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47,707,754 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EGGS%20Design | EGGS is a design agency founded in Oslo, Norway, in 2012. It specialises in cross-disciplinary design projects where expertise in a diversity of fields is required. With offices in Norway, Brazil, and Denmark, EGGS has created projects across a variety of industrial sectors.
History
The consultancy was founded in Oslo in 2012 through the merging of the established product design agency Kadabra Design and the digital design agency Oslo-D. EGGS has offices in Trondheim, Stavanger, and Oslo in Norway, in São Paulo in Brazil, and opened its fifth office in Copenhagen, Denmark, in 2018.
Organisational structure
The agency is owned by its employees, who work in cross-disciplinary teams with the goal of incorporating clients and end-users in a user-centered design process. More than 80 people with expertise in service design, digital design, UX, interaction design, product design, technology and development, innovation, process facilitation, education, business design, and organisational design combine to deliver projects in a variety of industries, including maritime, marine technology, consumer goods, healthcare, public health care services, IT, finance, oil and energy, banking and finance, transportation, and airport infrastructure and services.
Design awards
A number of EGGS projects have received design awards. The Young Talent Design Award from the Norwegian Design Council, the Red Dot Design Award, and the Norwegian State Design Competition have also been awarded to EGGS.
References
External links
Companies based in Oslo
Design companies | EGGS Design | [
"Engineering"
] | 297 | [
"Design",
"Engineering companies",
"Design companies"
] |
47,708,357 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crown%20flash | Crown flash is a rarely observed meteorological phenomenon caused by the effect of atmospheric electrical fluctuations on the alignment of ice crystals. It has been described as "the brightening of a thunderhead crown followed by the appearance of aurora-like streamers emanating into the clear atmosphere". The current hypothesis for why the phenomenon occurs is that sunlight is reflecting off, or refracting through, tiny ice crystals above the crown of a cumulonimbus cloud. These ice crystals are aligned by the strong electric field effects around the cloud, so the effect may appear as a tall (sometimes curved) streamer, pillar of light, or resemble a massive flash of a searchlight/flashlight beam. When the electric field is disturbed by electrical charging or discharging (typically, from lightning) within the cloud, the ice crystals are re-oriented causing the light pattern to shift in a characteristic manner, at times very rapidly and appearing to 'dance' in a strikingly mechanical fashion. The effect may also sometimes be known as a "leaping sundog" or "jumping sundog". As with sundogs, observation of the effect is dependent upon the observer's position – it is not a self-generated light such as seen in a lightning strike or aurora, but rather a changing reflection or refraction of the sunlight. Unlike sundogs, however (which are also caused by refraction of sunlight through ice crystals), these features move and realign within seconds, forming beams and loops of light, and the effect appears localised directly above the cloud rather than at some distance to the side(s) of the sun.
The first scientific description of the crown flash phenomenon appears to be in the journal Monthly Weather Review in 1885, according to the Guinness Book of Records. Also mentioned in Nature in 1971 and in a letter to Nature slightly earlier in the same year, this phenomenon is regarded as uncommon and not well documented. Starting with an initial video upload in 2009 dozens of YouTube videos have since been emerging that appear to document this phenomenon.
See also
Light pillar
Sun dog
Subsun
References
External links
Short video of a crown flash
Leaping Streams of Light: A new natural phenonmenon?
Amazing video of a bizarre, twisting, dancing cloud – Discover Magazine
Lightning
Atmospheric optical phenomena | Crown flash | [
"Physics"
] | 462 | [
"Physical phenomena",
"Earth phenomena",
"Optical phenomena",
"Electrical phenomena",
"Lightning",
"Atmospheric optical phenomena"
] |
47,708,636 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20misidentified%20chemical%20elements | Chemical elements that have been mistakenly "discovered". Further investigation showed that their discovery was either mistaken, that they have been mistaken from an already-known element, or mixture of two elements, or that they indicated a failing in theory where a new element had been assumed rather than some previously unknown behaviour.
