGC 936 and PGC 5103, thus the objects are widely recognized as the same. John Louis Emil Dreyer, creator of the New General Catalogue, described the galaxy as "extremely faint, very small, small (faint) star involved, small star attached", with the two stars being the objects to the west of NGC 511.
Description
The galaxy has an apparent size of 1.1 × 1.1 arcmins and a recessional velocity of approximately 10954 kilometers per second. It also contains multiple concentric rings. The distance of NGC 511 from the Solar System can be estimated using Hubble's law, which puts the object at nearly 500 million light-years from the Sun.
See also
Elliptical galaxy
List of NGC objects (1–1000)
Pisces (constellation)
References
External links
SEDS
Elliptical galaxies
Pisces (constellation)
0511
5103
0936
Astronomical objects discovered in 1876
Discoveries by Édouard Stephan | NGC 511 | [
"Astronomy"
] | 295 | [
"Pisces (constellation)",
"Constellations"
] |
56,082,362 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistemic%20injustice | Epistemic injustice is injustice related to knowledge. It includes exclusion and silencing; systematic distortion or misrepresentation of one's meanings or contributions; undervaluing of one's status or standing in communicative practices; unfair distinctions in authority; and unwarranted distrust.
An influential theory of epistemic injustice is that of British philosopher Miranda Fricker, who coined the term in 1999. According to Fricker, there are two kinds of epistemic injustice: testimonial injustice and hermeneutical injustice.
Related concepts include epistemic oppression and epistemic violence.
Testimonial injustice
Testimonial injustice is unfairness related to trusting someone's word. An injustice of this kind can occur when someone is ignored, or not believed, because of their sex, sexuality, gender presentation, race, disability, or, broadly, because of their identity.
Miranda Fricker gives the example of Londoner Duwayne Brooks, who saw his friend Stephen Lawrence murdered. The police officers who arrived at the scene regarded Brooks with suspicion. According to an official inquiry, "the officers failed to concentrate upon Mr. Brooks and to follow up energetically the information which he gave them. Nobody suggested that he should accompany them in searches of the area, although he knew where the assailants had last been seen. Nobody appears properly to have tried to calm him, or to accept that what he said was true." That is, the police officers failed to view Brooks as a credible witness, presumably in part due to racial bias. This was, says Fricker, a case of testimonial injustice, which occurs when "prejudice causes a hearer to give a deflated level of credibility to a speaker's word."
Hermeneutical injustice
Hermeneutical injustice occurs when someone's experiences are not well understood — by themselves or by others — because these experiences do not fit any concepts known to them (or known to others), due to the historic exclusion of some groups of people from activities, such as scholarship and journalism, that shape the language people use to make sense of their experiences.
For example, in the 1970s, the phrase sexual harassment was introduced to describe something that many people, especially women, had long experienced. Before this time, a woman experiencing sexual harassment may have had difficulty putting her experience into words. Fricker states that this difficulty is also not accidental, and was largely due to women's exclusion from shaping the English language and participating equally in journalism, publishing, academia, law, and the other institutions and industries that help people make sense of their lives. After the term sexual harassment was introduced, the same woman who experienced sexual harassment may have understood better what happened to her; however, she may have struggled to explain this experience to someone else, because the concept of sexual harassment was not yet well known.
The term hermeneutical means "relating to interpretation"; hermeneutical injustice makes someone less able to interpret their own life.
Epistemological violence
Epistemological violence is distinct from epistemic injustice in that it usually occurs in the power structure of academic research, such as when interpreting empirical results in psychology. Epistemological violence is theoretical interpretations of empirical results that construct a targeted group as inferior, despite alternative and equally viable interpretations of the data.
For example, the psychologist Monique Botha has argued that academic studies of Theory of Mind in autistic children constitutes epistemological violence, due to foundational studies explicitly or implicitly drawing universal conclusions about the entire group of autistic people.
Origins
Though the term epistemic injustice was not coined until 1999, earlier thinkers have discussed similar ideas.
Vivian May has argued that civil rights activist Anna Julia Cooper in the 1890s anticipated the concept in claiming that Black women are denied full and equal recognition as knowers.
Gaile Pohlhaus Jr. points to Gayatri Chakrovorty Spivak's 1988 essay "Can the Subaltern Speak?" as another anticipation. In that essay, Spivak describes what she calls epistemic violence occurring when subaltern persons are prevented from speaking for themselves about their own interests because of others claiming to know what those interests are.
Further developments
Other scholars since Fricker have adapted the concept of epistemic injustice and/or expanded what the term includes. These contributions have included naming and narrowing down forms of epistemic injustice, such as epistemic oppression, epistemicide, epistemic exploitation, silencing as testimonial quieting and as testimonial smothering, contributory injustice, distributive epistemic injustice, epistemic trust injustice, and expressive hermeneutical injustice.
José Medina has advocated for an account of epistemic injustice that incorporates more voices and pays attention to context and the relationships at play. Elizabeth S. Anderson has argued that attention should be given to the structural causes and structural remedies of epistemic injustice. A closely related literature on epistemologies of ignorance has also been developing, which has included the identification of overlapping concepts such as white ignorance and willful hermeneutical ignorance.
American philosopher Kristie Dotson has warned that some definitions could leave out important contributions to the ongoing discussion around epistemic injustice. Gaile Pohlhaus Jr. has replied that the concept should therefore be considered an open one, and many different approaches to the concept should be considered.
The Routledge Handbook of Epistemic Injustice (2017) addressed both the theory of epistemic injustice and its application to practical case studies. The Indian political theorist Rajeev Bhargava has used the term epistemic injustice to describe how colonized groups were wronged when colonizing powers replaced, or negatively impacted, the concepts and categories that colonized groups used to understand themselves and the world. More recently, Sabelo Ndlovu-Gatsheni has used the terms epistemicide and cognitive empire to describe discrimination against scholars and intellectuals from the Global South.
More recently there has been proliferation of literature of epistemic injustice in the field of health and medicine, linking it with decolonisaation efforts - most prominent academics being Himani Bhakuni, Seye Abimbola and Soumyadeep Bhaumik . The nature and structure of epistemic injustice in the neglected tropical disease community has been described and calls for structural reforms, meta-research and health policy has been made. Robert Chapman, among others, has discussed the relationship between epistemic injustice and neurodiversity.
Genocide denial has been considered an example of epistemic injustice.
See also
Selected philosophers and theorists
Miranda Fricker
José Medina
Kristie Dotson
Elizabeth S. Anderson
Charles Mills
Boaventura de Sousa Santos
Sabelo J. Ndlovu-Gatsheni
Related concepts
References
Bibliography
Fricker, Miranda (2007). Epistemic Injustice: Power and the Ethics of Knowing. Oxford: Oxford University Press. .
Kidd, Ian James, José Medina, and Gaile Pohlhaus Jr. (2017). The Routledge Handbook of Epistemic Injustice. Routledge. .
—— (2013). The Epistemology of Resistance: Gender and Racial Oppression, Epistemic Injustice, and Resistant imaginations. Oxford: Oxford University Press. .
Injustice
Injustice
Historical negationism
Concepts in epistemology | Epistemic injustice | [
"Technology"
] | 1,522 | [
"Social epistemology",
"Science and technology studies"
] |
56,082,602 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NGC%20512 | NGC 512, also occasionally referred to as PGC 5132 or UGC 944, is a spiral galaxy in the constellation Andromeda. It is located approximately 217 million light-years from the Solar System and was discovered on 17 November 1827 by astronomer John Herschel.
Observation history
Herschel's discovery is based on a single observation. He described the object as "very faint, very small". The position is just 23" from UGC 944, thus the two objects are generally regarded as equivalent. John Louis Emil Dreyer, creator of the New General Catalogue, added the object to the catalogue, adopting Herschel's description.
Description
The galaxy has an apparent size of 1.6 × 0.4 arcmins and appears very elongated. It has a recessional velocity of approximately 4810 kilometers per second. The distance of NGC 512 from the Solar System can be estimated using Hubble's law, which puts the object at roughly 220 million light-years from the Sun.
See also
List of NGC objects (1–1000)
References
External links
SEDS
Spiral galaxies
Andromeda (constellation)
0512
5132
0944
Astronomical objects discovered in 1827
Discoveries by John Herschel | NGC 512 | [
"Astronomy"
] | 243 | [
"Andromeda (constellation)",
"Constellations"
] |
56,082,935 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watching%20the%20sky%20and%20thinking%20a%20thought | I am watching the sky and thinking a thought () is a song with lyrics written by Ukrainian romantic poet Mykhailo Petrenko in 1841. It was set to music by Lyudmila Alexandrova. Vladislav Zaremba arranged this song for voice and piano. This song became one of the first two songs sung in space: this happened on August 12, 1962, on board the spacecraft "Vostok 3 and 4" when the first Ukrainian Soviet cosmonaut Pavlo Popovych from Ukraine, who had previously been fond of opera singing, performed it at the special request of Serhiy Korolyov, a prominent Soviet rocket engineer and designer of spacecraft from Ukraine, which sent the first satellite and the first people into space. 55 years after the first performance of Ukrainian song in space, on August 12, 2017, the introduction of this day of Ukrainian Song Day was initiated.
