id int64 39 79M | url stringlengths 31 227 | text stringlengths 6 334k | source stringlengths 1 150 ⌀ | categories listlengths 1 6 | token_count int64 3 71.8k | subcategories listlengths 0 30 |
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74,660,899 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3%2C4-Difluoroamphetamine | 3,4-Difluoroamphetamine (DFA) is a substituted amphetamine which has been sold as a designer drug. It has relatively weak activity as a serotonin releasing agent with only around 1/4 of the affinity for the serotonin transporter compared to MDA, but its activity at other targets has not been studied.
See also
3-Fluoroamphetamine
3-Fluoromethamphetamine
4-Fluoroamphetamine
4-Fluoromethamphetamine
3,5-Difluoromethcathinone
DFMDA
DODC
Xylopropamine
References
Designer drugs
Serotonin-norepinephrine-dopamine releasing agents
Fluoroarenes
Amines | 3,4-Difluoroamphetamine | [
"Chemistry"
] | 156 | [
"Amines",
"Bases (chemistry)",
"Functional groups"
] |
74,661,160 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elias%20Colbert | Elias Colbert (April 23, 1829 - June 28, 1921) was a British American astronomer, journalist, educator, mathematician, linguist, professor at the University of Chicago, director of the Dearborn Observatory, and president of the Chicago Astronomical Society. His book, Star Studies: What We Know of the Universe Outside the Earth (1871) was an early, 19th century example of interest in the subject of life on Mars.
Selected works
Scoriæ: Eulogy on Shakespeare (1864)
Astronomy Without a Telescope (1869)
Chicago and the Great Conflagration (1871)
Star Studies: What We Know of the Universe Outside the Earth (1871)The Lunar Apsides (1885)Washington, Shakespeare and St. George (1893)The Earth Measured (1898)
References
Bibliography
Library of Congress. (n.d.). "Envisioning Martian Civilizations". Life on Other Worlds. Finding Our Place in the Cosmos: From Galileo to Sagan and Beyond. Retrieved August 23, 2023.
Taylor, Charles H. (February 1922). "A Memorial to Elias Colbert". Popular Astronomy''. Goodsell Observatory of Carleton College. 30 (2).
1829 births
1921 deaths
American astronomers
University of Chicago people
Scientists from Chicago | Elias Colbert | [
"Astronomy"
] | 252 | [
"Astronomers",
"Astronomer stubs",
"Astronomy stubs"
] |
74,661,284 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clovibactin | Clovibactin (Novo29) is an experimental antibiotic isolated from an uncultured soil Gram-negative β-proteobacterium Eleftheria terrae ssp. carolina, which is one of many soil bacteria.
See also
Teixobactin
Zosurabalpin
References
Antibiotics
Peptides | Clovibactin | [
"Chemistry",
"Biology"
] | 69 | [
"Biomolecules by chemical classification",
"Biotechnology products",
"Antibiotics",
"Molecular biology",
"Biocides",
"Peptides"
] |
66,023,022 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shabtai%20Ambron | Shabtai Ambron (; ) was an Italian Jewish philosopher and astronomer.
He lived in Rome in the first half of the eighteenth century. Ambron's life-work was a book on the universe, entitled Pancosmosophia, in which he made a systematic attempt to refute the astronomical views of Ptolemy, Copernicus, and Tycho Brahe, and to set up a cosmogony, the underlying principle of which was that the earth was flat. He attempted to support his views by an appeal to Jewish tradition and Kabbalah. The author had already prepared some hundred copperplates to illustrate his theories, when the Roman Inquisition prohibited the printing of the work. Ambron sent his manuscripts to Venice, but here also his efforts were frustrated by the papal nuncio, Mattei. On learning that German scholars were interested in his work, he sent it with the plates to the publisher of the Neuer Bücher-Saalder Gelehrten-Welt in Leipzig, but it does not appear to have been printed.
Ambron also devoted considerable work to a projected Bibliotheca Rabbinica, with the intention of correcting Bartolocci's errors and misconceptions. This manuscript shared the fate of the foregoing.
In 1721 he was a member of the Congrega, the representative body of the Jewish community in Rome.
References
Flat Earth proponents
Natural philosophers
18th-century Italian astronomers
Jewish astronomers
18th-century Italian Jews
Jewish Italian scientists | Shabtai Ambron | [
"Astronomy"
] | 305 | [
"Astronomers",
"Jewish astronomers"
] |
66,023,237 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Construction%20Corps%20%28Bulgaria%29 | The Construction Corps () in Bulgaria was a military construction organisation subordinated to the Ministry of Defence or directly to the government, which existed from 1920 to 2000.
The organisation started as national compulsory labour service (trudova povinnost) in 1920 which drafted all able-bodied Bulgarians in place of national military service. It was militarised and incorporated into the armed forces as the Labour Corps (Trudovi Voiski) during the period 1935–1946. During the Communist era it was re-organised a number of times, taking its final form and name in 1969.
History
National compulsory labour service 1920–1935
In the last months of World War I, the Ministry of War announced the idea of a conscription-based national labour service. For this purpose a commission was appointed consisting of: Chairman Major General Konstantin Kirkov; members: Colonel Ivan Bozhkov, Lieutenant Colonel Kosta Nikolov, Lieutenant Colonel Dimitar Nachev, Lieutenant General Stilian Kovachev, Lieutenant Colonel Todor Georgiev, Hristo Chakalov – Manager of the BNB, two agronomists and a representative of the Bulgarian Agricultural Bank. The original law drafted by the commission was not approved by the Council of Ministers but the draft did become the basis for all subsequent legislation on the subject.
Defeat in World War 1 brought to power in October 1919 the radical anti-war Agrarian party leader Aleksandar Stamboliyski. Faced with the ruinous consequences of the war Stamboliyski adopted compulsory labour service as one of two key reforms aimed at rebuilding the country (the other being land reform). The Bill provoked vehement opposition on the ground that it revived the Ottoman feudal labour obligation and exploited young people, but Stamboliyski's overwhelming election victory in 1920 meant it was voted into law on 23 May 1920.
Stamboliyski's official reasons were to enable post-war reconstruction at a time when the impoverished country was faced with enormous war reparations; and to provide modern vocational education for young men and women. However, an underlying reason was to circumvent the limitations of the Treaty of Neuilly-sur-Seine on the size of the Bulgarian Armed Forces, which limited the army to 20,000. The new labour service de facto maintained the organisational structure of the former national military service, prompting protests from the neighbouring Yugoslavia and Greece that all the Bulgarians had to do was replace the spades with rifles and they'd have a trained army. The Inter-Allied Commission required the bill to be suspended until changes were agreed.
Compulsory labour service came into force on 14 June 1920 with the establishment of the Main Directorate "Compulsory Labour Service" within the Ministry of Public Works. All able-bodied Bulgarians, except those exempted for legitimate reasons (for example muslim females were exempted) and those who had served the state for more than three consecutive months, were required to serve either in the Regular service (eight months maximum for men between 20 and 40 years, four months for women between 16 and 30 years) or in the Temporary service up to 21 days a year. Exemptions could also be purchased at a set daily rate.
Labour service proved very effective in carrying out post-war reconstruction. The vast majority of the work was road and railway construction, although there were also manufacturing, agriculture and reforestation projects. An International Labour Report calculated that just in the Regular service from 1921 to 1936 a total of 313,669 "trudovaks" (labourers) were recorded as completing their compulsory service; that the work done for the State entailed 22,591,068 eight-hour days and reached a value of 1,680,088,675 leva; and that the annual balance-sheets showed aggregate receipts of 3,330,466,451 leva and expenditure of 2,449,101,898 leva, or a profit of 881,364,553 leva. The Bulgarian example was widely studied and copied abroad, for instance by Germany in the formation of the Reich Labour Service.
Labour corps 1935–1944
In the 1930s, as Bulgaria followed Germany in repudiating the military limitations imposed by the WW1 Paris peace treaties the labour service openly emerged as a military organisation. On 1 January 1935 jurisdiction was transferred to the Ministry of Defence, with the establishment of military ranks in 1936. Military age conscripts served in the regular armed forces or did labour service – one example being future Communist leader Todor Zhivkov who completed service in 1935, partially through work and partially through exemption purchase. In 1938 with the signing of the Salonika Agreement limits on the armed forces were officially removed and Bulgaria was able to fully reinstate compulsory military service. In 1940 the new Law of the Armed Forces officially incorporated "trudovaks" in the armed forces as the labour corps (trudovi voiski). By 1942 the fully mobilised wartime labour corps exceeded 80,000 men building roads and military installations, draining the Svishtov wetlands, increasing agricultural production and restoring communications in the newly recovered Southern Dobruja, Western Thrace and Vardar Macedonia.
During the war as Bulgaria allied with Nazi Germany Jewish men were drafted en-masse in the labour corps. In January 1941, the anti-semitic Law for Protection of the Nation came into effect, one of whose stipulations was that Jews must fulfill their military service in labour battalions. By order of the Bulgarian chief of the general staff, effective 27 January 1941, Jews were removed from the regular armed forces and were drafted in the labour corps, while retaining their military rank and privileges. Jewish reservists were allocated as labour corps reservists. After Bulgaria joined the Tripartite Pact on 1 March 1941 and became a base for German military operations against Yugoslavia and Greece repressive measures increased. From August 1941 Jewish men aged 20–44 were drafted (including all reservists), rising to 50 in 1943. Following diplomatic protests from German ambassador Adolf-Heinz Beckerle about the German Labour Front working alongside Bulgarian Jews in a military capacity from Jan 1942 Jews were transferred to labour units under the Ministry of Public Works, depriving them of their military ranks and privileges. Those units (usually 100-300 strong) were based in remote camps with poor conditions and typically did heavy labour completing specific stretches of roads. Approximately 12,000 Jews were mobilised in such units in addition to 2,000 communists and left wing agrarians. There were a number of reports of abusive behaviour by camp commandants, although it should be stressed that despite latter Communist governments' terming them "fascist concentration camps" these were in no way such - for instance labourers still had family leave and correspondence, and heads of family were paid a wage.
Greeks from Bulgarian occupation zone in Macedonia and Thrace were also forcibly conscripted into Labour Battalions. The measure did not exclude Greek Muslims.
Post War
From 1946 given the need to downsize the armed forces the labour corps were again detached from the army and re-organised as national compulsory labour service. All Bulgarian citizens of conscription age not accepted in the regular armed forces were subject to 18 months labour service, but de facto it was done mostly by men from minorities and those deemed unreliable for service ("considered unfit") in the armed forces.
A high point in the history of the Construction Troops was the design and building of the Alfred Beit Road Bridge in 1994–95. The Construction Troops won a commercial tender in competition with international companies. The metal works of the bridge were manufactured in Bulgaria and transported via ship from Burgas to the South African port of Durban and then on a 1,000 km stretch over land. The bridge is the only road border crossing on the South Africa–Zimbabwe border. The commander of the Construction Troops, Major General Radoslav Peshleevski (:bg:Радослав Пешлеевски) attended the official opening ceremony (seen in uniform behind Nelson Mandela.)
Structure
They were organized in seven Construction Divisions: three based in Sofia and one each in Plovdiv, Stara Zagora, Varna and Pleven.
Main Directorate of the Construction Troops (Главно управление на Строителните Войски)
Command (Командване)
Chief of the Main Directorate of the Construction Troops (Началник на Главно управление на СВ)
First Deputy-Chief and Chief of the Political Department (Зам.-началник на СВ, той е и началник на Политическо управление на СВ)
Deputy-Chief of the Construction Troops in Charge of the Construction Troops (Зам.-началник на СВ по строителството)
Deputy-Chief of the Construction Troops in Charge of the Rear (logistics) (Зам.-началник на СВ, той е и началник тил на СВ)
Deputy-Chief of the Construction Troops in Charge of the Economical Matters (Зам.-началник на СВ по икономическите въпроси)
Staff (Щаб)
Independent Departments and Branches of the MDCT (Самостоятелни управления и отдели в ГУСВ)
Operational Formations:
1st Construction Mechanized Division (1ва Строителна Механизирана Дивизия (1. СМД)) (Sukhodol, Sofia)
Command; Staff; Supply Company (Sukhodol, Sofia)
Training Battalion (Учебен Батальон) (Golemo Buchino, Pernik Province)
Special Battalion (Специален Батальон, for pre-production of building elements) (Sukhodol, Sofia; Pernik and Stanke Dimitrov)
1st Construction Regiment (1. Строителен Полк) (Botevgrad) (battalion and platoon in Botevgrad; battalion in Pravets)
2nd Construction Regiment (2. Строителен Полк) (Kyustendil) (battalion in Kyustendil; cadred battalions in Bobov Dol and Stanke Dimitrov, cadred platoon in Tran)
3rd Construction Regiment (3. Строителен Полк) (Pernik) (companies and platoons in Pernik, Samokov and the villages around them; cadred battalion in Bornaevo)
4th Construction Regiment (4. Строителен Полк) (Blagoevgrad) (battalions in Blagoevgrad, Sukhodol, Sofia, Petrich, Ilindentsi, cadred companies in Gotse Delchev and at the "Belmeken-Sestrimo" water supply cascade and a platoon at the Rila Monastery)
Automobile Machinery Regiment - Sofia (Автомашинен Полк - София) (Sukhodol, Sofia; Blagoevgrad, Pernik, Kyustendil, Samokov and Botevgrad)
5th Construction Mechanized Division (5та Строителна Механизирана Дивизия (5. СМД)) (Pleven)
Command; Staff; Supply Company and Training Battalion (Pleven)
1st Construction Regiment (1. Строителен Полк) (Roman) (5 battalions and a company in Roman)
2nd Construction Regiment (2. Строителен Полк) (Yasen) (battalion in Yasen, companies in Pleven, Lovech, Yasen and Zlatna Panega)
3rd Construction Regiment (3. Строителен Полк) (Vratsa) (companies and Vratsa, Vidin, Kozloduy and Slatina, platoon in Boychinovtsi)
4th Construction Regiment (4. Строителен Полк) (Veliko Tarnovo) (two battalions in Veliko Tarnovo, platoon in Svishtov)
5th Construction Regiment (5. Строителен Полк) (Gabrovo) (two battalions and three companies in Gabrovo and the nearby villages)
Automobile Machinery Regiment - Pleven (Автомашинен Полк - Плевен) (Yasen) (cadred battalions in Yasen, Roman and Veliko Tarnovo, cadred companies in Yasen and Vratsa)
6th Construction Mechanized Division (6та Строителна Механизирана Дивизия (6. СМД)) (Plovdiv)
Command; Staff; Supply Company and Training Battalion in Plovdiv, a platoon in Koprivshtitsa
1st Construction Regiment (1. Строителен Полк) (Sopot) (battalions in Sopot, Kalofer and Karnare, platoon in Klisura)
2nd Construction Regiment (2. Строителен Полк) (Panagyurishte) (battalion and company in Panagyurishte, battalion in Elshitsa and a platoon at the Copper Refinery Complex "Medet")
3rd Construction Regiment (3. Строителен Полк) (Smolyan) (battalions in Smolyan and Kardzhali, companies in Pamporovo, Madan and Smilyan)
4th Construction Regiment (4. Строителен Полк) (Plovdiv) (battalion in Plovdiv, companies in Svilengrad, Peshtera and Hisar, platoons in Parvomai and Laki)
Independent Construction Battalion (Velingrad) (7 platoons in Velingrad, platoon in Tsvetino and platoon in Yadenitsa)
Automobile Machinery Regiment - Plovdiv (5. Автомашинен Полк - Пловдив) (Plovdiv) (companies in Plovdiv, Smolyan, Sopot and Panagyurishte, platoons in Plovdiv and Velingrad)
Divisionary Special Company (blacksmith workshop) (Plovdiv)
13th Construction Mechanized Division (13та Строителна Механизирана Дивизия (13. СМД)) (Varna)
Command; Staff; Supply Company and Training Battalion (Varna)
1st Construction Regiment (1. Строителен Полк) (Devnya) (two battalions in Devnya, battalion in Kipra)
2nd Construction Regiment (2. Строителен Полк) (Varna) (battalion and two companies in Varna, battalion in Novi Pazar)
3rd Construction Regiment (3. Строителен Полк) (Shumen) (battalion in Shumen, battalion and two companies in Matnitsa)
4th Construction Regiment (4. Строителен Полк) (Devnya)
5th Construction Regiment (5. Строителен Полк) (Smyadovo)
Independent Service Regiment - Varna (Отделен Полк – Услуга – Варна) (Varna)
Independent Service Regiment - Devnya (Батальон – Услуга – Девня) (Devnya)
Independent Service Battalion - Ruse (Батальон – Услуга – Русе) (Ruse)
Automobile Machinery Regiment - Varna (Автомашинен Полк - Варна) (Varna) (battalions in Varna, Shumen and Devnya, companies in Varna and Smyadovo)
Disciplinary Rehabilitation Battalion (Дисциплинарен изправителен батальон) (Chernevo)
18th Construction Mechanized Division (18та Строителна Механизирана Дивизия (18. СМД)) (Stara Zagora)
Command; Staff; Supply Company and Training Battalion (Stara Zagora)
1st Construction Regiment (1. Строителен Полк) (Sliven) (two battalions in Sliven, battalion in Bratya Kunchevi)
2nd Construction Regiment (2. Строителен Полк) (Burgas) (battalion in Burgas, companies in Primorsko and Malko Tarnovo, platoons in Sarafovo, Grudovo and Vlas)
3rd Construction Regiment (3. Строителен Полк) (Kazanlak) (battalion in Kazanlak, battalion in Sheynovo and a battalion at the Buzludzha)
4th Construction Regiment (4. Строителен Полк) (Yambol) (battalion and company in Yambol, battalion in Elhovo)
5th Construction Regiment (5. Строителен Полк) (Radnevo) (battalion in Mednikarevo, companies in Radnevo, Stara Zagora and Yabalkovo and a service company in Troyanovo)
Divisionary Service Company - Stara Zagora (Дивизионна Рота – Услуга – Стара Загора) (Stara Zagora)
Special Battalion - Stara Zagora (Специален батальон – Стара Загора) (Stara Zagora)
Automobile Machinery Regiment - Stara Zagora (Автомашинен Полк - Стара Загора) (Stara Zagora) (battalions in Sliven, Kazanlak and Radnevo, companies in Burgas and Yambol)
Disciplinary Rehabilitation Battalion (Дисциплинарен изправителен батальон) (Mednikarevo)
20th Construction Mechanized Division (20та Строителна Механизирана Дивизия (20. СМД)) (Gorublyane, Sofia)(see :bg:20-а общостроителна дивизия)
Command; Staff; Supply Company (Gorublyane, Sofia) and Training Battalion (Chelopechene)
1st Construction Regiment (1. Строителен Полк) (Busmantsi) (battalion and company in Busmantsi, battalion in Bukhovo, platoon in Zhivkovo)
2nd Construction Regiment (2. Строителен Полк) (Darvenitsa, Sofia) (three battalions and a company in Darvenitsa)
3rd Construction Regiment (3. Строителен Полк МОК "Елаците") (Ravna Reka) (3 battalions at the Mining Refining Complex "Elatsite")
4th Construction Regiment (4. Строителен Полк) (Chelopech) (two battalions in Chelopech, company in Mirkovo)
Special Regiment (Специален полк) (Busmantsi) (two battalions and a company in Busmantsi)
Special Regiment (Специален полк) (Chelopechene) (company and platoon in Chelopechene, company in Chelopech)
1st Service Regiment (1. Полк – Услуга) (Bukhovo)
2nd Service Regiment (2. Полк – Услуга) (Sofia)
Automobile Machinery Company (Автомашинна Рота) (Chelopechene)
25th Construction Mechanized Division (25. Строителна Механизирана Дивизия) (Sofia) (housing construction)
Command; Staff; Supply Company; Training Battalion (Sofia)
1st Construction Regiment (1. Строителен Полк) (Zemlyane, Sofia)
2nd Construction Regiment (2. Строителен Полк) (Obelya, Sofia)
3rd Construction Regiment (3. Строителен Полк) (Boyana - the National Cinema Center, Sofia)
4th Construction Regiment (4. Строителен Полк) (Obelya, Sofia)
Special High Construction Battalion (Специален Батальон Батальон за Работа по Високи Обекти) (Zemlyane, Sofia)
Automobile Machinery Regiment - Obelya (Автомашинен Полк - Обеля) (Obelya, Sofia)
Service Company (Осигурителна Рота) (Lagera, Sofia)
Electrical Machinery and Installation Brigade (Електромашинна и монтажна бригада) (Sofia)
Command; Staff; Supply Platoon; Heavy Transportation and Mechanization Company (Sofia)
1st Installation Regiment (1. Монтажен Полк) (Sofia)
Independent Installation Platoon (Самостоятелен Монтажен Взвод) (Chelopech)
1st Installation Battalion (1. Монтажен Батальон) (Sofia)
2nd Installation Battalion (2. Монтажен Батальон) (Blagoevgrad)
2nd Installation Regiment (2. Монтажен Полк) (Plovdiv)
1st Installation Battalion (1. Монтажен Батальон) (Smolyan)
2nd Installation Battalion (2. Монтажен Батальон) (Sopot)
3rd Installation Battalion (2. Монтажен Батальон) (Sliven)
3rd Installation Regiment (3. Монтажен Полк) (Varna)
1st Installation Battalion (1. Монтажен Батальон) (Devnya)
2nd Installation Battalion (2. Монтажен Батальон) (Shumen)
9th Construction Mechanization Brigade (9. Бригада за строителна механизация) (Chelopechene, Sofia)
Command; Staff; Supply Platoon; Construction Platoon (Chelopechene, Sofia)
Lift Transport Battalion (Самостоятелен Подемно-транспортен Батальон) (Chelopechene, Sofia)
Automobile Machinery Battalion (Самостоятелен Автомашинен Батальон) (Iskar Railway Station)
Automobile Machinery Battalion (Самостоятелен Автомашинен Батальон) (Chelopech)
Building Materials Mixtures Regiment (Полк за строителни разтвори) (Chelopechene) (concrete mixing trucks)
Combined Repair Workshop (Обединена ремонтна работилница) (Chelopechene)
Support Institutions:
Complex Institute for Scientific Research, Development, Project and Implementation Activities of the Construction Troops (Комплексен Институт за Научноизследователска, Развойна, Проектантска и Внедрителска Дейност на Строителни Войски (КИНИРПВД – СВ)) (Sofia)
Direction (Направление Научно-изследователска и Развойна Дейност)
Direction Laboratories, Experimentation and Implementation (Направление Лаборатории, Експериментиране и Внедряване)
Direction Projects (Направление Проектиране)
Higher People's Military School for Construction "General Blagoi Ivanov" (Висше Народно Военно Строително Училище (ВНВСУ) "Ген. Благой Иванов") (Sofia) – trained career Construction Troops officers
Intermediate Military Construction Sergeant School (Средно сержантско военно строително училище (ССВСУ))
School for Installation Cadres (Школа за монтажни кадри) (Burgas)
See also
:ru:Строительные войска – Soviet and Russian Construction Troops
References
(Library of Congress Country Studies) Construction Troops "[T]hese units were controlled by the Ministry of Construction, Architecture, and Public Services.."
Military of Bulgaria
Military logistics units and formations
Construction in Europe
Construction organizations
Organizations established in 1920
Organizations disestablished in 2000 | Construction Corps (Bulgaria) | [
"Engineering"
] | 6,066 | [
"Construction",
"Construction organizations"
] |
66,023,288 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penta-2%2C3-dienedioic%20acid | Penta-2,3-dienedioic acid (one of two chemicals called glutinic acid), is an allene-containing dicarboxylic acid. It was the first allene to be synthesized, in 1887, but the structure of it was thought to be a propyne core instead of an allene. The correct structural isomeric identity was not determined until 1954.
Literature confusion
A diterpene, chemical name (4aR,5S,6R,8aR)-5-[(Z)-4-carboxy-3-methylbut-3-enyl]-5,6,8a-trimethyl-3,4,4a,6,7,8-hexahydronaphthalene-1-carboxylic acid (), is also called glutinic acid. Some database entries for "glutinic acid" incorrectly identify it as this diterpene rather than the allene meaning in the underlying publications.
References
Enoic acids
Dicarboxylic acids
Substances discovered in the 19th century | Penta-2,3-dienedioic acid | [
"Chemistry"
] | 231 | [
"Organic compounds",
"Organic compound stubs",
"Organic chemistry stubs"
] |
66,023,394 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-explosive%20reactive%20armor | Non-explosive reactive armour (NxRA), also known as non-energetic reactive armor (NERA), is a type of vehicle armor used by modern main battle tanks and heavy infantry fighting vehicles. NERA advantages over explosive reactive armor (ERA) are its inexpensiveness, multi-hit capability, and ease of integration onto armored vehicles due to its nonexplosive nature.
Operating mechanism
The operating principle of NERA relies on the speed deviation of a shock wave propagating in different materials.
When a projectile such as a shaped-charge jet hits the NERA's front metal plate, a high speed shock wave is generated within. The shock wave propagates through the metal plate, until it encounters a confined non-metallic layer with elastic properties, such as rubber. Due to the lower propagation velocity of the non-metallic material, the shock wave refracts, in a manner similar to how light refracts in water. The shock wave then leaves the non-metallic layer and encounters the NERA's metallic back plate. Because of the prior refraction, the direction of propagation through the back plate is different than it was through the first plate. This causes a rapid acceleration of the metallic back plate in that new direction. This deformation, in conjunction with the first plate, is strong enough to shear the projectile or otherwise disrupt it.
Layout
NERA typically consists of three-layer composite sandwich structure sloped between 50° and 60°. In order to guarantee an excellent multi-hit capability against threats, the sandwiches are overlapped in a spaced configuration forming an array.
Materials
The two metallic plates in the NERA sandwich are made of steels of varying hardness and thickness. Depleted uranium plates have also been tested.
Rubber and plastic were initially used as the inner non-metallic material, but modern materials now include foam, nylon, polycarbonate, glass, elastomer and more energetic materials such as glycidyl azide polymer (GAP).
History
British developments
The threat posed by antitank guided missiles was clearly recognized by the FVRDE and as a result, a research program was initiated in 1963. The program was largely of an empirical nature and was directed by Dr G.N Harvey, then assistant director of Research at FVRDE (who has been generally credited with the invention of Chobham armor) in collaboration with J.P Downey, who was responsible for its extensive series of firing trials.
The research program began to bear fruit in 1964, and by the following year had resulted in the creation of a new form of armor which was more than twice as effective against shaped charges as rolled homogeneous armor of the same weight, and at least as effective as the latter against kinetic energy armor-piercing projectiles. The new armor was then called Chobham armour, after the location of FVRDE.
In 1968 work began on applying it to tanks and a feasibility study (codenamed Almagest) on fitting Chobham armour (also called Burlington) to the Chieftain main battle tank was undertaken. Two different Chobham armour kits were used, the skirt armor consisted basically of steel boxes containing plastic/steel sandwiches arranged in the manner of venetian blinds assembly while the front hull armor consisted of a bar armor mounted over a steel burster plate with three sandwiches consisting each of three to five plastic and steel layers underneath.
By February 1970 a decision was taken to build an experimental tank based on the Chieftain Mk. 3 components, which would incorporate Chobham armour. The test vehicle was built at FVRDE in 13 months and was designated as FV4211. In addition to having Chobham armour, the FV4211 was also the first main battle tank to have a hull made of welded aluminium plates to keep down its weight.
Russian developments
During the 1977 summer, samples of Chobham armour were smuggled from West Germany into East Germany by Soviet agents. In the early 1980s, NII Stali developed in conjunction with Uralvagonzavod a new turret for the late production T-72A with “отражающие листы” (Russian for "reflecting plates") armor inserts. By September 1982, the cast turret codenamed 172.10.077SB entered low rate production and was then dubbed "Super Dolly Parton" by Western observers due to its prominent shape. Each reflecting plate array consisted of an assembly of three layers ; a heavy armor plate, a rubber interlayer and a thin metal plate, all glued together.
French developments
By the end of 1979, the AMX-APX began to investigate further its research on composite armor for the upcoming AMX-40 main battle tank. In order to remain competitive on the foreign market, the new armor was to represent a technological breakthrough compared to spaced armor previously developed for the AMX-32.
Furthermore, the Staff of the French Army (EMAT) had high hopes in the EPC program which was to lead to the creation of the Leclerc main battle tank. Protection against modern threats being a keystone of the program. The armor research department of the AMX-APX was managed at the time by Maurice Bourgeat and his assistant Daniel Vallée, both were weapons scientists and worked closely with the French-German Research Institute of Saint -Louis (ISL) and the Central Technical Establishment of Weapons at Arcueil (ETCA). Under contract to the Technical Center of Land Weapons (CETAM) of Bourges, they developed the first configuration of what would later be named the PAC or Plaques Accélérées par Chocs (French for "Shock-Accelerated Plates") whose working principle and layout can be compared to Non-Explosive Reactive Armor (NERA).
Bourgeat and Vallée later worked on its integration on the Leclerc tank in the form of removable composite modules. They were awarded the 1987 Engineer Chanson Prize for their work.
Iraqi developments
In 1989, the Iraqi Military Production Authority (MPA) unveiled a composite appliqué armor kit for the T-55 at the Baghdad International Exhibition of Military Technology, also known as the Baghdad Arms Fair. This appliqué armour was fitted to a small number of tanks prior to the Gulf War. Those tanks were known by the Iraqi Army as Al Faw and Enigma by NATO intelligence services because of its unknown nature at that time.
During combat use in the battle of Khafji, the armour proved to be effective against MILAN anti-tank guided missiles. Post-war assessment of the appliqué armour of the captured Al Faw showed that the each armour block contained a spaced array of several sandwiches made of aluminium and steel sheets with a rubber interlayer. This composite armour relied on the bulging effect protection mechanism and tests have shown this design to have a twice the effectiveness of steel against shaped charge weapons, though no more effectiveness than steel against armor-piercing rounds.
Notes
References
External links
Article on the NERA featured on the T-72B
Vehicle armour
Composite materials
British inventions
Science and technology in the United Kingdom
History of the tank | Non-explosive reactive armor | [
"Physics"
] | 1,442 | [
"Materials",
"Composite materials",
"Matter"
] |
66,023,598 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helical%20engine | The Helical engine is a proposed spacecraft propulsion drive that, like other reactionless drives, would violate the laws of physics.
The concept was proposed by David M. Burns, formerly a NASA engineer at the Marshall Space Flight Center in Alabama, in a non-peer-reviewed report published on a NASA server in 2019 describing it as "A new concept for in-space propulsion is proposed in which propellant is not ejected from the engine, but instead is captured to create a nearly infinite specific impulse".
The Helical engine accelerates ions that are confined in a locked loop. Once they are accelerated, the system changes the velocity of the ions in order to change their momentum. Afterward, Burns hypothesized that the engine, by moving the ions along its axis, could produce thrust. The proposed engine is mainly intended to be used to maintain the orbit of satellite stations during long periods of time without the need of refueling.
See also
EmDrive
References
Fringe physics
Hypothetical technology
Pseudoscience
Spacecraft propulsion | Helical engine | [
"Astronomy"
] | 205 | [
"Outer space stubs",
"Outer space",
"Astronomy stubs"
] |
66,024,364 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hong%C5%8D%20Haniwa%20Kiln%20Site | The is an archaeological site with the ruins of an ancient Kofun period kiln located in what is now the Hongō neighborhood of the city of Fujioka, Gunma Prefecture in the northern Kantō region of Japan. It was designated a National Historic Site of Japan in 1944.
Overview
The Hongō Haniwa Kiln was located is located on the slope of a river terrace facing the Kanna River on the south side of modern Fujioka. This area was inhabited by the "Hajibe", a caste of potters who traditionally produced Haji ware earthenware and haniwa, and there is a Shinto shrine nearby dedicated to the ancestors of the Hajibe clan. The existence of the kiln was confirmed in 1911, but an academic archaeological excavation was not made until 1943. At that time, more than a dozen kilns ruins were found at intervals of four meters along the terraced cliffs, of which two were excavated in detail. These were found to be a type of noborigama kiln, utilizing the natural slope of the hill, with a total length of ten meters. The kiln is divided into a trumpet-shaped six-meter ventilation path and a 2-meter combustion section, which was cylindrical and which had an inclination of about 30 degrees. The walls and floors were lined with clay. In front of the kiln area were the shards of many haniwa, including horse-shaped versions. It is estimated that these kilns date from the 6th century to the early 7th century, and supplied haniwa for use in kofun burial mounds across a wide region of the Kantō area.
The site was backfilled after excavation and is covered in forest, It is about 30 minutes walk from Gunma-Fujioka Station on the JR East Hachikō Line.