References
Chemistry-related lists | List of misidentified chemical elements | [
"Chemistry"
] | 67 | [
"nan"
] |
47,708,943 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gomphus%20crassipes | Gomphus crassipes is a species of fungus in the genus Gomphus, family Gomphaceae. It is native to Spain and North Africa and possibly threatened by habitat loss.
References
External links
Gomphaceae
Agaricomycetes genera
Fungi of Africa
Fungi described in 1889
Fungus species | Gomphus crassipes | [
"Biology"
] | 63 | [
"Fungi",
"Fungus species"
] |
47,709,292 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological%20warfare%20in%20popular%20culture | Biological warfare (BW)—also known as bacteriological warfare, or germ warfare—has had a presence in popular culture for over 100 years. Public interest in it became intense during the Cold War, especially the 1960s and '70s, and continues unabated. This article comprises a list of popular culture works referencing BW or bioterrorism, but not those pertaining to natural, or unintentional, epidemics.
Literature
(Chronological, then alphabetical within years)
In the novel La Guerre au vingtième siècle ("The War in the Twentieth Century"; written 1863, published 1883), by Albert Robida, an "Offensive Medical Corps, composed of chemical engineers, doctors and an apothecary" plan to deploy "twelve mines loaded with concentrated miasms and microbes of malignant fever, farcin, dysentery, measles, acute odontalgia and other diseases". Australia and Mozambique are the combatants.
In More New Arabian Nights: The Dynamiter (1885) – a collection of linked short stories by Robert Louis Stevenson and Fanny van der Grift Stevenson – it is suggested by the anarchist narrator that the sewage systems of British cities be contaminated with typhoid bacilli.
In the novel The Germ Growers (1892), by Australian clergyman Robert Potter, a covert invasion of the earth by extraterrestrials involves the development of a virulent infectious disease to facilitate a global conquest.
In H. G. Wells's short story "The Stolen Bacillus" (1894), "the Bacteriologist" naively gives "the Anarchist" opportunity to steal a vial of deadly "Asiatic Cholera" bacilli with which he threatens to decimate London by introducing it into the city water supply. The bacteria turn out to be harmless cyanobacteria.
In the early science fiction novel Zalma (1895) by British author Thomas Mullett Ellis, evil scientists deploy anthrax-laden balloons, possibly resulting in a pan-European socialist upheaval.
The British novel The Yellow Danger (1898), by M. P. Shiel, is an example of Yellow Peril propaganda (the subtitle is Or, what Might Happen in the Division of the Chinese Empire Should Estrange all European Countries). But in this racist and jingoistic tale, it is the heroic white protagonist who infects and kills millions of invading Asians with plague, causing him considerable remorse. (The book was an inspiration for the later Fu Manchu [see below] stories.)
Jack London, in his short story "Yah! Yah! Yah!" (1909), describes a fictional punitive European expedition to a South Pacific island that deliberately exposes a Polynesian population to the measles virus, causing many deaths.
In London's science fiction tale, "The Unparalleled Invasion" (1910), the Western nations wipe out all of China with a biological attack.
Edgar Wallace's science fiction novel The Green Rust (1919) is a story of bio-terrorists who threaten to release an agent that will destroy the world's wheat crops. It was adapted the same year into the British silent film The Green Terror.
Sax Rohmer's archvillain Dr. Fu Manchu (14 novels, 1913–1959), who disdains any use of guns or explosives, is proficient at use of bio-terrorism. (E.g., The Bride of Fu-Manchu (1933) in which a bio-weapon created by the Doctor causes an epidemic that sweeps the French Riviera; Emperor Fu-Manchu (1959) involving a Russian BW facility hidden deep in the Chinese jungle, etc.)
In Aldous Huxley's science fiction novel Brave New World (1932), anthrax bombs are mentioned as the means by which modern society was terrorized and in large part replaced by a dystopian society.
In L. Ron Hubbard's novel Final Blackout (1940), England has been laid waste by BW after a future world war; the lethal "Soldier's Sickness" necessitates quarantine of the entire country and development of a vaccine.
In the future war novel World Aflame: The Russian-American War of 1950 (1947) by Leonard Engel, both combatants eventually turn to BW after both nuclear and chemical weapons prove indecisive.