Prominent singers
Borys Gmyria video)
Ivan Zhadan video)
Ivan Kozlovsky (video)
Anatoly Solovyanenko video)
Yarolav Yevdokimov video)
Yuri Gulyaev (video)
Muslim Magomayev (video)
Olexandr Ponomariov (video)
Mark Reisen (video)
Igor Borko (video)
Soviet Army Song and Dance Ensemble video)
Riga Etude Song Theater (video)
References
Literature
Михайло Петренко: Життя і творчість (художні тексти, дослідження, документи). // Упорядники О. Є. Петренко, О. О. Редчук. Оформлення Д. О. Редчук. «Фенікс». — К., 2013, 218 с.
Поет-романтик Михайло Миколайович Петренко (1817—1862): Твори. Критичні та історико-літературні матеріали. // Упорядник О. Є. Петренко. "ПП "НВЦ «ПРОФІ». — К., 2015, 586 с.
Михайло Петренко. Твори / Упорядник О. Є. Петренко. – К.: «Кий», 2017. – 104 с.
Михайло Миколайович Петренко. 200 років безсмертя / Петренко О. Є., Шабанова В. М. – К.: «Кий», 2017. – 238 с.
«Дивлюся на небо та й думку гадаю» в перекладах мовами світу / Упорядники Є. В. Букет, О. Є. Петренко. – Житомир: ФОП Євенок О. О., 2017. – 112 с. – (Бібліотека газети «Культура і життя»).
Music in space
Ukrainian songs | Watching the sky and thinking a thought | [
"Astronomy"
] | 856 | [
"Outer space",
"Music in space"
] |
56,083,022 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20translation%20software | This is a list of notable translation software.
Software
List of PO file editors/translator (in no particular order):
XEmacs (with po-mode): runs on Unices with X
GNU Emacs (with po-mode): runs on Unices and Windows
poEdit: Linux, Mac OS X, and Windows poEdit does support multiple plural forms since version 1.3..
OmegaT is another translation tool that can translate PO files. It is written in Java so it is available for multiple platforms (including Linux and Windows). It can be downloaded from SourceForge.
GNU Gettext (Linux/Unix) used for the GNU Translation Project. Gettext also provides msgmerge that makes merging translations easy.
Vim (Linux/Unix and Windows versions available) with PO ftplugin for easier editing of GNU gettext PO files.
gtranslator for Linux
Virtaal: Linux and Windows; for Mac OS X 10.5 and newer a Beta release Native support for Gettext PO translation as well as XLIFF and other formats. Simple interface with powerful machine translation, translation memory and terminology management features.
GlobalSight
Other tools
Google Translator Toolkit
References
Material was copied from this source, which is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 2.0 Generic (CC BY-SA 2.0) license.
See also
Computer-assisted translation
Comparison of computer-assisted translation tools
Machine translation
Translation memory
translation
Software | List of translation software | [
"Technology"
] | 300 | [
"Computing-related lists",
"Lists of software"
] |
56,083,217 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferric%20EDTA | Ferric EDTA is the coordination complex formed from ferric ions and EDTA. EDTA has a high affinity for ferric ions. It gives yellowish aqueous solutions.
Synthesis and structure
Solutions of Fe(III)-EDTA are produced by combining ferrous salts and aqueous solutions of EDTA known as Jacobson's solution (cf. chemical equation (1) under Table (1)).
Near neutral pH, the principal complex is [Fe(EDTA)(H2O)]−, although most sources ignore the aquo ligand. The [Fe(EDTA)(H2O)]− anion has been crystallized with many cations, e.g., the trihydrate Na[Fe(EDTA)(H2O)].2H2O. The salts as well as the solutions are yellow-brown. Provided the nutrient solution in which the [Fe(EDTA)(H2O)]− complex will be used has a pH of at least 5.5, all the uncomplexed iron, as a result of incomplete synthesis reaction, will still change into the chelated ferric form.
Uses
EDTA is used to solubilize iron(III) in water. In the absence of EDTA or similar chelating agents, ferric ions form insoluble solids and are thus not bioavailable.
Together with pentetic acid (DTPA), EDTA is widely used for sequestering metal ions. Otherwise these metal ions catalyze the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide, which is used to bleach pulp in papermaking. Several million kilograms EDTA are produced for this purpose annually.
Iron chelate is commonly used for agricultural purposes to treat chlorosis, a condition in which leaves produce insufficient chlorophyll. Iron and ligand are absorbed separately by the plant roots whereby the highly stable ferric chelate is first reduced to the less stable ferrous chelate. In horticulture, iron chelate is often referred to as 'sequestered iron' and is used as a plant tonic, often mixed with other nutrients and plant foods (e.g. seaweed). It is recommended in ornamental horticulture for feeding ericaceous plants like Rhododendrons if they are growing in calcareous soils. The sequestered iron is available to the ericaceous plants, without adjusting the soil's pH, and thus, lime-induced chlorosis is prevented.
Ferric EDTA can be used as a component for the Hoagland solution or the Long Ashton Nutrient Solution. According to Jacobson (1951), the stability of ferric EDTA was tested by adding 5 ppm iron, as the complex, to Hoagland's solution at various pH values. No loss of iron occurred below pH 6. In addition to Jacobson's original recipe and a modified protocol by Steiner and van Winden (1970), an updated version for producing the ferric EDTA complex by Nagel et al. (2020) is presented in Table (1).
Jacobson's solution
Table (1) to prepare the ferric EDTA stock solution
The formation of Fe(III)-EDTA (FeY)− can be described as follows:
FeSO4∙7H2O + K2H2Y + 1/4 O2 → K[FeY(H2O)].H2O + KHSO4 + 5.5 H2O (1)
Iron chelate has also been used as a bait in the chemical control of slugs, snails and slaters in agriculture in Australia and New Zealand. They have advantages over other more generally poisonous substances used as their toxicity is more specific to molluscs.
Ferric EDTA is used as a photographic bleach to convert silver metal into silver salts, that can later be removed.
Related derivatives
Aside from EDTA, the chelating agent EDDHA is used to solubilize iron in water. It also can be used for the purposes of agriculture, accessible to plants.
In iron chelation therapy, deferoxamine, has been used to treat excess iron stores, i.e. haemochromatosis.
See also
DTPA
EDDHA
Tartrate
Citrate
References
Iron(III) compounds
Coordination complexes | Ferric EDTA | [
"Chemistry"
] | 904 | [
"Coordination chemistry",
"Coordination complexes"
] |
56,083,331 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20tessellations | This is a list of tessellations.
Spherical
Planar
Hyperbolic
See also
Uniform tiling
Convex uniform honeycombs
List of k-uniform tilings
List of Euclidean uniform tilings
Uniform tilings in hyperbolic plane
References
Mathematics-related lists | List of tessellations | [
"Physics",
"Mathematics"
] | 51 | [
"Tessellation",
"Planes (geometry)",
"Euclidean plane geometry",
"Symmetry"
] |
56,083,340 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/64%20Draconis | 64 Draconis is a single star in the northern circumpolar constellation of Draco, located 452 light years away. It has the Bayer designation of e Draconis; 64 Draconis is the Flamsteed designation. The object is visible to the naked eye as a dim, red-hued star with an apparent visual magnitude of 5.27. It is moving closer to the Earth with a heliocentric radial velocity of −36 km/s, and it is predicted to come as close as in around 4.3 million years.
This is an evolved red giant star with a stellar classification of M1 III, currently on the asymptotic giant branch. It has expanded to about 65 times the Sun's radius and is radiating 926 times the Sun's luminosity from its photosphere at an effective temperature of . 64 Draconis forms a faint naked-eye pair with 65 Draconis away. The latter is a suspected variable with a brightness range in the Hipparcos photometric filter of 5.29 to 5.33.
In Chinese astronomy, it belongs to the () (Celestial Kitchen) asterism.
References
M-type giants
Suspected variables
Draco (constellation)
Draconis, 64
Durchmusterung objects
190544
98583
7676 | 64 Draconis | [
"Astronomy"
] | 272 | [
"Constellations",
"Draco (constellation)"
] |
56,083,647 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backscattering%20cross%20section | Backscattering cross section is a property of an object that determines what proportion of incident wave energy is scattered from the object, back in the direction of the incident wave. It is defined as the area which intercepts an amount of power in the incident beam which, if radiated isotropically, would yield a reflected signal strength at the transmitter of the same magnitude as the actual object produces.
See also
Radar cross-section
Target strength
References
Radar theory
Radiation | Backscattering cross section | [
"Physics",
"Chemistry"
] | 92 | [
"Transport phenomena",
"Waves",
"Physical phenomena",
"Radiation"
] |
56,084,743 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3D%20selfie | A 3D selfie is a 3D-printed scale replica of a person or their face. These three-dimensional selfies are also known as 3D portraits, 3D figurines, 3D-printed figurines, mini-me figurines and miniature statues. In 2014 a first 3D printed bust of a President, Barack Obama, was made. 3D-digital-imaging specialists used handheld 3D scanners to create an accurate representation of the President.