See also
List of Historic Sites of Japan (Gunma)
References
External links
Fujioka City official guide
Kofun
History of Gunma Prefecture
Fujioka, Gunma
Historic Sites of Japan
Japanese pottery kiln sites | Hongō Haniwa Kiln Site | [
"Chemistry",
"Engineering"
] | 413 | [
"Kilns",
"Japanese pottery kiln sites"
] |
66,026,415 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modern%20Quantum%20Mechanics | Modern Quantum Mechanics, often called Sakurai or Sakurai and Napolitano, is a standard graduate-level quantum mechanics textbook written originally by J. J. Sakurai and edited by San Fu Tuan in 1985, with later editions coauthored by Jim Napolitano. Sakurai died in 1982 before he could finish the textbook and both the first edition of the book, published in 1985 by Benjamin Cummings, and the revised edition of 1994, published by Addison-Wesley, were edited and completed by Tuan posthumously. The book was updated by Napolitano and released two later editions. The second edition was initially published by Addison-Wesley in 2010 and rereleased as an eBook by Cambridge University Press, who released a third edition in 2020.
Table of contents (3rd edition)
Prefaces
Chapter 1: Fundamental Concepts
Chapter 2: Quantum Dynamics
Chapter 3: Theory of Angular Momentum
Chapter 4: Symmetry in Quantum Mechanics
Chapter 5: Approximation Methods
Chapter 6: Scattering Theory
Chapter 7: Identical Particles
Chapter 8: Relativistic Quantum Mechanics
Appendix A: Electromagnetic Units
Appendix B: Elementary Solutions to Schrödinger's Wave Equation
Appendix C: Hamiltonian for a Charge in an Electromagnetic Field
Appendix D: Proof of the Angular-Momentum Rule (3.358)
Appendix E: Finding Clebsch-Gordan Coefficients
Appendix F: Notes on Complex Variables
Bibliography
Index
Reception
Early editions of the book have received several reviews. It is a standard textbook on the subject and is recommended in other works on the subject, it has inspired other textbooks on the subject, and it is used as a point of comparison in book reviews. Along with Griffith's Introduction to Quantum Mechanics, the book was also analyzed in a review of the "Philosophical Standpoints of Textbooks in Quantum Mechanics" in June 2020.
Publication history
(hardcover)
(hardcover)
(eBook)
(hardcover)
(eBook)
See also
Introduction to Quantum Mechanics, an undergraduate text by David J. Griffiths
List of textbooks on classical mechanics and quantum mechanics
References
External links
Publisher's website for the 2nd edition
Publisher's website for the 3rd edition
Book in the Internet Archive
Physics textbooks
1985 non-fiction books
1994 non-fiction books
2020 non-fiction books
Quantum mechanics | Modern Quantum Mechanics | [
"Physics"
] | 446 | [
"Quantum mechanics",
"Works about quantum mechanics"
] |
66,026,469 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial%20intelligence%20in%20hiring | Artificial intelligence can be used to automate aspects of the job recruitment process. Advances in artificial intelligence, such as the advent of machine learning and the growth of big data, enable AI to be utilized to recruit, screen, and predict the success of applicants. Proponents of artificial intelligence in hiring claim it reduces bias, assists with finding qualified candidates, and frees up human resource workers' time for other tasks, while opponents worry that AI perpetuates inequalities in the workplace and will eliminate jobs. Despite the potential benefits, the ethical implications of AI in hiring remain a subject of debate, with concerns about algorithmic transparency, accountability, and the need for ongoing oversight to ensure fair and unbiased decision-making throughout the recruitment process.
Background
Artificial intelligence has fascinated researchers since the term was coined in the mid-1950s. Researchers have identified four main forms of intelligence that AI would need to possess to truly replace humans in the workplace: mechanical, analytical, intuitive, and empathetic. Automation follows a predictable progression in which it will first be able to replace the mechanical tasks, then analytical tasks, then intuitive tasks, and finally empathy based tasks. However, full automation is not the only potential outcome of AI advancements. Humans may instead work alongside machines, enhancing the effectiveness of both. In the hiring context, this means that AI has already replaced many basic human resource tasks in recruitment and screening, while freeing up time for human resource workers to do other more creative tasks that can not yet be automated or do not make fiscal sense to automate. It also means that the type of jobs companies are recruiting and hiring form will continue to shift as the skillsets that are most valuable change.
Human resources has been identified as one of the ten industries most affected by AI. It is increasingly common for companies to use AI to automate aspects of their hiring process. The hospitality, finance, and tech industries in particular have incorporated AI into their hiring processes to significant extents.
Human resources is fundamentally an industry based around making predictions. Human resource specialists must predict which people would make quality candidates for a job, which marketing strategies would get those people to apply, which applicants would make the best employees, what kinds of compensation would get them to accept an offer, what is needed to retain an employee, which employees should be promoted, what a companies staffing needs, among others. AI is particularly adept at prediction because it can analyze huge amounts of data. This enables AI to make insights many humans would miss and find connections between seemingly unrelated data points. This provides value to a company and has made it advantageous to use AI to automate or augment many human resource tasks.
Uses
Screeners
Screeners are tests that allow companies to sift through a large applicant pool and extract applicants that have desirable features. Companies commonly screen through the use of questionnaires, coding tests, interviews, and resume analysis. Artificial Intelligence already plays a major role in the screening process. Resumes can be analyzed using AI for desirable characteristics, such as a certain amount of work experience or a relevant degree. Interviews can then be extended to applicant's whose resumes contain these characteristics.
What factors are used to screen applicants is a concern to ethicists and civil rights activists. A screener that favors people who have similar characteristics to those already employed at a company may perpetuate inequalities. For example, if a company that is predominantly white and male uses its employees' data to train its screener it may accidentally create a screening process that favors white, male applicants. The automation of screeners also has the potential to reduce biases. Biases against applicants with African American sounding names have been shown in multiple studies. An AI screener has the potential to limit human bias and error in the hiring process, allowing more minority applicants to be successful.
Recruitment
Recruitment involves the identification of potential applicants and the marketing of positions. AI is commonly utilized in the recruitment process because it can help boost the number of qualified applicants for positions. Companies are able to use AI to target their marketing to applicants who are likely to be good fits for a position. This often involves the use of social media sites advertising tools, which rely on AI. Facebook allows advertisers to target ads based on demographics, location, interests, behavior, and connections. Facebook also allows companies to target a "look-a-like" audience, that is the company supplies Facebook with a data set, typically the company's current employees, and Facebook will target the ad to profiles that are similar to the profiles in the data set. Additionally, job sites like Indeed, Glassdoor, and ZipRecruiter target job listings to applicants that have certain characteristics employers are looking for. Targeted advertising has many advantages for companies trying to recruit such being a more efficient use of resources, reaching a desired audience, and boosting qualified applicants. This has helped make it a mainstay in modern hiring.
Who receives a targeted ad can be controversial. In hiring, the implications of targeted ads have to do with who is able to find out about and then apply to a position. Most targeted ad algorithms are proprietary information. Some platforms, like Facebook and Google, allow users to see why they were shown a specific ad, but users who do not receive the ad likely never know of its existence and also have no way of knowing why they were not shown the ad.
Interviews
Chatbots were one of the first applications of AI and are commonly used in the hiring process. Interviewees interact with chatbots to answer interview questions. Their responses can then be analyzed by AI, providing prospective employers with a myriad of insights. Chatbots streamline the interview process and reduces human resource workers' labor. Video interviews utilize AI and have become prevalent. Zappyhire, a recruitment automation startup has developed a recruitment bot, that assures that you engage with the most relevant candidates by using chatbot's AI-powered resume screening technology. HireVue has created technology that analyzes interviewees responses and gestures during recorded video interviews. Over 12 million interviewees have been screened by the over 700 companies that utilize the service.
Controversies
Artificial intelligence in hiring confers many benefits, but it also has some challenges which have concerned experts. AI is only as good as the data it is using. Biases can inadvertently be baked into the data used in AI. Often companies will use data from their employees to decide what people to recruit or hire. This can perpetuate bias and lead to more homogenous workforces. Facebook Ads was an example of a platform that created such controversy for allowing business owners to specify what type of employee they are looking for. For example, job advertisements for nursing and teach could be set such that only women of a specific age group would see the advertisements. Facebook Ads has since then removed this function from its platform, citing the potential problems with the function in perpetuating biases and stereotypes against minorities. The growing use of Artificial Intelligence-enabled hiring systems has become an important component of modern talent hiring, particularly through social networks such as LinkedIn and Facebook. However, data overflow embedded in the hiring systems, based on Natural Language Processing (NLP) methods, may result in unconscious gender bias. Utilizing data driven methods may mitigate some bias generated from these systems
It can also be hard to quantify what makes a good employee. This poses a challenge for training AI to predict which employees will be best. Commonly used metrics like performance reviews can be subjective and have been shown to favor white employees over black employees and men over women. Another challenge is the limited amount of available data. Employers only collect certain details about candidates during the initial stages of the hiring process. This requires AI to make determinations about candidates with very limited information to go off of. Additionally, many employers do not hire employees frequently and so have limited firm specific data to go off. To combat this, many firms will use algorithms and data from other firms in their industry. AI's reliance on applicant and current employees personal data raises privacy issues. These issues effect both the applicants and current employees, but also may have implications for third parties who are linked through social media to applicants or current employees. For example, a sweep of someone's social media will also show their friends and people they have tagged in photos or posts.
AI makes it easier for companies to search applicants social media accounts. A study conducted by Monash University found that 45% of hiring managers use social media to gain insight on applicants. Seventy percent of those surveyed said they had rejected an applicant because of things discovered on their applicant's social media, yet only 17% of hiring managers saw using social media in the hiring process as a violation of applicants privacy. Using social media in the hiring process is appealing to hiring managers because it offers them a less curated view of applicants lives. The privacy trade-off is significant. Social media profiles often reveal information about applicants that human resource departments are legally not allowed to require applicants to divulge like race, ability status, and sexual orientation.
AI and the future of hiring
Artificial intelligence is changing the recruiting process by gradually replacing routine tasks performed by human recruiters. AI can reduce human involvement in hiring and reduce the human biases that hinder effective hiring decisions.
AI is changing the way work is done. Artificial intelligence along with other technological advances such as improvements in robotics have placed 47% of jobs at risk of being eliminated in the near future. Some classify the shifts in labor brought about by AI as a 4th industrial revolution, which they call Industrial Revolution 4.0. According to some scholars, however, the transformative impact of AI on labor has been overstated. The "no-real-change" theory holds that an IT revolution has already occurred, but that the benefits of implementing new technologies does not outweigh the costs associated with adopting them. This theory claims that the result of the IT revolution is thus much less impactful than had originally been forecasted. Other scholars refute this theory claiming that AI has already led to significant job loss for unskilled labor and that it will eliminate middle skill and high skill jobs in the future. This position is based around the idea that AI is not yet a technology of general use and that any potential 4th industrial revolution has not fully occurred. A third theory holds that the effect of AI and other technological advances is too complicated to yet be understood. This theory is centered around the idea that while AI will likely eliminate jobs in the short term it will also likely increase the demand for other jobs. The question then becomes will the new jobs be accessible to people and will they emerge near when jobs are eliminated.
Although robots can replace people to complete some tasks, there are still many tasks that cannot be done alone by robots that master artificial intelligence. A study analyzed 2,000 work tasks in 800 different occupations globally, and concluded that half (totaling US$15 trillion in salaries) could be automated by adapting already existing technologies. Less than 5% of occupations could be fully automated and 60% have at least 30% automatable tasks. In other words, in most cases, artificial intelligence is a tool rather than a substitute for labor. As artificial intelligence enters the field of human work, people have gradually discovered that artificial intelligence is incapable of unique tasks, and the advantage of human beings is to understand uniqueness and use tools rationally. At this time, human-machine reciprocal work came into being. Brandão discovers that people can form organic partnerships with machines. “Humans enable machines to do what they do best: doing repetitive tasks, analyzing significant volumes of data, and dealing with routine cases. Due to reciprocity, machines enable humans to have their potentialities "strengthened" for tasks such as resolving ambiguous information, exercising the judgment of difficult cases, and contacting dissatisfied clients.” Daugherty and Wilson have observed successful new types of human-computer interaction in occupations and tasks in various fields. In other words, even in activities and capabilities that are considered simpler, new technologies will not pose an imminent danger to workers. As far as General Electric is concerned, buyers of it and its equipment will always need maintenance workers. Entrepreneurs need these workers to work well with new systems that can integrate their skills with advanced technologies in novel ways.
Artificial intelligence has sped up the hiring process considerably, dramatically reducing costs. For example, Unilever has reviewed over 250,000 applications using AI and reduced its hiring process from 4 months to 4 weeks. This saved the company 50,000 hours of labor. The increased efficiency AI promises has sped up its adoption by human resource departments globally.
Regulations on AI in hiring
The Artificial Intelligence Video Interview Act, effective in Illinois since 2020, regulates the use of AI to analyze and evaluate job applicants’ video interviews. This law requires employers to follow guidelines to avoid any issues regarding using AI in the hiring process.
References
Applications of artificial intelligence
Machine learning
Automation
Recruitment software | Artificial intelligence in hiring | [
"Engineering"
] | 2,607 | [
"Artificial intelligence engineering",
"Control engineering",
"Automation",
"Machine learning"
] |
66,026,700 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Refraction%20networking | Refraction networking, also known as decoy routing, is a research anti-censorship approach that would allow users to circumvent a censor without using any individual proxy servers. Instead, it implements proxy functionality at the core of partner networks, such as those of Internet service providers, outside the censored country. These networks would discreetly provide censorship circumvention for "any connection that passes through their networks." This prevents censors from selectively blocking proxy servers and makes censorship more expensive, in a strategy similar to collateral freedom.
The approach was independently invented by teams at the University of Michigan, the University of Illinois, and Raytheon BBN Technologies. There are five existing protocols: Telex, TapDance, Cirripede, Curveball, and Rebound. These teams are now working together to develop and deploy refraction networking with support from the U.S. Department of State.
See also
Domain fronting
References
External links
Official website
Internet privacy software
Anonymity networks
Secure communication
Internet censorship
Cybersecurity engineering | Refraction networking | [
"Technology",
"Engineering"
] | 215 | [
"Cybersecurity engineering",
"Computer networks engineering",
"Computer engineering"
] |
66,029,152 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20k-uniform%20tilings | A k-uniform tiling is a tiling of tilings of the plane by convex regular polygons, connected edge-to-edge, with k types of vertices. The 1-uniform tiling include 3 regular tilings, and 8 semiregular tilings. A 1-uniform tiling can be defined by its vertex configuration. Higher k-uniform tilings are listed by their vertex figures, but are not generally uniquely identified this way.
The complete lists of k-uniform tilings have been enumerated up to k=6. There are 20 2-uniform tilings, 61 3-uniform tilings, 151 4-uniform tilings, 332 5-uniform tilings, and 673 6-uniform tilings. This article lists all solutions up to k=5.
Other tilings of regular polygons that are not edge-to-edge allow different sized polygons, and continuous shifting positions of contact.
Classification
Such periodic tilings of convex polygons may be classified by the number of orbits of vertices, edges and tiles. If there are orbits of vertices, a tiling is known as -uniform or -isogonal; if there are orbits of tiles, as -isohedral; if there are orbits of edges, as -isotoxal.
k-uniform tilings with the same vertex figures can be further identified by their wallpaper group symmetry.
Enumeration
1-uniform tilings include 3 regular tilings, and 8 semiregular ones, with 2 or more types of regular polygon faces. There are 20 2-uniform tilings, 61 3-uniform tilings, 151 4-uniform tilings, 332 5-uniform tilings and 673 6-uniform tilings. Each can be grouped by the number m of distinct vertex figures, which are also called m-Archimedean tilings.
Finally, if the number of types of vertices is the same as the uniformity (m = k below), then the tiling is said to be Krotenheerdt. In general, the uniformity is greater than or equal to the number of types of vertices (m ≥ k), as different types of vertices necessarily have different orbits, but not vice versa. Setting m = n = k, there are 11 such tilings for n = 1; 20 such tilings for n = 2; 39 such tilings for n = 3; 33 such tilings for n = 4; 15 such tilings for n = 5; 10 such tilings for n = 6; and 7 such tilings for n = 7.
1-uniform tilings (regular)
A tiling is said to be regular if the symmetry group of the tiling acts transitively on the flags of the tiling, where a flag is a triple consisting of a mutually incident vertex, edge and tile of the tiling. This means that, for every pair of flags, there is a symmetry operation mapping the first flag to the second. This is equivalent to the tiling being an edge-to-edge tiling by congruent regular polygons. There must be six equilateral triangles, four squares or three regular hexagons at a vertex, yielding the three regular tessellations.
m-Archimedean and k-uniform tilings
Vertex-transitivity means that for every pair of vertices there is a symmetry operation mapping the first vertex to the second.
If the requirement of flag-transitivity is relaxed to one of vertex-transitivity, while the condition that the tiling is edge-to-edge is kept, there are eight additional tilings possible, known as Archimedean, uniform or demiregular tilings. Note that there are two mirror image (enantiomorphic or chiral) forms of 34.6 (snub hexagonal) tiling, only one of which is shown in the following table. All other regular and semiregular tilings are achiral.
Grünbaum and Shephard distinguish the description of these tilings as Archimedean as referring only to the local property of the arrangement of tiles around each vertex being the same, and that as uniform as referring to the global property of vertex-transitivity. Though these yield the same set of tilings in the plane, in other spaces there are Archimedean tilings which are not uniform.
1-uniform tilings (semiregular)
2-uniform tilings
There are twenty (20) 2-uniform tilings of the Euclidean plane. (also called 2-isogonal tilings or demiregular tilings) Vertex types are listed for each. If two tilings share the same two vertex types, they are given subscripts 1,2.
3-uniform tilings
There are 61 3-uniform tilings of the Euclidean plane. 39 are 3-Archimedean with 3 distinct vertex types, while 22 have 2 identical vertex types in different symmetry orbits.
3-uniform tilings, 3 vertex types
3-uniform tilings, 2 vertex types (2:1)
4-uniform tilings
There are 151 4-uniform tilings of the Euclidean plane. Brian Galebach's search reproduced Krotenheerdt's list of 33 4-uniform tilings with 4 distinct vertex types, as well as finding 85 of them with 3 vertex types, and 33 with 2 vertex types.
4-uniform tilings, 4 vertex types
There are 33 with 4 types of vertices.
4-uniform tilings, 3 vertex types (2:1:1)
There are 85 with 3 types of vertices.
4-uniform tilings, 2 vertex types (2:2) and (3:1)
There are 33 with 2 types of vertices, 12 with two pairs of types, and 21 with 3:1 ratio of types.
5-uniform tilings
There are 332 5-uniform tilings of the Euclidean plane. Brian Galebach's search identified 332 5-uniform tilings, with 2 to 5 types of vertices. There are 74 with 2 vertex types, 149 with 3 vertex types, 94 with 4 vertex types, and 15 with 5 vertex types.
5-uniform tilings, 5 vertex types
There are 15 5-uniform tilings with 5 unique vertex figure types.
5-uniform tilings, 4 vertex types (2:1:1:1)
There are 94 5-uniform tilings with 4 vertex types.
5-uniform tilings, 3 vertex types (3:1:1) and (2:2:1)
There are 149 5-uniform tilings, with 60 having 3:1:1 copies, and 89 having 2:2:1 copies.
5-uniform tilings, 2 vertex types (4:1) and (3:2)
There are 74 5-uniform tilings with 2 types of vertices, 27 with 4:1 and 47 with 3:2 copies of each.
There are 29 5-uniform tilings with 3 and 2 unique vertex figure types.
Higher k-uniform tilings
k-uniform tilings have been enumerated up to 6. There are 673 6-uniform tilings of the Euclidean plane. Brian Galebach's search reproduced Krotenheerdt's list of 10 6-uniform tilings with 6 distinct vertex types, as well as finding 92 of them with 5 vertex types, 187 of them with 4 vertex types, 284 of them with 3 vertex types, and 100 with 2 vertex types.
References
Order in Space: A design source book, Keith Critchlow, 1970
Chapter X: The Regular Polytopes
Dale Seymour and Jill Britton, Introduction to Tessellations, 1989, , pp. 50–57
External links
Euclidean and general tiling links:
n-uniform tilings, Brian Galebach
Euclidean plane geometry
Regular tilings
Tessellation | List of k-uniform tilings | [
"Physics",
"Mathematics"
] | 1,615 | [
"Tessellation",
"Planes (geometry)",
"Euclidean plane geometry",
"Symmetry"
] |
66,029,866 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kadem | Kadem (also ) is a defunct measurement unit used in the Ottoman Empire.
Kadem means "foot" and during the last years of the Ottoman Empire 1 kadem was set to be in accordance with the British unit of length. But before the reign of Ottoman Sultan Selim III (r. 1789–1807), kadem had a different definition. Its value was either 36.6666 cm. or 37.8869 cm.
During the Atatürk's Reforms metric system was adopted in Turkey .
References
Ottoman units of measurement
Units of length
Human-based units of measurement | Kadem | [
"Mathematics"
] | 121 | [
"Quantity",
"Units of measurement",
"Units of length"
] |
66,029,968 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brewing%20equipment | Brewing equipment is the vessels and tools used to brew beer, which usually includes systems of saccharification, fermentation, refrigeration and clean-in-place.
Archaeologists uncovered ancient beer brewing equipment in an underground room built between 3400 and 2900 BC in China. A research report published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America said that the Mijiaya Site provided the earliest evidence of beer-making in China, indicating that people had mastered the beer brewing technology around 5,000 years ago.
In recent years, the concentration of the beer brewing equipment industry in the international market has been increasing, and the global manufacturing capacity of beer brewing equipment manufacturing is mainly concentrated in the Europe and Asia. Examples of manufacturers of beer brewing equipment are BrewJacket, and American Beer Equipment.
References
Brewing
Equipment
Machines | Brewing equipment | [
"Physics",
"Technology",
"Engineering"
] | 173 | [
"Physical systems",
"Machines",
"Mechanical engineering"
] |
66,033,489 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crude%20Oil%20Windfall%20Profit%20Tax%20Act%20of%201980 | The Crude Oil Windfall Profit Tax Act of 1980 (P.L. 96-223) was enacted as part of a compromise between the Carter Administration and the Congress over the decontrol of crude oil prices. The Act was intended to recoup the revenue earned by oil producers as a result of the sharp increase in oil prices brought about by the OPEC oil embargo. According to a report by the Congressional Research Service, the Act's title was a misnomer. "Despite its name, the crude oil windfall profit tax... was not a tax on profits. It was an excise tax... imposed on the difference between the market price of oil, which was technically referred to as the removal price, and a statutory 1979 base price that was adjusted quarterly for inflation and state severance taxes." The report also stated that the tax only generated $40 billion in net revenue though it was projected to generate $175 billion, and because the tax was an excise tax on oil produced domestically in the United States and not imposed on imported oil, it reduced domestic oil production by 1-5% while dependence on imported oil increased by 3-13%.
Enactment
The 96th United States Congress was motivated to enact the tax by several factors:
The Congress was concerned that the domestic oil industry would reap enormous revenues and profits as a result of the deregulation of price controls to allow domestic oil to reset to world oil price levels. Congress believed that the projected huge redistribution of income from energy consumers to energy producers would not be fair.
Congress also felt the industry was not paying its fair share of federal taxes. The oil industry's low effective income tax rates were due to the availability of two oil industry tax deductions: the percentage depletion allowance, and the provision which permits companies to expense (deduct fully in the initial year) the intangible costs of drilling.
In addition, Congress was looking for additional sources of revenue. Between 1961 and 1979, the federal budget was in deficit in every year but one (there was a small surplus in FY1969). The Congress's Joint Committee on Taxation projected the tax would generate, from 1980 to 1990, additional gross revenues of approximately $393 billion.
Repeal
On August 23, 1988, amid low oil prices, the tax was repealed when President Ronald Reagan signed P.L. 100–418, The Omnibus Trade and Competitiveness Act of 1988. Reagan had objected to the tax during his 1980 presidential campaign and promised to repeal it. As with the enactment, Congress was motivated by several factors:
A principal issue in the debate over the Act's repeal was that the original forecast of revenues turned out to have been significantly overestimated, reflecting overestimates of crude oil prices. From 1980 to 1990 the tax generated gross revenue of about $80 billion, or 80% less than the projected amount of $393 billion.
Congress was also concerned that the tax had increased the nation's dependence on imported oil. The tax was an excise tax on oil produced domestically in the United States; it was not imposed on imported oil. Domestic oil producers could not shift the tax forward as a higher oil selling price because the purchaser would merely substitute imported or tax-exempt crude. The tax caused domestic oil production losses in every year until 1986, when crude prices declined below adjusted base prices resulting in zero windfall profit tax. Over the 1980–1986 period, it is estimated that, depending on the assumed supply curve price elasticity, the tax reduced domestic oil production from between 320 million barrels (1.2% of domestic production) and 1,268 million barrels (4.8% of domestic production). The effect of reducing domestic oil production was to increase the level of imported oil. The estimated production losses caused by the tax, as a % of the actual level of imported oil, under three assumed supply curve elasticities range from 3.2% of total imports to 12.7% of imports for this period, depending on price elasticity.
The tax also may have distorted the way resources were allocated within the oil industry. Since the tax was imposed on oil production — i.e., upon its removal and sale — extraction (and other upstream operations) was penalized and other aspects of the business (refining and marketing, the downstream operations) become relatively favored. Thus it created financial incentives to shift resources from exploration and drilling to refining and marketing.
The tax also appeared to be a complicated tax to comply with and to administer. A 1984 General Accounting Office report called it "perhaps the largest and most complex tax ever levied on a U.S. industry." The windfall profit tax was imposed on oil producers when taxable crude oil was removed from the oil-producing property. Any individual or business with an economic interest in an oil-producing property was considered as a producer and subject to the tax. There were four kinds of producers — independent producers, integrated oil companies, royalty owners (landowners), and tax-exempt parties. There were about one million oil producers (persons, institutions, and businesses) in the United States in 1984. Sometimes there were hundreds of people having a fractional economic interest in a single oil-producing property. Throughout the compliance process, many tax return forms and information forms were required. The process was further complicated due to numerous exceptions to the basic general rules and due to possible interactions between the windfall profit tax rules, the personal and corporate income tax rules, energy regulations, and state and local tax and energy laws. After 1986, the WPT imposed little or no tax liability on oil producers because oil prices were below the threshold base prices that triggered it. Oil producers were obliged to comply with the paperwork requirements of the law, however, and the Internal Revenue Service (IRS) was compelled to administer the system despite the fact that the tax generated no revenue, reportedly spending about $15 million a year to do so.
Since 1988, no windfall profit tax has been enacted in the U.S., however, when gas prices once again reached record levels there was renewed pressure on the U.S. government to bring back the tax. At least nine bills that purported to tax windfall profits of crude oil producers were introduced in the 110th United States Congress during 2007-08 (HR 1500, HR 2372, HR 5800, HR 6000, S.1238, S.2761, S.2782, S.2991, S.3044) .
The windfall profit tax of the 1980s is not to be confused with the excess profit taxes of World War I, World War II, and the Korean War eras.
References
1980 in American law
Petroleum politics | Crude Oil Windfall Profit Tax Act of 1980 | [
"Chemistry"
] | 1,366 | [
"Petroleum",
"Petroleum politics"
] |
47,693,506 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20conjugated%20polymers |
See also
Light emitting polymers in OLEDs
Conductive polymer
Electroluminescence
References
Organic polymers
Conductive polymers
Conjugated polymers | List of conjugated polymers | [
"Chemistry"
] | 28 | [
"Organic polymers",
"Molecular electronics",
"Organic compounds",
"nan",
"Conductive polymers"
] |
47,693,720 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2015%20Dongying%20explosion | The 2015 Dongyin explosion was an explosion that occurred at the Diao Kou Xiang Bin Yuan Chemical Co. located within the Dongying Economic Development Zone in Dongying, Shandong, China, on Monday, 31 August 2015 and killed thirteen people.
Events
At 11:22pm on 31 August 2015, a chemical factory in the Dongyin-Lijin Binhai Economic and Technological Development Zone in eastern China exploded. The ensuing fire took five hours to bring under control. Chinese authorities detained 12 company employees and executives and 11 government officials. One person was reported to have been killed in the explosion, however the death toll later rose to 13 with 25 others injured. The blast came just three weeks after the Tianjin disaster which garnered significant media coverage.
See also
2015 Tianjin explosions
2014 Kunshan explosion
1988 PEPCON disaster
Largest artificial non-nuclear explosions
List of accidents and disasters by death toll
References
2015 disasters in China
2015 industrial disasters
Chemical plant explosions
Explosions in 2015
Explosions in China
Industrial fires and explosions in China
Disasters in Shandong
August 2015 events in China | 2015 Dongying explosion | [
"Chemistry"
] | 207 | [
"Chemical plant explosions",
"Explosions"
] |
47,694,178 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penicillium%20soppii | Penicillium soppii is a psychrotolerant species of fungus in the genus Penicillium which produces cycloaspeptide A.
References
Further reading
soppii
Fungi described in 1927
Fungus species | Penicillium soppii | [
"Biology"
] | 48 | [
"Fungi",
"Fungus species"
] |
47,694,859 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myxoxanthophyll | Myxoxanthophyll is a carotenoid glycoside pigment present (usually as rhamnosides) in the photosynthetic apparatus of cyanobacteria. It is named after the word "Myxophyceae", a former term for cyanobacteria. As a monocyclic xanthophyll, it has a yellowish color. It is required for normal cell wall structure and thylakoid organization in the cyanobacterium Synechocystis. The pigment is unusual because it is glycosylated on the 2'-OH rather than the 1'-OH position of the molecule. Myxoxanthophyll was first isolated from Oscillatoria rubenscens in 1936.
Synthesis
The bright red pigment lycopene is the acyclic precursor of all carotenoids in cyanobacteria. In myxoxanthophyll synthesis, lycopene is enzymatically converted to 1-hydroxylycoprene, then to intermediates 1'-hydroxy-y-carotene, plectaniaxanthin, and myxol. Finally, the hydroxyl group in myxol is glycosylated at the 2' position to form myxoxanthophyll.
References
External links
Carotenoid glycosides
Biological pigments
Cyclohexenes | Myxoxanthophyll | [
"Biology"
] | 301 | [
"Biological pigments",
"Pigmentation"
] |
47,695,176 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superhabitable%20world | A superhabitable world is a hypothetical type of planet or moon that is better suited than Earth for the emergence and evolution of life. The concept was introduced in a 2014 paper by René Heller and John Armstrong, in which they criticized the language used in the search for habitable exoplanets and proposed clarifications. The authors argued that knowing whether a world is located within the star's habitable zone is insufficient to determine its habitability, and that the prevailing model of characterization was geocentric or anthropocentric in nature. Instead, they proposed a biocentric model that prioritized characteristics affecting the abundance of life and biodiversity on a world's surface.
If a world possesses more diverse flora and fauna than there are on Earth, then it would empirically show that its natural environment is more hospitable to life. To identify such a world, one should consider its geological processes, formation age, atmospheric composition, ocean coverage, and the type of star that it orbits. In other words, a superhabitable world would likely be larger, warmer, and older than Earth, with an evenly-distributed ocean, and orbiting a K-type main-sequence star. In 2020, astronomers, building on Heller and Armstrong's hypothesis, identified 24 potentially superhabitable exoplanets based on measured characteristics that fit these criteria.
Stellar characteristics
A star's characteristics is a key consideration for planetary habitability. The types of stars generally considered to be potential hosts for habitable worlds include F, G, K, and M-type main-sequence stars. The most massive starsO, B, and A-type, respectivelyhave average lifespans on the main sequence that are considered too short for complex life to develop, ranging from a few hundred million years for A-type stars to only a few million years for O-type stars. Thus, F-type stars are described as the "hot limit" for stars that can potentially support life, as their lifespan of 2 to 4 billion years would be sufficient for habitability. However, F-type stars emit large amounts of ultraviolet radiation, and without the presence of a protective ozone layer, could disrupt nucleic acid-based life on a planet's surface.
On the opposite end, the less massive red dwarfs, which generally includes M-type stars, are by far the most common and long-lived stars in the universe, but ongoing research points to serious challenges to their ability to support life. Due to the low luminosity of red dwarfs, the circumstellar habitable zone (HZ) is in very close proximity to the star, which causes any planet to become tidally locked. The primary concern for researchers, however, is the star's propensity for frequent outbreaks of high-energy radiation, especially early in its life, that could strip away a planet's atmosphere. At the same time, red dwarfs do not emit enough quiescent UV radiation (i.e., UV radiation emitted during inactive periods) to support biological processes like photosynthesis.
Dismissing both ends, astronomers are led to conclude that G and K-type stars—yellow and orange dwarfs, respectively—provide the best life-supporting characteristics. However, a limiting factor to the habitability of yellow dwarfs is their higher emissions of ionizing radiation and shorter lifespans compared to cooler orange dwarfs. Therefore, researchers conclude that orange dwarfs offer the best conditions for a superhabitable world.