In Isaac Asimov's first science fiction novel, Pebble in the Sky (1950), humanity has spread throughout the galaxy and Earth is now an obscure, despised part of the Trantorian Galactic Empire. Earthmen, however, have created a deadly supervirus and plan to deploy it to destroy or subjugate the Empire, and exact their revenge. Disaster is averted by intervention through psionic means.
In Philip Jose Farmer's 1952 science fiction novella The Lovers, seven-eighths of the world's population has previously been eradicated by an "artificial semivirus" causing an "artificial sickle cell anemia" which had been distributed by "guided missiles". Now, on another planet, puritanical and genocidal Earthmen plot to do the same to extraterrestrials.
The Magellanic Cloud (Polish title: Obłok Magellana), a 1955 novel by Polish science fiction writer Stanisław Lem, includes an episode in which interstellar explorers belonging to a 32nd-century communist utopia discover a derelict 20th century spacecraft containing biological and nuclear weapons. These primitive remnants of extinct U.S. and NATO culture are duly destroyed by the more enlightened space voyagers.
Sakyo Komatsu's 1964 novel — literally Day of Resurrection — was adapted into a 1980 Japanese film. In 1970, the US space program discovers a "supergerm" (the "MM88" virus) capable of amplifying pre-existing infectious diseases worldwide. International intrigue in the BW community, a "Tibetan flu", and a pandemic lead to the destruction of almost all life on earth.
James Tiptree Jr.'s "The Last Flight of Dr. Ain" (1969) is a short science fiction tale about a scientist traveling the world releasing a virus targeted to eliminate humanity before it can destroy all life on Earth via climate change.
Kingsley Amis's alternate history novel The Alteration (1976) depicts a world in which the Reformation never happened, an oppressive Roman Catholic Church holds sway everywhere and the Pope executes a Malthusian plot to resolve Europe's population growth problem via BW as an alternative to banned forms of birth control.
Tiptree's "The Screwfly Solution" (1977) is a short horror science fiction story about a disease that turns the human sex drive into a drive to kill.
In Stephen King's novel The Stand (1978), a weaponized strain of influenza (officially known as Project Blue and nicknamed "Captain Trips") is accidentally released from a remote U.S. Army base.
In Scott Asnin's disaster novel A Cold Wind from Orion (1980), a fallen satellite contains a BW threat.
In Frank Herbert's science fiction novel The White Plague (1982), a vengeful molecular biologist creates an artificial plague that kills only women, but for which men are the carriers. He releases it in Ireland (to support terrorists), in England (to oppress the Irish), and in Libya (to train said terrorists), and then holds the governments of the world hostage to his demands lest he release more plagues.
In Tom Clancy's Executive Orders (1996), Iran attempts to use Shiva virus, a strain of Ebola thought to be airborne, to infect and devastate the population of the U.S. while the government is recovering from a separate issue from the events of the prior novel.
Richard Preston's thriller The Cobra Event (1998) describes an attempted bioterrorist attack on the US with a genetically modified virus ("Cobra"), that fuses the incurable and highly contagious common cold virus with smallpox. The symptom of the resulting disease ("brain-pox") mimic Lesch–Nyhan syndrome, the common cold, and Nuclear Polyhedrosis Virus.
In Tom Clancy's Rainbow Six (1998), the villain plans to deploy the Shiva virus, a mutated form of the Ebola virus that had been previously used by Iran during its BW attack on the U.S. (depicted in Executive Orders (1996)).
In the novel The Seventh Plague by James Rollins, the world is capsized in the Biblical plagues. It turns out to be the workings of an evil group, to stop which is the mission of The Sigma Force.
In Suzanne Collins's book Gregor and the Curse of the Warmbloods (2005), there is a plague, which turns out to be a biological weapon which accidentally infected an innocent bystander prematurely.
In Kevin Brockmeier's novel The Brief History of the Dead (2006), biological terrorists release a lethal virus which annihilates almost all of humanity.
Matthew John Lee's thriller novel The Quick and the Dead (2008) depicts the aftermath of an attack on the British Isles using an enhanced smallpox virus. (The author is credited in later editions as John Matthew Lee.)