Description
The capture of a subject as a 3D model can be accomplished in many ways. One of the methods, is called photogrammetry. Many systems use one or more digital cameras to take 2D pictures of the subject, under normal lighting, under projected light patterns, or a combination of these. Inexpensive systems use a single camera which is moved around the subject in 360° at various heights, over minutes, while the subject stays immobile. More elaborate systems have a vertical bar of cameras rotate around the subject, usually achieving a full scan in 10 seconds. Most expensive systems have an enclosed 3D photo booth with 50 to 100 cameras statically embedded in walls and the ceiling, firing all at once, eliminating differences in image capture caused by movements of the subject. A piece of software then reconstructs a 3D model of the subject from these pictures.
One of the 3D photo booth, which creates life-like portraits, is called Veronica Chorographic Scanner. The scanner participated in the project of Royal Academy of Arts, where people could have themselves scanned. The scanner utilized 8 cameras taking 96 photographs of a person from each angle. Photogrammetry scanning is generally considered more life-like, than scanning with 3D scanners. Mobile based Photogrammetry apps such as Qlone can also be used for 3D capturing a person.
Another method for capturing a 3D selfie uses dedicated 3D scanning equipment which may more accurately capture geometry and texture, but take longer to perform. Scanners may be handheld, tripod mounted or fitted to another system that will allow the full geometry of a person to be captured. One of the well-known full body 3D scanners are Shapify booth, based on Artec Eva 3D scanners, Cobra body scanner by PICS-3D and Twindom Twinstant Mobile.
Production of 3D selfies is enabled by 3D printing technologies. This includes the ability to 3D print in full color using gypsum-based binder jetting techniques, giving the figurine a sandstone-like texture and look. Other 3D printing process may be used depending on the desired result. These products can also be produced in a full colour resin format using Mimaki technology, both of which processes can be found in Selftraits 3D Selfie products.
See also
3D reconstruction
Digitization
Depth map
Full body scanner
Photogrammetry
Range imaging
References
3D printing
Computer vision
Applications of computer vision
Image processing
3D imaging
Self-portraits
Narcissism
3D scanners
Photogrammetry
Selfies | 3D selfie | [
"Engineering"
] | 592 | [
"Artificial intelligence engineering",
"Packaging machinery",
"Computer vision"
] |
56,084,829 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lichens%20and%20nitrogen%20cycling | Some types of lichen are able to fix nitrogen from the atmosphere. This process relies on the presence of cyanobacteria as a partner species within the lichen. The ability to fix nitrogen enables lichen to live in nutrient-poor environments. Lichen can also extract nitrogen from the rocks on which they grow.
Nitrogen fixation, and hence the abundance of lichen and their host plants, may be decreased by application of nitrogen-based agricultural fertilizer and by atmospheric pollution.
The nitrogen cycle
The nitrogen cycle is one of the Earth's biogeochemical cycles. It involves the conversion of nitrogen into different chemical forms. The main processes of the nitrogen cycle are the fixation, ammonification, nitrification, and denitrification. As one of the macronutrients, nitrogen plays an important role in plant growth. The nitrogen cycle is affected by environmental factors. For example, in the subarctic heath, increase in temperature can cause nitrogen fixation to increase or decrease based on season, while overall climate warming indirectly caused the vegetation change which in turn affected the nitrogen fixation process.
Lichens
Lichens are symbiotic organisms that play an important role in the biogeochemical cycle on Earth. The characteristics of lichens, such as strong resistance to factors such as desiccation, ability to grow and break down rocks allow lichen to grow in different types of environment including highly nitrogen limited area such as subarctic heath. While it does not occur often, formation of akinetes (type of cell formed by cyanobacteria which are resistant to cold and desiccation) was observed in nitrogen fixing lichen. Depending on its partner, lichens derive the carbon and nitrogen from algal and cyanobacteria photobionts (which fixes nitrogen from the air). Lichen fungi can fix nitrogen during the day and night, as long the dark period is not too long.
Nitrogen-fixing and non-nitrogen-fixing lichens
Both nitrogen-fixing lichens and non-nitrogen-fixing lichens take up nitrogen from the environment as a nutrient. Both type of lichens secrete many different organic compounds to absorb minerals from the substrates.
Main difference between nitrogen fixing lichen and non-nitrogen fixing lichen is their photosynthetic partner: nitrogen fixing lichen partner with cyanobacteria which can fix nitrogen from the air, while green alga, partner of non nitrogen fixing lichen, does not perform the same process. The nitrogen fixation is energetically costly due to chemical transformation and only about 10% of lichen are partnered with cyanobacteria. In agricultural regions, non nitrogen fixing lichen reflect uptake of ammonia emission indicating that it have lower nitrogen value.
Some lichens such as Placopsis gelada contain both nitrogen fixing phototrophs and non nitrogen-fixing phototrophs in which Nostoc (cyanobacteria, the phototrophic nitrogen fixer) was dwelling within cephalodia (small gall like structure within lichen; contains cyanobacteria symbionts). In such cases, heterocyst differentiation was greater in cephalodia when compared to having Nostoc as the primary symbionts in lichens, showing that, in the presence of non nitrogen-fixing phototroph, Nostoc specialize for nitrogen fixation.
Interaction with lichen
Response to nitrogen and phosphorus
A lichen's response to nutrient enrichment depends on not only on species and environmental factors but also partially on thallus concentrations of nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus.
Ammonium, nitrate and organic nitrogen can be assimilated by lichen along with phosphorus as an important stimulant for cyanolichens. The photobiont will become less dependent on fungal nutrient supply when nitrogen deposition increases as it will be able to access its own nitrogen and it will stimulate the photobiont, causing it to build up, resulting in increased photosynthesis which increases carbon input. However, for lichens that cannot increase their photobiont growth, nitrogen deposition can be damaging due to higher nitrogen concentration than their biological requirements.
Generally, when a lichenized algal cell is nitrogen limited, the addition of nitrogen caused the growth of algal cells. Under nitrogen limiting condition, chlorophyll concentration was positively correlated with the growth of algal cells indicating that should the concentration of chlorophyll increase, the photobiont population will also increase. As lichens absorb nitrogen through fixation, it will have a very strong negative reaction if the nitrogen availability changes, indicating its sensitivity to environmental changes. According to the experiment by Sparrius et al., when nitrogen fertilizer was added into the soil, lichen cover was reduced by ~50%, while the addition of phosphorus showed opposite result. In the region such as boreal forest, where nitrogen and phosphorus are limiting nutrients and for symbiotic interaction to occur properly, their ratio must be balanced. General pollution of climate that is indicated by the concentration of nitrogen oxides can also affect the growth of lichen. When compared to bryophyte (non-vascular land plant), which is also sensitive to nitrogen fertilizer, lichen showed a much stronger response.
Nitrogen metabolism
There are many different species of lichens and each has its own way of allocating nitrogen. The non nitrogen fixing lichen invests a large amount of nitrogen into photosynthetic tissue, whereas nitrogen fixing lichen will invest into the fungal tissue. Nitrogen-fixing lichen species can only attain a certain amount of nitrogen, as the addition of ammonium decreases its rate of nitrogen-fixation, which decreases the amount of nitrogen that is exported into the adjacent hyphae. Nitrogen fixation is energy dependent and very costly for lichens. In a region where nitrogen deposition is high, lichens have a lower uptake of nitrogen in comparison to the Antarctic green algal lichen, which takes up 90% of nitrogen deposition in both nitrate and ammonium form. Some lichen species are able to refrain from assimilating excessive amount of nitrogen in order to maintain a balanced tissue concentration. Majority of lichen species absorbs more NH4+ than NO3- and the impact of temperature on the rate of fixation is "consonant to the normal enzymatic kinetics of them".
Effects of nitrogen fixation
Nitrogen fixing lichens actively fix atmospheric nitrogen using the nostoc, located in the cephalodia. Lichens are sensitive to nitrogen availability. Upon nitrogen fixation, there will be an increase of algal cell growth, chlorophyll concentration, and photobiont population. While costly, in regions where nitrogen availability is low, fixation process is the main way for the lichen to absorb nitrogen which is macronutrient (essential nutrient).
Importance
Ecology
Nitrogen, as a macronutrient and a biogeochemical cycle, also affects the ecology. Through the nitrogen cycle, it breaks down into the chemical form that allows plants to absorb as nutrients. There are certain regions in the world that most plants cannot live due to harsh environments as well as lack of nutrients such as nitrogen. That means that in some regions, the biogeochemical cycle (including nitrogen cycle and carbon cycle) is unlikely to run smoothly. Lichen is able to absorb nitrogen in multiple forms from soil, rock, and air, taking a part in carbon cycle at the same time. Even though only a small fraction of lichens have the ability to fix nitrogen, it helps the lichen to spread throughout the world and survive even in the harsh environment.
The industrial nitrogen fertilizer greatly affected the vegetation and agriculture throughout the world, resulting significantly increased the amount of food with better quality, but it has a negative impact on ecology in the long run. Deposition of nitrogen causes soil acidification, and the nitrogen in the fertilizer are often leached through soil and water, running off the different area. Soil acidification increases toxicity of the soil which reduces plant biodiversity and based on the toxic level of soil acidification, heavy metal such as aluminum and iron can be related to soil water.