Also nicknamed "Goldilocks stars," orange dwarfs emit low enough levels of ultraviolet radiation to eliminate the need for a protective ozone layer, but just enough to contribute to necessary biological processes. Additionally, the long average lifespan of an orange dwarf (18 to 34 billion years, compared to 10 billion for the Sun) provides a more stable habitable zone throughout the star's lifetime, providing more time for life to develop.
Planetary characteristics
Age
It is necessary for the age of any superhabitable world to be greater than Earth's age (~4.5 billion years). This necessity is based on the belief that as a planet or moon ages, it experiences increasing levels of biodiversity, since native species have had more time to evolve, adapt, and stabilize the environmental conditions suitable for life. However, the eventual exhaustion of a world's internally generated heat means that there is also an upper limit to the age of any habitable world; internal cooling would lead to changes to the average global temperature and atmospheric composition. Therefore, the optimal age range for a superhabitable world would be roughly 58 billion years.
Orbital characteristics
During the main sequence phase, a star burns hydrogen in its core, producing energy through nuclear fusion. Over time, as the hydrogen fuel is consumed, the star's core contracts and heats up, leading to an increase in the rate of fusion. This causes the star to gradually become more luminous, and as its luminosity increases, the amount of energy it emits grows, pushing the habitable zone (HZ) outward. Studies suggest that Earth's orbit lies near the inner edge of the Solar System's HZ, which could harm its long-term livability as it nears the end of its HZ lifetime.
Ideally, the orbit of a superhabitable world should be further out and closer to the center of the HZ relative to Earth's orbit, but knowing whether a world is in this region is insufficient on its own to determine habitability. Not all rocky planets in the HZ may be habitable, while tidal heating can render planets or moons habitable beyond this region. For example, Jupiter's moon Europa is well beyond the outer limits of the Solar System's HZ, yet as a result of its orbital interactions with the other Galilean moons, it is believed to have a subsurface ocean of liquid water beneath its icy surface.
According to a 2023 paper by Jonathan Jernigan and colleagues, marine biological activity increases on planets with increasing obliquity and eccentricity. The authors suggest that planets with a high obliquity and/or eccentricity may be superhabitable, and that scientists should be keen to look for biosignatures on exoplanets with these orbital characteristics.
Mass and size
Assuming that a greater surface area would provide greater biodiversity, the size of a superhabitable world should generally be greater than 1 R🜨, with the condition that its mass is not arbitrarily large. Studies of the mass-radius relationship indicate that there is a transition point between rocky planets and gaseous planets (i.e., mini-Neptunes) that occurs around 2 M🜨 or 1.7 R🜨. Another study argues that there is a natural radius limit, set at 1.6 R🜨, below which nearly all planets are terrestrial, composed primarily of rock-iron-water mixtures.
Heller and Armstrong argue that the optimal mass and radius of a superhabitable world can be determined by geological activity; the more massive a planetary body, the longer time it will continuously generate internal heata major contributing factor to plate tectonics. Too much mass, however, can slow plate tectonics by increasing the pressure of the mantle. It is believed that plate tectonics peak in bodies between 1 and 5 M🜨, and from this perspective, a planet can be considered superhabitable up to around 2 M🜨. Assuming this planet has a density similar to Earth's, its radius should be between 1.2 and 1.3 R🜨.
Geology
An important geological process is plate tectonics, which appears to be common in terrestrial planets with a significant rotation speed and an internal heat source. If large bodies of water are present on a planet, plate tectonics can maintain high levels of carbon dioxide () in its atmosphere and increase the global surface temperature through the greenhouse effect. However, if tectonic activity is not significant enough to increase temperatures above the freezing point of water, the planet could experience a permanent ice age, unless the process is offset by another energy source like tidal heating or stellar irradiation. On the other hand, if the effects of any of these processes are too strong, the amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere could cause a runaway greenhouse effect by trapping heat and preventing adequate cooling.
The presence of a magnetic field is important for the long-term survivability of life on the surface of a planet or moon. A sufficiently strong magnetic field effectively shields a world's surface and atmosphere against ionizing radiation emanating from the interstellar medium and its host star. A planet can generate an intrinsic magnetic field through a dynamo that involves an internal heat source, an electrically conductive fluid like molten iron, and a significant rotation speed, while a moon could be extrinsically protected by its host planet's magnetic field. Less massive bodies and those that are tidally locked are likely to have a weak to non-existent magnetic field, which over time can result in the loss of a significant portion of its atmosphere by hydrodynamic escape and become a desert planet. If a planet's rotation is too slow, such as with Venus, then it cannot generate an Earth-like magnetic field. A more massive planet could overcome this problem by hosting multiple moons, which through their combined gravitational effects, can boost the planet's magnetic field.
Surface features
The appearance of a superhabitable world should be similar to the conditions found in the tropical climates of Earth. Due to the denser atmosphere and less temperature variation across its surface, such a world would lack any major ice sheets and have a higher concentration of clouds, while plant life would potentially cover more of the planet's surface and be visible from space.
When considering the differences in the peak wavelength of visible light for K-type stars and the lower stellar flux of the planet, surface vegetation may exhibit colors different than the typical green color found on Earth. Instead, vegetation on these worlds could have a red, orange, or even purple appearance.
An ocean that covers a large portion of a world's surface with fractionate continents and archipelagos could provide a stable environment across its surface. In addition, the greater surface gravity of a superhabitable world could reduce the average ocean depth and create shallow ocean basins, providing the optimal environment for marine life to thrive. For example, marine ecosystems found in the shallow areas of Earth's oceans and seas, given the amount of light and heat they receive, are observed to have greater biodiversity and are generally seen as being more comfortable for aquatic species. This has led researchers to speculate that shallow water environments on exoplanets should be similarly suitable for life.
Climate
In general, the climate of a superhabitable planet would be warm, moist, and homogeneous, allowing life to extend across the surface without presenting large population differences. These characteristics are in contrast to those found on Earth, which has more variable and inhospitable regions that include frigid tundra and dry deserts. Deserts on superhabitable planets would be more limited in area and would likely support habitat-rich coastal environments.
The optimum surface temperature for Earth-like life is unknown, although it appears that on Earth, organism diversity has been greater in warmer periods. It is therefore possible that exoplanets with slightly higher average temperatures than that of Earth are more suitable for life. The denser atmosphere of a superhabitable planet would naturally provide a greater average temperature and less variability of the global climate. Ideally, the temperature should reach the optimal levels for plant life, which is . In addition, a large distributed ocean would have the ability to regulate a planet's surface temperature similar to Earth's ocean currents, and could allow it to maintain a moderate temperature within the habitable zone.
There are no solid arguments to explain if Earth's atmosphere has the optimal composition, but relative atmospheric oxygen levels is required to meet the high-energy demands of complex life (). Therefore, it is hypothesized that oxygen abundance in the atmosphere is essential for complex life on other worlds.
List of potentially superhabitable exoplanets
In September 2020, Dirk Schulze-Makuch and colleagues identified 24 contenders for superhabitable planets out of more than 4000 confirmed exoplanets and exoplanet candidates. The criteria included measurable factors like type of star, and the planet's age, mass, radius, and surface temperature. The authors also considered more hypothetical factors like the presence of abundant water, a large moon, and a geological recycling mechanism like plate tectonics.
Kepler-1126b (KOI-2162.01) and Kepler-69c (KOI-172.02) are the only objects in the list that have been confirmed as exoplanets. However, earlier research on Kepler-69c suggests that because its orbit lies near the inner edge of the HZ, its atmosphere could likely be in a runaway greenhouse state, which could heavily impact its prospects for habitability. The full list can be found below.
See also
List of potentially habitable exoplanets
Planetary habitability
Habitability of natural satellites
Notes
References
Sources
External links
Hypothetical planet types
Astrobiology | Superhabitable world | [
"Astronomy",
"Biology"
] | 2,693 | [
"Origin of life",
"Speculative evolution",
"Astrobiology",
"Biological hypotheses",
"Astronomical sub-disciplines"
] |
47,695,505 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penicillium%20spathulatum | Penicillium spathulatum is a species of fungus in the genus Penicillium which produces asperphenamate.
References
Further reading
spathulatum
Fungi described in 2012
Fungus species | Penicillium spathulatum | [
"Biology"
] | 43 | [
"Fungi",
"Fungus species"
] |
47,697,769 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyclopentyl%20methyl%20ether | Cyclopentyl methyl ether (CPME), also known as methoxycyclopentane, is a hydrophobic ether solvent. A high boiling point of and preferable characteristics such as low formation of peroxides, relative stability under acidic and basic conditions, formation of azeotropes with water coupled with a narrow explosion range render CPME an attractive alternative to other ethereal solvents such as tetrahydrofuran (THF), 2-methyltetrahydrofuran (2-MeTHF), dioxane, and 1,2-dimethoxyethane (DME).
Synthesis
The synthesis of this compound can be done in two different ways:
(1) by methylation of the cyclopentanol.
(2) by the addition of methanol to the cyclopentene. This second method is better from the point of view of sustainable chemistry as it does not produce by-products.
Applications
Cyclopentyl methyl ether is used in organic synthesis, mainly as a solvent. However it is also useful in extraction, polymerization, crystallization and surface coating.
Some examples of reactions where it acts as a solvent are:
Reactions involving alkali agents: nucleophilic substitutions of heteroatoms (alcohols and amines)
Lewis acids-mediated reactions: Beckmann Reaction, Friedel-Crafts Reaction etc.
Reactions using Organometallic reagents or basic agents: Claisen condensation, formation of enolates or Grignard reaction.
Reduction and oxidation.
Reactions with transition metal catalysts.
Reactions with azeotropical removal of water: acetalization, etc.
Cyclopentyl methyl ether possesses characteristics that make it a potential alternate for other ethers. According to an evaluation of three chemistry journals from 2020, ethereal solvents have a share of 22–25% of all solvents employed.
In contrast to water-soluble ethers like tetrahydrofuran and 1,4-dioxane, cyclopentyl methyl ether (CPME) - being hydrophobic - acts suitably as an extractant. In aqueous phases, only trace amounts of CPME remain due to its low solubility. CPME also exhibits stability at both low and high pH levels, even under elevated temperatures and extended contact times. It can form an azeotrope with water in a ratio of 83.7% CPME to 16.3% water at an azeotropic end temperature of 83 °C. These properties enable CPME to function effectively as an entrainer during esterification processes and acetalizations. The solvent also displays low solubility for water in CPME, reported to be 0.3 g / 100 g.
Recently, investigations into the use of cyclopentyl methyl ether as an eco-friendly solvent in a wide range of chemical reactions, such as reductions, oxidations, and Grignard reactions, have been conducted.
At present, however, the production of cyclopentyl methyl ether, which in multiple respects fulfills the criteria of a "green" chemical, still depends on cyclopentene derived from non-renewable, fossil-fuel sources. The platform chemical furfural can yield cyclopentanol in high yields through catalytic hydrogenation using a copper contact or a nickelcobalt contact. The resulting cyclopentanol can then be easily dehydrated to cyclopentene.
References
Ethers
Ether solvents
Cyclopentyl compounds | Cyclopentyl methyl ether | [
"Chemistry"
] | 737 | [
"Organic compounds",
"Functional groups",
"Ethers"
] |
47,698,145 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DEG%20monobutyl%20ether | Diethylene glycol butyl ether (2-(2-butoxyethoxy)ethanol) is the organic compound with the formula . A colorless liquid, it is common industrial solvent. It is one of several glycol ether solvents. It has low odour and high boiling point. It is mainly used as a solvent for paints and varnishes in the chemical industry, household detergents, and textile processing.:
Production and use
Diethylene glycol monobutyl ether (DEGBE) is produced from butanol by ethoxylation, i.e., the reaction of ethylene oxide in the presence of a basic catalyst.
References
Glycol ethers
Commodity chemicals
Chemical synthesis
Butyl compounds | DEG monobutyl ether | [
"Chemistry"
] | 160 | [
"nan",
"Commodity chemicals",
"Chemical synthesis",
"Products of chemical industry"
] |
47,698,872 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Counterwill | Counterwill is a psychological term that means instinctive resistance to any sense of coercion.
The term was first used by Austrian psychoanalyst Otto Rank and has been popularized by developmental psychologist Gordon Neufeld. In Neufeld's model, counterwill is a functional attribute of human behavior in that it protects personal boundaries and enables individuation. It has also been described as "will in reaction to the will of others".
References
Developmental psychology | Counterwill | [
"Biology"
] | 97 | [
"Behavioural sciences",
"Behavior",
"Developmental psychology"
] |
47,699,360 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernstein%27s%20theorem%20%28polynomials%29 | In mathematics, Bernstein's theorem is an inequality relating the maximum modulus of a complex polynomial function on the unit disk with the maximum modulus of its derivative on the unit disk. It was proven by Sergei Bernstein while he was working on approximation theory.
Statement
Let denote the maximum modulus of an arbitrary
function on , and let denote its derivative.
Then for every polynomial of degree we have
.
The inequality cannot be improved and equality holds if and only if .
Bernstein's inequality
In mathematical analysis, Bernstein's inequality states that on the complex plane, within the disk of radius 1, the degree of a polynomial times the maximum value of a polynomial is an upper bound for the similar maximum of its derivative. Applying the theorem k times yields
Similar results
Paul Erdős conjectured that if has no zeros in , then . This was proved by Peter Lax.
M. A. Malik showed that if has no zeros in for a given , then .
See also
Markov brothers' inequality
Remez inequality
References
Further reading
Approximation theory
Theorems about polynomials | Bernstein's theorem (polynomials) | [
"Mathematics"
] | 213 | [
"Theorems in algebra",
"Approximation theory",
"Mathematical relations",
"Theorems about polynomials",
"Approximations"
] |
47,700,081 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sony%20Xperia%20Z5 | The Sony Xperia Z5 is an Android smartphone produced by Sony. Part of the Sony Xperia Z series, the device, at that point known by the project code name "Sumire", was unveiled along with the Xperia Z5 Compact and Xperia Z5 Premium during a press conference at IFA 2015 on September 2, 2015. The device was launched globally in October and was launched in the United States as an unlocked device in February 2016. It is the successor to the Sony Xperia Z3+.
Similar to its predecessor, the device is water and dust proof with an IP rating of 65 and 68. It is Sony's first device to feature a fingerprint sensor. The device comes with 23 Megapixel camera with 0.03 seconds Hybrid Autofocus that utilizes phase detection autofocus, similarly found in the Xperia M5.
In February 2016, it was confirmed by Sony Mobile's senior product marketing manager Jun Makino that the Sony Xperia Z5 will be the final smartphone in the Sony Xperia Z series, with all future releases being released as part of the Sony Xperia X series. However this rumor was dismissed as Sony's Head of Marketing, Don Mesa has clarified that the X Series will not replace the Z Series.
Specifications
Hardware
Unlike its predecessors, the Xperia Z5's body design consists of an aluminium frame with a frosted glass backing to reduce fingerprints appearing on the back of the phone. The device carries an IP rating of IP65 and IP68, making it dust and water resistant. The device features a (marketed as 5.2-in) 1080p display with a density of 424 ppi, featuring Sony's "Triluminos" technology. The device also features a 64-bit 2.0 GHz octa-core Qualcomm Snapdragon 810 system-on-chip with 3 GB of RAM. The device also has 32 GB internal storage with microSD card expansion up to 200 GB. The device also includes a non-removable 2900 mAh battery.
The rear-facing camera of the Xperia Z5 is 23 megapixels with sensor size of 1/2.3 inch and an aperture of f/2.0, featuring a newer Sony Exmor RS image sensor, instead of the 20.7 megapixels image sensor which was used in all of its predecessors, starting from the Xperia Z1. Similarly found in the Xperia M5, the devices also features hybrid autofocus that utilizes phase detection autofocus that can focus the object within 0.03 seconds.
Xperia Z5 also features a redesigned power button located on the right side of the device with a fingerprint recognition system which can be used to unlock the phone. However, the fingerprint sensor is disabled in the US version of the phone due to a "business decision", although it can be reenabled by modifying the firmware.
Software
The Xperia Z5 is preinstalled with Android 5.1 Lollipop with Sony's custom interface and software. Pre-loaded applications on the Z5 provide access to Google's various services, including Google Play, which can be used to download and purchase apps, music, movies, and e-books.
On first week of March 2016, Sony released the Android 6.0 Marshmallow software update for the Xperia Z5.
On August 23, 2016, Sony announced that the Xperia Z5 would receive an upgrade to Android 7.0 Nougat. The update started rolling out in January 2017, but was put on hold shortly thereafter upon "reports from some users experiencing inconsistencies related to audio playback via third-party apps and SD card encrypted data read performance." The update re-commenced in February 2017.
See also
Sony Xperia Z5 Compact
Sony Xperia Z5 Premium
References
External links
Official Press Release
Official Whitepaper
Official Whitepaper (Dual SIM version)
For Full Information About This Mobile
Android (operating system) devices
Discontinued flagship smartphones
Sony smartphones
Mobile phones introduced in 2015
Digital audio players
Mobile phones with 4K video recording | Sony Xperia Z5 | [
"Technology"
] | 851 | [
"Discontinued flagship smartphones",
"Flagship smartphones"
] |
47,700,270 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sony%20Xperia%20Z5%20Premium | The Sony Xperia Z5 Premium is an Android smartphone produced by Sony. Part of the Sony Xperia Z series, the device, at that point known by the project code name "Satsuki", was unveiled along with the Sony Xperia Z5 and Xperia Z5 Compact during a press conference at IFA 2015 on September 2, 2015. The device was first released in Taiwan on November 5, 2015, and was the first smartphone with 4K resolution.
The Sony Xperia Z5 Premium is an up-scaled version of the Xperia Z5 and is the first ever smartphone to feature a 4K display. Similarly to the Xperia Z5, the device also features a fingerprint reader and a 23 Megapixel camera with 0.03 seconds Hybrid Autofocus that utilizes phase detection autofocus.
Specifications
Unlike the Xperia Z5, the device features a 4K screen with the resolution of 3840×2160 pixels whilst still retaining 2 hours and 30 minutes of battery life.
Hardware
The Sony Xperia Z5 Premium has a 5.5-inch IPS LCD display, Octa-core (4x1.5 GHz Cortex-A53 & 4x2.0 GHz Cortex-A57) Qualcomm Snapdragon 810 processor, 3 GB of RAM and 32 GB of internal storage that can be expanded using microSD cards up to 256 GB. The phone has a 3430 mAh Li-ion battery, 23 MP rear camera with an LED flash and a 5.1 MP front-facing camera with auto-focus. It is available in Chrome, Black, Gold, Pink colors.
Software
The Xperia Z5 Premium is preinstalled with Android 5.1 Lollipop with Sony's custom interface and software.
It also has been upgraded to run Android 6.0 Marshmallow.
On August 23, 2016, Sony announced that the Xperia Z5 Premium would receive an upgrade to Android 7.0 Nougat.
On February 16, 2017, Android 7.0 Nougat has been upgraded for the Sony Xperia Z5 Premium Dual Sim E6883. On June 28, 2017, it started to roll out the Android 7.1.1 Nougat firmware update.
Variants
References
External links
Official Press Release
Official Website
Official Whitepaper
Official Whitepaper (Dual SIM version)
Android (operating system) devices
Discontinued flagship smartphones
Sony smartphones
Mobile phones introduced in 2015
Digital audio players
Mobile phones with 4K video recording | Sony Xperia Z5 Premium | [
"Technology"
] | 514 | [
"Discontinued flagship smartphones",
"Flagship smartphones"
] |
47,700,516 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fludioxonil | Fludioxonil is a synthetic phenylpyrrole chemical introduced by Ciba-Geigy (now Syngenta) in 1993 for use as a non-systemic fungicide. It is a structural analog of the natural fungicide pyrrolnitrin.
It is used for the treatment of crops, particularly cereals, fruits and vegetables, and ornamental plants. It is often used in combination with another fungicide such as Cyprodinil. There was a particularly bad crop failure due to multiresistant B. cinerea in strawberry in Florida in 2012; in that year and many other years, fludioxonil is the only fungicide still providing any protection.
Its mode of action is to inhibit transport-associated phosphorylation of glucose, which reduces mycelial growth rate. Fludioxonil is used against Fusarium, Rhizoctonia, Alternaria, Botrytis cinerea, and Stromatinia cepivora.
Brand names include seed treatments: Celest, Agri Star Fludioxonil 41 ST, Dyna-shield Fludioxonil, Maxim 4 FS, and Spirato 480 FS, as well as foliar applications: Switch (fludioxonil + cyprodinil).
Environmental and Health hazards
It is toxic to fish and other aquatic organisms. It has been detected as a residue in baby foods.
See also
1,3-Benzodioxole
References
Fungicides
Pyrroles
Nitriles
Benzodioxoles
Organofluorides | Fludioxonil | [
"Chemistry",
"Biology"
] | 328 | [
"Fungicides",
"Nitriles",
"Biocides",
"Functional groups"
] |
47,700,835 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sony%20Xperia%20Z5%20Compact | The Sony Xperia Z5 Compact is an Android smartphone produced by Sony. Part of the Sony Xperia Z series, the device, at that point known by the project code name "Suzuran", was unveiled along with the Xperia Z5 and Xperia Z5 Premium during a press conference at IFA 2015 on September 2, 2015. The device was first launched in Taiwan on October 1, 2015, and in Japan on November 12, 2015. It is the successor of the Sony Xperia Z3 Compact. In Japan it is known as the SO-02H, exclusive to NTT Docomo.
Specifications
Hardware
The device is down-scaled version of the Xperia Z5. Unlike its predecessor, the Z5 compact features a fingerprint reader and a 23 Megapixel camera with 0.03 seconds Hybrid Autofocus that utilizes phase detection autofocus.
Software
Sony Xperia Z5 Compact ships with Android 5.1.1 Lollipop and is upgradable to Android 7.1.1 Nougat.
References
External links
Official Press Release
Official Website
Official Specification
Android (operating system) devices
Discontinued flagship smartphones
Sony smartphones
Mobile phones introduced in 2015
Digital audio players
Mobile phones with 4K video recording | Sony Xperia Z5 Compact | [
"Technology"
] | 253 | [
"Discontinued flagship smartphones",
"Flagship smartphones"
] |
47,700,932 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nabarro%E2%80%93Herring%20creep | In materials science, Nabarro–Herring creep (NH creep) is a mechanism of deformation of crystalline materials (and amorphous materials) that occurs at low stresses and held at elevated temperatures in fine-grained materials. In Nabarro–Herring creep, atoms diffuse through the crystals, and the rate of creep varies inversely with the square of the grain size so fine-grained materials creep faster than coarser-grained ones. NH creep is solely controlled by diffusional mass transport.
This type of creep results from the diffusion of vacancies from regions of high chemical potential at grain boundaries subjected to normal tensile stresses to regions of lower chemical potential where the average tensile stresses across the grain boundaries are zero. Self-diffusion within the grains of a polycrystalline solid can cause the solid to yield to an applied shear stress, the yielding being caused by a diffusional flow of matter within each crystal grain away from boundaries where there is a normal pressure and toward those where there is a normal tension. Atoms migrating in the opposite direction account for the creep strain (). The creep strain rate is derived in the next section. NH creep is more important in ceramics than metals as dislocation motion is more difficult to effect in ceramics.
Derivation of the creep rate
The Nabarro–Herring creep rate, , can be derived by considering an individual rectangular grain (in a single or polycrystal). Two opposing sides have a compressive stress applied and the other two have a tensile stress applied. The atomic volume is decreased by compression and increased by tension. Under this change, the activation energy to form a vacancy is altered by . The atomic volume is and the stress is . The plus and minus indication is an increase or decrease in the activation energy due to the tensile and compressive stresses, respectively. The fraction of vacancy concentrations in the compressive () and tensile () regions are given as:
In these equations is the vacancy formation energy, is the Boltzmann constant, and is the absolute temperature. These vacancy concentrations are maintained at the lateral and horizontal surfaces in the grain. These net concentrations drive vacancies to the compressive regions from the tensile ones which causes grain elongation in one dimension and grain compression in the other. This is creep deformation caused by a flux of vacancy motion.
The vacancy flux, , associated with this motion is given by:
where is the vacancy diffusivity. This is given as:
where is the diffusivity when 0 vacancies are present and is the vacancy motion energy. The term is the vacancy concentration gradient. The term is proportional to the grain size and . If we multiply by we obtain:
where is the volume changed per unit time during creep deformation. The change in volume can be related to the change in length along the tensile axis as . Using the relationship between and the NH creep rate is given by:
This equation can be greatly simplified. The lattice self-diffusion coefficient is given by:
As previously stated, NH creep occurs at low stresses and high temperatures. In this range . For small , . Thus we can re-write as:
where is a constant that absorbs the approximations in the derivation.
Alternatively, this can be derived in a different method where the constant has different dimensions. In this case, the NH creep rate is given by:
Comparison to Coble creep
Coble creep is closely related to Nabarro–Herring creep and is controlled by diffusion as well. Unlike Nabarro–Herring creep, mass transport occurs by diffusion along the surface of single crystals or the grain boundaries in a polycrystal. For a general expression of creep rate, the comparison between Nabarro–Herring and Coble creep can be presented as follows:
is the shear modulus. The diffusivity is obtained form the tracer diffusivity, . The dimensionless constant depends intensively on the geometry of grains. The parameters , and are dependent on creep mechanisms. Nabbaro–Herring creep does not involve the motion of dislocations. It predominates over high-temperature dislocation-dependent mechanisms only at low stresses, and then only for fine-grained materials. Nabarro–Herring creep is characterized by creep rates that increase linearly with the stress and inversely with the square of grain diameter.
In contrast, in Coble creep atoms diffuse along grain boundaries and the creep rate varies inversely with the cube of the grain size. Lower temperatures favor Coble creep and higher temperatures favor Nabbaro–Herring creep because the activation energy for vacancy diffusion within the lattice is typically larger than that along the grain boundaries, thus lattice diffusion slows down relative to grain boundary diffusion with decreasing temperature.
Experimental and theoretical examples
Creep in dense, polycrystalline magnesium oxide and iron-doped polycrystalline magnesia
Compressive creep in polycrystalline beryllium oxide
Creep in polycrystalline that has been doped with Cr, Fe, or Ti
Creep in dry synthetic dunite which results in trace melt and some grain growth
Reproduced for nanopolycrystalline systems in Phase Field Crystal simulations (theory matched in terms of creep stress and grain size exponents)
References
Materials degradation | Nabarro–Herring creep | [
"Materials_science",
"Engineering"
] | 1,072 | [
"Materials degradation",
"Materials science"
] |
47,701,231 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integer%20set%20library | isl (integer set library) is a portable C library for manipulating sets and relations of integer points bounded by linear constraints.
The following operations are supported:
intersection, union, set difference
emptiness check
convex hull
(integer) affine hull
integer projection
computing the lexicographic minimum using parametric integer programming
coalescing
parametric vertex enumeration
It also includes an ILP solver based on generalized basis reduction, transitive closures on maps (which may encode infinite graphs), dependence analysis and bounds on piecewise step-polynomials.
All computations are performed in exact integer arithmetic using GMP or imath.
Many program analysis techniques are based on integer set manipulations. The integers typically represent iterations of a loop nest or elements of an array.
isl uses parametric integer programming to obtain an explicit representation in terms of integer divisions.
It is used as backend polyhedral library in the GCC Graphite framework
and in the LLVM Polly framework
for loop optimizations.
See also
Frameworks supporting the polyhedral model
Integer programming
References
External links
Official ISL web site
ISL source repository
Integer sets and relations: from high-level modeling to low-level implementation (Sven Verdoolaege)
Computer arithmetic
C (programming language) libraries
Numerical libraries
Free software programmed in C
Software using the MIT license | Integer set library | [
"Mathematics"
] | 267 | [
"Computer arithmetic",
"Arithmetic"
] |
47,703,835 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium%20triethylborohydride | Sodium triethylborohydride is an organoboron compound with the formula NaBH(C2H5)3. It is a colorless, pyrophoric solid that is commercially available in toluene solution, unlike the related LiBH(C2H5)3 which is typically sold as a THF solution. It is commonly used for the reductive activation of homogeneous catalysts, converting metal halides to hydrides. Sodium triethylborohydride has been prepared by treating a hot toluene slurry of sodium hydride with triethylborane. The trimethylborohydride analogue, which is assumed to be structurally similar to the triethylborohydride, adopts a tetrameric structure in toluene solution. NaBHEt3 forms a dimeric adduct with tmeda.
References
Sodium compounds
Borohydrides
Reducing agents | Sodium triethylborohydride | [
"Chemistry"
] | 196 | [
"Redox",
"Reducing agents"
] |
47,703,842 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%20cell%20receptor%20alpha%20joining%2056 | T cell receptor alpha joining 56 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the TRAJ56 gene.
References
Further reading
Proteins | T cell receptor alpha joining 56 | [
"Chemistry"
] | 27 | [
"Biomolecules by chemical classification",
"Proteins",
"Molecular biology"
] |
47,704,058 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penicillium%20sphaerum | Penicillium sphaerum is a species of fungus in the genus Penicillium which was isolated from wood in Panama.
References
sphaerum
Fungi described in 1980
Fungus species | Penicillium sphaerum | [
"Biology"
] | 39 | [
"Fungi",
"Fungus species"
] |
47,704,642 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St-planar%20graph | In graph theory, an st-planar graph is a bipolar orientation of a plane graph for which both the source and the sink of the orientation are on the outer face of the graph. That is, it is a directed graph drawn without crossings in the plane, in such a way that there are no directed cycles in the graph, exactly one graph vertex has no incoming edges, exactly one graph vertex has no outgoing edges, and these two special vertices both lie on the outer face of the graph.
Within the drawing, each face of the graph must have the same structure: there is one vertex that acts as the source of the face, one vertex that acts as the sink of the face, and all edges within the face are directed along two paths from the source to the sink. If one draws an additional edge from the sink of an st-planar graph back to the source, through the outer face, and then constructs the dual graph (oriented each dual edge clockwise with respect to its primal edge) then the result is again an st-planar graph, augmented with an extra edge in the same way.
Order theory
These graphs are closely related to partially ordered sets and lattices. The Hasse diagram of a partially ordered set is a directed acyclic graph whose vertices are the set elements, with an edge from x to y for each pair x, y of elements for which x ≤ y in the partial order but for which there does not exist z with x ≤ y ≤ z.
A partially ordered set forms a complete lattice if and only if every subset of elements has a unique greatest lower bound and a unique least upper bound, and the order dimension of a partially ordered set is the least number of total orders on the same set of elements whose intersection is the given partial order.
If the vertices of an st-planar graph are partially ordered by reachability, then this ordering always forms a two-dimensional complete lattice, whose Hasse diagram is the transitive reduction of the given graph. Conversely, the Hasse diagram of every two-dimensional complete lattice is always an st-planar graph.
Graph drawing
Based on this two-dimensional partial order property, every st-planar graph can be given a dominance drawing, in which for every two vertices u and v there exists a path from u to v if and only if both coordinates of u are smaller than the corresponding coordinates of v. The coordinates of such a drawing may also be used as a data structure that can be used to test whether one vertex of an st-planar graph can reach another in constant time per query. Rotating such a drawing by 45° gives an upward planar drawing of the graph. A directed acyclic graph G has an upward planar drawing if and only if G is a subgraph of an st-planar graph.
References
Planar graphs | St-planar graph | [
"Mathematics"
] | 579 | [
"Planes (geometry)",
"Planar graphs"
] |
47,704,844 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monsanto%20Co.%20v.%20Rohm%20and%20Haas%20Co. | Monsanto Co. v. Rohm and Haas Co., 456 F.2d 592 (3d Cir. 1972), is a 1972 decision of the United States Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit interpreting what conduct amounts to fraudulent procurement of a patent.
This case is one of the early decisions following the US Supreme Court's 1964 decision in Walker Process v. Food Machinery holding fraud on the US Patent Office as potentially violating the Sherman Antitrust Act, and one of the first (if not the first) to hold that failure to disclose material information to the Patent Office was fraudulent.
Background
Monsanto procured U.S. Patent No. No. 3,382,280, issued May 7, 1968, having the title 3',4'-dichloropropionanilide (known as 3,4-DCPA or propanil), a herbicide that selectively killed weeds without killing crop plants such as rice. In November 1969 Monsanto sued Rohm and Haas for patent infringement. The only substantial issue was the validity of the patent, and that ultimately turned on whether Monsanto had committed fraud on the Patent Office in procuring the patent.
The application that resulted in the '280 patent was the third of three successive applications, the first two of which were unsuccessful. In the first application, filed in 1957, Monsanto sought a patent on some 100 "compounds, including 3,4-DCPA and 3,4-DCAA (3,4-dichloroacetanilide), a chemical with some similar properties and a similar physical structure. Monsanto claimed that all the members of the class possessed "unusual and valuable herbicidal activity," while related compounds possessed "little or no herbicidal efficiency."