Alex Scarrow's TimeRiders novels (2010–2014) feature the use of a biological weapon, code-named Kosong-ni Virus (after the village that was ground-zero for the virus), that destroys approximately 99% of life on Earth within a few weeks.
In George R. R. Martin's fifth A Song of Ice and Fire novel, A Dance with Dragons (2011), the Yunkai army catapults corpses infected with Pale Mare, a fictional cholera-like disease, over the walls of Meereen as a form of BW. (See Gabriel de Mussis for the historical precedent to this.)
Richard Powers' novel Orfeo (2014), tells the story of Peter Els, a contemporary composer accused of bioterrorism after biohacking musical patterns into the bacterial human pathogen Serratia marcescens.
In Chris Ryan's novel Hellfire (2015), a joint bioterrorist plot by ISIS and Boko Haram involves attempting to release an aerosol of a genetically modified version of the plague bacterium Yersinia pestis during the London Marathon.
In Terry Hayes's novel I Am Pilgrim (2015), there is an attempt to introduce a bio-engineered strain of smallpox virus into the US.
In Scott Medbury's book series America Falls (2018), a Chinese engineered flu originally known as the "Pyongyang Flu" is deployed in the U.S., killing virtually all adults and sparing those younger than 17.
Comics/graphic novels
In IDW's Sonic the Hedgehog series, Dr. Eggman develops the Metal Virus, a manufactured contagion designed to turn organic matter into metallic matter. Its infected carriers, known as "Zombots", soon become disobedient towards Eggman in his attempt to control them. After revealing that the virus can't be cured, Eggman goes on to say that as the virus mutates, the infected begin to suffer apoptosis and will eventually disintegrate in 200 years.
In Batman comics Scarecrow(Dr. Jonathan Crane) is a recurring villain who uses a Fear Toxin to scare his enemies with hallucinations and their darkest fears/phobias.
Films
(Chronological, then alphabetical within years)
In H. G. Wells' British science fiction film Things to Come (1936), the "wandering sickness" is "a new fever of mind and body" inflicted by aerial bombing as a last desperate measure in the year 1966; it causes victims to wander about in a zombie-like state and require mercy-killing.
In the British film thriller Counterblast (1948; US title Devil's Plot), a Nazi bacteriologist ("The Beast of Ravensbruck") escapes from a POW prison, murders a professor and takes his place at a research lab where he experiments with BW intending to wage the next war against the UK. No bio-agents are deployed in the storyline.
In the American Cold War thriller The Whip Hand (1951; aka The Enemy Within), a strange isolated lodge on a lake island in Minnesota is the site of a mysterious fish die off. The lodge houses a lab and a Soviet plot, utilizing Nazi scientists, to release BW agents upon the USA.
In The Flesh Eaters (1964), a former US Government agent who was sent to Nazi Germany to recover microbes modified as BW, develops a horrific "flesh eating" variety on a secret island off Cape Cod. Accidental visitors help the scientist defeat the menace after it gets out of control.
In The Satan Bug (1965), at "Station Three"—a top-secret US bioweapons lab in the Southern California desert—the protagonist investigates the murder of the security chief and the disappearances of the director and head scientist; two lethal bioweapons—a strain of "botulinus" and a recently developed virus (the "Satan Bug") which could wipe out the earth's population in months—are missing.
On Her Majesty's Secret Service (1969), the sixth James Bond film, women are being brainwashed by the villain to disseminate biowarfare agents throughout the world.
In The Andromeda Strain (1971), although the microbial threat in this science fiction film is a natural one returning to Earth with a satellite, the scientific response team comes across germ warfare simulations, strongly indicating that the responsible US government projects were designed to actively search for harmful bioagents for use in BW.
In The Omega Man (1971), a science fiction film starring Charlton Heston, in 1975, BW between China and Russia kills most of the world's population. The protagonist, a U.S. Army scientist/physician, renders himself immune with an experimental vaccine. (In Richard Matheson's source novel, I Am Legend (1954), the plague is coincident with a great war, but it is unclear if it originated in BW.)