Rock and soil
Earth's mantle contains non-atmospheric nitrogen in the form of rocks and in the soil. Weathering of the rocks and stone are normally caused by physical, chemical and biological processes. Plants cannot absorb nitrogen from rocks, but fungi can. Fungi within lichens can extract nutrients from mineral surfaces by secreting organic acids. The organic acids (e.g. phenolic acids) are important in solubilizing nutrients from inorganic substrates. A study was conducted to test rock phosphate solubilization by lichen-forming fungi. Bacteria that were attached to biotic or abiotic surfaces stimulate exopolysaccharide synthesis. While lichens have the ability to absorb nitrogen from rock, this only accounts for a small portion of the nitrogen cycle compared to the conversion of atmospheric nitrogen as it is more easily available.
Effects on vegetation
Photobionts will become less dependent on fungal nutrient supply when nitrogen deposition increases, as it will be able to access its own nitrogen, and primary producers' nutrient limit will also be reduced.
Nitrogen is one of the more limiting nutrients and the addition of nitrogen stimulates the photobiont, building up its cell, which subsequently increases its photosynthesis and its carbon input. Multiple nitrogen compounds can be assimilated by lichens, such as NH4+, NO3− and organic nitrogen compounds. Nitrogen deposition reduces the nutrient limitation of primary production. Increase in nitrogen deposition will allow the photobiont to access its own nitrogen which makes it less fungal dependent but only up to certain point.
Depending on the environmental nitrogen availability, the addition of nitrogen can either increase and decrease the growth of the lichen. If the lichen cannot increase its photobiont growth, high nitrogen uptake may result in a higher concentration than it physiologically requires which will negatively affect the lichen and its host plant as the other nutrients are too limiting.
Lichen's response to nutrient enrichment is both species-specific and dependent on environmental factors such as nutrient concentration, light availability and water supply.
Nitrogen stress
Lichen is nitrogen sensitive and change in nitrogen availability can affect its health greatly.
Two main nitrogen stress factors for lichens are nitrogen deficiency and high nitrogen deposition. Both types of nitrogen stress result in the reduction of the rate of thallus expansion in lichen. Nitrogen stressed lichen did not show a significant change in chitin:chlorophyll ratios, but ergosterol concentration showed significant increase indicating a higher demand on the respiratory system.
According to an experiment, the ammonium toxicity due to nitrogen deposition reduced the vitality of lichen greatly at different regions such as inland dunes, boreal conditions, and subarctic heaths.
References
Lichenology
Nitrogen cycle | Lichens and nitrogen cycling | [
"Chemistry",
"Biology"
] | 2,244 | [
"Lichenology",
"Nitrogen cycle",
"Metabolism"
] |
56,085,845 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muribaculaceae | Muribaculaceae, previously known as S24-7, is a family of bacteria within the order Bacteroidales. Muribaculaceae is a prevalent and abundant bacterial component of the gut microbiome of mammals.
In 2016, family S24-7 was studied in-depth and given the name "Homeothermaceae", however, as no isolates were provided as type material, the name was not validated.
The first isolated member of this family was Muribaculum intestinale as part of the mouse intestinal bacterial collection (miBC) in 2016. However, validation of the family only occurred in 2019 after detailed analysis of this family, along with description of Duncaniella and Paramuribaculum, two additional genera within this family.
In a recent study on mice, members of the family Muribaculaceae were shown to be major utilisers of mucus-derived monosaccharides in the gut.
References
Gut flora bacteria
Bacteroidia | Muribaculaceae | [
"Biology"
] | 211 | [
"Gut flora bacteria",
"Bacteria"
] |
56,087,329 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SprA1/SprA1as%20toxin/antitoxin%20system | The SprA1/SPrA1as toxin/antitoxin system identified in Staphylococcus aureus, belongs to the Type I system encoding toxin protein: SprA1 and antitoxin RNA: SprA1as. The SprA1as postranscriptionally regulates SprA1 encoding small membrane damaging protein PepA1.
References
Non-coding RNA | SprA1/SprA1as toxin/antitoxin system | [
"Chemistry"
] | 78 | [
"Biochemistry stubs",
"Molecular and cellular biology stubs"
] |
65,886,643 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alstrom%20Point | Alstrom Point is a 4,685-foot (1,428 meter) elevation landmark located in Glen Canyon National Recreation Area, in Kane County of southern Utah. It is situated northeast of the town of Page. This iconic landmark of the Lake Powell area is a cape that extends south into Lake Powell between Padre Bay and Warm Creek Bay. Alstrom Point rises nearly 1,000 feet above the lake when it's full. It is composed primarily of Entrada Sandstone, similar to Romana Mesa immediately south, and Gunsight Butte to the east. The Entrada Sandstone is overlain by Romana Sandstone, and capped by Morrison Formation. The Entrada Sandstone, which was originally deposited as sandy mud on a tidal flat, is believed to have formed about 160 million years ago during the Jurassic period as a giant sand sea, the largest in Earth's history.
Alstrom Point is an excellent photography and camping spot. It briefly appears in the 1968 film Planet of the Apes. It has been used as a location for music videos such as Michael Bolton's Said I Loved You...But I Lied and Britney Spears' I'm Not a Girl, Not Yet a Woman.
According to the Köppen climate classification system, Alstrom Point is located in an arid climate zone with hot, very dry summers, and chilly winters with very little snow.
This geographical feature's toponym was officially adopted in 1986 by the U.S. Board on Geographic Names.
See also
Colorado Plateau
Gallery
References
External links
Weather forecast: National Weather Service
Colorado Plateau
Landforms of Kane County, Utah
Glen Canyon National Recreation Area
Lake Powell | Alstrom Point | [
"Engineering"
] | 333 | [
"Colorado River Storage Project",
"Lake Powell"
] |
65,887,558 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WASP-67 | WASP-67 is a K-type main-sequence star about 620 light-years away. The stars age is poorly constrained, but is likely older than the Sun`s at approximately billion years (ie. somewhere between 100 million years and the age of the universe). WASP-67 is slightly depleted in heavy elements, having 85% of the solar abundance of iron.
A multiplicity survey in 2016 has found one candidate stellar companion to WASP-67 at a projected separation of . Nonetheless, follow-up observations in 2017 failed to find any bound stellar companions.
Planetary system
In 2012 a transiting hot Jupiter planet b was detected on a tight, circular orbit. Its equilibrium temperature is .
The planetary atmosphere contains water, and a cloud layer is located higher than in the similar gas giant HAT-P-38b, indicating a high planetary metallicity.
References
Sagittarius (constellation)
K-type main-sequence stars
Planetary systems with one confirmed planet
Planetary transit variables
J19425852-1956585 | WASP-67 | [
"Astronomy"
] | 206 | [
"Sagittarius (constellation)",
"Constellations"
] |
65,888,401 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accessory%20gene%20regulator | Accessory gene regulator (agr) is a complex 5 gene locus that is a global regulator of virulence in Staphylococcus aureus. It encodes a two-component transcriptional quorum-sensing (QS) system activated by an autoinducing, thiolactone-containing cyclic peptide (AIP).
Agr occurs in 4 allelic subtypes that have an important role in staphylococcal evolution. The corresponding AIPs are mutually cross-inhibitory, which may enhance the evolutionary separation of the 4 groups. The agr receptor, AgrC, is a model histidine phosphokinase (HPK) that has been used to decipher the molecular mechanism of signal transduction. AIP binding to the extracellular domain of AgrC causes twisting of the intracellular a-helical domain so as to enable trans-phosphorylation of the active site histidine; the inhibitory AIPs cause the α-helical domain to twist in the opposite direction, preventing trans-phosphorylation. The agr QS circuit autoactivates transcription of agrA which, in turn upregulates the phenol-souble modulins. More importantly, it activates transcription of a divergently oriented promoter whose transcript, known as RNAIII, is a 514 nt regulatory RNA that encodes δ-hemolysin and is the major effector of the agr regulon. RNAIII acts by antisense inhibition or activation of target gene translation. In vitro, early in growth, genes encoding surface proteins important for adhesion and immune evasion (such as spa – encoding proteinA) are expressed, enabling the organism to gain a foothold. Later in growth, these genes are down-regulated by RNAIII and those encoding toxins, hemolysins and other virulence-related proteins, are turned on, enabling the organism to establish and promulgate its pathological programs, such as abscess formation. It is assumed that this program operates in vivo as well. As agr is essential for staphylococcal contagion, agr-defective mutants are not contagious, but enable the organism's long-term survival in chronic conditions such as surgical implant infections, osteomyelitis or the infected lung in cystic fibrosis. In keeping with this behavior, mutations inactivating agr function enhance the stability of biofilms, which are key to the maintenance of chronic infections.
Agr is widely conserved among Bacillota and has a well-defined role in virulence regulation in several genera, especially Listeria and Clostridia.
References
Gene expression
Genetics
Virology | Accessory gene regulator | [
"Chemistry",
"Biology"
] | 574 | [
"Genetics",
"Gene expression",
"Molecular genetics",
"Cellular processes",
"Molecular biology",
"Biochemistry"
] |
65,888,571 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20space%20stations%20by%20country | This list of space stations is grouped by countries responsible for their operations. The space stations where multiple countries are responsible for their operations are listed separately. Planned and canceled space stations are excluded from this list.