Unpersuaded by Monsanto's arguments, the Patent Office rejected the application as unpatentable over the prior art. In 1961, Monsanto filed a new application claiming another large class of compounds, again including 3,4-DCPA and 3,4-DCAA and again asserting that the class possessed "unusual and valuable herbicidal activity." Again, the Patent Office rejected the application as unpatentable over the prior art. In 1967, Monsanto applied again, this time claiming only 3,4-DCPA and representing only that 3,4-DCPA had "unusual and valuable herbicidal activity" and that its activity was "surprising" because "related compounds possess little or no herbicidal efficiency." Again. the Patent Office (initially) rejected the application on the ground that the product was obvious over the prior art. But this time Monsanto overcame the rejection.
A major issue in the Patent Office was whether the patent application should be denied because 3,4-DCPA was obvious from previously known products, the most significant of which was 3,4-DCAA (3,4-dichloroacetanilide), a chemical with some similar properties and a similar physical structure. Both were useful in making pigments and both had herbicidal properties. The structural difference between the two "closely related" compounds was that 3,4-DCAA "differ[ed] in its structural formula solely by having one less CH2 group" than 3,4-DCPA. Because of the similarity in structure between 3,4-DCPA and other chemicals, including 3,4-DCAA, the Patent Office rejected the patent application on obviousness grounds. Monsanto then tried to persuade the Office to withdraw the rejection by submitting documents to show that DCPA was not obvious, because it had greatly superior and unexpected selective herbicidal activity.
Monsanto filed the Husted Affidavit. The trial court found that this document "contains no affirmative misrepresentation and is accurate so far as it goes" but "it is misleading, and was intended to be misleading, in that it fails to state facts known to the applicant which were inconsistent with its position that propanil is a superior herbicide." The court of appeals commented:
The patent was issued, however, . . . after Monsanto submitted an affidavit of Dr. Robert F. Husted, based on tests performed by him on twenty plant species at three different rates of application per acre. The report as presented to the Patent Office asserted that 3,4-DCPA completely killed or severely injured nine of the eleven species and failed to have any effect on only two. Eight other compounds were reported to have no effect on any of the eleven plants and two other compounds, one of them 3,4-DCAA, either had very slight or no effect. Significantly, although the Husted tests entailed tests on twenty species, at three separate rates of application per acre, the Patent Office was informed of tests on only eleven species and only at one rate of application, two pounds per acre. In all, the affidavit showed less than 25 per cent of Husted's results; of 899 tests, only 110 were submitted. The district court concluded that this close-cropping of Husted's findings amounted to misrepresentation.
Under applicable law, as understood by the court, if a compound on which a patent is sought is very similar in structure to a known compound, as 3,4-DCPA and 3,4-DCAA were, a rebuttable presumption arises that the later compound is obvious from the earlier one. "To rebut this presumption it must be shown 'that the claimed compound possesse[d] unobvious or unexpected beneficial properties not actually possessed by the prior art homologue.'"
The Husted Affidavit thus appeared to rebut the obviousness rejection by showing that 3,4-DCPA possessed an unexpected beneficial herbicidal property that 3,4-DCAA and other products lacked. The Husted Affidavit misled the Patent Office, the trial court said, because both 3,4-DCPA and 3,4-DCAA "in fact possess the newly discovered property of the claimed compound."
The trial court said that Monsanto submitted a fraudulent affidavit in that: "It is, in short, composed of half-truths." The court pointed to such omissions as these which made the affidavit one of half-truths:
For example, one omitted test result showed that 3,4-DCAA had a complete kill on pigweed at 2 lbs. per acre of application, just as 3,4-DCPA did. . . . Monsanto, by the Husted affidavit, attempted to show that closely related compounds do not possess unique herbicidal properties. The facts not stated were, therefore material."
The district court held the patent invalid and Monsanto appealed top the Third Circuit.
Decision of Third Circuit
The Third Circuit affirmed the district court's judgment of fraud (2-1) in an opinion by Circuit Judge Aldisert.
Majority opinion
The court looked at the Husted Affidavit in light of its place in the three successive Monsanto patent applications:
In view of Huffman's previously unsuccessful attempts to obtain a patent, it is reasonable to conclude that his success with his 1968 application, originally rejected by the examiner, and later accepted after presentation of the Husted Report, was attributed to his emphasis that the compound possessed properties of 'surprising . . . herbicidal efficiency' not possessed by related compounds.
Whether 3,4-DCPA really was surprisingly superior to related compounds as a herbicide was therefore critical to the patent prosecution and to whether Monsanto had committed fraud on the Patent Office. The court rejected Monsanto's argument that in the affidavit it was merely putting its best foot forward:
The Husted affidavit to the Patent Office did not nearly reflect the total Husted test as transmitted to Huffman. Indeed, an examination of the report permits, if not compels, the misleading inference that it constituted a complete and accurate analysis of all the testing instead of an edited version thereof. Concealment and nondisclosure may be evidence of and equivalent to a false representation, because the concealment or suppression is, in effect, a representation that what is disclosed is the whole truth.
Looking at this pattern of conduct, the court said, "[W]e cannot bring ourselves to say that the application for the 1968 patent displayed that standard of conduct demanded under the circumstances." Rather, "Monsanto was obliged to disclose more information as to the herbicidal properties of related compounds to the Patent Office than it did." The reason is that "what is at issue is not merely a contest between the parties but a public interest" that spurious patents should not issue. As a result of Monsanto's truncated disclosure of the facts concerning 3,4-DCPA's comparative efficacy as a herbicide, "it was impossible for the Patent Office fairly to assess Monsanto's application against the prevailing statutory criteria."
The court concluded:
Thus, Monsanto's failure to disclose amounted to misrepresentation transgressing equitable standards of conduct owed the public by the applicant in return for its monopoly. Accordingly, Monsanto was not entitled to the patent monopoly, and the district court did not err in [invalidating the patent].
Dissent
Judge Kalodner dissented. First, he said, the majority decided the case on the basis of the preponderance of evidence but it should have used the "clear and convincing evidence" standard.
Second, the district court erroneously said that it was not necessary to prove specific intent to deceive the Patent Office "when there is evidence of a deliberate withholding of material information," and that the patent must be rejected "even if the decision not to disclose was motivated by nothing more than bad judgment as to the materiality of the information."
Third, it was not shown that the Patent Office "would not have issued the patent but for the claimed fraudulent conduct." There was no proof that the Patent Office was misled.
Commentary
In an article in the George Washington Law Review, Irving Kayton criticized "the Third Circuit's ignorance of the accepted manner and practice, defined by statute and rule, in which patent prosecution takes place." Kayton said that it was the responsibility of the patent examiner to review the records of the earlier stages of the patent prosecution, and there is a legal presumption that the examiner did that; that examination would have disclosed the information that Monsanto withheld in the Husted Affidavit. Accordingly, Kayton argued, "Monsanto['s] patent solicitor was thus completely justified in attributing actual, but at the least, constructive knowledge to the examiner of the contents of the disclosures of both the 1961 and 1957 applications." Co-author Richard H. Stern disagreed with his colleague on this issue. Stern maintained, "The proposed reliance on constructive knowledge, and the indulgence in legal fictions and presumptions that follows, has far more flavor of a determination not to learn damaging facts than it has of the candor required in such cases."
Moreover, argued Kayton, the fact that the Third Circuit and the judge in the similar Texas case disagreed over whether Monsanto was just "putting its best foot forward" or instead was intentionally defrauding the Patent Office indicates that reasonable men can differ: "This being so, is it not an inescapable conclusion . . . that the Monsanto patent solicitor's [conduct] . . . was at worst a nonculpable mistake of judgment?" Again, co-author Stern disagreed: "No. The Third Circuit, on the contrary, appears to have thought that Judge Singleton's views were plainly erroneous, and that his acceptance of the patentee's theory that 'it is all right to put your best foot forward with the Patent Office' was contrary to the legal standard as to candor required in ex parte proceedings of this type. Given so thoroughly erroneous a concept of the standard of candor, it is neither surprising that in the circumstances of this case the judge using that legal standard found no fraud nor surprising that the judges rejecting it found fraud."
Another discussion of this case faults the district court's decision for purporting to invalidate the patent for fraud, and by implication the subsequent Third Circuit affirmance. The stated basis of the criticism is that fraudulent procurement does not invalidate a patent, but merely makes it permanently unenforceable.
References
External links
United States Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit cases
United States patent case law
Monsanto litigation
Dow Chemical Company
Herbicides
1972 in United States case law
Regulation of genetically modified organisms | Monsanto Co. v. Rohm and Haas Co. | [
"Engineering",
"Biology"
] | 2,621 | [
"Regulation of genetically modified organisms",
"Herbicides",
"Regulation of biotechnologies",
"Genetic engineering",
"Biocides"
] |
47,705,969 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gomphus%20brunneus | Gomphus brunneus is a species of fungus in the genus Gomphus, family Gomphaceae. It has been recorded from rainforest in the Yucatan Peninsula in Mexico, as well as Uganda and Democratic Republic of Congo in Africa.
References
External links
Fungi of Mexico
Gomphaceae
Fungi of Africa
Fungi described in 1958
Fungi without expected TNC conservation status
Fungus species | Gomphus brunneus | [
"Biology"
] | 78 | [
"Fungi",
"Fungus species"
] |
47,706,031 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gomphus%20albidocarneus | Gomphus albidocarneus is a species of fungus in the genus Gomphus, family Gomphaceae. It has been recorded from tropical locales of southeastern Mexico.
References
External links
Fungi of Mexico
Fungi described in 2010
Gomphaceae
Fungi without expected TNC conservation status
Fungus species | Gomphus albidocarneus | [
"Biology"
] | 63 | [
"Fungi",
"Fungus species"
] |
47,706,042 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gomphus%20calakmulensis | Gomphus calakmulensis is a species of fungus in the genus Gomphus, family Gomphaceae. It has been recorded from Calakmul in Campeche province in Mexico.
References
External links
Fungi of Mexico
Fungi described in 2010
Gomphaceae
Fungi without expected TNC conservation status
Fungus species | Gomphus calakmulensis | [
"Biology"
] | 67 | [
"Fungi",
"Fungus species"
] |
47,706,049 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gomphus%20pleurobrunnescens | Gomphus pleurobrunnescens is a species of fungus in the genus Gomphus, family Gomphaceae. It has been recorded from tropical locales of southeastern Mexico.
References
External links
Fungi of Mexico
Fungi described in 2010
Gomphaceae
Fungi without expected TNC conservation status
Fungus species | Gomphus pleurobrunnescens | [
"Biology"
] | 64 | [
"Fungi",
"Fungus species"
] |
70,401,123 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thaumetopoein | Thaumetopoein is a urticating protein found in the hairs and integument of the caterpillars of the pine processionary (Thaumetopoea pityocampa) and oak processionary (Thaumetopoea processionea).''
It was first identified in 1986 by a group of French scientists at the University of Bordeaux. Attempting to understand the mechanisms responsible for the strong cutaneous reactions provoked when in contact with the caterpillar, the researchers extracted the proteins from the caterpillars' setae. They subsequently isolated thaumetopoein, a small protein formed of two subunits of approximately 13,000 and 15,000 daltons.
Little substantial research has been conducted since the protein's identification. In 2003, Spanish researches analyzed the protein and were able to isolate and identified a major constituent allergen with a molecular weight around 15,000 daltons, which they named Tha p1. In 2012, a separate group of researchers identified a second component, Tha p2.
References
Proteins
Proteins by function | Thaumetopoein | [
"Chemistry"
] | 218 | [
"Biomolecules by chemical classification",
"Proteins",
"Molecular biology"
] |
70,401,497 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HD%20171819 | HD 171819, also known as HR 6986 or rarely 22 G. Telescopii, is a solitary star located in the southern constellation Telescopium. It is faintly visible to the naked eye as a white-hued object with an apparent magnitude of 5.84. The object is located relatively close at a distance of 313 light years based on Gaia DR3 parallax measurements, but it is approaching the Solar System with a heliocentric radial velocity of . At its current distance, HD 171819's brightness is diminished by one-quarter of a magnitude due to interstellar dust and it has an absolute magnitude of +0.65.
HD 171819 has a stellar classification of A7 IV/V, indicating that the object is a late A-type star with the blended luminosity class of a main sequence star and subgiant. However, astronomer William Buscombe gave it a class of A3 V, instead making it an ordinary A-type main-sequence star. Evolutionary models give it an age of 855 million years and place it towards the end of its main-sequence life. At present it has 1.73 times the mass of the Sun and a slightly enlarged radius 3.37 times that of the Sun. It radiates 33.3 times the luminosity of the Sun from its photosphere at an effective temperature of . HD 171819 has a near solar metallicity at [Fe/H] = −0.02.
References
A-type main-sequence stars
A-type subgiants
Telescopium
Telescopii, 22
CD-48 12644
171819
091461
6986 | HD 171819 | [
"Astronomy"
] | 346 | [
"Telescopium",
"Constellations"
] |
70,401,628 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS-CoV-2%20in%20white-tailed%20deer | Blood samples gathered by USDA researchers in 2021 showed that 40% of sampled white-tailed deer demonstrated evidence of SARS-CoV-2 antibodies, with the highest percentages in Michigan, at 67%, and Pennsylvania, at 44%. A later study by Penn State University and wildlife officials in Iowa showed that up to 80% of Iowa deer sampled from April 2020 through January 2021 had tested positive for active SARS-CoV-2 infection, rather than solely antibodies from prior infection. This data, confirmed by the National Veterinary Services Laboratory, alerted scientists to the possibility that white-tailed deer had become a natural reservoir for the coronavirus, serving as a potential "variant factory" for eventual retransmission back into humans.
In a March 2022 joint statement regarding animal monitoring, the World Health Organization (WHO), Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), and World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) specifically cited white-tailed deer as an example of a newly formed wild animal reservoir. An August 2023 study appeared to confirm this assertion, showing high SARS-CoV-2 deer positivity not only in urbanized areas but in rural counties with less likelihood of human-to-deer transmission. The same study also noted that SARS-CoV-2 evolves at an accelerated pace in white-tailed deer, at triple the rate of viral evolution in humans. White-tailed deer also maintain active infections much longer than humans, with infections lasting anywhere between six and nine months.
Transmission
Infected deer can shed virus via nasal secretions and feces for 5–6 days and frequently engage in activities conductive to viral spread, such as sniffing food intermingled with waste, nuzzling noses, polygamy, and the sharing of salt licks. Similar to the course of infection in humans, SARS-CoV-2 develops and replicates within the upper respiratory tract of deer, with a particular focus on nasal structures. Infection was also noted within the tonsils, lymph nodes, and central nervous system tissue of deer.
Captive cervid facilities, where deer are kept in close proximity for breeding stock or for hunting, have showcased extremely high levels of transmission, with active infection levels exceeding 90% in one facility.
Although white-tailed deer possess a similar ACE2 receptor to humans that are at risk from SARS-CoV-2, European deer species, such as roe deer, red deer, and fallow deer, that likewise possess this cellular-level susceptibility had not showcased any cases of current or past infection during the first two years of the COVID-19 pandemic. European test data has suggested that the high density of white-tailed deer populations in North America and frequent human interactions are the unique factors which have led to outbreaks throughout the United States and Canada.
Mutations and variants
A 2021 Ohio State University study showed that humans had transmitted SARS-CoV-2 to white-tailed deer on at least six separate occasions and that the deer in their study possessed six mutations that were uncommon in humans at the time.
Test data from Pennsylvania showed that genomes from a divergent Alpha variant strain had been found within white-tailed deer in November 2021, long after it had ceased to be the dominant strain in humans. This, together with similar findings in New York State regarding both Alpha and Gamma strains, suggested that variants had continued to evolve independently in deer without the need for reinfection through direct or indirect human contact. These older variants, which had nearly disappeared in humans, were additionally shown to have genetically diverged more than the most recent human strains observed within wild deer populations, demonstrating that deer had supported SARS-CoV-2 lineages in a pathway significantly different from that of humans. Canadian researchers likewise observed the older Alpha and Delta variants among wild deer populations, while also describing a strain circulating among white-tailed deer that had only previously been observed among people in the United Kingdom.
A study of New York City's white-tailed deer population on Staten Island, commencing in December 2021, found that wild deer had already contracted the Omicron variant, which had just recently become prevalent in humans. One of the actively infected deer had high preexisting levels of antibodies, suggesting that deer can continually be reinfected with SARS-CoV-2.
Ontario WTD clade
In early 2022, Canadian researchers announced the discovery of a new SARS-CoV-2 variant within a November–December 2021 study of Ontario white-tailed deer, labeling it the "Ontario WTD clade". The new COVID variant also infected a person who had close contact with local deer, potentially marking the first instance of deer-to-human transmission. The last time that a relative of this viral clade had been seen was 10–12 months prior, within humans and mink, across the international border in Michigan. Researchers believed, after finding 76 mutations in WTD when compared to the original virus, that the variant arose within an intermediate animal host, a process which would have allowed it to accumulate such a high level of divergence.
The ancestral mink–human spillover event in Michigan also showed evidence of animal-to-human transmission, resulting in four human infections that were largely kept from public view upon their discovery late 2020, and only announced by the US Centers for Disease Control (CDC) several months later, in March 2021. The CDC defended its decision by noting that its findings were not "surprising or unexpected", since similar mink-to-human crossover events had already been documented in Europe. Two of the people infected by the Michigan mink strain had no known link to the mink farm, but had reported recent interactions with white-tailed deer while hunting on days that were on or near the onset of illness.
"Deltacron" strains
In late 2022, scientists continued to monitor residual Delta strains, such as Delta strain AY.103, which have picked up Omicron mutations during co-infection in mink and deer and form the potential for so-called "Deltacron" spillover events. These hybrid strains could potentially combine the increased fatality rate of Delta with the enhanced transmissibility of Omicron.
Spillover/spillback cycles
While a November 2021 to April 2022 study uncovered 109 "independent spillover events" from humans into white-tailed deer, genomic analysis suggested 3 instances of double-spillover in which human SARS-CoV-2 strains spilled over into deer, spilled back into humans, and then subsequently spilled over into deer once again. Meanwhile, 18 samples could not be traced to any "genetically close" SARS-CoV-2 sequences circulating within humans in the states where white-tailed deer samples were gathered.
Infection variability
A November 2021 to October 2022 USDA study across 29 states, which make up nearly the entire US range of white-tailed deer, showed widespread prior infection of deer across their US range, yet with decreased numbers of active infections as compared with measurements from the first two years of the pandemic. Researchers cautioned that lower active infections may have also been related to seasonal variability in infections at the time of sample collection and the cervid transmissibility rates of recent Omicron strains. The possibility of rapid seroconversion – the development of antibodies – in as little as one week post-infection suggested continued research into transmission pathways and methods to identify and manage disease spillover and spillback between humans and deer.
Related species
Wildlife officials in Utah announced that a November–December 2021 field study had detected the first case of SARS-CoV-2 in mule deer. Several deer possessed apparent SARS-CoV-2 antibodies, however a female deer in Morgan County had an active Delta variant infection. White-tailed deer, which are able to mate and hybridize with mule deer, have migrated into Morgan County and other traditional mule deer habitats since at least the early 2000s. Canada also expanded testing to other cervids besides white-tailed deer, finding that both white-tailed deer and mule deer tested positive for the same variants circulating among the two species in the United States, whereas elk and moose did not exhibit exposure. Mule deer as far west as California had already been infected by 2021. As with white-tailed deer, a USDA study found that mule deer are also able to shed live SARS-CoV-2 virus and therefore possess a similar ability to infect other animals.
In a study published in 2023, free-ranging European fallow deer in Dublin, Ireland, were shown to be the first deer outside of North America to have contracted SARS-CoV-2.
See also
List of animals that can get SARS-CoV-2
COVID-19 pandemic and animals
White-tailed deer
Natural reservoir
References
Disease ecology
Epidemiology
White-tailed deer
SARS-CoV-2 | SARS-CoV-2 in white-tailed deer | [
"Environmental_science"
] | 1,818 | [
"Epidemiology",
"Environmental social science"
] |
70,402,326 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stellantis%20Hurricane%20engine | The Stellantis Hurricane GME-T6 engine is a twin-turbocharged straight-six engine produced by Stellantis since November 2021 at their plant in Saltillo, Mexico, and announced publicly in March 2022. It debuted with two versions, one of standard output (SO) and one of high output (HO), both featuring a start-stop system but designed for more extensive electrification in the future. Despite having cylinder spacing and bore and stroke in common with the FCA Global Medium Engine, and valvetrain similarities, "less than 5% of content on the new Hurricane is shared with existing engines." The engine was developed at the Chrysler Headquarters and Technology Center in Auburn Hills, Michigan, over the course of three years. Stellantis expects the Hurricane engine to be the main internal combustion power plant for future vehicles using the STLA Large and STLA Frame in the North American market and is offering its use to other automobile manufacturers. The manufacturer claims the engine is up to 15 percent more efficient than larger engines. The engine made its debut in the Jeep Grand Wagoneer in 2022.
References
Chrysler engines
Straight-six engines
Automobile engines
Gasoline engines by model
Stellantis engines | Stellantis Hurricane engine | [
"Technology"
] | 243 | [
"Engines",
"Automobile engines"
] |
70,403,924 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James%20Adjaye | James Affram Adjaye is a Ghanaian British Stem cell scientist. He is the Director of the Institute for Stem Cell Research and Regenerative Medicine at the Heinrich Heine University's faculty of medicine. He also led the Molecular Embryology and Aging Group of the Max Planck Institute for Molecular Genetics situated in Berlin, Germany.
Early life and education
Adjaye had his secondary at the Accra Academy in Ghana, and John Kelly Boys High School in the United Kingdom. He proceeded to the University College of Cardiff where he obtained his Bachelor of Science degree in biochemistry in 1987. He then enrolled at the University of Sussex a year later for further studies in Biochemistry, there, he was awarded his Master of Science degree in biochemistry in 1989. For his doctorate degree, Adjaye enrolled at the King's College, London for his research in genetic manipulation and molecular biology spanning from 1989 to 1992. Adjaye then joined the Max Planck Institute of Biophysical Chemistry in Goettingen, Germany in 1992 as a postdoctoral fellow. He worked in that capacity until 1995. In 1996, he had another postdoctoral fellowship at the Institute of Child Health, University College of London, he remained there until 2001.
Career
A year after his postdoctoral fellowship at the Institute of Child Health, University College of London, Adjaye joined the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Genetics in Berlin as the group leader of the Molecular Embryology and Aging Group. He has worked in this capacity to date. In 2012, he became a professor at the Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf. There, he is director of the Institute for Stem Cell Research and Regenerative Medicine of the university's Faculty of Medicine. He is the also the Chairs of Stem Cell Research and Regenerative Medicine.
Research work and selected publications
Adjaye's research focuses on projects that are system biology-based nationally and internationally. He models human brain-(Nijmegen Breakage Syndrome, Bilirubin-induced neuronal damage and Alzheimer's disease) liver-NAFLD and kidney injury associated diseases using iPS cells (induced pluripotent stem cells).
His works have been featured in journals such as the International Journal of Molecular Sciences, EMBO Reports, Stem Cell Research, Cell Reports, the Journal of Alzheimer's Disease, and BMC Genomics.
Some of his works include;
(contrib.) Matrix Metalloproteinase 14 Mediates APP Proteolysis and Lysosomal Alterations Induced by Oxidative Stress in Human Neuronal Cells., 2020;
(contrib.) IPSC-Derived Neuronal Cultures Carrying the Alzheimer's Disease Associated TREM2 R47H Variant Enables the Construction of an Aβ-Induced Gene Regulatory Network., 2020;
(contrib.) AP-2 amyloidogenesis reduces by promoting BACE1 trafficking and degradation in neurons., 2020;
(contrib.) Lymphoblast-derived integration-free iPSC line AD-TREM2-3 from a 74 year-old Alzheimer's disease patient expressing the TREM2 p.R47H variant., 2018;
(contrib.) Modeling Late-Onset Sporadic Alzheimer's Disease through BMI1 Deficiency., 2018;
(contrib.) Meta-analysis of human prefrontal cortex reveals activation of GFAP and decline of synaptic transmission in the aging brain., 2020;
(contrib.) Lymphoblast-derived integration-free iPSC lines from a female and male Alzheimer's disease patient expressing different copy numbers of a coding CNV in the Alzheimer risk gene CR1., 2016;
(contrib.) Chromosomal Instability and Molecular Defects in Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells from Nijmegen Breakage Syndrome Patients., 2016;
(contrib.) Meta-Analysis of Transcriptome Data Related to Hippocampus Biopsies and iPSC-Derived Neuronal Cells from Alzheimer's Disease Patients Reveals an Association with FOXA1 and FOXA2 Gene Regulatory Networks., 2016;
(contrib.) Induced pluripotent stem cell-derived neuronal cells from a sporadic Alzheimer's disease donor as a model for investigating AD-associated gene regulatory networks., 2015.
Personal life
Prof. James Adjaye is married to Mrs. Theresa Adjaye who is by profession a Clinical Pharmacist/ Independent Prescriber specialising in cardiovascular disease. Together, they have 4 children.
He is the elder brother of the British architect Sir. David Adjaye.
References
Living people
Alumni of the Accra Academy
1964 births
Scientists from Accra
Alumni of Cardiff University
Alumni of King's College London
Max Planck Institutes researchers
Ghanaian emigrants to the United Kingdom
Molecular geneticists
British geneticists
20th-century British scientists
21st-century British scientists | James Adjaye | [
"Biology"
] | 998 | [
"Molecular geneticists",
"Molecular genetics"
] |
70,408,960 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judith%20Klein-Seetharaman | Judith Klein-Seetharaman (born May 30, 1971) is an American-German biochemist who is a professor at the Arizona State University. Her research considers the structure-function properties of proteins using computational bio-linguistics. She was supported by the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation to identify novel therapies to tackle HIV.
Early life and education
Klein-Seetharaman was born in Germany. She completed her undergraduate training at the University of Cologne, where she earned dual honours in biology and chemistry. After earning her doctorate, she moved to the United States, where she worked in the laboratory of Har Gobind Khorana at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Her research considered conformational changes in rhodopsin, the G protein coupled receptor. She was a postdoctoral researcher at MIT with Harald Schwalbe, focusing on nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. After eight months as a postdoc, Klein-Seetharaman moved Carnegie Mellon University where she worked with Raj Reddy in biology. She was eventually appointed to the faculty at Carnegie Mellon.
Research and career
Klein-Seetharaman moved to the University of Pittsburgh as an assistant professor in 2002 and was promoted to associate professor in 2009. She joined the Warwick Medical School as a professor in medicine in 2013. She returned to the United States in 2017, first as a professor at the Colorado School of Mines and then as a professor at the Arizona State University in 2021. Her research looks to uncover the structure-property relationships of membrane proteins.
Selected publications
References
1970s births
Living people
German emigrants to the United States
University of Cologne alumni
Massachusetts Institute of Technology alumni
Arizona State University faculty
Biochemists
American women scientists
20th-century American scientists
21st-century American scientists
20th-century American women scientists
21st-century American women scientists | Judith Klein-Seetharaman | [
"Chemistry",
"Biology"
] | 364 | [
"Biochemistry",
"Biochemists"
] |
70,409,969 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unditching%20beam |
An unditching beam is a device that is used to aid in the recovery of armoured fighting vehicles when they become bogged or "ditched". The device is a beam that is attached to the continuous tracks that provides additional traction for the vehicle to extricate itself from a ditch or from boggy conditions.
The unditching beam was first introduced into service during the First World War with the British Mark IV tank. It is believed the device was designed by Philip Johnson who was serving as an engineering officer at the British Army's depot at Érin; originally the device weighed and was constructed of a solid beam of oak with two large steel plates bolted to two sides to provide protection. When not in use it was stowed on two rails mounted on the roof of the tank that ran the entire length of the vehicle, and when employed the beam was chained to the tank's tracks, giving the vehicle something firm to drive over.
Unditching beams remain a commonly carried standard ancillary on a number of Russian produced armoured fighting vehicles.
See also
Unditching roller
References
Citations
Bibliography
Automotive_engineering
World War I military equipment of the United Kingdom | Unditching beam | [
"Engineering"
] | 234 | [
"Automotive engineering",
"Mechanical engineering by discipline"
] |
70,410,711 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methionol | Methionol (3-(Methylthio)-1-propanol) is a methyl sulfide derived from propan-1-ol. It is found in nature, including as a metabolite of yeast and bacillus anthracis. It is a sulphurous aroma component of many foods, such as wine, cheese and roasted coffee. It is classed as an irritant. It has a very low olfactory threshold.
References
Sulfides | Methionol | [
"Chemistry"
] | 101 | [
"Organic compounds",
"Organic compound stubs",
"Organic chemistry stubs"
] |
70,410,760 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KS%20Persei | KS Persei is a binary system in the equatorial constellation of Perseus. It is sometimes known as Bidelman's Star, named after William P. Bidelman. The star is invisible to the naked eye with a mean apparent visual magnitude of 7.70. As of 2018, the structure and evolutionary history of this system remain uncertain, although some form of mass transfer is likely to have occurred to explain the observed properties.
The peculiar nature of the spectra for this star was noted in the Henry Draper Catalogue and was the subject of a study by W. P. Bidelman published in 1950. He found extremely weak lines of hydrogen, similar to those for Upsilon Sagittarii but at a lower temperature. The data strongly suggested the star has an abnormally low abundance of hydrogen in the stellar atmosphere. Bidelman noted that the radial velocity of the star is variable, demonstrating that it has an unseen companion. Preliminary orbital elements for this single-lined spectroscopic binary were published in 1955 by J. F. Heard and O. Boshko, giving an orbital period of 359.7 days and with eccentricity of 0.27. They found a large mass function of 4.5, suggesting that the supergiant has lost mass and the companion is relatively massive. The mass function was revised to 3.6 in 1988, suggesting the secondary is five times more massive than the primary. Although the Gaia parallax is small (and the Hipparcos parallax is negative), KS Persei is thought to be less than away. Older studies have suggested distances up to .
An analysis by G. Wallerstein and associates in 1967 showed that nitrogen is the second most abundant element in the primary, likely as a result of carbon cycling. G. A. Bakos attempted to photometrically detect an eclipse but was unsuccessful. However, he did tentatively detect semiregular variation with a period of ~30 days and an amplitude of 0.1 magnitude. This variability was confirmed by K. Morrison and G. P. H. Willingale in 1987, and they discovered an additional five day cycle. In 1982, J. S. Drilling and D. Schönberner detected a hot companion from spectra collected by the International Ultraviolet Explorer. The system is an infrared source, and models of the infrared flux suggest it is being emitted by circumstellar dust heated to . It is possible that the companion is obscured by dust.
References
Further reading
A-type supergiants
Chemically peculiar stars
Spectroscopic binaries
Perseus (constellation)
030353
Durchmusterung objects
022365
Persei, KS | KS Persei | [
"Astronomy"
] | 541 | [
"Perseus (constellation)",
"Constellations"
] |
70,411,535 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S-Methyl%20thioacetate | S-Methyl thioacetate is a natural product found in many plant species. In its pure form it has an unpleasant sulfurous smell, but when highly diluted and along with other simple alkyl thioacetates and related compounds, it is an important component of the smell and flavour profile of some foods, especially Camembert cheese.
Alternate isomer
The constitutional isomer in which the oxygen and sulfur atoms are interchanged, O-methyl thioacetate, is also commonly known as methyl thioacetate and found as a natural product and flavor component in some foods, such as fish sauce and some kinds of melon.
See also
Thioacetic acid
References
Organosulfur compounds
Foul-smelling chemicals | S-Methyl thioacetate | [
"Chemistry"
] | 151 | [
"Organic compounds",
"Organosulfur compounds",
"Organic compound stubs",
"Organic chemistry stubs"
] |
70,412,359 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toyota%20H8909%20engine | The Toyota H8909 engine family is a series of twin-turbocharged, four-stroke, 2.4-liter and 3.5-liter, V6 racing engines, made by Toyota Gazoo Racing for use in their TS050 and GR010 Hybrid Le Mans Prototype race cars, since 2016. The H8909 engine is currently developed at Toyota Gazoo Racing's engine plant in Susono, Japan and assembled and prepared at Toyota Gazoo Racing's European division in Cologne, Germany and initially designed by former Toyota Gazoo Racing LMP1 powertrain director Hisatake Murata.
TS050 engine
The TS050 Hybrid uses a 2.4-liter twin-turbocharged petrol V6, and features an 8-megajoule hybrid system, which uses lithium-ion batteries. The capacitor hybrid energy storage system was replaced with a new lithium-ion battery system, with the car moving to the 8-megajoule LMP1 Hybrid sub-class. The ICE makes , and is complemented by electric motors, giving an additional .