The Crazies (1973), a U.S. Army plane carrying an untested bioweapon (a virus code-named "Trixie") crashes near a small Pennsylvania town contaminating the water; infected victims either die or become violently homicidal, and heavily armed U.S. troops in NBC suits and gas masks soon arrive.
In the Alien franchise of four American films—namely, Alien (1979), Aliens (1986), Alien 3 (1992), and Alien Resurrection (1997)—a key plot-driving element of the story background is that the "Bioweapons Division" of the sinister "Company" must have a specimen of the creature at all costs even at the expense of the "expendable" humans that get in its way. This is most fully developed in the fourth installment wherein a remote "Army Medical Lab" is attempting—as part of a secret military/commercial partnership—to tame the monster. It will be used in "urban pacification" as well as other, supposedly less malign, purposes, such as materials science and vaccines.
In the Japanese film Virus (1980), a deadly virus ("MM88") created accidentally by an American geneticist amplifies the potency of any other virus or bacterium it comes into contact with; in 1982, MM88 has been stolen from a lab in the US, and a team of Americans vies with a shady East German scientist to recover it, but fail, and a pandemic, initially known as the "Italian Flu", results.
In Men Behind the Sun (1988), a Hong Kong–Chinese historical war horror film graphically depicting war atrocities at the secret Japanese BW facility Unit 731, during World War II, details the various cruel medical experiments inflicted upon Chinese and Soviet POWs.
In The Blob (1988), an invading monster is the result of a U.S. Government BW experiment which was sent into outer space as too dangerous, but returned to the earth. (Note that the 1958 original, of which this film is a remake, did not have a BW element.)
In 12 Monkeys (1995), a deadly unnamed virus wipes out almost all of humanity in 1996, forcing the few survivors to live underground. A mysterious group of animal rights extremists, known as the Army of the Twelve Monkeys, is believed to have been responsible for the outbreak.
In Beavis and Butt-Head Do America (1996), an arms dealer named Dallas Grimes steals the X-5 unit, the deadliest biological weapon on the planet, capable of wiping out the population of five U.S. states in five days. Eventually, the unit is safely obtained by the ATF, and Dallas is arrested.
Mission: Impossible 2 (2000) involves a special virus called Chimera. It kills people and there is only one vaccine vial.
Resident Evil (2002–2017), a power-hungry and murderous-yet-terroristic megacorporation Umbrella Corporation is responsible for the first outbreak and release of the T-Virus which resulted in the first massacre at the hive, then in Raccoon City, and then the entire globe.
28 Days Later (2002), where a deadly modified rage virus is released by an eco-terrorist in Cambridge, destroying the UK.
In V for Vendetta (2005), Norsefire, a British ultranationalist party, creates a bioweapon at the Larkhill Detention Centre. Norsefire uses it to terrorize London, in a Water Treatment and Distribution Plant, an Underground Station and the St. Mary Primary school. This "St. Mary's Virus" eventually kills tens of thousands and Norsefire wins a landslide victory in the general elections.
In the movie Batman Begins(2005) scarecrow makes a fear toxin from the blue flowers of Ra's al Ghul which Ra's tries to spread all over Gotham so that Gotham destroys itself.
Dasavathaaram (2008) is an Indian Tamil science fiction disaster film about a viral outbreak from a laboratory.
Philosophy of a Knife (2008) is a Russian-American horror film covering the aforementioned Japanese Army's Unit 731, mixing archival footage, interviews, and extremely graphic reenactments of the vile experiments performed there during WWII.
In The Crazies (2010 remake of the 1973 film), the water in a small Iowa town becomes contaminated with "Trixie"—a "Rhabdoviridae prototype" bioweapon—after a military cargo plane en route to an incinerator in Texas crashes; infected victims become cold, calculating, depraved, bloodthirsty killers.
7aum Arivu (2011) is an Indian science fiction martial arts film about the spreading of an ancient virus.
In the science fiction film Prometheus (2012) — a continuation of the Alien franchise (see above) — the extraterrestrial “Engineers” are revealed to have planned a mission of extermination against their own human creations, only for their own genetically engineered bioweapons to destroy them. These, the "Xenomorphs", are revealed to be a hybrid of Engineer, human and bioweapon DNA.