Chinese space stations
Soviet/Russian space stations
United States space stations
Notes
References
Space stations by country
Country | List of space stations by country | [
"Astronomy"
] | 61 | [
"Outer space",
"Outer space lists"
] |
65,888,580 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multifit%20algorithm | The multifit algorithm is an algorithm for multiway number partitioning, originally developed for the problem of identical-machines scheduling. It was developed by Coffman, Garey and Johnson. Its novelty comes from the fact that it uses an algorithm for another famous problem - the bin packing problem - as a subroutine.
The algorithm
The input to the algorithm is a set S of numbers, and a parameter n. The required output is a partition of S into n subsets, such that the largest subset sum (also called the makespan) is as small as possible.
The algorithm uses as a subroutine, an algorithm called first-fit-decreasing bin packing (FFD). The FFD algorithm takes as input the same set S of numbers, and a bin-capacity c. It heuristically packs numbers into bins such that the sum of numbers in each bin is at most C, aiming to use as few bins as possible. Multifit runs FFD multiple times, each time with a different capacity C, until it finds some C such that FFD with capacity C packs S into at most n bins. To find it, it uses binary search as follows.
Let L := max ( sum(S) / n, max(S) ). Note, with bin-capacity smaller than L, every packing must use more than n bins.
Let U := max ( 2 sum(S) / n, max(S) ). Note, with bin-capacity at least U, FFD uses at most n bins. Proof: suppose by contradiction that some input si did not fit into any of the first n bins. Clearly this is possible only if i ≥ n+1. If si > C/2, then, since the inputs are ordered in descending order, the same inequality holds for all the first n+1 inputs in S. This means that sum(S) > (n+1)C/2 > n U/2, a contradiction to the definition of U. Otherwise, si ≤ C/2. So the sum of each of the first n bins is more than C/2. This again implies sum(S) > n C/2 > n U/2, contradiction.
Iterate k times (where k is a precision parameter):
Let C := (L+U)/2. Run FFD on S with capacity C.
If FFD needs at most n bins, then decrease U by letting U := C.
If FFD needs more than n bins, then increase L by letting L := C.
Finally, run FFD with capacity U. It is guaranteed to use at most n bins. Return the resulting scheduling.
Performance
Multifit is a constant-factor approximation algorithm. It always finds a partition in which the makespan is at most a constant factor larger than the optimal makespan. To find this constant, we must first analyze FFD. While the standard analysis of FFD considers approximation w.r.t. number of bins when the capacity is constant, here we need to analyze approximation w.r.t. capacity when the number of bins is constant. Formally, for every input size S and integer n, let be the smallest capacity such that S can be packed into n bins of this capacity. Note that is the value of the optimal solution to the original scheduling instance.
Let be the smallest real number such that, for every input S, FFD with capacity uses at most n bins.
Upper bounds
Coffman, Garey and Johnson prove the following upper bounds on :
for n = 2;
for n = 3;
for n = 4,5,6,7;
for all n ≥ 8.
During the MultiFit algorithm, the lower bound L is always a capacity for which it is impossible to pack S into n bins. Therefore, . Initially, the difference is at most sum(S) / n, which is at most . After the MultiFit algorithm runs for k iterations, the difference shrinks k times by half, so . Therefore, . Therefore, the scheduling returned by MultiFit has makespan at most times the optimal makespan. When is sufficiently large, the approximation factor of MultiFit can be made arbitrarily close to , which is at most 1.22.
Later papers performed a more detailed analysis of MultiFit, and proved that its approximation ratio is at most 6/5=1.2, and later, at most 13/11≈1.182. The original proof of this missed some cases; presented a complete and simpler proof. The 13/11 cannot be improved: see lower bound below.
Lower bounds
For n=4: the following shows that , which is tight. The inputs are 9,7,6,5,5, 4,4,4,4,4,4,4,4,4. They can be packed into 4 bins of capacity 17 as follows:
9, 4, 4
7, 6, 4
5, 4, 4, 4
5, 4, 4, 4
But if we run FFD with bin capacity smaller than 20, then the filled bins are:
9,7 [4 does not fit]
6,5,5 [4 does not fit]
4,4,4,4 [4 does not fit]
4,4,4,4
4
Note that the sum in each of the first 4 bins is 16, so we cannot put another 4 inside it. Therefore, 4 bins are not sufficient.
For n=13: the following shows that , which is tight. The inputs can be packed into 13 bins of capacity 66 as follows:
40,13,13 {8 times}
25,25,16 {3 times}
25,24,17 {2 times}
But if we run FFD with bin capacity smaller than 66*13/11 = 78, then the filled bins are:
40,25 {8 times}
24, 24, 17
17, 16, 16, 16
13, 13, 13, 13, 13 {3 times}
13
Note that the sum in each of the first 13 bins is 65, so we cannot put another 13 inside it. Therefore, 13 bins are not sufficient.
Performance with uniform machines
MultiFit can also be used in the more general setting called uniform-machines scheduling, where machines may have different processing speeds. When there are two uniform machines, the approximation factor is . When MultiFit is combined with the LPT algorithm, the ratio improves to .
Performance for maximizing the smallest sum
A dual goal to minimizing the largest sum (makespan) is maximizing the smallest sum. Deuermeyer, Friesen and Langston claim that MultiFit does not have a good approximation factor for this problem:"In the solution of the makespan problem using MULTIFIT, it is easy to construct examples where one processor is never used. Such a solution is tolerable for the makespan problem, but is totally unacceptable for our problem [since the smallest sum is 0]. Modifications of MULTIFIT can be devised which would be more suitable for our problem, but we could find none which produces a better worst-case bound than that of LPT."
Proof idea
Minimal counterexamples
The upper bounds on are proved by contradiction. For any integers p ≥ q, if , then there exists a (p/q)-counterexample, defined as an instance S and a number n of bins such that
S can be packed into n bins with capacity q;
FFD does not manage to pack S into n bins with capacity p.
If there exists such a counterexample, then there also exists a minimal (p/q)-counterexample, which is a (p/q)-counterexample with a smallest number of items in S and a smallest number of bins n. In a minimal (p/q)-counterexample, FFD packs all items in S except the last (smallest) one into n bins with capacity p. Given a minimal (p/q)-counterexample, denote by P1,...,Pn the (incomplete) FFD packing into these n bins with capacity p, by Pn+1 the bin containing the single smallest item, and by Q1,...,Qn the (complete) optimal packing into n bins with capacity q. The following lemmas can be proved:
No union of k subsets from {Q1,...,Qn} is dominated by a union of k subsets from {P1,...,Pn+1} ("dominated" means that each item in the dominated subset is mapped to a weakly-larger item in the dominating subset). Otherwise we could get a smaller counterexample as follows. [1] Delete all items in the Pi. Clearly, the incomplete FFD packing now needs n-k bins, and still the smallest item (or an entire bin) remains unpacked. [2] In the optimal packing Qi, exchange each item with its dominating item. Now, the k subsets Qi are larger (probably larger than q), but all other n-k subsets are smaller (in particular, at most q). Therefore, after deleting all items in the Pi, the remaining items can be packed into at most n-k bins of size q.
Each of Q1,...,Qn contains at least 3 items. Otherwise we had domination and, by the previous lemma, could get a smaller counterexample. This is because [a] each Qi with a single item is dominated by the Pj that contains that item; [b] for each Qi with two items x and y, if both x and y are in the same Pj, then Qi is dominated by this Pj; [c] Suppose x≥y, x is in some Pj, and y is in some Pk to its right. This means that y did not fit into Pj. But x+y ≤ q. This means that Pj must contain some item z ≥ y. So Qi is dominated by Pj. [d] Suppose x≥y, x is in some Pj, and y is in some Pk to its left. This means that there must be a previous item z ≥ x. So Qi is dominated by Pk.
Each of P1,...,Pn contains at least 2 items. This is because, if some Pi contains only a single item, this implies that the last (smallest) item does not fit into it. This means that this single item must be alone in an optimal bundle, contradicting the previous lemma.
Let s be the size of the smallest item. Then . Proof: Since s does not fit into the first n bundles, we have , so . On the other hand, since all items fit into n bins of capacity q, we have . Subtracting the inequalities gives .
The size of every item is at most . This is because there are at least 3 items in each optimal bin (with capacity q).
The sum of items in every bin P1,...,Pn is larger than ; otherwise we could add the smallest item.
5/4 Upper bound
From the above lemmas, it is already possible to prove a loose upper bound . Proof. Let S, n be a minimal (5/4)-counterexample. The above lemmas imply that -
. Since the optimal capacity is 4, no optimal bin can contain 4 or more items. Therefore, each optimal bin must contain at most 3 items, and the number of items is at most 3n.
The size of each item is at most , and the size of each FFD bin is more than . If some FFD bin contained only two items, its sum would be at most ; so each FFD bin must contain at least 3 items. But this means that FFD yields exactly n bins - a contradiction.