GR010 engine
The GR010 Hybrid's engine is an enlarged 3.5-liter twin-turbocharged petrol V6, with a hybrid system, which also uses lithium-ion batteries. The ICE makes , plus another from the electric motors.
Applications
Toyota TS050 Hybrid
Toyota GR010 Hybrid
References
External links
Toyota engines
Toyota in motorsport
V6 engines
Gasoline engines by model
Engines by model | Toyota H8909 engine | [
"Technology"
] | 302 | [
"Engines",
"Engines by model"
] |
68,866,598 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franti%C5%A1ek%20Wald | František "Franz" Wald (9 January 1861 – 19 October 1931) was a Czech professor of chemistry who contributed to metallurgy, analytical and physical chemistry. He questioned atomic and molecular approaches to understanding chemical phenomena.
Wald was born at Brandýsek, near Slaný, where his father, originally from Chemnitz, Germany, was a foreman of a workshop of the Austrian Railways. His mother was from Karlsbad. Wald went to school at Kladno and received a grant from the Austrian State Railways to study at Prague. Although German adopted a Czech nationality. He worked at the laboratory of Pražská železářská společnost, the main ironworks in Kladno. He became a chief chemist in 1886. In 1908 he became a professor at the Czech Technical University, Prague.
Wald examined chemical phenomena using the laws of thermodynamics, rather than examine them through ideas from atomic theory. He wrote on this in his Die Energie und ihre Entwertung (1888). His second book Chemie fází (Prague, 1918) examined his idea of phase as a fundamental concept rather than atoms.
References
External links
František Wald (1861-1930) - biography by Klaus Ruthenberg
1861 births
1931 deaths
Czech chemists
Academic staff of Czech Technical University in Prague
Thermodynamicists
Chemists from Austria-Hungary | František Wald | [
"Physics",
"Chemistry"
] | 289 | [
"Thermodynamics",
"Thermodynamicists"
] |
68,866,652 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clavogaster%20virescens | Clavogaster virescens is a species of secotioid or pouch-like fungus in the family Strophariaceae. It is endemic and indigenous to New Zealand, where it grows on rotting wood in native bush and mixed native and introduced forests. It has a stout yellowish stem, and a powder blue, purplish or greenish blue cap that forms a pouch, often referred to as a peridium, enclosing reddish brown or orange chambered gleba. The species is sometimes known as the "Spindle Pouch".
Taxonomy and naming
Clavogaster virescens was described from New Zealand in 1890 as Secotium virescens. At the time the genus Secotium held numerous species of secotioid and gasteroid fungi, many of which were mistakenly thought to be related due to their similar appearances.
In 1958 the genus Weraroa was created for the bluing Weraroa novae-zelandiae (now Psilocybe weraroa). S. virescens was transferred there as Weraroa virescens, along with several morphologically similar species. Advances in research, phylogenetics and DNA barcoding between 1958 and 2015 eventually demonstrated that all species in this genus belonged elsewhere. The genus Weraroa lost its type species to Psilocybe and W. virescens was not related, nor did it belong in any other current genus.
A synonym of W. virescens from 1896, Clavogaster novozelandicus, had once been described as the type species of the genus Clavogaster. In 2015 W. virescens was published anew as Clavogaster virescens. It is now the type species of the genus, and the only formally described species it currently contains.
Additional synonyms of Clavogaster virescens are Secotium superbum, described in 1924 as a large and magnificent blue-green secotioid species with a bright yellow stem, and Cauloglossum novozelandicum, described in 1905.
Etymology
The species epithet virescens means to grow green or verdant like copper rust, and refers to the greenish blue colour of the pouch.
Description
The cap or pileus forms an elongated pouch measuring approximately 20 × 60 mm, it is powder blue, purplish blue or greenish, smooth and glabrous or pitted and furrowed, sometimes long and quite narrow, and usually tapered towards the apex. The base can be attached to the stem then become free as it lifts slightly away, or remain attached and smoothly transition into the stem. The feeling of the pouch is somewhat rubbery and cartilaginous, and it is very slippery when wet; The stem is whitish to yellowish, often a more vibrant yellow towards the base, solid, smooth and stout, widening towards the pouch, often short, sometimes a little shiny or reflective, with a smooth or slightly slippery feel; Inside the pouch the gleba are enclosed inside a purple-brown sack-like layer within the pouch wall, in a regular, chambered cell-like structure, laterally compressed, brown, reddish brown or lighter red, rarely rust-coloured or orange. The fruitbodies grow in forests on rotting wood on or near the forest floor, solitary or in small to large scattered groups.
Original descriptions
The following original texts are reproduced and available to read in full on the website of Manaaki Whenua – Landcare Research, New Zealand's online fungarium.
Secotium virescens Massee (1890) described in "Fungi of New Zealand" in 1890: Description, Typification and Notes
Secotium virescens Massee (1890) published again in 1924 with Description, Habitat, Collections Examined and Notes;
Secotium superbum sp. nov G. Cunn. (1924) (synonym) described as new to science in 1924, full description including the Latin, Typification, Collections Examined, Description, Habitat and Notes.
Distribution and habitat
Clavogaster virescens is found on both the North and South Island of New Zealand but is more common in the North Island, especially the Wellington and Auckland regions. Scattered to gregarious in forests, from rotting wood, near or on the ground.
Similar species
Clavogaster sp. 'Whakapapa' is an undescribed and related secotioid species. Unlike Clavogaster virescens it may also have an agaricoid form.
Similar pouch-like morphology exists in other genera, especially in New Zealand, with many in the genus Cortinarius. Some are C. beeverorum, C. cartilagineus, C. epiphaeus, C. minorisporus, C. porphyroideus, C. purpureocapitatus, and C. violaceovolvatus.
Leratiomyces erythrocephalus has a similar appearance but is bright red, and the pouch tends to be round rather than elongated.
Psilocybe weraroa is a close lookalike, and Clavogaster virescens is often mistaken for that species by foragers. It can be a similar shade of off-white to blue when mature, and shares the same habitats. Psilocybe weraroa is psychoactive and demonstrates an additional blueing reaction with damage. It has an equal, moderately thin white stem that is fibrous and often hollow, and the gills or gleba are contorted, twisted chambers, sepia or chocolate-brown to purple-brown. In contrast Clavogaster virescens has reddish-brown to orange gleba enclosed in a sack-like layer, which P. weraroa lacks, arranged in a regular chambered cell-like structure, a solid yellow stem that widens towards the pouch, and no blueing reaction or psychoactive properties.
See also
Gasteroid fungi
Secotioid fungi
The genus Clavogaster
The genus Secotium
The genus Weraroa
References
External links
Observations of Clavogaster virescens on iNaturalist.
Observations and information about Clavogaster virescens on Mushroom Observer
Records, history, photos and information at New Zealand's online fungarium with Manaaki Whenua - Landcare Research
Species in the 1924 literature revising the genus Secotium.
Fungi of New Zealand
Fungi described in 1890
Agaricaceae
Strophariaceae
Secotioid fungi
Fungus species | Clavogaster virescens | [
"Biology"
] | 1,334 | [
"Fungi",
"Fungus species"
] |
68,867,066 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fibbinary%20number | In mathematics, the fibbinary numbers are the numbers whose binary representation does not contain two consecutive ones. That is, they are sums of distinct and non-consecutive powers of two.
Relation to binary and Fibonacci numbers
The fibbinary numbers were given their name by Marc LeBrun, because they combine certain properties of binary numbers and Fibonacci numbers:
The number of fibbinary numbers less than any given power of two is a Fibonacci number. For instance, there are 13 fibbinary numbers less than 32, the numbers 0, 1, 2, 4, 5, 8, 9, 10, 16, 17, 18, 20, and 21.
The condition of having no two consecutive ones, used in binary to define the fibbinary numbers, is the same condition used in the Zeckendorf representation of any number as a sum of non-consecutive Fibonacci numbers.
The th fibbinary number (counting 0 as the 0th number) can be calculated by expressing in its Zeckendorf representation, and re-interpreting the resulting binary sequence as the binary representation of a number. For instance, the Zeckendorf representation of 19 is 101001 (where the 1's mark the positions of the Fibonacci numbers used in the expansion ), the binary sequence 101001, interpreted as a binary number, represents , and the 19th fibbinary number is 41.
The th fibbinary number (again, counting 0 as 0th) is even or odd if and only if the th value in the Fibonacci word is 0 or 1, respectively.
Properties
Because the property of having no two consecutive ones defines a regular language, the binary representations of fibbinary numbers can be recognized by a finite automaton, which means that the fibbinary numbers form a 2-automatic set.
The fibbinary numbers include the Moser–de Bruijn sequence, sums of distinct powers of four. Just as the fibbinary numbers can be formed by reinterpreting Zeckendorff representations as binary, the Moser–de Bruijn sequence can be formed by reinterpreting binary representations as quaternary.
A number is a fibbinary number if and only if the binomial coefficient is odd. Relatedly, is fibbinary if and only if the central Stirling number of the second kind is odd.
Every fibbinary number takes one of the two forms or , where is another fibbinary number.
Correspondingly, the power series whose exponents are fibbinary numbers,
obeys the functional equation
provide asymptotic formulas for the number of integer partitions in which all parts are fibbinary.
If a hypercube graph of dimension is indexed by integers from 0 to , so that two vertices are adjacent when their indexes have binary representations with Hamming distance one, then the subset of vertices indexed by the fibbinary numbers forms a Fibonacci cube as its induced subgraph.
Every number has a fibbinary multiple. For instance, 15 is not fibbinary, but multiplying it by 11 produces 165 (101001012), which is.
References
Binary arithmetic
Base-dependent integer sequences
Fibonacci numbers | Fibbinary number | [
"Mathematics"
] | 689 | [
"Recurrence relations",
"Fibonacci numbers",
"Golden ratio",
"Arithmetic",
"Mathematical relations",
"Binary arithmetic"
] |
68,867,594 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crew%20Dragon%20Endurance | Crew Dragon Endurance (serial number C210) is the third operational SpaceX Dragon 2 reusable spacecraft manufactured and operated by SpaceX. It first launched on 11 November 2021 to the International Space Station (ISS) on the SpaceX Crew-3 mission. It has subsequently been used for the Crew-5 mission launched in October 2022 and the Crew-7 mission launched in August 2023. The capsule was named in honor of the SpaceX and NASA teams who worked to build the spacecraft during the COVID-19 pandemic and Endurance, the ship used by Shackleton's Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition.
History
On 7 October 2021, it was announced that Dragon C210 will be called Endurance. Astronaut Raja Chari said that the name honors the SpaceX and NASA teams that built the spacecraft and trained the astronauts who will fly it. Those workers endured through a pandemic. The name also honors Endurance, the ship used by Shackleton's Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition. The three-masted vessel sank in 1915 after being bound in ice before reaching Antarctica and was found during the Crew-3 mission.
Endurance was first launched on 11 November 2021 (UTC) on a Falcon 9 Block 5 from the Kennedy Space Center (KSC), LC-39A, carrying NASA astronauts Raja Chari, Thomas Marshburn, and Kayla Barron, as well as ESA astronaut Matthias Maurer on a six-month mission to the International Space Station.
Flights
List includes only completed or currently manifested missions. Dates are listed in UTC, and for future events, they are the earliest possible opportunities (also known as dates) and may change.
Gallery
References
External links
SpaceX Dragon 2
Individual space vehicles
NASA spacecraft
Crewed spacecraft | Crew Dragon Endurance | [
"Astronomy"
] | 349 | [
"Astronomy stubs",
"Spacecraft stubs"
] |
68,870,101 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contested%20garment%20rule | The contested garment (CG) rule, also called concede-and-divide, is a division rule for solving problems of conflicting claims (also called "bankruptcy problems"). The idea is that, if one claimant's claim is less than 100% of the estate to divide, then he effectively concedes the unclaimed estate to the other claimant. Therefore, we first give to each claimant, the amount conceded to him/her by the other claimant. The remaining amount is then divided equally among the two claimants.
The CG rule first appeared in the Mishnah, exemplified by a case of conflict over a garment, hence the name. In the Mishnah, it was described only for two-people problems. But in 1985, Robert Aumann and Michael Maschler have proved that, in every bankruptcy problem, there is a unique division that is consistent with the CG rule for each pair of claimants. They call the rule, that selects this unique division, the CG-consistent rule (it is also called the Talmud rule).
Problem description
There is a divisible resource, denoted by (=Estate or Endowment). There are n people who claim this resource or parts of it; they are called claimants. The amount claimed by each claimant i is denoted by . Usually, , that is, the estate is insufficient to satisfy all the claims. The goal is to allocate to each claimant an amount such that .
Two claimants
With two claimants, the CG rule works in the following way.
Truncate each claim to the estate (since one is not allowed to claim more than the entire estate). That is, set for each claimant i.
Allocate to claimant 1 an amount that is, the amount not claimed by 2.
Allocate to claimant 2 an amount that is, the amount not claimed by 1.
The remainder is ; divide it equally among the claimants.
Summing the amounts given to each claimant, we can write the following formula:For example:
If and , then both claimants get 1/2, that is, .
If and and . then claimant 1 gets 3/4 and claimant 2 gets 1/4, that is, .
These two examples are first mentioned in the first Mishnah of Bava Metzia:"Two are holding a garment. One says, "I found it," and the other says, "I found it":
If one says "all of it is mine" and the other says "all of it is mine", then this one shall swear that he owns no less than half of it, and this one shall swear that he owns no less than half of it, and they shall divide it between them.
If one says, "all of it is mine" and the other says "half of it is mine", then the one who says "all of it is mine" shall swear that he owns no less than three quarters of it; and the one who says "half of it is mine" shall swear that he owns no less than one quarter of it; the former takes three quarters and the latter takes one quarter."
Many claimants
To extend the CG rule to problems with three or more claimants, we apply the general principle of consistency (also called coherence), which says that every part of a fair division should be fair. In particular, we seek an allocation that respects the CG rule for each pair of claimants. That is, for every claimants i and j:.Apriori, it is not clear that such an allocation always exists, or that it is unique. However, it can be proved that a unique CG-consistent allocation always exists. It can be described by the following algorithm:
If (that is, the total estate is less than half the total claims), then apply the rule of constrained equal awards to half the claims, that is, return .
Otherwise, : give each claimant half of his/her claim, and then apply the rule of constrained equal losses to the remainder, that is, return .
Note that, with two claimants, once the claims are truncated to be at most the estate, the condition always holds. For example:
.
Here are some three-claimant examples:
; here CEA is used.
; here CEA is used.
; here either CEA or CEL can be used (the result is the same); when the sum of claims is exactly half the estate, each claimant gets exactly half his/her claim.
; here CEL is used.
; here CEL is used.
; here CEL is used.
The first three examples appear in another Mishnah, in Ketubot:"Suppose a man, who was married to three women, died; the marriage contract of one wife was for 100 dinars, and the marriage contract of the second wife was for 200 dinars, and the marriage contract of the third wife was for 300, and all three contracts were issued on the same date so that none of the wives has precedence over any of the others.
If the total value of the estate is only 100 dinars, the wives divide the estate equally.
If there were 200 dinars in the estate, the first wife takes 50 dinars, while the other two wives take three dinars of gold each, which are the equivalent of 75 silver dinars.
If there were 300 dinars in the estate, the first wife takes 50 dinars, the second takes 100 dinars, and the third takes six dinars of gold, the equivalent of 150 silver dinars."
Constructive description
The CG rule can be described in a constructive way. Suppose E increases from 0 to the half-sum of the claims: the first units are divided equally, until each claimant receives . Then, the claimant with the smallest is put on hold, and the next units are divided equally among the remaining claimants until each of them up to the next-smallest . Then, the claimant with the second-smallest is put on hold too. This goes on until either the estate is fully divided, or each claimant gets exactly . If some estate remains, then the losses are divided in a symmetric way, starting with an estate equal to the sum of all claims, and decreasing down to half this sum.
Properties
The CG rule is self-dual. This means that it treats gains and losses symmetrically: it divides gains in the same way that it divides losses. Formally: .
Game-theoretic analysis
The CG rule can be derived independently, as the nucleolus of a certain cooperative game defined based on the claims.
Piniles' rule
Zvi Menahem Piniles, a 19th-century Jewish scholar, presented a different rule to explain the cases in Ketubot. His rule is similar to the CG rule, but it is not consistent with the CG rule when there are two claimants. The rule works as follows:
If the sum of claims is larger than 2E, then it applies the CEA rule on half the claims, that is, it returns .
Otherwise, it gives each agent half its claim and then applies CEA on the remainder, that is, it returns .
Examples with two claimants:
. Initially the claimants get (30,45). The remaining claims are (30,45) and the remaining estate is 25, so it is divided equally.
. Initially the claimants get (25,50). The remaining claims are (25,50) and the remaining estate is 25, so it is divided equally.
. Initially the claimants get (25,50). The remaining claims are (25,50) and the remaining estate is 25, so it is divided equally.
Examples with three claimants:
. Here the sum of claims is more than twice the estate, so the outcome is .
. Again the sum of claims is more than twice the estate, so the outcome is .
. Again the sum of claims is more than twice the estate, so the outcome is .
Further reading
Steven Landsburg, Let the rabbi split the pie: Talmudic wisdom applied to bankruptcy
References
Bankruptcy theory | Contested garment rule | [
"Mathematics"
] | 1,687 | [
"Game theory",
"Bankruptcy theory"
] |
68,870,550 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colorado%20Ultraviolet%20Transit%20Experiment | Colorado Ultraviolet Transit Experiment (CUTE) is a small UV space telescope to study selected exoplanets.
It was launched as a rideshare on the Atlas V that launched Landsat 9 on September 27, 2021. Designed to operate for at least 8 months and study 10 exoplanets, CUTE remains operational as of December 2023, 27 months after launch. The spacecraft is expected to remain in orbit until 2027.
CUTE can measure near-UV (255-330 nm) and do low resolution spectroscopy of atmospheric tracers (eg. Fe II, Mg II, Mg I, OH).
The UV sensor is a 2048 x 515 pixel CCD array, with the spectrum lengthwise across the sensor. The 515 pixel width provides tolerance from sensor damage.
See also
Ultraviolet astronomy
List of space telescopes
References
External links
CUTE homepage
Instrument Design Overview
Ultraviolet telescopes
Space telescopes
Spacecraft launched in 2021
Exoplanet search projects | Colorado Ultraviolet Transit Experiment | [
"Astronomy"
] | 191 | [
"Exoplanet search projects",
"Astrobiology stubs",
"Astronomy stubs",
"Space telescopes",
"Astronomy projects"
] |
68,870,642 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross-polarization | Cross-polarization (CP), originally published as proton-enhanced nuclear induction spectroscopy (PENIS) is a solid-state nuclear magnetic resonance (ssNMR) technique to transfer nuclear magnetization from different types of nuclei via heteronuclear dipolar interactions. The 1H-X cross-polarization dramatically improves the sensitivity of ssNMR experiments of most experiments involving spin-1/2 nuclei, capitalizing on the higher 1H polarisation, and shorter T1(1H) relaxation times. It was developed by Michael Gibby, Alexander Pines and Professor John S. Waugh at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
In this technique the natural nuclear polarization of an abundant spin (typically 1H) is exploited to increase the polarization of a rare spin (such as 13C, 15N, 31P) by irradiating the sample with radio waves at the frequencies matching the Hartmann–Hahn condition:
where are the gyromagnetic ratios, is the spinning rate, and is an integer. This process is sometimes referred to as "spin-locking". The power of one contact pulse is typically ramped to achieve a more broadband and efficient magnetisation transfer.
The evolution of the X NMR signal intensity during the cross polarisation is a build-up and decay process whose time axis is usually referred to as the "contact time". At short CP contact times, a build-up of X magnetisation occurs, during which the transfer of 1H magnetisation from nearby spins (and remote spins through proton spin diffusion) to X occurs. For longer CP contact times, the X magnetisation decreases from T1ρ(X) relaxation, i.e. the decay of the magnetisation during a spin lock.
References
Nuclear magnetic resonance
Spectroscopy | Cross-polarization | [
"Physics",
"Chemistry"
] | 363 | [
"Molecular physics",
"Nuclear magnetic resonance",
"Spectrum (physical sciences)",
"Instrumental analysis",
"Nuclear physics",
"Spectroscopy"
] |
68,870,800 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strategic%20bankruptcy%20problem | A strategic bankruptcy problem is a variant of a bankruptcy problem (also called claims problem) in which claimants may act strategically, that is, they may manipulate their claims or their behavior. There are various kinds of strategic bankruptcy problems, differing in the assumptions about the possible ways in which claimants may manipulate.
Definitions
There is a divisible resource, denoted by (=Estate or Endowment). There are n people who claim this resource or parts of it; they are called claimants. The amount claimed by each claimant i is denoted by . Usually, , that is, the estate is insufficient to satisfy all the claims. The goal is to allocate to each claimant an amount such that .
Unit-selection game
O'Neill describes the following game.
The estate is divided to small units (for example, if all claims are integers, then the estate can be divided into E units of size 1).
Each claimant i chooses some units.
Each unit is divided equally among all agents who claim it.
Naturally, the agents would try to choose units such that the overlap between different agents is minimal. This game has a Nash equilibrium. In any Nash equilibrium, there is some integer k such that each unit is claimed by either k or k+1 claimants. When there are two claimants, there is a unique equilibrium payoff vector, and it is identical to the one returned by the contested garment rule.
Rule-proposal games
Chun's game
Chun describes the following game.
Each claimant proposes a division rule.
The proposed rule must satisfy the property of order-preservation (a claimant with a higher claim must have weakly-higher gain and weakly-higher loss).
All proposed rules are applied to the problem; each claimant's claim is replaced with the maximum amount awarded to him by a proposed rule.
The process repeats with the revised claims.
The process converges. Moreover, it has a unique Nash equilibrium, in which the payoffs are equal to the ones prescribed by the constrained equal awards rule.
Herrero's game
Herrero describes a dual game, in which, at each round, each claimant's claim is replaced with the minimum amount awarded to him by a proposed rule. This process, too, has a unique Nash equilibrium, in which the payoffs are equal to the ones prescribed by the constrained equal losses rule.
Amount-proposal game
Sonn describes the following sequential game.
Claimant 1 proposes an amount to claimant 2.
If claimant 2 accepts, he leaves with it and claimant 1 then proposes an amount to claimant 3, etc.
If a claimant k rejects, then claimant 1 moves to the end of line, the claimant k starts making offerts to the next claimant.
The offer made to each claimant i must be at most , and at most the remaining amount.
The process continues until one claimant remains; that claimant gets the remaining estate.
Sonn proves that, when the discount factor approaches 1, the limit of payoff vectors of this game converges to the constrained equal awards payoffs.
Division-proposal games
Serrano's game
Serrano describes another sequential game of offers. It is parametrized by a two-claimant rule R.
The highest claimant (say, claimant 1) suggests a division.
Each other claimant can either accept or reject the offer.
Any claimant that accepts the offer, leaves with it.
Any claimant k that rejects the offer, receives the outcome of rule R on the two-claimant problem for k and 1, on the sum of the offers for k and 1.
The highest claimant receives the remainder.
The process is repeated with all the rejecters.
If R satisfies resource monotonicity and super-modularity, then the above game has a unique subgame perfect equilibrium, at which each agent receives the amount recommended by the consistent extension of R.
Corchon and Herrero's game
Corchon and Herrero describe the following game. It is parametrized by a "compromise function" (for example: arithmetic mean).
Agents propose division vectors, which must be bounded by the claims vector.
The compromise function is used to aggregate the proposals.
A two-claimant rule is implementable in dominant strategies (using arithmetic mean) if-and-only-if it is strictly increasing in each claim, and the allocation of agnet i is a function of and . Rules for more than two claimants are usually not implementable in dominant strategies.
Implementation game for downward-manipulation of claims
Dagan, Serrano and Volij consider a setting in which the claims are private information. Claimants may report false claims, as long as they are lower than the true ones. This assumption is relevant in taxation, where claimants may report incomes lower than the true ones. For each rule that is consistent and strictly-claims-monotonic (a person with higher claim gets strictly more), they construct a sequential game that implements this rule in subgame-perfect equilibrium.
Costly manipulations of claims
Landsburg considers a setting in which claims are private information, and claimants may report false claims, but this manipulation is costly. The cost of manipulation increases with the magnitude of manipulation. In the special case in which the sum of claims equals the estate, there is a single generalized rule that is a truthful mechanism, and it is a generalization of constrained equal losses.
Manipulation by pre-donations
Sertel considers a two-claimant setting in which a claimant may manipulate by pre-donating some of his claims to the other claimant. The payoff is then calculated using the Nash Bargaining Solution. In equilibrium, both claimants receive the payoffs prescribed by the contested garment rule.
References
Mechanism design | Strategic bankruptcy problem | [
"Mathematics"
] | 1,173 | [
"Game theory",
"Mechanism design",
"Bankruptcy theory"
] |
68,873,194 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sundanese%20numerals | Sundanese numerals (Sundanese language: Wilangan) is a number system used by Sundanese people and contains a sequence of 10 digits ( ) in Sundanese script. The Wilangan writing system is the same as in Arabic numerals, i.e. the writing is directed to the right, only there is a difference in terms of marking, namely that the writing of numbers in Sundanese script must use a pipe sign ( | ), because some forms of Sundanese numerals are similar to consonant letters ( ngalagéna), it is feared that ambiguity will occur.
Example: |20x20px|pra=20x20px|pra=| = 2020
However, because the writing system that is more often used in Sundanese is the Latin alphabet, it is more common to write numbers in Sundanese using Arabic numerals and the use of numbers in Sundanese script is optional.
Basic numbering in Sundanese
Some numbers in Sundanese have more than one different way of pronouncing the number, for example in the tweens, the way of pronouncing the numbers 21–29 can also use lilikuran.
Examples of Writing and Mentioning:
Hundreds
100 – || – saratus
175 – || – saratus tujuh puluh lima/lebak satak
200 – || – dua ratus
300 – || – tilu ratus
375 – || – tilu ratus tujuh puluh lima/lebak samas
400 – || – opat ratus, samas
500 – || – lima ratus
600 – || – genep ratus
705 – || – tujuh ratus lima
800 – || – dalapan ratus/domas
820 – || – dalapan ratus dua puluh
999 – || – salapan ratus salapan puluh salapan
Thousands
1.000 – || – sarébu
2.000 – || – dua rébu
3.007 – || – tilu rébu tujuh
4.010 – || – opat rébu sapuluh
5.500 – || – lima rébu lima ratus
6.708 – || – genep rébu tujuh ratus dalapan
7.880 – || – tujuh rébu dalapan ratus dalapan puluh
9.999 – || – salapan rébu salapan ratus salapan puluh salapan
Tens of thousands
10.000 – || – sapuluh rébu/salaksa
15.000 – || – lima belas rébu/limalas rébu
25.000 – || – dua puluh lima rébu/salawé rébu
50.000 – || – lima puluh rébu
99.999 – || – salapan puluh salapan rébu salapan ratus salapan puluh salapan
Hundreds of thousands
100.000 – || – saratus rébu/saketi
500.000 – || – lima ratus rébu
725.160 – || – tujuh ratus dua puluh lima rébu saratus genep puluh
999.999 – || – salapan ratus salapan puluh salapan rébu salapan ratus salapan puluh salapan
Millions
1.000.000 – || – sajuta/sapuluh keti
5.000.000 – || – lima yuta
6.486.417 – || – genep yuta opat ratus dalapan puluh genep rébu opat ratus tujuh belas
9.999.999 – || – salapan juta salapan ratus salapan puluh salapan rébu salapan ratus salapan puluh salapan
References
Bibliography
External links
How to say Numbers in Sundanese – Tutorial
Kamus Bahasa Sunda
Konverter Huruf Latin – Aksara Sunda
Sundanese-Indonesian Translator
(47,7M) Kamus Sunda-Indonesia – Pusat Pembinaan dan Pengembangan Bahasa Depdikbud
Sundanese language
Numerals | Sundanese numerals | [
"Mathematics"
] | 941 | [
"Numeral systems",
"Numerals"
] |
73,261,951 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leucocoprinus%20microlepis | Leucocoprinus microlepis is a species of mushroom producing fungus in the family Agaricaceae.
Taxonomy
It was described in 2021 by the mycologists Alfredo Justo, Claudio Angelini and Alberto Bizzi who classified it as Leucocoprinus microlepis.
Description
Leucocoprinus microlepis is a small dapperling mushroom with thin whitish flesh.
Cap: 1–2 cm wide with a flat to convex cap and a rounded umbo in the centre. The surface is white and velvety with scattered small brownish grey scales whilst the umbo is brown-black. The margins have pronounced striations that extend across most of the cap surface with the brown scales being more distinct on the ridges. Gills: White, spaced and sub-free. They have a bulge in the middle (ventricose) and an edge which is slightly eroded. Stem: 3–4 cm tall and 1.5-2mm thick. It is cylindrical without a distinct taper or bulbous base and the interior is hollow. The surface is smooth and white with a white powdery (pruinose) coating towards the top becoming off white to ivory towards the base and discolouring slightly yellow when touched. The membranous, ascending stem ring is small, whitish and easily broken. Spores: Without a germ pore. Dextrinoid and metachromatic. 5-7 (7.5) x 3.5-5μm. Smell: Strong, unpleasant.
Etymology
The specific epithet microlepis derives from the Greek 'micro' meaning small and 'lepis' meaning flake or scale. This is in reference to the small scales on the cap.
Habitat and distribution
The species was discovered in the Dominican Republic where it was found growing gregariously on leaf litter in deciduous woodland in November to December.
Similar species
Leucocoprinus fuligineopunctatus is very similar in appearance but has larger mushrooms. However they could easily be mistaken and may require microscopic or genetic sequencing to accurately distinguish.
References
microlepis
Fungi described in 2021
Fungi of the Caribbean
Fungus species | Leucocoprinus microlepis | [
"Biology"
] | 436 | [
"Fungi",
"Fungus species"
] |
73,262,087 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leucocoprinus%20scissus | Leucocoprinus scissus is a species of mushroom producing fungus in the family Agaricaceae.
Taxonomy
It was described in 2021 by the mycologists Alfredo Justo, Angelini Claudio and Alberto Bizzi who classified it as Leucocoprinus scissus.
Description
Leucocoprinus scissus is a small dapperling mushroom with thin whitish flesh.
Cap: 1–4 cm wide starting conical-campanulate before expanding to conical to flat with a slight umbo. The surface is white with small, scattered brownish-ochre scales that surround the umbo and become sparser towards the cap margins. The margins are striated almost to the centre of the cap but are fragile and prone to splitting at maturity.
Gills: Free, white and moderately crowded, with a bulge in the middle (ventricose).
Stem: 2.5–6 cm wide and 2.5-4mm thick. It is cylindrical with a slight clavate taper up from the base which is up to 6mm thick. The surface is smooth and whitish above the stem ring and ochre-yellow below with the colour becoming more intense towards the base, where white threadlike (filiform) rhizomorphs may be present. The membranous stem ring is small and white but is easily removed and may sometimes be missing.
Spores: Ovoid to ellipsoid, without a germ pore. Dextrinoid and metachromatic. (5.5) 6-8 (8.5) x 4-6 (6.5) μm.
Smell: Indistinct.
Etymology
The specific epithet scissus is Latin for torn or split. This is in reference to the tendency for the edges of the cap to split at maturity.
Habitat and distribution
The species was discovered in the Dominican Republic where it was found growing gregariously on leaf litter in deciduous woodland in November.
References
scissus
Fungi described in 2021
Fungi of the Caribbean
Fungus species | Leucocoprinus scissus | [
"Biology"
] | 417 | [
"Fungi",
"Fungus species"
] |
73,262,362 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leucoagaricus%20tricolor | Leucoagaricus tricolor is a species of mushroom producing fungus in the family Agaricaceae.
Taxonomy
It was described in 1989 by the German mycologist Rolf Singer who classified it as Leucoagaricus tricolor.
Description
Leucoagaricus tricolor is a small dapperling mushroom with thin whitish flesh.
Cap: 6mm wide and convex. The surface is purple with a paler margin and a purple fibrillose coating. Gills: Crowded, free, pale grey drying to brown-grey. Stem: 14cm long and 0.6mm thick. The surface is white with a powdery (pruinose) coating. The stem ring is white and also pruinose. Spores: Ellipsoidal with a double wall and obvious germ pore. Dextrinoid. (7.5) 8.2-9 x 4.5-5.2 μm. Basidia: 24-27 x 7.5-9.5μm. Four spored.
Habitat and distribution
The specimens studied by Singer were found growing on clay soil in the tropical forests of Brazil, 30km North of Manaus.