Jurassic World (2015), Jurassic World: Fallen Kingdom (2018), and Jurassic World Dominion (2021) are American science fiction films, with plots involving the use of genetically engineered dinosaurs as weaponized military animals.
Inferno (2016), the third and final installment in the Robert Langdon film series, involves a viral superweapon dubbed "Inferno" that threatens the world.
In the 2018 movie Rampage, three genetically altered animals are created by gene-manipulation company "Energyne" which secretly plans to use them in BW.
In the 2019 movie Hobbs & Shaw,Deckard Shaw's sister is injected with 'snowflake' a programmable super virus created by a techno-terrorist company named Eteon.
In No Time to Die (2021), the 25th James Bond film, Spectre kidnaps the BW scientist directing "Project Heracles", a British bio-weapon containing nanobots that infect like a virus upon touch; the 'bots are coded to an individual's DNA and lethal to the target (and relatives), but harmless to others.
Samara (2023) is an Indian film about a possible biowar that happens in the country with people getting infected with a virus.
Television
(Alphabetical by series)
In Season 3 of 24, an engineered virus dubbed the Cordilla Virus with an incubation period of only a few hours serves as the central threat for the entire season. The virus produces deadly and painful symptoms before swiftly leading to death, leading to it being sold and used as leverage against the US government by terrorists.
In The 100, season 1, episode 10, the Grounders infect the exiled Murphy with a hemorrhagic virus, then allow him to escape. While fleeing, he stumbles upon an area surrounding the Ark survivors' camp and infects those who make contact with him. They then unwittingly spread the virus throughout the camp, which sickens some members and kills others. Lincoln explains to Octavia the Grounders use the virus to "soften up" the enemy before attacking them.
In Season 4 of The Americans, Elizabeth and Philip Jennings must work with another KGB spy, William, to acquire and use deadly bioagents. In the first episode of the season, "Glanders", the two aim to acquire the deadly bacterium Burkholderia mallei. Throughout the season, endeavors like this continue and intensify, putting the characters in grave danger.
In Between a village is infected with a bioweapon, killing everyone over the age of 21, and the remaining people as soon as they become 21.
In the season 2 finale of Blue Bloods, Frank must work with Homeland Security to prevent a terrorist attack that would infect New York City with a (presumably deadly) strain of flu. The attack is thwarted as the terrorists are arrested while attempting to enter the city.
In Season 4 episode 24 (2009) of Criminal Minds, the substance anthrax is released into the public and the BAU must find a cure before it is too late.
Foyle's War, series 4, episode 2 (2006) features a minor outbreak of anthrax after biological weapons research during WWII escapes containment.
In season 5 episode 9 of Leverage, the team must race to stop a terrorist from releasing a bio-bomb containing the 1918 Influenza A virus in a crowded D.C. subway intersection. The bomb goes off, but Parker is able to set fire to the virus as it is released, neutralizing the threat.
In "Place of Angels" (1968), the 23rd episode of Captain Scarlet and the Mysterons (a British puppetry drama), at the "Bacteriological Research Centre" near Manchester, England, activation of a culture of "K14", a synthetic virus, threatens the lives of millions.
In the Falling Skies penultimate episode, "Reunion" (August 23, 2015), an alien known as the Dornia gives the protagonist, Tom Mason, a bioweapon to end an alien invasion of the Earth. After Mason's wife Anne and friend Marty modify the virus to be harmless to humans, Tom sets out to deploy it in the series finale "Reborn" (August 30, 2015). Tom infects himself as the alien queen is draining him of his blood, so the virus passes through Tom's blood into her. As the queen is organically linked to her entire race, the bioweapon destroys them, freeing the Earth from oppression.
In series 3 of Orphan Black, Sarah explores further into the CASTOR clones and their purpose. She and Paul discover that the defect in the boys is being used as a weapon by sterilising women. Their mother Dr Virginia Coady says 'we can end wars without losing single drop of blood'.