Structure of FFD packing
To prove tighter bounds, one needs to take a closer look at the FFD packing of the minimal (p/q)-counterexample. The items and FFD bins P1,...,Pn are termed as follows:
A regular item is an item added to some bin Pi, before the next bin Pi+1 was opened. Equivalently, a regular item is an item in Pi which is at least as large as every item in every bin Pj for j>i.
A fallback item is an item added to some bin Pi, after the next bin Pi+1 was opened. Equivalently, a fallback item is an item in Pi which is smaller than the largest item in Pi+1.
A regular k-bin is a bin that contains k regular items and no fallback items.
A fallback k-bin is a bin that contains k regular items and some fallback items.
The following lemmas follow immediately from these definitions and the operation of FFD.
If k1<k2, then all k1-bins are to the left of all k2-bins. This is because all bins have the same capacity, so if more regular items fit into a bin, these items must be smaller, so they must be allocated later.
If Pi is a k-bin, then the sum of the k regular items in Pi is larger than , since otherwise we could add another item before opening a new bin.
If Pi and Pi+1 are both k-bins, and then the sum of the k regular items in Pi is at least as large as in Pi+1 (this is because the items are ordered by decreasing size).
All regular k-bins are to the left of all fallback k-bins. This is because all bins have the same capacity, so if more fallback items fit into a bin, these items must be smaller, so they must be allocated later.
In a minimal counterexample, there are no regular 1-bins (since each bin contains at least 2 items), so by the above lemmas, the FFD bins P1,...,Pn are ordered by type:
Zero or more fallback 1-bins;
Then, zero or more regular 2-bins;
Then, zero or more fallback 2-bins;
Then, zero or more regular 3-bins;
Then, zero or more fallback 3-bins;
and so on.
1.22 upper bound
The upper bound is proved by assuming a minimal (122/100)-counterexample. Each item is given a weight based on its size and its bin in the FFD packing. The weights are determined such that the total weight in each FFD bin is at least x, and the total weight in almost each optimal bin is at most x (for some predetermined x). This implies that the number of FFD bins is at most the number of optimal bins, which contradicts the assumption that it is a counterexample.
By the lemmas above, we know that:
The size of the smallest item satisfies s > p-q = 22, so s = 22+D for some D>0.
Each optimal bin contains at most 4 items (floor(100/22)), and each FFD bin contains at most 5 items (floor(122/22)).
The size of every item is at most q-2s = 56-2D.
The sum in each FFD bin is larger than p-s = 100-D.
There are no 1-bins, since in a 1-bin, the size of the regular item must be at least p/2=61, while here the size of every item is less than 56.
If D>4, the size of each item is larger than 26, so each optimal bin (with capacity 100) must contain at most 3 items. Each item is smaller than 56-2D and each FFD bin has a sum larger than 100-D, so each FFD bin must contain at least 3 items. Therefore, there are at most n FFD bins - contradiction. So from now on, we assume D≤4. The items are assigned types and weights as follows.
The two items in each regular 2-bin except maybe the last one have a size larger than (100-D)/2 each. All such items are called type-X2, and assigned a weight of (100-D)/2. The last 2-regular bin is a special case: if both its items have a size larger than (100-D)/2, then they are type-X2 too; otherwise, they are called type-Z, and their weight equals their size.
The two regular items in each fallback 2-bin have a total size larger than 2*122/3; they are called type-Y2, and their weight equals their size minus D.
The three items in each regular 3-bin except maybe the last one have a size larger than (100-D)/3 each. All such items are called type-X3, and assigned a weight of (100-D)/3. The last 3-regular bin is a special case: if all items in it have a size larger than (100-D)/3, then they are type-X3 too; otherwise, they are called type-Z and their weight equals their size.
The three regular items in each fallback 3-bin have a total size larger than 3*122/4; they are called type-Y3, and their weight equals their size minus D.
The four items in each regular 4-bin except maybe the last one have a size larger than (100-D)/4 each. All such items are called type-X4, and assigned a weight of (100-D)/4. The last 4-regular bin is a special case: if all items in it have a size larger than (100-D)/4, then they are type-X4 too; otherwise, they are called type-Z and their weight equals their size.
The remaining items (including all fallback items in fallback 2-bins and 3-bins, all fallback 4-bins, and all other 5-item bins) are all called type-X5, and their weight equals 22 (if D ≤ 12/5) or (100-D)/4 (otherwise). The threshold 12/5 was computed such that the weight is always at most 22+D, so that the weight is always smaller than the size.
Note that the weight of each item is at most its size (the weight can be seen as the size "rounded down"). Still, the total weight of items in every FFD bin is at least 100-D:
For regular 2-bins, regular 3-bins and regular 4-bins:
For the non-last ones, this is immediate.
The last such bins contain only Z-type items, whose weight equals their size, so the total weight of these bins equals their total size, which is more than 100-D.
Fallback 2-bins contain two type-Y2 items with total weight larger than 2*122/3-2D, plus at least one type-X5 item with weight at least 22 (if D ≤ 12/5) or (100-D)/4 (otherwise). In both cases the total weight is more than 100-D.
Fallback 3-bins contain three type-Y3 items with total weight larger than 3*122/4-3D, plus at least one type-X5 item with weight at least 22. So the total weight is more than 3*122/4+22-3D = 113.5-3D ≥ 105.5-D > 100-D, since D≤4.
5-item bins contain 5 items with size at least 22+D and weight at least 22, so their total weight is obviously more than 100-D.
The total weight of items in most optimal bins is at most 100-D:
This is clear for any optimal bin containing a type-Y2 item or a type-Y3 item, since their weight is their size minus D, the weights of other items is at most their size, and the total size of an optimal bin is at most 100.
For optimal bins containing only type-X2, type-X3, type-X4 and type-X5 items, it is possible to check all possible configurations (all combinations that fit into an optimal bin of size 100), and verify that the total weight in each configuration is at most 100-D.
Optimal bins containing type-Z items might have a total weight larger than 100-D. Since the total weight is at most 100, there is an "excess weight" of at most D for each such bin. However, the number of type-Z items is limited:
If D > 12/5, then there are at most 5 type-Z items (2 in the last regular 2-bin and 3 in the last regular 3-bin; the items in the last regular 4-bin are all type-X4). Therefore, the excess weight is at most 5D. Comparing the total weight of FFD vs. optimal bins yields s < 5D ≤ 20 < 22, a contradiction.
Otherwise, there are at most 9 type-Z items (2+3+4). Therefore, the excess weight is at most 9D. Comparing the total weight of FFD vs. optimal bins yields s < 9D ≤ 108/5 < 22, a contradiction.
13/11 upper bound
The upper bound is proved by assuming a minimal ((120-3d)/100)-counterexample, with some d<20/33, and deriving a contradiction.
Non-monotonicity
MultiFit is not monotone in the following sense: it is possible that an input decreases while the max-sum in the partition returned by MultiFit increases. As an example, suppose n=3 and the input numbers are:44, 24, 24, 22, 21, 17, 8, 8, 6, 6.FFD packs these inputs into 3 bins of capacity 60 (which is optimal):
44, 8, 8;
24, 24, 6, 6;
22, 21, 17.
But if the "17" becomes "16", then FFD with capacity 60 needs 4 bins:
44, 16;
24, 24, 8;
22, 21, 8, 6;
6.
so MultiFit must increase the capacity, for example, to 62:
44, 16;
24, 24, 8, 6;
22, 21, 8, 6.
This is in contrast to other number partitioning algorithms - List scheduling and Longest-processing-time-first scheduling - which are monotone.
Generalization: fair allocation of chores
Multifit has been extended to the more general problem of maximin-share allocation of chores. In this problem, S is a set of chores, and there are n agents who assign potentially different valuations to the chores. The goal is to give to each agent, a set of chores worth at most r times the maximum value in an optimal scheduling based on i's valuations. A naive approach is to let each agent in turn use the MultiFit algorithm to calculate the threshold, and then use the algorithm where each agent uses his own threshold. If this approach worked, we would get an approximation of 13/11. However, this approach fails due to the non-monotonicity of FFD.
Example
Here is an example. Suppose there are four agents, and they have valuations of two types:
Both types can partition the chores into 4 parts of total value 75. Type A:
51, 12, 12
27.5, 27.5, 10, 10
27.5, 27.5, 10, 10
25, 10, 10, 10, 10, 10
Type B:
51, 24
27.5, 27.5, 20
27.5, 27.5, 20
8.33 {9 times}
If all four agents are of the same, then FFD with threshold 75 fills the 4 optimal bins. But suppose there is one agent of type B, and the others are of type A. Then, in the first round, the agent of type B takes the bundle 51, 24 (the other agents cannot take it since for them the values are 51,25 whose sum is more than 75).In the following rounds, the following bundles are filled for the type A agents:
27.5, 27.5, 12 [the sum is 67 - there is no room for another 10]
27.5, 27.5, 12 [the sum is 67 - there is no room for another 10]
10, 10, 10, 10, 10, 10, 10 [the sum is 70 - there is no room for another 10]
so the last two chores remain unallocated.
Optimal value guarantee
Using a more sophisticated threshold calculation, it is possible to guarantee to each agent at most 11/9≈1.22 of his optimal value if the optimal value is known, and at most 5/4≈1.25 of his optimal value (using a polynomial time algorithm) if the optimal value is not known.