References
tricolor
Fungi described in 1989
Fungi of South America
Taxa named by Rolf Singer
Fungus species | Leucoagaricus tricolor | [
"Biology"
] | 257 | [
"Fungi",
"Fungus species"
] |
73,262,725 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cystolepiota%20albogilva | Cystolepiota albogilva is a species of mushroom producing fungus in the family Agaricaceae.
Taxonomy
It was described in 1989 by the German mycologist Rolf Singer who classified it as Cystolepiota albogilva.
Description
Cystolepiota albogilva is a small white mushroom with white flesh.
Cap: Up to 1cm wide, convex and flattening with age finally with a slight depression in the centre. The surface is covered with woolly scales (floccosus) which are white at the margins and discolouring yellow towards the centre. Gills: Free, crowded and whitish or pale cream. Stem: 1.5-1.9cm tall and 1-2mm wide.The surface is white and appears smooth and bare but it has a subtle frosted coating that may be more visible with a lens. The stem runs equally to the base where whitish mycelium may be present. There is no stem ring. Spores: Ellipsoidal. Nonamyloid, hyaline or yellowish in KOH. 3.8-5.5 x 2.5 μm. Basidia: 11-13 x 3.5-4.5 μm. Four spored. Smell: Indistinct.
Habitat and distribution
The specimens studied by Singer were found growing on the ground near Igapó forests in Ponta Negra, Brazil.
References
Agaricaceae
Fungi described in 1989
Fungi of South America
Taxa named by Rolf Singer
Fungus species | Cystolepiota albogilva | [
"Biology"
] | 312 | [
"Fungi",
"Fungus species"
] |
73,262,813 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cystolepiota%20amazonica | Cystolepiota amazonica is a species of mushroom-producing fungus in the family Agaricaceae.
Taxonomy
It was described in 1989 by the German mycologist Rolf Singer who classified it as Cystolepiota amazonica.
Description
Cystolepiota amazonica is a very small brownish mushroom with white flesh.
Cap: 3mm wide and high and campanulate (bell shaped). The surface is redddish-brown to light chesnut colour. It is not hygrophanous or viscid ad is wrinkled (rugulose) or smooth with subsulcate striations at the margins. Gills: Free or narrowly adnexed, subconfluent. White but drying to pale or dirty brown. Stem: 1.2 cm tall and 0.8mm thick tapering slightly with a thinner apex. The surface is chestnut colour and smooth with white mycelium at the base. No stem ring was observed by Singer. Spores: Globose or subglobose. Dextrinoid, cyanophilic, hyaline, not metachromatic. 2.5-2.8 x 2-2.2μm. Basidia: 11–12.5 x 3.5-4.5 μm. Four spored. Smell: Indistinct.
Habitat and distribution
The specimens studied by Singer were found growing solitary on fallen, rotting leaves of Dicotyledon plants in the tropical forests of Brazil, 30 km North of Manaus.
References
Agaricaceae
Fungi described in 1989
Fungi of South America
Taxa named by Rolf Singer
Fungus species | Cystolepiota amazonica | [
"Biology"
] | 337 | [
"Fungi",
"Fungus species"
] |
73,263,007 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cystolepiota%20potassiovirens | Cystolepiota potassiovirens is a species of mushroom producing fungus in the family Agaricaceae.
Taxonomy
It was described in 1989 by the German mycologist Rolf Singer who classified it as Cystolepiota potassiovirens.
Description
Cystolepiota potassiovirens is a very small brownish mushroom with brown flesh.
Cap: 1cm wide and convex with a small umbo. The surface is brown to dark brown with a pale orange umbo covered with furfuraceous (bran like) scales. Gills: Free, dark brown and close to crowded. They have a slight ventricose bulge in the middle. Stem: 1.7cm tall and 0.8-1mm thick and subequal. The surface is dark brown with a pruinose (powdery) coating. Spores: Ellipsoidal without a germ pore, hyaline, non-amyloid but greenish in KOH. 3.3-4 x 2.5-3μm. Basidia: 15-21 x 5 μm. Four spored. Smell: Indistinct.
Etymology
The specific epithet potassiovirens derives from the Latin potassio meaning potassium and virens meaning green. This is in reference to the green colouration the spores develop in Potassium Hydroxide (KOH).
Habitat and distribution
The specimens studied by Singer were found growing solitary or gregariously on the ground in the tropical forests of Brazil, 30km North of Manaus.
References
Agaricaceae
Fungi described in 1989
Fungi of South America
Taxa named by Rolf Singer
Fungus species | Cystolepiota potassiovirens | [
"Biology"
] | 335 | [
"Fungi",
"Fungus species"
] |
73,263,172 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hiatulopsis%20aureoflava | Hiatulopsis aureoflava is a species of mushroom producing fungus in the family Agaricaceae.
Taxonomy
It was described in 1989 by the German mycologist Rolf Singer who classified it as Hiatulopsis aureoflava.
Description
Hiatulopsis aureoflava is a very small golden yellow mushroom with white flesh.
Cap: 7-11mm wide and ovate to campanulate. The surface is golden with a fine, dense coating of flocculose (woolly) scales and the margins are yellow. Some scales may be removed by rain. Gills: Free to sub-free, crowded and whitish. They are narrow and ascending. Stem: 3.6cm tall and 1.8mm thick tapering to a 4mm wide base where white mycelium may be present but sclerotia are not observed. The surface is yellowish with woolly to powdery scales (flocculose-pulverulent) with a golden base with a tomentose coating. There is no ring or volva. Spores: Ellipsoidal without a germ pore, hyaline, non-amyloid. 7-10 x 5.5-6.5 μm. Basidia: 22-34 x 11-13 μm. Four spored. Smell: Indistinct.
Etymology
The specific epithet aureoflava derives from the Latin aureo meaning golden and flava meaning yellow.
Habitat and distribution
The specimens studied by Singer were found growing solitary or gregariously on the ground in the tropical forests of Brazil, 30km North of Manaus.
References
Agaricaceae
Fungi described in 1989
Fungi of South America
Taxa named by Rolf Singer
Fungus species | Hiatulopsis aureoflava | [
"Biology"
] | 359 | [
"Fungi",
"Fungus species"
] |
73,263,464 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyptotrama%20nivea | Cyptotrama nivea also known as Cyptotrama niveum is a species of mushroom producing fungus in the family Agaricaceae.
Taxonomy
It was described in 1989 by the German mycologist Rolf Singer who classified it as Cyptotrama niveum however this is now regarded as an orthographic variant and the species is now called Cyptotrama nivea.
Description
Cyptotrama nivea is a very small snow white mushroom with white, unchanging flesh.
Cap: 5mm wide and obtusely convex. The surface is snow white and finely frosted (pruinose) or finely hairy/woolly (sub-tomentose). Gills: Subdecurrent to decurrent, moderately crowded and white. Stem: 1.6cm wide and 1.3mm thick, running equally along the length. The surface is white with a silky, downy coating and a tomentose base. Spores: Ellipsoidal, smooth, hyaline, non-amyloid. 10.5-16.8 x 6.7-9.3 μm. Basidia: 25-31 x 8-13 μm. Four spored. Smell: Indistinct.
Etymology
The specific epithet nivea or niveum derives from the Latin niveus meaning as white as snow.
Habitat and distribution
The specimens studied by Singer were found growing solitary on fallen leaves in Igapó forests along the Igarapé Tarumãzinho river in Brazil.
References
Agaricaceae
Fungi described in 1989
Fungi of South America
Taxa named by Rolf Singer
Fungus species | Cyptotrama nivea | [
"Biology"
] | 337 | [
"Fungi",
"Fungus species"
] |
73,263,540 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katsarosite | Katsarosite is a rarely occurring mineral from the mineral class of organic compounds with the chemical composition Zn(C2O4)·2H2O and is therefore a water-containing zinc(II) oxalate or the zinc salt of oxalic acid.
Katsarosite is categorized in the humboldtine group as the Zn analogue of humboldtine (Fe(C2O4)·2H2O). It is the second Zn-bearing oxalate mineral after alterite.
Katsarosite crystallizes in the monoclinic crystal system and appears as crystals that are mostly fine granular to earthy, usually rounded with an average diameter of 30 μm. The color depends on the iron (Fe2+) content, ranging from pure white to yellow in Fe-rich specimens.
The mineral is named after Īraklīs Katsaros (ΗΡΑΚΛΗΣ ΚΑΤΣΑΡΟΣ) of Lavrion who has led as guide a large number of scientific archaeological and mineralogical sampling tours through the ancient mining system of Lavrion. His help enabled more than 100 publications in the field of archaeology/mining history and mineralogy/geology. His assistance is further acknowledged in dozens of peer-reviewed scientific papers.
Type material is deposited in the collections of the Institut für Mineralogie und Kristallographie der Universität Wien, Althanstrasse 14, 1090 Vienna, Austria, catalogue number HS13.977 (holotype); the Mineralogical Museum of Lavrio, Andrea Kordella Ave., 19500 Lavrio, Greece, catalogue number T3201 (cotype).
References
External links
Mineralien Atlas
lavrion.gr: Katsarosite
Mindat.org
Webmineral.com
Organic minerals
Monoclinic minerals
Oxalate minerals
Zinc minerals | Katsarosite | [
"Chemistry"
] | 388 | [
"Organic compounds",
"Organic minerals"
] |
73,263,652 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyptotrama%20pauper | Cyptotrama pauper also known as Cyptotrama pauperum is a species of mushroom producing fungus in the family Agaricaceae.
Taxonomy
It was described in 1989 by the German mycologist Rolf Singer who classified it as Cyptotrama pauperum however this is now regarded as an orthographic variant and the species is now called Cyptotrama pauper.
Description
Cyptotrama pauper is a small red-pink mushroom with thin and fragile white or pale flesh.
Cap: 0.8-3.7 cm wide and convex to flat or with upturned edges. The surface is red but fades to pink with age, it is smooth or with finely appressed or fibrillose scales. It is not hygrophanous or viscid. Gills: Adnate, crowded and white. Stem: 1.6-3.8 cm long and 1–2.5mm thick. The surface is pink and smooth but pale or white and silky towards the apex and it runs equally or with a slight taper towards the top. The interior is a hollow tube (tubulose) and the base has silky white mycelium present. Spores: Fusoid or oblong, hyaline, non-amyloid. 9.5-12 x 4.7-5.3 μm. Basidia: 37-40 x 8-8.5 μm. Four spored. Smell: Indistinct.
Habitat and distribution
The specimens studied by Singer were found growing on the fallen trunk of a Dicotyledonous tree in the tropical forest on the road between Manaus and Itacoatiara, Brazil.
Similar species
Singer states that the species is related to Cyptotrama hygrocyboides but is distinguished by the lack of pleurocystidia.
References
Agaricaceae
Fungi described in 1989
Fungi of South America
Taxa named by Rolf Singer
Fungus species | Cyptotrama pauper | [
"Biology"
] | 402 | [
"Fungi",
"Fungus species"
] |
73,263,882 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy-of-effort%20theory | The economy-of-effort theory is an idea in anthropology and gender studies. Scholars use it to explain why some cultures assign some forms of work to women and other forms of work to men. In an economy-of-effort scenario, a given task is assigned to men or women (or some other gender role recognized by that culture) not because of differences in their physical bodies but because other things about that culture's gender roles make it more efficient than otherwise.
Ember et al. give the example of a hypothetical culture that assigns logging and woodcutting to men. Because this gives men more familiarity with different types of wood and their properties, this society also assigns men such tasks as the construction of wooden musical instruments, even though none of the differences between men's and women's physical characteristics, such as strength, affect the work or its outcome.
Anthropologists use this idea to explain division of labor scenarios that are not accounted for by theories of male expendability, relative strength, or compatibility with childcare.
See also
Male expendability
Division of labor
Strength theory
Compatibility-with-childcare theory
References
Anthropology
Gender
Gender roles | Economy-of-effort theory | [
"Biology"
] | 234 | [
"Behavior",
"Gender",
"Human behavior"
] |
73,263,885 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leucocoprinus%20rhodolepis | Leucocoprinus rhodolepis is a species of mushroom producing fungus in the family Agaricaceae.
Taxonomy
It was described in 2022 by mycologists Nathália U. Ferretti-Cisneros and Felipe Wartchow who classified it as Leucocoprinus rhodolepis.
Description
Leucocoprinus rhodolepis is a small dapperling mushroom with very thin white, unchanging flesh.
Cap: Up to 3.6cm wide, plano-convex with an umbo. The surface is white with a pronounced centre covered in pinkish-orange scales with a pink tint spreading across the rest of the cap and fading towards the margins, where the scales are sparse. At the very centre of the cap the scales are a darker greyish colour. The margins are very thin and straight or slightly decurved and plicate-striate striations run part way up the cap surface. Gills: Free, crowded to subcrowded and white. The edges are even or may be slightly serrated. Stem: 5cm long and 4mm thick with a slight taper up from the bulbous base that is up to 11mm thick. It is cylindrical or compressed with a slight curve towards the base and the surface is smooth and white to very pale greyish. The small, white stem ring is located towards the top of the stem (apical) and has striations on the underside. Spores: 6.9-7.8 (8.8) x 4.9-5.9 μm or 7.7 x 5.1 μm on average. Ellipsoid or rarely oblong with slight thick walls and no germ pore. Hyaline, dextrinoid and metachromatic, colourless in 3% KOH solution. Basidia: 17.6-20.6 x 7.8-9.8 (10.8) μm. Clavate, 2-4 spored.
Etymology
The specific epithet rhodolepis derives from the Greek rhodo meaning rose coloured and lepis meaning scales. This is in reference to the pinkish scales on the cap.
Habitat and distribution
The specimens studied were growing on solitary on soil surrounded by Caatinga desert vegetation near São José dos Cordeiros, Paraíba, Brazil. As of 2022, it was known only from this location.
References
rhodolepis
Fungi described in 2022
Fungi of the Caribbean
Fungus species | Leucocoprinus rhodolepis | [
"Biology"
] | 517 | [
"Fungi",
"Fungus species"
] |
73,263,964 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inverted%20ligand%20field%20theory | Inverted ligand field theory (ILFT) describes a phenomenon in the bonding of coordination complexes where the lowest unoccupied molecular orbital is primarily of ligand character. This is contrary to the traditional ligand field theory or crystal field theory picture and arises from the breaking down of the assumption that in organometallic complexes, ligands are more electronegative and have frontier orbitals below those of the d orbitals of electropositive metals. Towards the right of the d-block, when approaching the transition-metalmain group boundary, the d orbitals become more core-like, making their cations more electronegative. This decreases their energies and eventually arrives at a point where they are lower in energy than the ligand frontier orbitals. Here the ligand field inverts so that the bonding orbitals are more metal-based, and antibonding orbitals more ligand-based. The relative arrangement of the d orbitals are also inverted in complexes displaying this inverted ligand field.
History
The first example of an inverted ligand field was demonstrated in paper form 1995 by James Snyder. In this theoretical paper, Snyder proposed that the [Cu(CF3)4]− complexes reported by Naumann et al. and assigned a formal oxidation state of 3+ at the copper would be better thought of as Cu(I). By comparing the d-orbital occupation, calculated charges and orbital population of [Cu(CF3)4]− "Cu(III)" complex and the formally Cu(I) [Cu(CH3)2]− complex, they illustrated how the former could be better described as a d10 copper complex experiencing two electron donation from the CF3− ligands. The phenomenon, termed an inverted ligand field by Roald Hoffman, began to be described by Aullón and Alvarez as they identified this phenonmenon as being a result of relative electronegativities. Lancaster and co-workers later provided experimental evidence to support the assignment of this oxidation state. Using UV/visible/near IR spectroscopy, Cu K-edge X-ray absorption spectroscopy, and 1s2p resonant inelastic X-ray scattering in concert with density functional theory, multiplet theory, and multireference calculations, they were able to map the ground state electronic configuration. This showed that the lowest unoccupied orbital was of primarily trifluoromethyl character. This confirmed the presence of an inverted ligand field and started building experimental tools to probe this phenomenon. Since the Snyder case, many other complexes of later transition metals have been shown to display inverted ligand field through both theoretical and experimental methods.
Probing inverted ligand fields
Computational and experimental techniques have been imperative for the study of inverted ligand fields, especially when used in cooperatively.
Computational
Computational methods have played a large role in understanding the nature of bonding in both molecular and solid-state systems displaying inverted ligand fields. The Hoffman group has completed many calculations to probe occurrence of inverted ligand fields in varying systems. In a study of the absorption of CO on PtBi and PtBi2 surfaces, on an octahedral [Pt(BiH3)6]4+ model with a Pt thought of having a formal 4+ oxidation state, the team found that the t2g metal orbitals were higher energy that the eg orbitals. This inversion of the d orbital ordering was attributed to the bismuth based ligands being higher in energy than the metal d orbitals. In another study involving calculations on Ag(III) salt KAgF4, other Ag(II), and Ag(III) compounds, the Ag d orbitals were found to be below those of the fluoride ligand orbitals, and was confirmed by Grochala and cowrokers by core and valence spectroscopies.
The Mealli group developed the program Computer Aided Composition of Atomic Orbitals (CACAO) to provide visualised molecular orbitals analyses based on perturbation theory principles. This program successfully displayed orbital energy inversion with organometallic complexes containing electronegative metals such as Ni or Cu bound to electropositive ligand atoms such as B, Si, or Sn. In these cases the bonding was described as a ligand to metal dative bond or sigma backdonation.
Alvarez and coworkers used computational methods to illustrate ligand field inversion in the band structures of solid state materials. The group found that, contrary to the classical bonding scheme, in calculated MoNiP8 band structures the eg-type orbitals of the octahedral nickel atom were found to be the major component of an occupied band below the t2g set. Additionally, the band around the fermi level which included the Ni+ antibonding orbitals were found to be mostly of phosphorus character, a clear example if an inverted ligand field. Similar observations were made in other solid state materials like the skutterudite CoP3 structure. A consequence of the inverted ligand field in this case is that the conductivity in skutterudites is associated with the phosphorus rings rather than the metal atoms.
Experimental
X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS) has been a powerful tool in deducing the oxidation states of transition metals. Energy shifts in XAS are higher due to the higher effective nuclear charge of atoms in higher oxidations, presumably due to the higher binding energy for deeper, more core-like electrons.
Despite this being a very powerful technique, competing effects on the rising edge positions can make assignment difficult. It was initially thought that the weak, quadrupole-allowed pre-edge peak assigned as the Cu 1s to 3d transition could be used to distinguish between Cu(II) and Cu(III) with the features appearing at 8979 +/- 0.3 eV and 8981 +/- 0.5 eV, respectively. Ab initio calculations by Tomson, Wieghardt, and co-workers displayed that pre-peaks previously assigned as Cu(III) could be displayed by Cu(II) bearing complexes. Many groups have displayed that metal K-edge XAS transitions involving ligand-localised acceptor orbitals, as well as spectral shifts from change in coordination environment, can make metal K-edge analysis less predictable.
The most sussessful use of K and L-edge XAS provide valuable information on the composition of molecular orbitals and display inverted ligand fields has been done in studies that made use of computational techniques in concert with experimental techniques. This was the case of the L2[Cu2(S2)n]2+ complexes of York, Brown, and Tolman, and the Cu(CF3)4- by various groups including Hoffman, Overgaard, and Lancaster.
Another experimental tool used to probe ligand field inversion includes Electron paramagnetic resonance (ESR/EPR), which can provide information regarding the metal electronic configuration, the nature of the SOMO, and high resolution information on the ligands.
Impact of charge and geometry
Changes in both charge and geometry of organometallic complexes can greatly vary the energies of molecular orbitals and can therefore dictate the likelihood of observing an inverted ligand field. Hoffman and coworkers explored the impact of these variables by calculating the atomic composition of molecular orbitals for mono- di- and trianion copper complexes. The square planar monoanion displayed the reported ligand field inversion. The "Cu(II)" which has an intermediate square planar to tetrahedral geometry also displayed this feature with the antibonding t2-derived orbital being mostly of ligand character and the x2-y2 orbital being the lowest molecular orbital of the d block. The tetrahedral trianion showed a return to the Werner-type ligand field. By modulating the geometry of the "Cu(II)" species and displaying the change in energies of MO on walsh diagrams, the group was able to show how the complex could display both a classical and inverted ligand field when in Td and SP geometry respectively. Additional calculations on the Cu(I) with non-tetrahedral geometry also displayed an inverted ligand field. This indicated the importance of not just oxidation state but geometry in determining the inversion of a ligand field.
Consequences on bonding
The inversion of ligand fields has interesting implications on the nature of reactivity of organometallic complexes. This sigma non-innocence of ligands arising from inverted ligand fields could therefore be used to tune reactivity of complexes and open space in understanding the mechanisms of existing reactions.
In an analysis of the [ZnF4]2- , it was found that due to ligand field inversion displayed in this species, core ionization removes an electron from the metal-rich bonding t2 orbital, lengthening the Zn-F bonds. This is contrary to the classical ligand field where ionization would remove an electron from the antibonding t2 orbital shortening the Zn-F bonds.
The presence of electron-deficient ligands also result in an inverted ligand field. Calculations have shown that the large O 2p contribution into the LUMO/LUMO+1 in [(LTEEDCu)2(O2)]2+ should make the complex highly oxidizing as it contains electron deficient O2- ligands. Studies have corroborated this property as this complex has shown to be able to undergo C-H and C-F activation and aromatic hydroxylation.
There is evidence showing that reductive elimination on species displaying ligand field inversion do not undergo a redox event at the metal center. The C-CF3 bond formation by "Ni(IV)" complexes was completed without redox participation of the Nickel. The metal appears to remain Ni(II) throughout the reaction. The mechanism is thought to be through the attack of a masked electrophilic cation by anionic CF3. The electron deficiency here is due to the inverted ligand field.
References
Chemical bonding
Inorganic chemistry | Inverted ligand field theory | [
"Physics",
"Chemistry",
"Materials_science"
] | 2,019 | [
"Chemical bonding",
"Condensed matter physics",
"nan"
] |
73,264,185 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leucocoprinus%20domingensis | Leucocoprinus domingensis is a species of mushroom producing fungus in the family Agaricaceae.
Taxonomy
It was described in 2020 by mycologists Alfredo Justo, Alberto Bizzi, Angelini Claudio and Alfredo Vizzini who classified it as Leucocoprinus domingensis.
Description
Leucocoprinus domingensis is a small dapperling mushroom with thin (1-2mm) white flesh.
Cap: 2.5-3.5 cm wide starting paraboloid before expanding to conico-campanulate and finally flattening with age with a slight depression at the centre. A small round umbo may or may not be present. The surface is white but densely covered in small dark-grey to black scales which leave only the surface towards the cap edges uncovered. The centre disc is broad with denser, dark scales and the margins have only slight sulcate striations that extend up to one-third of the way across the cap. Gills: Free, moderately crowded and white. Not discolouring with age or collection. Under a lens the edges are slightly eroded. Stem: 3–5 cm long and 3-5mm thick. It is thin and cylindrical to clavate with a taper up from the slightly bulbous base. The surface is smooth and white with white mycelial cords at the base. The thin, membranous, ascending stem ring is white with blackish-grey edges and located about halfway up the stem (median). Spores: 4.5-6 x 3-4 μm. Ellipsoid to ovoid without a germ pore, oblong to subcylindrical when viewed from the side. Dextrinoid and metachromatic. Basidia: 11.5-19 x 6.5-9 μm. Clavate to spheropedunculate. Four spored.
Etymology
The specific epithet domingensis derives from the capital of the Dominican Republican, Santo Domingo where the species was found.
Habitat and distribution
The specimens studied were growing gregariously on leaf litter and woody debris in a botanical garden amongst broad-leaved trees during November. As of 2020 is known only from the Dominican Republic.
Similar species
Leucocoprinus domingensis is considered part of the Leucocoprinus heinemannii complex which is a collection of similar looking species characterised by dark grey or black scales and a dark centre disc. These species can be very difficult to distinguish based only on macroscopic features and may require microscopic or genetic sequencing.
References
domingensis
Fungi described in 2020
Fungi of the Caribbean
Fungus species | Leucocoprinus domingensis | [
"Biology"
] | 543 | [
"Fungi",
"Fungus species"
] |
73,264,559 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leucocoprinus%20parvipileus | Leucocoprinus parvipileus is a species of mushroom producing fungus in the family Agaricaceae.
Taxonomy
It was described in 2020 by mycologists Alfredo Justo, Alberto Bizzi, Angelini Claudio and Alfredo Vizzini who classified it as Leucocoprinus parvipileus.
Description
Leucocoprinus parvipileus is a small dapperling mushroom with very thin white flesh.
Cap: 7-15mm wide starting paraboloid before expanding to conico-canpanulate and finally flattening with age, sometimes with uplifted edges and a depressed centre. A small round umbo may or may not be present. The surface is completely grey-black when immature before breaking into a white background surface with small scattered grey scales which are sparser towards the margins and dense at the centre resulting in a small, darker centre disc. It is covered with radial fibrils and has strong sulcate striations at the cap edges that extend around halfway across the cap. The surface may discolour yellow to ochre with maturity. Gills: Free, moderately crowded and white but also discolouring yellow with age or after collecting. The edges remain white and are slightly eroded when viewed with a lens. Stem: 1.5-2.5 cm long and 1-2mm thick tapering up from a bulbous base of 3-3.5mm thick. It is cylindrical but thinner at the apex, where it is smooth and whitish but fibrillose elsewhere. Right above the bulbous base, the stem is marked with a thin grey line that runs around it like a ring and white mycelial cords may be present in abundance at the base. The thin, membranous, ascending stem ring is white and usually found towards the top of the stem (apical). Spores: 5-7 x 3–4.5 μm. Ellipsoid to ovoid without a germ pore, oblong to subcylindrical when viewed from the side. Dextrinoid and metachromatic. Basidia: 11-18 x 7-9 μm. Clavate. Four spored. Smell: Fungal or indistinct.
Etymology
The specific epithet parvipileus derives from the Latin parvus meaning small and pileus meaning cap. This is a reference to the smaller cap size of this species compared with similar species.
Habitat and distribution
The specimens studied were growing gregariously on leaf litter, woody debris and on old termite nests in humid, deciduous woodland in November to February. As of 2020, it is known only from the Dominican Republic and St. John in the US Virgin Islands.
Similar species
Leucocoprinus parvipileus is considered part of the Leucocoprinus heinemannii complex which is a collection of similar looking species characterised by dark grey or black scales and a dark centre disc. These species can be very difficult to distinguish based only on macroscopic features and may require microscopic or genetic sequencing. The small size and yellowing as well as the white mycelial cords at the base may help distinguish it from some similar species.
References
parvipileus
Fungi described in 2020
Fungi of South America
Fungus species | Leucocoprinus parvipileus | [
"Biology"
] | 665 | [
"Fungi",
"Fungus species"
] |
73,264,699 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leucocoprinus%20tephrolepis | Leucocoprinus tephrolepis is a species of mushroom producing fungus in the family Agaricaceae.
Taxonomy
It was described in 2020 by mycologists Alfredo Justo, Alberto Bizzi, Angelini Claudio and Alfredo Vizzini who classified it as Leucocoprinus tephrolepis.
Description
Leucocoprinus tephrolepis is a small dapperling mushroom with very thin white flesh.
Cap: 2-2.5 cm wide, starting paraboloid before expanding to conico-canpanulate and finally flattening with age with a depressed center and a small round umbo that is raised up. The surface is white with a sparse coating of ash grey scales which are sparse or absent at the margins but somewhat dense in the centre disc creating a darker spot. The margins have strong sulcate striations that extend around halfway across the cap and the edges may split. The surface remains white with age. Gills: Free, moderately crowded and white but with a pink-orange tinge developing in older specimens or within a few hours of collecting. The edges remain white and are slightly eroded when viewed with a lens. Stem: 2.5–3 cm long and 2-3mm thick cylindrical to clavate tapering upwards from a slightly bulbous base. The surface is whitish, smooth at the apex but with a powdery to fibrous (pruinose-fibrillose) coating towards the base. The stem also discolours to a pink-orange shade. The thin, membranous, ascending stem ring is white but sometimes has grey edges. It is usually found towards the top of the stem (apical to superior). Spores: 5.5-7 x 3-4 μm. Ellipsoid to ovoid without a germ pore, oblong to subcylindrical when viewed from the side. Dextrinoid and metachromatic. Basidia: 11-18 x 6-9 μm. Clavate to spheropedunculate. Four spored. Smell: Fungal or indistinct.
Etymology
The specific epithet tephrolepis derives from the Greek tephrós meaning ash coloured and lepis meaning scale. This is a reference to the colour of the scales on the cap of this species.
Habitat and distribution
The specimens studied were growing gregariously on leaf litter and old termite nests in humid mixed woodland during February to April. As of 2020 it is known only from the Dominican Republic and St. John in the US Virgin Islands.
Similar species
Leucocoprinus tephrolepis is considered part of the Leucocoprinus heinemannii complex which is a collection of similar looking species characterised by dark grey or black scales and a dark centre disc. These species can be very difficult to distinguish based only on macroscopic features and may require microscopic or genetic sequencing. The pink-orange discolouration may help distinguish this species from others.
References
tephrolepis
Fungi described in 2020
Fungi of the Caribbean
Fungus species | Leucocoprinus tephrolepis | [
"Biology"
] | 633 | [
"Fungi",
"Fungus species"
] |
73,264,971 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leucocoprinus%20canariensis | Leucocoprinus canariensis is a species of mushroom producing fungus in the family Agaricaceae.
Taxonomy
It was described in 2004 by the mycologists Peter Mohr and Rose Marie Dähncke who classified it as Leucocoprinus canariensis and suggested it belonged to section Denudati.
Description
Leucocoprinus canariensis is a small dapperling mushroom with thin white flesh.
Cap: 4-5cm wide, convex to flat. The surface is white with velvety black brown scales and a dark brown centre. The margins lack striations. Gills: Free, crowded and cream coloured with a slight fimbriate edge. Stem: 5-6cm long and 5-6mm thick tapering upwards from a bulbous 13mm thick base. The surface is creamy white and covered in short downy hairs (pubescent). The narrow stem ring is white with dark edges on the underside and is located towards the bottom of the stem (inferior). Spores: 7-8 (8.5) x 3-3.5 μm. Cylindrical to ovoid or bean shaped, without a visible germ pore. Smooth, hyaline, dextrinoid and metachromatic. Basidia: 20-24 x 8-9 μm. Clavate. Four spored. Smell: Indistinct.
Etymology
The specific epithet canariensis is in reference to the Canary Islands in which they were found.
Habitat and distribution
The specimens studied were found in La Palma, Canary Islands where they were growing amongst undergrowth of Erica arborea beneath Pinus radiata trees during October.
References
canariensis
Fungi described in 2004
Fungus species | Leucocoprinus canariensis | [
"Biology"
] | 353 | [
"Fungi",
"Fungus species"
] |
73,265,036 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LGBTQ%20bullying | Bullying of lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, or queer (LGBTQ) people, particularly LGBTQ youth, involves intentional actions toward the victim, repeated negative actions by one or more people against another person, and an imbalance of physical or psychological power.
LGBTQ youth are more likely to report bullying than non-LGBTQ youth. In one study, boys who were bullied with taunts of being gay suffered more bullying and more negative effects compared with boys who were bullied with other categories of taunting. Some researchers suggest including youth questioning their sexuality in any research on LGBTQ bullying because they may be as susceptible to its effects as LGBTQ students.
Victims of LGBTQ bullying may feel unsafe, resulting in depression and anxiety, including increased rates of suicide and attempted suicide. LGBTQ students may try to pass as heterosexual and/or cisgender to escape the bullying, leading to further stress and isolation from available supports. Support organizations exist in many countries to prevent LGBTQ bullying and support victims. Some jurisdictions have passed legislation against LGBTQ bullying and harassment.
Schools
Homophobic and transphobic violence in schools can be categorized as explicit and implicit. Explicit homophobic and transphobic violence consists of overt acts that make subjects feel uncomfortable, hurt, humiliated or intimidated. Peers and educational staff are unlikely to intervene when witnessing these incidents. This contributes to normalizing such acts that become accepted as either a routine disciplinary measure or a means to resolve conflicts among students. Homophobic and transphobic violence – as with all school-related gender-based violence – is acutely underreported due to subjects' fear of retribution, combined with inadequate or non-existent reporting, support and redress systems. The absence of effective policies, protection or remedies contributes to a vicious cycle where incidents become increasingly normal.
Implicit homophobic and transphobic violence, sometimes called 'symbolic violence' or 'institutional' violence, is subtler than explicit violence. It consists of pervasive representations or attitudes that sometimes feel harmless or natural to the school community, but that allow or encourage homophobia and transphobia, including perpetuating harmful stereotypes. Policies and guidelines can reinforce or embed these representations or attitudes, whether in an individual institution or across an entire education sector. This way, they can become part of everyday practices and rules guiding school behaviour. Examples of implicit homophobic and transphobic violence include:
Asserting that some subjects are better suited to students based on their sexual orientation or gender identity/expression (for example, science for heterosexual male students and drama for gay male students).