In the Sliders series finale, "The Seer" (2000), the main characters land on a world where their enemy, the Kromaggs, were wiped out with a bioweapon. One, Rembrandt Brown, injects himself with the virus (harmless to humans) and returns to Earth Prime in an unresolved cliffhanger in hopes of using it to free his homeworld.
In Season 7 of Star Trek: Deep Space Nine, we find out about a disease which is killing off the Founders; this disease later turns out to have been caused intentionally by Section 31.
In Swat Kats, a number of creatures are developed which are then used to harm society.
Video games
(Chronological, then alphabetical within years)
In Resident Evil (1996–present), the titular Resident Evil originally was discovered through a plant that was taken by Umbrella Corporation, which starts the birth of the biological weapon known as T-virus, which mutates its victims into zombie-like creatures. Later installments of the game and other works in the franchise (e.g., films) saw the release of still more biological weapons over time, created mainly by the fictional Umbrella Corporation and various other organizations. The viruses are also often engineered to radically mutate the subjects into grotesque killing machines, referred to in-universe as B.O.W.s, short for bio-organic weapon.
In the game Syphon Filter(1999) a group of terrorists steal the titular virus which is essentially a biological weapon of mass destruction and special agents Gabriel "Gabe" Logan and Lian Xing must stop this from happening and apprehend the terrorists.
In Command & Conquer: Generals (2003), the Global Liberation Army (GLA) makes extensive use of biological weapons and has a general who specializes in bio and chemical warfare named Dr. Thrax. The GLA units such as the toxin tractor and toxin rebels spray toxins on enemy units and later use anthrax beta, a weaponized strain of anthrax. Anthrax beta is also used in Scud missiles and the air dropped anthrax bomb. Dr. Thrax's troops have access to the more potent anthrax gamma strain.
In Act of War: Direct Action (2005) and its expansion the Consortium, a syndicate of corporations, PMCs and terrorists use a modified strain of Ebola known as Ebola II hemorrhagic fever strain causing the infected soldiers to lose health and die. It is often deployed by the Super-weapon Falling Star which drops satellites than can carry the weapon on enemy targets.
In Crysis 2 (2011), a large outbreak of "Manhattan virus", a gruesome disease causing complete cellular breakdown, causes civil unrest; people panic upon an alien invasion by the Ceph, the tentacled, squid-like alien race from the previous game, Crysis (2007).
In Plague Inc. (2012), a bio-weapon is featured as the last regular disease type. It grows progressively more lethal over time, a feature which the player must control.
During the campaign in Call of Duty: Advanced Warfare (2014), Atlas CEO Johnathon Irons develops a bioweapon called Manticore, designed to attack all the population that is not in the Atlas database. Irons deployed the weapon late in the campaign, killing most of the Sentinel soldiers in New Baghdad planning to attack him.
In Tom Clancy's The Division (2016), an eco-terrorist unleashed a heavily modified variant of smallpox in New York City, in a bid to kill a large portion of the population. The spread of the disease spiraled out of control, resulting in the complete breakdown of law and order and a rise of hostile factions in the city, mostly on Manhattan Island, which was ground zero of the virus.
In the Mass Effect franchise, the genophage is an agent that genetically modified the Krogans to stop their aggressive expansion into Citadel Space. The agent made it difficult for Krogans to conceive children, however. Even when conceived, most Krogan pregnancies henceforth resulted in stillbirth.
In the Metroid series, the Chozo race creates the Metroid to combat the X Parasite on SR388. The Space Pirates try to capture and breed Metroids and use them as bioweapons, but their plans are foiled by Samus Aran several times: once in Metroid (1986), in Metroid Prime (2002) and another time in Super Metroid (1994). At the end of the events of Metroid Fusion (2002), the last Metroid is killed, ending the threat of Metroids once and for all.
In Metro: Last Light (2013), faction Red Line used an biochemically engineered Ebola strain stolen from D6 military facility. It was used to wipe out the opposing factions.
In the Fallout series, F.E.V. (Forced Evolutionary Virus) was created by the US government in an effort to protect their soldiers from bio-agents deployed by the Chinese military that were ravaging civilian populations. The results of this Pan-Immunity Virion Project was the FEV, a virus that provides immunity to human pathogens, near-immunity to radiation, increases strength and intelligence (in unmutated humans, humans with mutations from radiation or substrains of FEV lose intelligence upon infection), while simultaneously sterilizing the host and eliminating secondary sexual characteristics, making them all outwardly male in appearance.