Using more elaborate arguments, it is possible to guarantee to each agent the same ratio of MultiFit.
Implementations
Python: The prtpy package contains an implementation of multifit.
References
Number partitioning
Optimal scheduling
Bin packing | Multifit algorithm | [
"Mathematics",
"Engineering"
] | 5,358 | [
"Bin packing",
"Packing problems",
"Optimal scheduling",
"Industrial engineering",
"Mathematical problems"
] |
65,888,646 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20eSync%20Alliance | The eSync Alliance is a global automotive initiative established to build a secure, multi-vendor platform for end-to-end over-the-air (OTA) updating and data services for the connected car, with a global network of participating suppliers
History
In June 2017, Excelfore publicly announced it would work with several partner companies to form the eSync Alliance as an independent trade association. The aim of the eSync Alliance is to bring automakers, Tier-1 integrators, module and software suppliers into a mutually beneficial partnership to build eSync compliant solutions for the entire vehicle.
In February 2018, Excelfore announced that Rick Kreifeldt, industry executive and former founding chairman of AVNU, joined the eSync Alliance as Executive Director.
In August 2018, the eSync Alliance was incorporated as a non-profit consortium, with 5 founding member companies: Alpine, Excelfore, Hella, Molex and ZF. In September 2018 the eSync Alliance announced the election of officers and management for 2018/2019, and the formation of its first two working groups: Technical Working Group (TWG), and Marketing Working Group (MWG).
In April 2019, the eSync Alliance announced the release of Version 1.0 of the eSync Compliance Specifications. The specifications total nearly 400 pages and consist of Architecture, Requirements, Interfaces and Security.
In June 2019, the eSync Alliance joined the Connected Vehicle Trade Association (CVTA) as an Associate Member.
In June 2020, the eSync Alliance announced that Mike Gardner, Founder and President of mG Consulting, was appointed as Executive Director.
In March 2021, the eSync Alliance released v2.0 of the eSync Specifications for Automotive OTA, expanding the specifications in the areas of cyber security and data gathering.
In April 2021, the eSync Alliance and GENIVI Alliance, now COVESA, announced collaboration in the area of data standardization, as part of the Common Vehicle Interface Initiative (CVII) between GENIVI and W3C. (Note: GENIVI has since rebranded as COVESA - the Connected Vehicle Systems Alliance.)
In November 2021, the eSync Alliance and the Autoware Foundation announced a joint working group to address integration of OTA and data gathering into the software stack for the next generation of autonomous vehicles.
Software architecture
The eSync platform has components in the cloud and in the vehicle. The eSync Server is in the cloud, the eSync Client is in the vehicle and multiple eSync Agents for end devices are in the vehicle.
Structure
The five founding companies of the eSync Alliance each hold one seat on the Board of Directors. Additional board members may be elected by the membership during the Alliance annual general meeting. Current members of the alliance include Alpine, DSA, Excelfore, Faurecia, Hella, Joynext, Mobica, Molex, R Systems and ZF.
References
Mobile technology | The eSync Alliance | [
"Technology"
] | 617 | [
"nan"
] |
65,890,094 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ExoLife%20Finder | The ExoLife Finder (ELF) telescope is an under-development hybrid interferometric telescope being designed at the Instituto de Astrofisica de Canarias (IAC) for the direct detection and imaging of exoplanets and potentially water-bearing exoplanets. Developed by a collaboration of scientists and engineers including the PLANETS Foundation, the ELF aims to analyze the surfaces and atmospheres of exoplanets for evidence of life, focusing on nearby star systems within 25 light years of Earth. The telescope’s design features non-redundant circular arrays of 5-meter-scale mirrors and tensegrity-based mechanical support with an outer diameter of 35m. It uses multiple layers of advanced atmospheric wavefront sensing and control. It is a scalable optical concept, and could be built within a 10 year timeframe. A 3.5-meter precursor called the Small ELF (SELF) is currently being built in the Canary Islands. The ELF's first targets will include nearby stars cooler than the Sun.
ELF incorporates several new technologies in order to study exoplanets that could be 100 million times fainter than the stars they orbit. This combination of technologies results in smoother and lighter optics compared to conventional telescope mirrors and greater control of optical diffraction and wavefront errors created by the atmosphere. According to the team behind ELF, the telescope's imaging capabilities and detection methods, which include analyzing planetary energy signatures and spectroscopic chemical fingerprints, will advance our understanding of exoplanetary environments and the search for extraterrestrial life.
The Small ELF (SELF)
The Small ExoLife Finder (SELF) telescope is a 3.5m outer diameter Fizeau telescope built from 15 0.5m diameter subapertures arranged in a circular pattern like the ELF telescope. SELF uses a telescope support structure built from a tensegrity structure of cables and compressional elements. This structure creates a stiff basis for the optics that can be 10 times lighter than a conventional truss structure. The subapertures are aligned and carefully phased using a small secondary mirror for each of the 15 subapertures. Machine learning algorithms and photonic structures built into the optical system allow the SELF to overcome the effects of the atmosphere to suppress the bright central starlight in order to see the exoplanetary environments around nearby bright stars.
Laboratory for Innovation in OptoMechanics (LIOM)
The key to finding life is to measure reflected starlight from an exoplanet. ELF does this with a very large diameter telescope using optical technologies that can measure and correct the distortions in the optical wavefront created by the atmosphere above the telescope and the telescope's imperfections. The ELF depends on 4 innovations: 1) new ways of creating accurate light-weight large mirrors without grinding glass, 2) a scalable optical system that combines elements of conventional telescopes with interferometry, 3) new ways of precisely supporting optics without massive mechanical trusses, and 4) photonics and machine learning innovations to measure and correct the stellar wavefront. IAC hosts the Laboratory for Innovation in OptoMechanics (LIOM) where scientists, engineers, and students are working on solving all of these problems.
Design and specifications
The ExoLife Finder (ELF) is a specialized large telescope designed for exoplanetary research, with an ultimate focus on detecting the energy signatures of life or its optical fingerprints on nearby exoplanets. The ELF is effectively a Fizeau interferometer that links an array of diffraction-limited unobscured off-axis subaperture telescopes at a common Gregorian focus. The direct detection of exoplanetary light relies on an extremely large telescope aperture with superior control of diffraction and correction of atmospheric wavefront distortions. The ELF's basic design consists of circular arrays of 5-meter-scale mirrors, utilizing thin curvature-polished technology, resulting in a total diameter of about 35 meters. This size allows the ELF to “image” dozens of exoplanets within 25 light years of Earth, opening a new window onto exoplanetary science and the search for extraterrestrial life.
Cost is highly dependent on system mass and the ELF employs a structural principle called tensegrity which utilizes actively controlled tension and compression to greatly reduce weight. Tensegrity is often used in bridge designs but the term originated with Buckminster Fuller 50 years ago. Each of the ELF's mirrors has a dedicated secondary off-axis mirror. Off-axis telescopes are often used in radio dish receivers, but their usage in optical telescopes has been made possible by new polishing technology. This design reduces scattered light that might interfere with the faint optical signal received from exoplanets.
The ELF is intended to be scalable, affordable, and rapidly buildable within a decade timeframe. Its unusual design allows the telescope to achieve the sensitivity needed to reconstruct images of exoplanets, making it the earliest and most cost-effective path forward for finding and characterizing life on nearby exoplanets.
Mirror technology
One of the key innovations of the ELF telescope is its mirror technology, which significantly differs from that of traditional telescopes that are descended from the abrasive glass shaping concept pioneered by Isaac Newton 500 years ago. Such traditional telescope mirrors are several centimeters thick and can require many 10’s of cycles of rubbing and measuring to achieve a high quality optical surface. Large optical mirrors like these typically cost $0.5M per m2. The combination of curvature polishing and tensegrity support structures can reduce the cost and time to fabricate large telescope optics by more than an order of magnitude. Dynamically maintaining the shape of such thin mirrors against gravity direction changes and wind forces is done with 3D printed electroactive polymers.
Imaging and detection capabilities
ELF is designed to indirectly image the surface of exoplanets and to detect the energy signatures and spectroscopic chemical fingerprints that are indicative of life. The telescope's primary focus is on detecting molecules such as water, oxygen, methane, carbon dioxide, and ozone, which are commonly associated with life on Earth. Additionally, the ELF is capable of detecting photosynthetic bio-pigments on the surface of exoplanets, which could indicate the presence of photosynthetic organisms.
The ELF's useful imaging capabilities extend up to 120 trillion miles, or 24 light years, away from Earth with a particular sensitivity for exoplanets around stars cooler than the Sun. This range allows it to target dozens of exoplanets within 25 light years of our solar system, including the nearby star system Alpha Centauri, which holds promising worlds like Proxima B in the habitable zone.
To achieve its imaging and detection goals, the ELF utilizes the so-called vortex nulling properties of its Fizeau interferometry. These optics create what is called a coronagraph from the telescope primary optics alone. The use of complex inversion algorithms that depend on repeated observations of the exoplanet systems over months then samples the exoplanetary rotation and orbit to reveal details of its surface structure like oceans, continents, forests, deserts, or even city complexes.