Suggesting that it is normal for heterosexual students to have greater agency or influence (for example, with the opinions of LGBTI students treated as marginal and unimportant).
Reinforcing stereotypes related to sexual orientation or gender identity/expression in curriculum materials or teacher training, such as through images and discourse (for example, that refer to heterosexuality as 'normal').
Reinforcing stereotypes related to sexual orientation or gender identity/expression in educational policies, rules and regulations (for example, by not even acknowledging that LGBTI students are part of the school community and by not specifying them in relevant policies).
Egale Canada, along with previous research, has found teachers and school administration may be complicit in LGBT bullying through their silence and/or inaction.
Graffiti found on school grounds and property, and its "relative permanence", is another form of LGBT bullying.
American sociologist Michael Kimmel and American psychologist Gregory Herek write that masculinity is a renunciation of the feminine and that males shore up their sense of their masculinity by denigrating the feminine and ultimately the homosexual. Building on the notion of masculinity defining itself by what it is not, some researchers suggest that in fact the renunciation of the feminine may be misogyny. These intertwining issues were examined in 2007, when American sociologist CJ Pascoe described what she calls the "fag discourse" at an American high school in her book, Dude, You're a Fag.
Effects
Victims of LGBT bullying may feel chronically depressed, anxious, and unsafe in the world. Bullying will affect a student's experience of school. Some victims might feel paralyzed and withdraw socially as a coping mechanism. Others may begin to live the effects of learned helplessness.
LGBT and questioning youth who experience bullying have a higher incidence of substance abuse and sexually transmitted infections. LGBT bullying may also be seen as a manifestation of what American academic Ilan Meyer calls minority stress, which may affect sexual and ethno-racial minorities attempting to exist within a challenging broader society.
Gay and lesbian youth can develop severe forms of depression and anxiety as they grow up. Around 70% of LGBT people experience major depressive disorder (MDD) sometime in their lives. For LGBT individuals, MDD can be caused by any of the following: self-esteem, pressure to conform, minority stress, coming out, family rejection, parenting, relationship formation, and violence. A person can be harassed to the point where their depression becomes too much and they no longer experience any happiness. These factors all work together and make it extremely hard to avoid MDD.
The rate of suicide is higher among LGBT people:
In a study conducted by the Schools Education Unit for UK charity Stonewall, an online survey reported that 71 percent of the girl participants who identified as LGBTQ, and 57 percent of the boy participants who identified as LGBTQ had seriously considered suicide.
According to a 1979 Jay and Young study, 40 percent of gay men and 39 percent of gay women in the US had attempted or seriously thought about suicide.
The American Foundation for Suicide Prevention has found that gay, lesbian and bisexual youth attempt suicide at a rate three to six times that of similar-age heterosexual youth.
In 1985, F. Paris estimated that suicides by gay youth may comprise up to 30 percent of all youth suicides in the US. This contributes to suicide being the third leading cause for death among youth aged 10–24, reported by the CDC.
LGBT or questioning students may try to pass as heterosexual in order to avoid LGBT bullying. Passing isolates the student from other LGBT or questioning students, potential allies, and support. Adults who try to pass also may feel the effects emotionally and psychologically, of this effort to conceal their true identities.
Statistics
Canada
Egale Canada conducted a survey of more than 3,700 high school students in Canada between December 2007 and June 2009. The final report of the survey, "Every Class in Every School", published in 2011, found that 70% of all students participating heard "that's so gay" daily at school, and 48% of respondents heard "faggot", "lezbo" and "dyke" daily. 58% or about 1,400 of the 2,400 heterosexual students participating in EGALE's survey found homophobic comments upsetting. Further, EGALE found that students not directly affected by homophobia, biphobia or transphobia were less aware of it. This finding relates to research done in the area of empathy gaps for social pain which suggests that those not directly experiencing social pain (in this case, bullying) consistently underestimate its effects and thus may not adequately respond to the needs of one experiencing social pain.
United Kingdom
About two-thirds of gay and lesbian students in British schools have suffered from gay bullying in 2007, according to a study done by the Schools Education Unit for LGBT activist group Stonewall. Almost all that had been bullied had experienced verbal attacks, 41 percent had been physically attacked, and 17 percent had received death threats. It also showed that over 50% of teachers did not respond to homophobic language which they had explicitly heard in the classroom, and only 25% of schools had told their students that homophobic bullying was wrong, showing "a shocking picture of the extent of homophobic bullying undertaken by fellow pupils and, alarmingly, school staff", with further studies conducted by the same charity in 2012 stated that 90% of teachers had had no training on the prevention of homophobic bullying. However, Ofsted's new 2012 framework did ask schools what they would be doing in order to combat the issue.
A research study of 78 eleven to fourteen-year-old boys conducted in twelve schools in London, England between 1998 and 1999 revealed that respondents who used the word "gay" to label another boy in a derogatory manner intended the word as "just a joke", "just a cuss" and not as a statement of one's perceived sexual orientation.
United States
A 1998 study in the US by Mental Health America found that students heard anti-gay slurs such as "homo", "faggot" and "sissy" about 26 times a day on average, or once every 14 minutes. In a study conducted by the Association of Teachers and Lecturers, a union for UK professionals, the word "gay" was reported to be the most popular term of abuse heard by teachers on a regular basis.
Cases
United Kingdom
Damilola Taylor was attacked by a local gang of youths on November 27, 2000, in Peckham, South London; he bled to death after being stabbed with a broken bottle in the thigh, which severed the femoral artery. The BBC, Telegraph, Guardian and Independent newspapers reported at the time that during the weeks between arriving in the UK from Nigeria and the attack he had been subjected to bullying and beating, which included homophobic remarks by a group of boys at his school. In the New Statesman two years later, when there had still been no convictions for the crime, Peter Tatchell, gay human rights campaigner, said, "In the days leading up to his murder in south London in November 2000, he was subjected to vicious homophobic abuse and assaults," and asked why the authorities had ignored this before and after his death.
United States
In 1996, Jamie Nabozny won a landmark lawsuit (Nabozny v. Podlesny) against officials at his former public high school in Ashland, Wisconsin over their refusal to intervene in the "relentless antigay verbal and physical abuse by fellow students" to which he had been subjected and which had resulted in his hospitalization.
High school student Derek Henkle faced inaction from school officials when repeatedly harassed by his peers in Reno, Nevada. His lawsuit against the school district and several administrators ended in a 2002 settlement in which the district agreed to create a series of policies to protect gay and lesbian students and to pay Henkle $451,000.
Tyler Clementi committed suicide on September 22, 2010, after his roommate at Rutgers University secretly recorded his sexual encounter with another man.
Kenneth Weishuhn, a 14-year-old freshman from South O'Brien High School in Iowa, hanged himself in his family's garage after intense anti-gay bullying, cyberbullying and death threats in 2012. His suicide was covered nationally and raised questions about what culpability bullies have in suicides.
Jadin Bell, a 15-year-old youth in La Grande, Oregon, tried to commit suicide by hanging after intense anti-gay bullying at his high school in 2013. After life support was removed, Bell died at the OHSU hospital. His father Joe Bell started a walk across America to raise awareness about gay bullying, but was hit and killed by a truck halfway through his journey.
Support organizations
Safe schools coalitions in various countries provide anti-bullying resources for teachers and students.
The US It Gets Better Project involves celebrities and ordinary LGBT people making YouTube videos and sharing messages of hope for gay teens. The organization works with USA, The Trevor Project and the Gay, Lesbian and Straight Education Network.
Egale Canada is a rights organization with a mandate that includes promoting safer schools.
In Brazil, the provides support.
Anti-LGBT bullying legislation
In 2000, the state of California enacted the California Student Safety and Violence Prevention Act (AB 537), a bill that prohibits harassment and discrimination on the basis of perceived or actual gender identity or sexual orientation.
The state of Illinois passed a law (SB3266) in June 2010 that prohibits gay bullying and other forms of bullying in schools.
In the Philippines, legislators implemented Republic Act No. 10627, otherwise known as the Anti-Bullying Act of 2013, in schools. According to the said law, gender-based bullying is defined as ˮany act that humiliates or excludes a person on the basis of perceived or actual sexual orientation and gender identity (SOGI)ˮ.
Sources
References
Further reading
Violence against LGBTQ people
LGBTQ and society
Harassment and bullying | LGBTQ bullying | [
"Biology"
] | 2,564 | [
"Harassment and bullying",
"Behavior",
"Aggression"
] |
73,265,116 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leucocoprinus%20mauritianus | Leucocoprinus mauritianus is a species of mushroom producing fungus in the family Agaricaceae.
Taxonomy
It was described in 1908 by the German mycologist Paul Christoph Hennings who classified it as Lepiota mauritiana.
In 2004 it was reclassified as Leucocoprinus mauritianus by the mycologist Peter Mohr.
Description
Leucocoprinus mauritianus is a small dapperling mushroom with thin white flesh. Hennings provided only a basic description of this species:
Cap: 1.6-2.2 cm wide, ovoid to campanulate with an obtuse umbo. The surface is grey with a scaly brown umbo and sulcate striations from the margin, where there are fissures and folds. Gills: Freem, crowded and pale with a ventricose bulge. Stem: Smooth and pale running equally to the base, which is not significantly bulbous. Hollow. The stem ring membranous and whitish. Spores: 9-12 x 6-7 μm. Subovoid. Hyaline.
Etymology
The specific epithet mauritianus, originally mauritiana is named for Mauritius where it was found.
Habitat and distribution
The specimens studied by Hennings were found growing on the ground in Mauritius.
References
mauritianus
Fungi described in 1908
Fungus species | Leucocoprinus mauritianus | [
"Biology"
] | 289 | [
"Fungi",
"Fungus species"
] |
73,266,666 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/4-Fluoro-7-nitrobenzofurazan | 4-Fluoro-7-nitrobenzofurazan (NBD-F) is a fluorogenic, amine labeling dye that is not fluorescent itself, but covalently reacts with secondary or primary amines to form a fluorescently labeled product. It and other fluorogenic benzofurans (i.e. NBD-Cl) are used for derivitization in HPLC applications. After the fluorogenic reaction, it can be detected with an excitation wavelength of 470 nm (blue) and an emission wavelength of 530 nm (green), enabling an HPLC limit of detection of 10 fmol.
See also
Fluorescamine
FQ
References
Oxadiazoles
Nitroarenes
Dyes
Fluoroarenes | 4-Fluoro-7-nitrobenzofurazan | [
"Chemistry"
] | 160 | [
"Organic compounds",
"Organic compound stubs",
"Organic chemistry stubs"
] |
73,266,697 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/6-Aminoquinolyl-N-hydroxysuccinimidyl%20carbamate | 6-Aminoquinolyl-N-hydroxysuccinimidyl carbamate (AQC) is a fluorogenic, amine labeling dye that is not fluorescent itself, but covalently reacts with secondary amines to form a fluorescently labeled product. It has a fluorescence excitation wavelength of 250 nm (UV-C), and emission wavelength of 395 nm (deep violet, near UV).
See also
Fluorescamine
FQ
References
Dyes
Succinimides
Quinolines
Carbamates | 6-Aminoquinolyl-N-hydroxysuccinimidyl carbamate | [
"Chemistry"
] | 114 | [
"Organic compounds",
"Organic compound stubs",
"Organic chemistry stubs"
] |
73,267,330 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ville%27s%20inequality | In probability theory, Ville's inequality provides an upper bound on the probability that a supermartingale exceeds a certain value. The inequality is named after Jean Ville, who proved it in 1939.
The inequality has applications in statistical testing.
Statement
Let be a non-negative supermartingale. Then, for any real number
The inequality is a generalization of Markov's inequality.
References
Probabilistic inequalities
Martingale theory | Ville's inequality | [
"Mathematics"
] | 94 | [
"Theorems in probability theory",
"Probabilistic inequalities",
"Inequalities (mathematics)"
] |
73,269,004 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalgoorlie%20Nickel%20Smelter | The Kalgoorlie Nickel Smelter is a nickel smelter in Feysville, south of the town of Kalgoorlie in Western Australia. The smelter is operated by BHP and part of its Nickel West operations. Having originally been built by WMC Resources, it changed ownership in 2005 when BHP acquired WMC.
Operations
The Kalgoorlie smelter is part of BHP's Nickel West operations, which includes, apart from the Kalgoorlie smelter, the Leinster Nickel Mine, the Mount Keith Mine, the Kambalda Nickel Concentrator and the Kwinana Nickel Refinery.
History
Soon after the discovery of nickel at Kambalda by WMC Resources, the company started to look into the feasibility of constructing a nickel smelter in Western Australia. A number of smelting methods were considered before WMC made the decision in 1970 to opt for the flash smelting method, developed by Finnish company Outokumpu.
A number of locations for the smelter were considered, Kambalda, Kwinana, Esperance in Western Australia and Port Pirie in South Australia, before Kalgoorlie was chosen. Kalgoorlie's proximity to nickel deposits, its existing infrastructure and an available work force, gold mining in the area experiencing a downturn at the time, were the main arguments for building the smelter there. As part of the decision, the Western Australian state government made land available for the smelter south of Kalgoorlie while WMC agreed to partly fund a narrow-gauge railway to Esperance. In return, WMC would receive special freight rates for its nickel ore on the Western Australian Government Railway system.
On 16 September, then-Premier of Western Australia, David Brand, announced the upcoming construction of the smelter, something WMC declined to confirm at the time, stating that negotiations about the location were still ongoing. WMC itself announced the construction of the smelter on 4 November 1970,, with a cost estimate of A$30 million and a two year time frame for construction, and construction commenced in early 1971.
The construction site was visited by the then-Premier of Western Australia, John Tonkin, on 2 July 1971 and the smelter was ready for commissioning in December 1972. Its initial capacity was to annually process 200,000 tonnes of nickel concentrate at a grade of 10 percent to with the aim of producing 29,000 tonnes of nickel matte at a grade of 70 percent.
The official opening of the smelter took place on 7 April 1973 in the presence of the Prime Minister of Australia, Gough Whitlam, as well as John Tonkin. The Kalgoorlie Nickel Smelter was the first nickel smelter in Australia.
By mid-1973, the smelter operated at a two-thirds capacity, suffering start-up problems, being only the second nickel smelter constructed of this design. A partial rebricking of the flash furnace was required after just 10 month. The original flash furnace was replaced with a larger one, with a 450,000 tonne capacity, in late 1978 and the old one decommissioned, having been consistently run at capacity. Reliability improved after this, to a point where no rebricking was required for almost 12 years from 1981 to 1993.
The larger capacity of the smelter allowed for toll-processing of nickel ore from the non-WMC Agnew Mine from 1978, a mine WMC eventually acquired a decade later. When mining ceased at Agnew in 1986, throughput of the smelter was negatively affected, one reason WMC opted to purchase and reopen the mine.
In June 1988, the smelter achieved the milestone of having processed five million tonnes of nickel concentrate and, in 1990–91, it achieved a record throughput of 537,758 tonnes. This record was eventually broken in 1995–96 when a new furnace processed 626,100 tonnes. The construction of the new furnace was announced in September 1991 and was to have an annual capacity of 750,000 tonnes in order to produce 65,000 tonnes of nickel concentrate. The old furnace was decommissioned on 8 September 1993 and the new constructed in its place in 70 days, officially opening on 15 December 1993 in the presence of the Western Australian premier Richard Court.
In 2005, WMC Resources was acquired by BHP, which bundled WMC's nickel assets under its Nickel West brand, which became the largest nickel producer in the state, producing a combined 67,000 tonnes out of the 180,000 tonnes produced in Western Australia in 2004–05. At the time of the WMC acquisition by BHP, the smelter employed over 900 people.
BHP closed the smelter for four month from June 2008 to carry out repairs, thereby reducing annual nickel production in Western Australia by 20,000 tonnes. The smelter was once more shut down for maintenance in October 2015, this time for 21 days, which reduced the state's nickel output by 7,000 tonnes for the year, at a time of decreasing volumes of nickel mining in Western Australia and a decreasing global nickel price.
At the time, 2015, BHP also looked at the future of its nickel operations, planning to expand the operational life to at least 2032. Among these, a rebuild of the kalgoorlie smelter in 2023 was proposed, which was estimated to have cost A$150 million and would extend the operational life of the smelter to 2040.
Nickel production in Western Australia increased again by 2017 but a fire at the smelter in September 2018 reduced production figures for Nickel West once more.
In 2021–22, BHP signed an agreement with renewable energy provider TransAlta to build a solar farm and a battery storage system in the Northern Goldfields, designed to power the Kalgoorlie smelter, the Kwinana refinery and the Kambalda concentrator, the later having been in care and maintenance since 2018 but being recommissioned in May 2022.
The smelter underwent a lengthy shut down in late 2022 to conduct a A$7.5 million upgrade which negatively affected BHP's annual nickel production.
In August 2023, BHP received permission to construct a 1,152-room FIFO camp for three years to accommodate workers for a rebuilt of the smelter which is scheduled to extend the life of the facility by 20 years.
Due to an oversupply of nickel and a consequent drop in nickel prices, BHP announced on 11 July 2024 that it would temporarily close all of its Nickel West operations in October 2024 and place them in care and maintenance. This decision is scheduled to be reviewed in February 2027 but BHP would continue to spend $450 million annually on its nickel operations to facilitate a potential restart. The decision was estimated to affect 300 workers at the smelter but BHP committed to offer all employees affected a redeployment or redundancy.
References
External links
BHP official website
MINEDEX website: Kalgoorlie Nickel Smelter Database of the Department of Mines, Industry Regulation and Safety
Nickel Smelter
BHP
1973 establishments in Australia
Industrial buildings in Western Australia | Kalgoorlie Nickel Smelter | [
"Chemistry",
"Materials_science"
] | 1,479 | [
"Metallurgical industry of Australia",
"Metallurgical facilities",
"Metallurgy",
"Metallurgical industry by country"
] |
73,270,710 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giacomo%20Ferrari%20%28politician%29 | Giacomo Ferrari (1887–1974) was an Italian industrial engineer and communist politician. He served as a minister of transport between 1946 and 1947. He was a member of the Italian Senate and was the mayor of Parma from 1951 to 1953.
Early life and education
Ferrari was born in Langhirano, Province of Parma, on 5 November 1887 into a wealthy bourgeois family. He became interested in scientific socialism in his youth and joined the Italian Socialist Party in 1902. He studied mathematics in Parma for two years and then attended the Polytechnic University of Turin. He received a degree in industrial engineering in December 1912.
Career and activities
Following his graduation, Ferrari worked as an engineer in Apulia. He joined the army and fought in World War I as an artillery lieutenant. He was discharged from the army in 1920 and returned to Parma where he worked in the consortium of cooperatives. He left Italy for France on 13 December 1931 due to the increase of the Fascist rule's oppression and settled in Toulouse. In 1942 Ferrari returned to Italy and joined the Italian Communist Party. He was among the founders of the National Liberation Committee of Parma and involved in the armed struggle against the Fascist forces.
After the end of the Fascist rule, Ferrari was elected as a deputy from the Communist Party to the Constituent Assembly on 2 June 1946. He was appointed minister of transport to the second De Gasperi government on 13 June and held the post also in the third De Gasperi government until 31 May 1947. Ferrari was elected to the Senate in 1948 for the Panna constituency, obtaining 52,367 votes. From October 1951 to February 1963 he was mayor of Parma.
On 28 April 1963 Ferrari was re-elected to the Senate from the Parma constituency, receiving 51,537 votes. In the next elections held on 19 May 1968, he was also elected as a senator with 61,048 votes. At the end of the term in 1970 he retired from politics.
Later years, personal life and death
Ferrari directed the consortium of development of the province of Parma and was involved in constructing the Cisa motorway. He was also the first president of the Institute of Verdi Studies.
Ferrari was married and had children. One of his sons was a medical doctor and was killed in a Nazi-fascist ambush in Ponte di Lugagnano on 20 November 1944. He died in Bosco di Corniglio on 22 August 1974. He was buried at the Villetta cemetery.
Legacy
A foundation was established in Parma to honour his memory. In 2004 a book about his life and activities was published, Giacomo Ferrari: Un uomo, una terra, una storia (Italian: Giacomo Ferrari: One man, one land, one story) (). Another book was published in 2022 entitled L' ingegnere delle barricate: Autobiografia di Giacomo Ferrari il nobile rivoluzionari (Italian: The engineer of the barricades. Autobiography of Giacomo Ferrari the noble revolutionary) () which features articles about his struggle against Fascists in Parma in 1922.
References
External links
20th-century Italian engineers
1887 births
1974 deaths
Transport ministers of Italy
Italian anti-fascists
Italian Communist Party politicians
Exiled Italian politicians
Langhirano
Mayors of places in Emilia-Romagna
Members of the National Council (Italy)
Italian military personnel of World War I
People from Lecco
Senators of Legislature I of Italy
Senators of Legislature IV of Italy
Senators of Legislature V of Italy
Industrial engineers
Polytechnic University of Turin alumni | Giacomo Ferrari (politician) | [
"Engineering"
] | 698 | [
"Industrial engineers",
"Industrial engineering"
] |
73,272,155 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principal%20interacting%20orbital | Principal interacting orbital (PIO), based on quantum chemical calculations, provides chemists with visualization of a set of semi-localized dominant interacting orbitals. The method offers additional perspective to molecular orbitals (MO) obtained from quantum chemical calculations (DFT for instance), which often provide extensively delocalized orbitals that are hard to interpret and relate with chemists' intuition on electronic structures and orbital interactions. Several other efforts have been made to help visualize semi-localized dominant interacting orbitals that represents well chemists' intuition, while maintaining the mathematical rigorosity. Notable examples include the natural atomic orbitals (NAO), natural bond orbitals (NBO), charge decomposition analysis (CDA), and adaptive natural density partitioning (AdNDP). PIO analysis uniquely provides semi-localized MOs that are chemically accurate (i.e., not always produces 2-center-2-electron localized orbitals, continuous evolution of PIOs along potential energy surface, etc.) and easy to interpret.
General workflow
A typical workflow is summarized here. For details, please refer to the reference or consult the website.
Optimize structure and calculate electronic structure.
Run NBO analysis to obtain the NAO basis and corresponding density matrix.
Run PIO analysis.
Mathematical details
The PIO analysis is based on the statistical method principal component analysis (PCA).
Chemical examples
Diels-Alder reaction
Ethylene and hexadeca-1,3,5,7,9,11,13,15-octaene
The Diels-Alder reaction of hexadeca-1,3,5,7,9,11,13,15-octaene and ethylene can be thought of as a [4+2] reaction between a substituted diene and a dienophile. The frontier molecular orbitals produced by a typical structural optimization are as follows: the HOMO and LUMO of the dienophile "ethylene" are two-centered, while the HOMO and the LUMO of the substituted diene "hexadeca-1,3,5,7,9,11,13,15-octaene" are delocalized over the entire molecule.
This is different from chemists' traditional depiction of the Diels-Alder reaction: the HOMO (two-centered) of the dienophile interacts with the LUMO of the diene (four-centered), and the LUMO (two-centered) of the dienophile interacts with the HOMO of the diene (four-centered).
The computed delocalized HOMO and LUMO in hexadeca-1,3,5,7,9,11,13,15-octaene makes it hard for chemists to make useful interpretations.
On the other hand, the dominant PIOs from PIO analysis resemble the HOMO/LUMO (four-centered) of an unsubstituted butadiene. This highlights an advantage of PIO calculation—it localizes the orbitals to the reactive part and preserves the multi-centered feature. Another feature of PIO calculation that must be highlighted is that the first two principal orbital interactions—which resembles the interaction of the HOMO of the diene and the LUMO of the dienophile, and the interaction of the LUMO of the diene and the HOMO of the dienophile—sums to over 95% of the total orbital interaction between the two fragments.
Reaction coordinate tracing
PIO analysis with intrinsic reaction coordinate (IRC) calculation gives continuous results. The continuality extends to the evolution of the shape of the PIOs and their percentage of contribution to the overall orbital interaction. This is another advantage of PIO analysis over other methods to obtain localized electronic structures such as NBO and AdNDP. The other methods require predefined parameters and often lead to ambiguous chemical structures and unphysical discontinuity. For instance, when the Diels-Alder reaction is analyzed with IRC and NBO, (1) the orbitals on the diene are described as two-center-two-electron bonds, and (2) the result is not continuous—three pi bonds would suddenly switch to three newly formed bonds.
Further, PIO tracing of reaction coordinate can reveal other properties such as the electronic demand of a Diels-Alder reaction. For a normal demand DA reaction (EDG on diene and EWG on dienophile), PIO analysis shows that the reaction is dominated with contribution from the HOMO of the diene and the LUMO of the dienophile. For a reverse demand DA (EWG on diene and EDG on dienophile), PIO analysis shows that the reaction is dominated with contribution from the LUMO of the diene and the HOMO of the dienophile. On the other hand, for a neutral demand DA, contributions from the diene-HOMO/dienophile-LUMO and diene-LUMO/dienophile-HOMO are roughly equal.
Zeise's salt
PIO can also be used to describe transition metal compounds, which are often more complicated to analyze than main group compounds due to more possible bonding patterns. A classic example is Zeise's salt, which is usually described with the Dewar-Chatt-Duncanson (DCD) model. C2H4 donates its pi electrons to the empty orbital of Pt, while its π* orbital accepts electrons from Pt. The semilocalized bonding cannot be adequately described with methods such as NBO (localized two-center-two-electron) and CMO (delocalized over the entire molecule). On the other hand, PIO analysis produces a model that is in best agreement with our chemical intuition. The top two PIOs sums to over 90% of the overall orbital contribution. The first PIO pair is between the dz2 orbital of the metal and the pi orbital of ethylene. The second PIO pair is between the dxz orbital of the metal and the π* orbital of ethylene.
[Re2Cl8]2-
PIO analysis of [Re2Cl8]2- four primary orbital interactions, which corresponds to the quadruple bond (one σ, two π, and one δ).
References
Wikipedia Student Program
Quantum chemistry | Principal interacting orbital | [
"Physics",
"Chemistry"
] | 1,307 | [
"Quantum chemistry",
"Quantum mechanics",
"Theoretical chemistry",
" molecular",
"Atomic",
" and optical physics"
] |
73,273,354 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron%20bis%28diethyldithiocarbamate%29 | Iron bis(diethyldithiocarbamate) is a coordination complex with the formula where Et = . A red solid, it is representative of several ferrous dithiocarbamates with diverse substituents in place of ethyl. In terms of structure, the species is dimeric, consisting of two pentacoordinate iron(II) centers. It is isostructural with , which in turn is similar to zinc bis(dimethyldithiocarbamate).
Reactions
The complex reacts with a variety of reagents with concomitant formation of mono-iron derivatives. 9,10-Phenanthroline adds to iron bis(diethyldithiocarbamate) to give the blue-octahedral complex . 3,4-Bis(trifluoromethyl)-1,2-dithiete reacts to give the dithiolene complex . Nitric oxide and carbon monoxide to give the nitrosyl complex and the carbonyl complex , respectively.
Related compounds
Iron tris(diethyldithiocarbamate)
References
Iron compounds
ison | Iron bis(diethyldithiocarbamate) | [
"Chemistry"
] | 236 | [
"Dithiocarbamates",
"Functional groups"
] |
73,273,718 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AVN-322 | AVN-322 is a 5-hydroxytryptamine subtype 6 receptor antagonist manufactured by Avineuro Pharmaceuticals Inc. that could potentially be used to combat Alzheimer's disease and schizophrenia. AVN-322 also reverses the negative effects of scopolamine and MK-80.
The compound is a sister drug to AVN-101 and AVN-211, two similar compounds under trial for treating Alzheimer's. Phase I trials for the drug were initiated in 2009 by Avineuro, and completed in the spring of 2010. The trials showed that AVN-322 was tolerated in a range of doses without any adverse effects, and Avineuro released plans to commence Phase II trials later the same year. The plan for further trials was discontinued in 2013.
References
Abandoned drugs
Sulfones
Pyrazolopyrimidines
Secondary amines | AVN-322 | [
"Chemistry"
] | 176 | [
"Functional groups",
"Sulfones",
"Drug safety",
"Abandoned drugs"
] |
73,273,828 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20linear%20ordinary%20differential%20equations | This is a list of named linear ordinary differential equations.
A–Z
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="background: white; color: black; text-align: left"
|-style="background: #eee"
!Name
!Order
!Equation
!Applications
|-
|Airy
|2
|
|Optics
|-
|Bessel
|2
|
|Wave propagation
|-
|Cauchy-Euler
|n
|
|
|-
|Chebyshev
|2
|
|Orthogonal polynomials
|-
|Damped harmonic oscillator
|2
|
|Damping
|-
|Frenet-Serret
|1
|
|Differential geometry
|-
|General Laguerre
|2
|
|Hydrogen atom
|-
|General Legendre
|2
|
|
|-
|Harmonic oscillator
|2
|
|Simple harmonic motion
|-
|Heun
|2
|
|
|-
|Hill
|2
|, (f periodic)
|Physics
|-
|Hypergeometric
|2
|
|
|-
|Kummer
|2
|
|
|-
|Laguerre
|2
|
|
|-
|Legendre
|2
|
|Orthogonal polynomials
|-
|Matrix
|1
|
|
|-
|Picard-Fuchs
|2
|
|Elliptic curves
|-
|Riemann
|2
|
|
|-
|Quantum harmonic oscillator
|2
|
|Quantum mechanics
|-
|Sturm-Liouville
|2
|
|Applied mathematics
|}
See also
List of nonlinear ordinary differential equations
List of nonlinear partial differential equations
List of named differential equations
References
differential, ordinary, linear | List of linear ordinary differential equations | [
"Mathematics"
] | 330 | [
"Lists of equations",
"Mathematical objects",
"Mathematical tables",
"Equations"
] |
73,274,469 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1976%20CASAW%20wildcat%20strike | The 1976 CASAW wildcat strike was a wildcat strike action by members of the Canadian Association of Smelters and Allied Workers Union (CASAW) against Alcan in Kitimat, British Columbia. Lasting 18 days, CASAW members protested against wage and price controls imposed by the federal government. CASAW was affiliated with the Confederation of Canadian Unions.
See also
2021 Kitimat smelter strike
References
1976 in British Columbia
1976 labor disputes and strikes
Aluminum in Canada
Aluminium smelters
Metallurgical industry of Canada
Kitimat
Wildcat strikes
Pierre Trudeau
Confederation of Canadian Unions
Manufacturing industry strikes in Canada | 1976 CASAW wildcat strike | [
"Chemistry"
] | 126 | [
"Metallurgical industry of Canada",
"Metallurgical industry by country"
] |
73,274,726 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wu%E2%80%93Yang%20dictionary | In topology and high energy physics, the Wu–Yang dictionary refers to the mathematical identification that allows back-and-forth translation between the concepts of gauge theory and those of differential geometry. The dictionary appeared in 1975 in an article by Tai Tsun Wu and C. N. Yang comparing electromagnetism and fiber bundle theory. This dictionary has been credited as bringing mathematics and theoretical physics closer together.
A crucial example of the success of the dictionary is that it allowed the understanding of monopole quantization in terms of Hopf fibrations.
History
Equivalences between fiber bundle theory and gauge theory were hinted at the end of the 1960s. In 1967, mathematician Andrzej Trautman started a series of lectures aimed at physicists and mathematicians at King's College London regarding these connections.
Theoretical physicists Tai Tsun Wu and C. N. Yang working in Stony Brook University, published a paper in 1975 on the mathematical framework of electromagnetism and the Aharonov–Bohm effect in terms of fiber bundles. A year later, mathematician Isadore Singer came to visit and brought a copy back to the University of Oxford. Singer showed the paper to Michael Atiyah and other mathematicians, sparking a close collaboration between physicists and mathematicians.
Yang also recounts a conversation that he had with one of the mathematicians that founded fiber bundle theory, Shiing-Shen Chern:
In 1977, Trautman used these results to demonstrate an equivalence between a quantization condition for magnetic monopoles used by Paul Dirac back in 1931 and Hopf fibration, a fibration of a 3-sphere proposed io the same year by mathematician Heinz Hopf.
Mathematician Jim Simons discussing this equivalence with Yang expressed that “Dirac had discovered trivial and nontrivial bundles before mathematicians.”
In the original paper, Wu and Yang added sources (like the electric current) to the dictionary next to a blank spot, indicating a lack of any equivalent concept on the mathematical side. During interviews, Yang recalls that Singer and Atiyah found great interest in this concept of sources, which was unknown for mathematicians but that physicists knew since the 19th century. Mathematicians started working on that, which lead to the development of Donaldson theory by Simon Donaldson, a student of Atiyah.
Description
Summarized version
The Wu-Yang dictionary relates terms in particle physics with terms in mathematics, specifically fiber bundle theory. Many versions and generalization of the dictionary exist. Here is an example of a dictionary, which puts each physics term next to its mathematical analogue:
Original version for electromagnetism
Wu and Yang considered the description of an electron traveling around a cylinder in the presence of a magnetic field inside the cylinder (outside the cylinder the field vanishes i.e. ). According to the Aharonov–Bohm effect, the interference patterns shift by a factor , where is the magnetic flux and is the magnetic flux quantum. For two different fluxes a and b, the results are identical if , where is an integer. We define the operator as the gauge transformation that brings the electron wave function from one configuration to the other . For an electron that takes a path from point P to point Q, we define the phase factor as
,
where is the electromagnetic four-potential. For the case of a SU2 gauge field, we can make the substitution
,
where are the generators of SU2, are the Pauli matrices. Under these concepts, Wu and Yang showed the relation between the language of gauge theory and fiber bundles, was codified in following dictionary:
See also
't Hooft–Polyakov monopole
Wu–Yang monopole
References
Gauge theories
Differential geometry
Geometry | Wu–Yang dictionary | [
"Mathematics"
] | 742 | [
"Geometry"
] |
73,275,266 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NGC%205486 | NGC 5486 is an irregular galaxy in the constellation Ursa Major 110 million light-years from Earth.
The galaxy is considered a member of the NGC 5485 group (LGG 373), and is near the much larger Pinwheel Galaxy.
It was discovered on 2 May 1785 by William Herschel with an 18.7-inch reflecting telescope, who described it as "F, cL" (faint, considerably large) in his catalogues of nebulae.
External links
References
Magellanic spiral galaxies
Astronomical objects discovered in 1785
Discoveries by William Herschel
Ursa Major
5486
09036
50383 | NGC 5486 | [
"Astronomy"
] | 125 | [
"Ursa Major",
"Constellations"
] |
73,275,338 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coincidence%20method | In particle physics, the coincidence method (or coincidence technique) is an experimental design through which particle detectors register two or more simultaneous measurements of a particular event through different interaction channels. Detection can be made by sensing the primary particle and/or through the detection of secondary reaction products. Such a method is used to increase the sensitivity of an experiment to a specific particle interaction, reducing conflation with background interactions by creating more degrees of freedom by which the particle in question may interact. The first notable use of the coincidence method was conducted in 1924 by the Bothe–Geiger coincidence experiment.
The higher the rate of interactions or reaction products that can be measured in coincidence, the harder it is to justify such an event occurred from background flux and the higher the experiment's efficiency. As an example, the Cowan and Reines’ neutrino experiment (1956) used a design that featured a four-fold coincidence technique. Particle detectors that rely on measurements of coincidence are often referred to as q-fold, where q is the number of channel measurements which must be triggered to affirm the desired interaction took place. Anti-coincidence counters or "vetos" are often used to filter common backgrounds, such as cosmic rays, from interacting with the primary detection medium. For instance, such a veto is used in the gamma ray observatory COS-B. Detectors relying on coincidence designs are limited by random, chance coincidence events.
Background
Coincidence designs are an essential technique for increasing confidence in signals and reducing random background within a wide range of particle detectors. Common backgrounds include radioactive decay products (beta, alpha, and gamma radiation) and cosmic rays (protons, air showers). Such backgrounds can produce random interactions within a particle detector that may be hard to differentiate from the target particle. If the particle in question is able to trigger multiple channels that are correlated in time or space, it can be determined more likely that the particle is not a background trigger. "Chance" coincidence events may occur, in which all channels are triggered by particles which are not under investigation yet happen to interact with each channel at the same time. In this case, measurements of this chance event may be difficult to separate from measurements of the target events.
A coincidence design must contain two or more measured channels for detecting a particle interaction which can be correlated with each other or the interaction in question over time, space, and/or the properties/products of the interaction. For some experimental setup with q coincidence channels (q-fold coincidence), the rate at which true correlated coincidence events can be measured is given by:
where is the count rate of each channel and is the time between counts. The higher the time resolution of the coincidence detector, the easier it is to discriminate between "chance" coincidences and true signals.
The rate at which coincidence events are measured compared to the rate at which all suspected signal triggers are measured defines the efficiency of the detector :
in which case can also be defined by the product of all q channels of coincidence times the raw count of particles available for detection :
Therefore, the ability of a detector to successfully confirm signals in coincidence is directly proportional to its efficiency.
History and notable experiments
The use of coincidence detectors in particle physics experiments opened doors to similar methods in nuclear physics, astroparticle physics, and other related fields. A wide variety of operational particle detectors today contain some identifiable form of coincidence or anti-coincidence design.
Geiger, Bothe, and the Geiger-Müller counter
In 1924, physicists Walther Bothe and Hans Geiger used the coincidence method to probe the Compton scattering of gamma rays and x-rays, a phenomenon whose quantum mechanical nature (see particle-wave duality) with regard to energy conservation was ambiguous at the time. The Bothe–Geiger experiment was the first significant coincidence experiment to test the transfer of energy between the incoming photon and the electron in this process. The experiment utilized two Geiger counters: one to detect the initial recoiling election and one to simultaneously detect a secondary electron recoil caused by the photonic product of the first recoil. This setup included a coincidence circuit which measured the process to = 1 ms and with an accuracy of 0.1 ms. In 1954, Bothe won the Nobel Prize in Physics for this work.
Conan and Reines' neutrino experiment
In 1956, it was known that in order to balance the spin states of a beta decay process, a neutrino of spin 1/2 had to be a product of the reaction , where is a neutron, is the neutrino, is a proton, and is a beta particle. In an attempt to build on the theoretical concept of a neutrino by providing empirical evidence for its existence, physicists Clyde L. Cowan and Frederik Reines constructed an experiment outside of a nuclear reactor expected to emit neutrinos. Cowan and Reines decided to construct a four-fold coincidence experiment, for while the proximity to a nuclear reactor provided ample flux of neutrinos, it also created intense backgrounds (neutrons, gamma rays, etc.).
The experiment utilized multiple interaction channels through which the presence of a neutrino (or in this experiment, an antineutrino) could be detected. The antineutrinos would enter a tank of water doped with cadmium chloride and interact with a water molecule's proton. This reaction (, where represents a positron and represents an antineutrino) released positions which interacted with one of two adjacent tanks of liquid scintillator. The resulting photons could then be measured by photomultiplier tubes installed on the scintillator tanks. While this interaction occurs, the neutron product from the original reaction follows a random walk through the cadmium-doped water until it is absorbed in a cadmium atom. This process then produces more gamma rays, which are subsequently detected. The overall system therefore includes two pairs of simultaneously recorded events, the correlation of which in time provides strong evidence for an interaction involving a neutrino.
COS-B gamma-ray telescope
The invention of the coincidence method enlightened new techniques for measuring high-energy cosmic rays. On such experiment, COS-B, launched in 1975 and featured an anti-coincidence veto for charged particles, as well as three scintillation detectors to measure electron cascades caused by incoming gamma radiation. Therefore, gamma ray interactions could be measured with three-fold coincidence, after having passed a charged particle veto (see Anti-Coincidence).
Other experiments using coincidence methods
AGS
AMS
CHANDLER
CRESST
XENON
Anti-coincidence
The anti-coincidence method, similarly to the coincidence method, helps discriminate background interactions from target signals. However, anti-coincidence designs are used to actively reject non-signal particles rather than affirm signal particles. For instance, anti-coincidence counters can be used to shield charged particles when an experiment is explicitly searching for neutral particles, as in the SuperKamiokande neutrino experiment. These charged particles are often cosmic rays.
Anti-coincidence detectors work by flagging or rejecting any events that trigger one channel of the detector, but not another. For a given rate of coincident particle interactions, ,
where is the rate of suspected target interactions and is the rate of all detected, but uncorrelated events across multiple channels. This shows that all uncorrelated events, measured using the anti-coincidence technique, can be removed from the whole of possible interactions to retrieve those affirmable coincident interactions. For any q-fold design, would include all coincident and all uncorrelated events.
Further reading
Handbook of Particle Detection and Imaging (Grupen, 2012)
References
Particle physics
Observational astronomy | Coincidence method | [
"Physics",
"Astronomy"
] | 1,565 | [
"Observational astronomy",
"Particle physics",
"Astronomical sub-disciplines"
] |
53,382,545 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robot%20tax | A robot tax is a legislative strategy to disincentivize the replacement of workers by machines and bolster the social safety net for those who are displaced. While the automation of manual labour has been contemplated since before the Industrial Revolution, the issue has received increased discussion in the 21st century due to newer developments such as machine learning.
Assessments of the risk vary widely, with one study finding that 47% of the workforce is automatable in the United States, and another study finding that this figure is 9% across 21 OECD countries. The idea of taxing companies for deploying robots is controversial with opponents arguing that such measures will stifle innovation and impede the economic growth that technology has consistently brought in the past. Proponents have pointed to the phenomenon of "income polarization" which threatens the jobs of low-income workers who lack the means to enter the knowledge-based fields in high demand.
Arguments for
Support for an automation tax by American politicians can be traced back to 1940 in which Joseph C. O'Mahoney tabled one such bill in the Senate. In 2017, San Francisco supervisor Jane Kim made these strategies the subject of a task force, stating that income disparity attributable to robots is widely visible in her district. In 2019, New York City mayor Bill de Blasio advocated for a robot tax during and after his presidential run. While crediting Andrew Yang for drawing attention to the issue, de Blasio stated that he had different policy goals and proposed making large corporations responsible for five years of income tax from jobs that are automated away. In 2017 in the UK, Labour leader Jeremy Corbyn called for a robot tax.
Francisco Ossandón argues that at this stage of development, the idea of a limited robot tax could be addressed if it meets some requirements, such as: (i) it is paid by certain taxpayers that use robots (i.e. large companies); (ii) is related to certain activities (i.e.
some industrial and/or financial activities); (iii) has a limited definition for robots (i.e. physical smart machines or non-physical intelligent software’s in case of financial activities), and; (iv) has a low tax rate. However, he does not see a case for a general robot tax.
In a 2015 Reddit discussion, Stephen Hawking criticized machine owners for initiating a "lobby against wealth resdistribution". Following Elon Musk's statement that universal basic income should offset the employment effects of robots, Bill Gates gave an interview in favour of a robot tax. Mark Cuban announced his support for a robot tax in 2017, citing an essay by Quincy Larson about the accelerating pace of technological unemployment.
Tax law professor Xavier Oberson has called for robots to be tax-compliant so that government spending can continue even as the pool of taxable income for human workers decreases. Oberson's proposals suggest taxing robot owners until robots themselves have the ability to pay, pending further advances in artificial intelligence.
Arguments against
Critics including Jim Stanford and Tshilidzi Marwala have discussed the futility of a robot tax given the malleability in the definition of "robot". In particular, autonomous elements are present in many 21st-century devices that are not normally considered robots. Economist Yanis Varoufakis has discussed the additional complication of determining how much a human worker would have hypothetically made in a labour sector that has been dominated by robots for decades. He has instead proposed a variation of universal basic income called the "universal basic dividend" to combat income polarization.
Robotics companies including Savioke and the Advancing Automation trade group have fought robot taxes, calling them an "innovation penalty". ABB Group CEO Ulrich Spiesshofer compared taxing robots to taxing software, and pointed to the fact that countries with a low unemployment rate have a high automation rate. EU Commissioner Andrus Ansip rejected the idea of a robot tax, stating that any jurisdiction implementing one would become less competitive as technological companies are incentivized to move elsewhere. The 2019 World Development Report, prepared by Simeon Djankov and Federica Saliola of the World Bank, opposed a robot tax, arguing that it would result in reduced productivity and increased tax avoidance by large corporations and their shareholders.
Existing laws
On August 6, 2017, South Korea, under President Moon, passed what has been called the first robot tax. Rather than taxing entities directly, the law reduces tax breaks that were previously awarded to investments into robotics. A robot tax had previously been part of Mady Delvaux's bill imposing ethical standards for robots in the European Union. However, the European Parliament rejected this aspect when it voted on the law.
See also
Disruptive innovation
Guaranteed basic income
Income inequality
Technological unemployment
References
Universal basic income
Robotics
Tax
Technological change | Robot tax | [
"Engineering"
] | 985 | [
"Robotics",
"Automation"
] |
53,383,534 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Native%20Girls%20Code | Native Girls Code (NGC) is a Seattle-based program that focuses on providing computer coding skills with grounding in traditional Indigenous knowledge for Native American girls aged 12 to 18 through workshops, coaching, teaching and role modeling.
Native Girls Code is organized by the nonprofit organization Na'ah Illahee Fund (Mother Earth in the Chinook language), in partnership with the University of Washington Information School and the Washington NASA Space Consortium, as a way to support and perpetuate traditional knowledge, build leadership of women and encourage greater participation of Native American students in STEM fields.
The program was designed to give Native girls from tribes throughout the United States a place to develop a strong foundation in Native culture, Native science, and build the skills needed to use modern computer technologies, resulting in the creation of websites, online games and virtual worlds. For example, NGC has organized workshops that combined traditional storytelling with robotics projects.
Awards and grants
In 2016 NGC was awarded a grant through the City of Seattle's Technology Matching Fund, aimed at increasing digital equity among underrepresented Seattle citizens. Google has been a major funder of the program and Facebook has donated laptops and filming equipment to NGC.
In 2023, the Seattle Foundation awarded a grant to NGC through its Neighbor to Neighbor (N2N) program, which supported development of a digital kiosk about the history of the Daybreak Star Indian Cultural Center in Seattle.
See also
Girls Who Code
Black Girls Code
I Look Like an Engineer
References
Organizations for women in science and technology
Computer science education
Women in computing
Native American women's organizations
Native Americans in Washington (state)
Organizations based in Seattle
-Native Girls Code
-Native Girls Code | Native Girls Code | [
"Technology"
] | 338 | [
"Computer science education",
"Organizations for women in science and technology",
"Computer science",
"Women in science and technology"
] |
53,383,651 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esther%20Belin | Esther Belin, who has work published under Esther G. Belin (born July 2, 1968), is a Diné multimedia artist, writer, poet, writing instructor, and addiction counselor. The Before Columbus Foundation chose From the Belly of My Beauty for the American Book Award after the book was published in 1999. She was one of the editors of The Diné Reader: An Anthology of Navajo Literature that was published in 2021. It is on the Lists of Best Books, 2010-2023 of the American Indians in Children's Literature (AICL).
Early life and education
Belin, born in Gallup, New Mexico on July 2, 1968, was raised in Los Angeles by her Navajo parents, Susan and Eddie Belin. She is a member of the matrilineal Zia (Tłʼógi) clan of the Diné, through her maternal grandmother Pearl Toledo, and is related to the Bittersweet (Tódichꞌiiꞌnii) clan.
Her mother and father were part of the Federal Indian relocation program of the 1950s and 1960s, which relocated them to Riverside, California to the boarding school for Native Americans called Sherman Institute. They were indoctrinated over five years to the life, food, religion, and language of white people. As Belin grew up with two siblings, she learned English to survive as an Urban-Raised Indian (U.R.I.) during the school months in the city. She spent summers in New Mexico and Arizona on Navajo homeland. Belin had not been taught the Navajo language as she was growing up and had a hard time communicating with her extended family members. She felt alienated in the city and in the Dinétah, or Navajo Nation, even though she felt free there.
Belin studied at the University of California, Berkeley. where she worked with the Native American Studies department to create three videos, The Princess, shown at the L.A. Film Festival, Beyond the Squaw, and Surviving in This Place Called the United States. She was the commencement speaker when she graduated in 1991. Belin then attended the Institute of American Indian Arts in Santa Fe, New Mexico. She finished a Master of Fine Arts program. Belin holds a degree from Antioch University.
Career
Belin is the author of a collection of poetry, From the Belly of My Beauty, published in 1999 by the University of Arizona Press. The book won the American Book Award from the Before Columbus Foundation in 2000. It is about growing up in the white world of Southern California as an Indian after her parents were relocated from the Navajo Nation, a Navajo reservation.
Of Cartography, published in 2017, is a collection of poems that are organized using the Diné culture's Four Sacred Directions. For Belin her poems are like road maps, and a person's identity is shaped by the landscape. She states, "Road narratives are typical of Navajo people. We travel so much, especially for work or school. You gain an appreciation for your culture and the land and the landscape as you're driving and telling stories. Natural markers are universal to people; it's connection with a place." She writes online poems like, "X+X+X+X-X-X-X." According to a review from Library Journal, "Belin provides graphic descriptions of the 'wounds' one endures remaining true to a 'native lifestyle.'" Writing poetry helps her feel less marginalized.
In 2017, she was working on a biography of Jim Thorpe through poetry. Thorpe was a member of the Sac and Fox Nation who won an Olympic gold medal. Sherman Alexie considers Belin to be one of his favorite Native writers. She was an editor of The Diné Reader: An Anthology of Navajo Literature that was published in 2021. It is on the Lists of Best Books, 2010-2023 by the American Indians in Children's Literature (AICL). In 2021, Berlin contributed to the multimedia Pandemic Chronicles, Volume 1 on the Art Journal Open website.
Belin taught writing at the high school level and by 2012 at Fort Lewis College in Durango, Colorado. By 2017, Belin worked as an intake and addiction counselor at the Peaceful Spirit Treatment Center, an addiction center, on the Southern Ute Indian Reservation. It is near the Ute Mountain Ute, Navajo, and Jicarilla Apache reservations of the Four Corners region. Since 2021, Belin has mentored students at the Institute for American Indian Arts' low-residency MFA program.
As a multi-media artist, Belin has created Bound Sky, Pretty Tough, and Standing on the Outside, Sitting on the Outside installations. She creates jewelry with combinations of faceted crystal beads, trade beads, shells, felted wool, and seeds. She is also a printmaker. Belin has been a member of the Arroyo Arte Collective and has had a booth at the Santa Fe Indian Market.
Activist
Belin protests against the Columbus Day holiday that celebrates Christopher Columbus, who exploited Indigenous people of the Caribbean.e She supports the "Real History of the Americas" day to celebrate Native American's culture and traditions and tell the story of colonization of the Americas from the Native people's experiences and perspectives. Without the tools to heal from the pain of exploitation and genocide, many Native Americans are left traumatized. She said in a 2012 Democracy Now! broadcast at Fort Lewis College, "[I]t's super important for us to start that healing process and then, as well, to talk about it and to guide other people around their own trauma, which it is an historical trauma." In an interview with Belin, Jeff Berglund writes, "For Belin, writing is activism, activism is writing."
Personal life
Belin met fellow student Dan Edd, a sculptor and a painter, at the Institute of American Indian Arts. They were married and had — four daughters Sierra, Ruthie, Chamisa, and Santana — born between 1995 and 2003. All artists, they have participated in the Santa Fe Indian Market since they were children. They grew as filmmakers, photographers, and artists. Based upon her spirit of activism, Belin raised her daughters to be protestors. She states, "People... don't want to be responsible for dropping the cultural ball of preservation. Somewhere we were tricked into believing that we are no longer in a state of emergency."
After Belin graduated from the University of California, Berkeley, she lived in Torreon near the Navajo Nation in New Mexico for more than 20 years. In the same state, she then lived in Santa Fe and Farmington. Belin lived in Durango, Colorado.
Works
Films
While at the University of California, Berkeley, Belin made:
The Princess, shown at the L.A. Film Festival
Beyond the Squaw
Surviving in This Place Called the United States
Poetry
Belin's books
, including "Bringing Hannah Home", "Blues-ing on the Brown Vibe", and "Night Travel"
Within other books
Editor
, with other editors
See also
List of writers from peoples indigenous to the Americas
References
External links
Poetry Foundation - Esther Belin
1968 births
Living people
Institute of American Indian Arts alumni
University of California, Berkeley alumni
Fort Lewis College faculty
Multimedia artists
Navajo women artists
Navajo artists
20th-century American artists
20th-century American women artists
21st-century American women artists
21st-century Native American artists
Native American poets
Native American women poets
Poets from California
Poets from Colorado
20th-century American poets
21st-century American poets
Navajo women writers
Navajo writers
Postmodern writers
Writers from Los Angeles
Writers from Colorado
20th-century American women writers
21st-century American women writers
20th-century Native American writers
21st-century Native American writers
20th-century Native American women
21st-century Native American women
People from Durango, Colorado
People from Farmington, New Mexico
People from Los Angeles
People from Sandoval County, New Mexico
People from Santa Fe, New Mexico | Esther Belin | [
"Technology"
] | 1,612 | [
"Multimedia",
"Multimedia artists"
] |
53,383,847 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Beginning%20and%20End%20of%20the%20Universe | The Beginning and End of the Universe is a two-part British television series outlining the theory of the beginning of the universe and the theories about its ending.
Episodes
Episode One: The Beginning
This episode, exploring theories of how the universe came into being, outlines the realisation of Edwin Hubble that the universe is expanding, and the discovery of the residual radiation that gave weight to the Big Bang theory. It also highlights some lesser known theorists including Georges Lemaître, who first theorised that there was a big bang, Ralph Alpher, who stated that the light from this should be detectable, and Cecilia Payne, who calculated that hydrogen and helium were the dominant elements in the universe. The episode concludes at the Large Hadron Collider, where physicists create matter in a similar manner to the Big Bang.
Episode Two: The End
This episode explores the theories of the big crunch, the big rip and the big freeze, that are postulated by physicists as possible fates for the universe. Al-Khalili indicates that the difficulty in understanding this is our limited ability to comprehend something of such immensity both physically and philosophically. So, rather than suggesting an answer, he provides the historical background for how we came to know what we know, such as how elements are forged inside stars and how gravity provides the key to the fate of the universe, and what we don't know, such as the nature of dark matter and dark energy.
Reception
Jack Seale, writing for The Guardian, commends the Al-Khalili for, "his usual mix of spectacular locations, clear explanations, a few gags and the stories of scientists who made crucial breakthroughs." Gary Rose, writing for RadioTimes however points out that while Al-Khalili is "as watchable as ever", this series, unlike his earlier series Atom, covers well-trodden ground and while there are "oodles of graphs and stats," which he explains, "with seemingly effortless lucidity," regular viewers of Horizon, "might be immune to the barrage of cosmic stats."
References
External links
The Beginning and End of the Universe at OpenLearn
2016 British television series debuts
2016 British television series endings
2010s British documentary television series
BBC high definition shows
BBC television documentaries about history
BBC television documentaries about science
Documentary films about the history of science
British historical television series
History of electrical engineering
British English-language television shows
BBC television miniseries
2010s British television miniseries
Documentary films about outer space | The Beginning and End of the Universe | [
"Astronomy",
"Engineering"
] | 511 | [
"Electrical engineering",
"Space art",
"Documentary films about outer space",
"History of electrical engineering"
] |
53,383,894 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2016%E2%80%932017%20Cook%20Inlet%20natural%20gas%20leak | The Cook Inlet natural gas leak began in December 2016 when a pipeline ruptured, resulting in an underwater methane leak beneath Turnagain Arm in Cook Inlet near Nikiski, Alaska.
Outcome
The escaped gas rose into Earth's atmosphere after clearing the surface. An estimated 6 to 8.8 million litres (210,000 to 310,000 cubic feet) of natural gas was released from the damaged pipe per day. The leak was first reported in February 2017. The pipeline operator, Hilcorp Energy, said that there was too much sea ice to safely launch a repair mission. They added that shutting off the flow of natural gas through the pipeline would compound the problem, because the pipe had previously been used to transport crude oil and the residual crude in the pipe would then be exposed to the sea water once the pipeline was depressurized.
The leak was reported to be dry natural gas being sent to the platforms as fuel, which consists of 99% methane. Divers reported that the leak was caused by the pipeline being laid across a rock on the ocean floor, resulting in a small hole.
Non-profit organizations representing the environment have either sued or expressed interest in suing Hilcorp Energy, claiming that the ongoing situation is a danger to beluga whales and other marine life.
The leak was repaired April 13, 2017 when divers were able to install a clamp on the leaking pipe.
Litigation and state response
The Alaska-based environmental organization Cook Inlet Keeper has sent a letter to Hilcorp Energy, stating their intent to sue the energy company, for what the group alleges are violations of the Clean Water Act. The Center for Biological Diversity further alleges that Hilcorp Energy is in violation of four federal laws. In addition to the Clean Water Act, the Center maintains that Hilcorp is violating the Clean Air Act, the Endangered Species Act and the Pipeline Safety Act in a letter to the company announcing the Centers planned litigation against them.
In addition, the administration of Alaska Governor Bill Walker, through the cabinet-level Alaska Department of Environmental Conservation (ADEC), has demanded that Hilcorp Energy closely monitor the environmental impact of the ongoing leak. ADEC has also requested that Hilcorp hire specialists to look for dead fish and other marine life in the area, and to come up with a repair plan by March 8, 2017.
References
2016 disasters in the United States
2017 disasters in the United States
2016 in Alaska
2017 in Alaska
November 2016 events in the United States
December 2016 events in the United States
January 2017 events in the United States
February 2017 events in the United States
March 2017 events in the United States
April 2017 events in the United States
Natural gas safety
Pipeline accidents in the United States | 2016–2017 Cook Inlet natural gas leak | [
"Chemistry"
] | 547 | [
"Natural gas safety",
"Natural gas technology"
] |
53,384,839 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International%20Union%20for%20Vacuum%20Science%2C%20Technique%20and%20Applications | The International Union for Vacuum Science, Technique, and Applications (IUVSTA) is a union of 35 science and technology national member societies that supports collaboration in vacuum science, technique and applications.
Founded in 1958, IUVSTA is an interdisciplinary union which represents several thousands of physicists, chemists, materials scientists, engineers and technologists who are active in basic and applied research, development, manufacturing, sales and education. IUVSTA finances advanced scientific workshops, international schools and technical courses, worldwide.
The main purposes of the IUVSTA are to organize and sponsor international conferences and educational activities, as well as to facilitate research and technological developments in the field of vacuum science and its applications.
History
The history and structure of the Union are described in two articles in scientific journals.
Membership
IUVSTA is a Union (or federation) of National Vacuum Societies. There can be only one member society (or National Committee) in any one nation. This Society must be representative of the scientific and technical fields encompassed by the Divisions of IUVSTA. Where appropriate a Society can represent more than one nation. IUVSTA can only recognise societies in geographical areas recognised by the United Nations as independent nations.
Member societies
Technical divisions
Applied surface science
Biointerfaces
Electronic materials & processing
Nanometer structures
Plasma science and technologies
Surface engineering
Surface science
Thin film
Vacuum science and technology
Activities
Conference organization
European Conference on Surface Science (ECOSS) annual series in collaboration with the European Physical Society.
European Vacuum Conference series. Biennial.
International Thin Film Conference.
International Vacuum Congress and Exhibition, for all areas of activity of the Union. Triennial.
Vacuum and Surface Sciences Conference of Asia and Australia (VASSCAA). Biennial.
Workshops and education
Workshops on front-line research.
An education program for both technically developed and developing countries in the form of schools, webinars and technical training courses.
Standards and prizes
Interaction with the International Organization for Standardization on the establishment of international vacuum standards.
The awarding of international prizes:
The IUVSTA Prize for Science
The IUVSTA Prize for Technology
The IUVSTA EBARA Award
The IUVSTA Medard W. Welch International Scholarship
The IUVSTA Elsevier Student Travel Awards
External affiliations
IUVSTA maintains formal links with other Non-Government Organizations involved in education, and the promotion and dissemination of science and associated techniques. With the support of IUVSTA divisions, fruitful cooperation with UNESCO, ISC, ICTP and TWAS have been initiated and developed. Such contacts facilitate the organization of specialized workshops and may offer financial support for students attending short courses, seminars and congresses. Links with other organizations such as ISO are the responsibility of the IUVSTA divisions.
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)
IUVSTA has been admitted to UNESCO in the “Relations Operationnelles” category.
International Science Council (ISC)
IUVSTA is a Scientific Associate of the International Science Council (formerly International Council of Scientific Unions, ICSU)
International Centre for Theoretical Physics (ICTP)
IUVSTA cooperates financially and scientifically with International Centre for Theoretical Physics (ICTP) in the organization of workshops of high scientific level held in Trieste. These workshops address a post-graduate and post-doctoral audience from the lesser developed countries.
Third World Academy of Sciences (TWAS)
Preliminary contacts have been made with Third World Academy of Sciences (TWAS) which foresees the organization of short courses on rough vacuum techniques and applications dedicated to technicians.
International Standards Organization (ISO)
IUVSTA has a formal liaison with the International Standards Organization (ISO). IUVSTA sends a representative to the TC/201 Surface Chemical Analysis committee and to the ISO TC/112 Vacuum Technology committee. These links are maintained via the Applied Surface Science and Vacuum Science and Technology divisions, respectively.
Structure and organization
Current primary officers
Source:
President: François Reniers
President Elect: Jay Hendricks
Past President: Anouk Galtayries
Secretary General: Christoph Eisenmenger-Sittner
Scientific Director: Katsuyuki Fukutani
Scientific Secretary: Anton Stampfl
Treasurer: Arnaud Delcorte
Recording Secretary (non-voting officer): Ana Gomes Silva
Current national councillors
List of presidents
Source:
The president under the early federation was:
1958-1962 — Prof. Dr. Emil Thomas
Past and present presidents of IUVSTA:
2022-2025 — Prof.François Reniers
2019-2022 — Prof. Anouk Galtayries
2016-2019 — Prof. Lars Montelius
2013-2016 — Prof. Mariano Anderle
2010-2013 — Prof. Jean Jacques Pireaux
2007-2010 — Dr. J.W. "Bill" Rogers, Jr.
2004-2007 — Prof. Ugo Valbusa
2001-2004 — Dr. M.-G. Barthes-Labrousse
1998-2001 — Prof. D. Phillip Woodruff
1995-1998 — Prof. John L. Robins
1992-1995 — Prof. Theodore E. Madey
1989-1992 — Prof. Jose L. de Segovia
1986-1989 — Prof. Dr. Heribert Jahrreiss
1983-1986 — Prof. Dr. Janos Antal
1980-1983 — Dr. James M. Lafferty
1977-1980 — Prof. Dr. Leslie Holland
1974-1977 — Dr. Albertus Venema
1971-1974 — Dr. Luther E. Pruess
1968-1971 — Prof. Dr. Kurt Diels
1965-1968 — Prof. Dr. Jean Debiesse
1962-1965 — Mr. Medard W. Welch
Honorary presidents
2021 — Peter Barna
1989 — Prof. Dr. E. Thomas
1983 — Prof. Dr. H.C. M. Auwärter
1977 — Mr. M. W. Welch
1962 — Prof. Dr. L. Dunoyer
1962 — Prof. Dr. M. Pirani
Honorary and founding members of the Union
Mr. A.S.D. Barrett
Mlle. M. Berthaud
Prof. D. Degras
Prof. K. Diels
Prof E. Thomas
Dr. A. Venema
Mr. M.W. Welch
References
External links
IUVSTA web site, iuvsta.org
Physics World August 2016, live.iop-pp01.agh.sleek.net . IUVSTA reflections. An Interview with Mariano Anderle, IUVSTA President 2013–2016.
Scientific organizations established in 1958
International scientific organizations
Vacuum
Plasma technology and applications
Nanotechnology
International organisations based in Vienna
Non-profit organisations based in Austria
Members of the International Science Council | International Union for Vacuum Science, Technique and Applications | [
"Physics",
"Materials_science",
"Engineering"
] | 1,356 | [
"Plasma physics",
"Plasma technology and applications",
"Vacuum",
"Materials science",
"Nanotechnology",
"Matter"
] |
53,385,006 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NGC%201140 | NGC 1140 is an irregular galaxy in the southern constellation of Eridanus. Estimates made using the Tully–Fisher method put the galaxy at about 59 million light years (18 megaparsecs). It was discovered on 22 November 1786 by William Herschel, and was described as "pretty bright, small, round, stellar" by John Louis Emil Dreyer, the compiler of the New General Catalogue.
NGC 1140 is a starburst galaxy, meaning it is forming stars at a very fast rate. In fact, while it is only a tenth as wide as the Milky Way, it is producing stars at a rate of /yr, about the same as the Milky Way. The image taken by the Hubble Space Telescope shows bright blue and red regions of star formation, similar to NGC 1569. The starburst is estimated to have begun about 5 million years ago. Its low metallicity (the ratio of hydrogen and helium to other elements) makes NGC 1140 similar to primordial galaxies.
Wolf–Rayet stars, a class of blue, massive, and luminous stars, are present in this galaxy; in fact, NGC 1140 has so many of them that their spectra also appear in the galaxy's spectrum. These types of galaxies are known Wolf–Rayet galaxies, and are fairly rare because Wolf–Rayet stars are a short stage in the lives of very massive stars.
Gallery
References
External links
1140
010966
Starburst galaxies
Irregular galaxies
Eridanus (constellation)
Markarian galaxies | NGC 1140 | [
"Astronomy"
] | 312 | [
"Eridanus (constellation)",
"Constellations"
] |
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