Location
The precursor small ELF is locate on Mt. Teide on Tenerife island and the proposed location for the full ELF telescope could be in the Canary Islands for seeing the Northern sky or in Chile's Atacama Desert to see southern exoplanets like Proxima B. The remote and dry environment of the Atacama Desert provides optimal conditions for astronomical observations, while minimizing light pollution and atmospheric disturbances.
References
Astronomical imaging
Astronomical instruments
Exoplanets | ExoLife Finder | [
"Astronomy"
] | 1,558 | [
"Telescopes",
"Astronomical instruments"
] |
65,894,995 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eunuchs%3A%20India%27s%20Third%20Gender | Eunuchs: India's Third Gender is a 1991 ethnographic film documenting the lives of two castrated men, Kiran and Dinesh, who share their experiences after undergoing castration. The film covers a variety of topics, including gender, abuse of power, sexuality, homophobia, discrimination, and cultural anthropology.
Synopsis
The ethnographic film uses a linear narrative covering three main themes: love, history, and exclusion within the Indian society, all presented in a non-chronological order.
Creating and maintaining an acceptable relationship with a eunuch is difficult, but Kiran and Dinesh loved each other very much. Their love is so strong that once Dinesh leaves for work as a driver, Kiran cannot function without him. She doesn't eat without Dinesh and only happy when they are together. Although eunuchs may live freely in India, they are subject to a widespread discrimination. Additionally, romantic relationships among eunuchs are considered a taboo.
Kiran has gone through castration to live fully as a eunuch. Eunuch castration is a highly symbolic act, and the surgical removal of male genitalia is prominent in the eunuch gender and community. Castration is usually performed after living in the eunuch community for many years. Although the community creates a sense of belonging, members are a subject to marginalization and discrimination brought upon them by the rest of society. However, many do not go through castration, feminizing surgery, hormone medication, growing hair, donning female attire, or other aspects of living as a eunuch.
Kiran lives in Kathiawar, a place where eunuchs are not welcome. Harish, an aspiring eunuch, frequents Kiran's home and has been taken under his wing. Harish had kept his desire to be a eunuch, a secret from his wife and children in fear of ruining his relationship with them. His family was not open to eunuchs and so he was worried that they would not accept his wishes. Eight months earlier, Harish's wife had left him and their children to go live with her parents. When she came back, Harish had almost gone through the process of castration. Harish's wife is at a crossroads. She is aware that he will never stop living as a eunuch, but the negative social stigma around gender is something she cannot fully accept.
In the state of Rajasthan, a eunuch community exists, overseen by Sharada Bai, the guru, and leader of over one-hundred eunuchs. She lives in a mansion with eight disciples and holds the power to appoint one-hundred other eunuchs from neighbouring territories. Eunuchs possess strong family ties, and being a disciple in Sharada Bai's family means she becomes a parent. The mansion in which the eunuchs lived is lavished with a rich history and cannot be sold or destroyed. Looking over the mansion is a sign of honour to the past and the history of a eunuch's purpose. The tradition of greeting the guru in the morning by bowing and touching the feet is a sign of respect, alongside castration, which is a sign of loyalty. Sharada Bai is claimed to have palliative effects on her family members, who look to the guru for guidance and hope.
Most cities in modern India aren't accepting of eunuchs, mostly due to cultural and religious prejudices. In Bombay, the guru Regamath lives with fourteen eunuch disciples. Bombay is more expensive than Rajasthan, and the eunuchs' only source of income is prostitution. Every evening the eunuchs head to the red-light district to sell themselves. Along with prostitution, eunuchs also engage in begging and clapping to intimidate the public into giving them money. They also lift their frilly garments to show their genitalia as another form of intimidation. This behaviour and occupation is one that causes more resentments and discriminations between modern eunuchs and modern Indian society.
Production
Eunuchs: India's Third Gender was produced by assistant producers Surinder Puri and Aruna Har Parsed. Parsed also narrates the film. BBC Elstree Centre, in the United Kingdom, is the production company behind the film. Michael Yorke, an anthropologist, directed and originated the concept for the documentary film.
Background
Director Michael Yorke was always fascinated with Indian culture. In 1962, he spent time hitchhiking in India, and he experienced the society, culture, and people close up. Yorke's main goal in all of his ethnographies is for the audience to explore the "Wiktionary: other-mother". The success of Eunuchs: India's Third Gender derived from Yorke's ongoing fascination and excitement which is evident in the ethnography. According to Yorke, eunuch subjects are intelligent and analytical. Whenever he visited India for his fieldwork, they were fascinating, welcoming, and informative. A western observer like Yorke is always treated kindly by the eunuch community, which played a large part in successfully creating the film.
A film review conducted by anthropologist Pauline Kolenda discussed Yorke's film along with Jareena: Portrait of a Hijda. Both films display the eunuch or hijra community in South Asia. Eunuchs: India's Third Gender along with Jareena: Portrait of a Hijda broadened discussion on sexuality and gender.
Release
The film was released in 1991 and was televised on the BBC Network. It was later released on DVD and can be found on various university resource engines and in digital archives.
Thirty years after the original 1991 debut, Yorke did a screening of the film at Lamaakan's open theatre.
Reception
Eunuchs: India's Third Gender was Michael Yorke's most significant success. However, public reception of the film was mixed.
See also
Hijra
India
Ethnography
Castration
References
External links
Michael Yorke's 2005 film
Impact of Covid-19 on Hijras
Eunuchs
Gender
Sexuality in India | Eunuchs: India's Third Gender | [
"Biology"
] | 1,246 | [
"Behavior",
"Gender",
"Human behavior"
] |
65,895,602 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maushop | Maushop (sometimes Moshup) is a mythical hero and giant from Wampanoag folklore. He is said to have several companions, including a giant frog and his wife Granny Squannit.
Mythology
Maushop served as an explanation for geographical locations. According to legend, he came from Aquinnah on Cape Cod and lived there from before the Wampanoag. Maushop was so large that his diet consisted mainly of whales. To catch them, he threw boulders into the water to make stepping stones. During a celebration, he emptied his pipe ashes into the ocean, and they became Nantucket.
At one point, a crab bites his toe causing him to stomp around, leaving large footprints in the ground. Moshup's Rock is named for this story, before Christian missionaries renamed it to "Devil's Footprint."
Maushop was seen as a provider for the Wampanoag, teaching them how to hunt and fish. The Wampanoag apparently became too reliant on him, so he left so they would learn how to survive on their own.
References
Creation myths
Heroes in mythology and legend
Native American giants
Legendary footprints | Maushop | [
"Astronomy"
] | 241 | [
"Cosmogony",
"Creation myths"
] |
65,895,653 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asikkala%20virus | Asikkala virus (ASIV) is an Old World hantavirus isolated from Sorex araneus (pygmy shrew) in Germany and the Czech Republic. It is suspected to have a geographical distribution mapping with Seewis virus.
References
Hantaviridae | Asikkala virus | [
"Biology"
] | 59 | [
"Virus stubs",
"Viruses"
] |
65,895,862 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bow%C3%A9%20virus | Bowé virus (BOWV) is a viral isolate detected in tissue samples from Crocidura douceti (musk shrew). The putative host shrews were captured in Bowé, Guinea, in February 2012. BOWV is closely related to Tanganya virus, harbored by Crocidura theresae in the same region, as well as the Jeju virus.
References
Hantaviridae | Bowé virus | [
"Biology"
] | 89 | [
"Virus stubs",
"Viruses"
] |
65,896,953 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oppo%20Joy%20Plus | The Oppo Joy Plus launched at the end of April, 2015. The phone had the slogan "Leap Up, Reach Joy." One of the phone's key selling points was an improved touchscreen which utilized an "all-new touch IC chip" which would allow users to user the device while wearing gloves or wet.
References
Oppo smartphones
Mobile phones introduced in 2015
Android (operating system) devices
Discontinued smartphones
Mobile phones with user-replaceable battery | Oppo Joy Plus | [
"Technology"
] | 95 | [
"Mobile technology stubs",
"Mobile phone stubs"
] |
65,897,141 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oppo%20Joy%203 | The Oppo Joy 3 is the second, and last, phone in the Oppo Joy series. It launched in August 2015. All phones in the series have the slogan "Leap Up, Reach Joy." Compared to the Oppo Joy Plus, the phone has 2 extra CPU cores, totaling four over the past generations' two. The phone also featured a better GPU, a bigger screen, and a slightly bigger chassis but improved screen-to-body ratio. The phone launched with a price of about €130 and two color options: White, and Gray.
Details
The Oppo Joy 3 is an Android Smartphone launched in August 2015. It features a 4.5 inch, capacitive, IPS LCD display with the resolution of 480 by 854 with a pixel density of 218 PPI. The processor is a Mediatek MT6582 SoC (System-on-chip), with 1 gigabyte of single channel, 533 MHz memory, and 4 gigabytes of internal storage, with a microSDHC slot for removable storage.
References
Oppo smartphones
Mobile phones introduced in 2015
Android (operating system) devices
Discontinued smartphones
Mobile phones with user-replaceable battery | Oppo Joy 3 | [
"Technology"
] | 245 | [
"Mobile technology stubs",
"Mobile phone stubs"
] |
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.