In Metal Gear Solid V: The Phantom Pain, a fictional biological agent called a vocal cord parasite is designed to target speakers of specific languages.
In Hitman, Agent 47 is tasked with assassinating an Italian bio-engineer named Silvio Caruso, who is creating a bioweapon capable of rapidly spreading and laying dormant within an area until it detects its target's DNA, killing them.
In the new Old Man campaign in Arma 3, a modified strain of malaria hits the fictional nation of Tanoa. CSAT scientists have engineered it and called it the Atrox strain, which is capable of killing someone within hours. It was used as a method of subversion to expand CSAT's sphere of influence.
In Call of Duty: Black Ops 6 (2024), a hallucinogenic virological bioweapon named "The Cradle" developed by the CIA's black ops research program called Advanced Technologies and Applications. Originally was an effort to create an elite super-soldier program through performance enhancing drugs and other psychedelic substances, before it was repurposed as a biological weapons project. After the program shutdown, Pantheon, a rogue top-secret subdivision of the CIA redeveloped the Cradle and planned to use it to carry out a false flag attack on the Capitol Building and framed it to Saddam Husein with the goal of discrediting sitting CIA director and taking control of the CIA.
See also
Weapons of mass destruction in popular culture
References
Endnotes
Biological weapons in popular culture
Fiction about genetic engineering
Weapons of mass destruction in fiction
Works about warfare | Biological warfare in popular culture | [
"Engineering",
"Biology"
] | 6,453 | [
"Biological weapons in popular culture",
"Genetic engineering",
"Fiction about genetic engineering",
"Biological warfare"
] |
47,710,914 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boletus%20amyloideus | Boletus amyloideus is a rare species of bolete fungus in the family Boletaceae. It was described as new to science in 1975 by mycologist Harry D. Thiers, from collections made in California. It fruit bodies have a convex to somewhat flattened reddish-brown cap measuring in diameter. The pore surface on the cap underside is bright yellow, with small angular pores and tubes measuring 4–8 mm long. The spore print is olive-brown; basidiospores are smooth, amyloid, spindle shaped to ellipsoid, and have dimensions of 13–16 by 4.5–5.5 μm. The bolete is known only from coastal California, where it grows on the ground in mixed forests. Its edibility is unknown.
See also
List of Boletus species
List of North American boletes
References
External links
amyloideus
Fungi described in 1975
Fungi of California
Fungi without expected TNC conservation status
Fungus species | Boletus amyloideus | [
"Biology"
] | 201 | [
"Fungi",
"Fungus species"
] |
47,712,962 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gold%20Medal%20of%20the%20Institution%20of%20Structural%20Engineers | The Gold Medal of the Institution of Structural Engineers is awarded by the Institution of Structural Engineers for exceptional and outstanding contributions to the advancement of structural engineering. It was established in 1922.
Recipients
See also
List of engineering awards
References
IStructE Gold Medal winners
Structural engineering awards
British awards
Awards established in 1922 | Gold Medal of the Institution of Structural Engineers | [
"Engineering"
] | 61 | [
"Structural engineering",
"Structural engineering awards"
] |
47,714,792 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penicillium%20spirillum | Penicillium spirillum is an anamorph species of fungus in the genus Penicillium.
References
spirillum
Fungi described in 1980
Fungus species | Penicillium spirillum | [
"Biology"
] | 36 | [
"Fungi",
"Fungus species"
] |
47,715,057 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penicillium%20steckii | Penicillium steckii is a species of fungus in the genus Penicillium which produces citrinin, tanzawaic acid E, tanzawaic acid F.
References
Further reading
steckii
Fungi described in 1927
Fungus species | Penicillium steckii | [
"Biology"
] | 51 | [
"Fungi",
"Fungus species"
] |
71,861,150 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AW%20Ursae%20Majoris | AW Ursae Majoris is a binary star system in the northern circumpolar constellation of Ursa Major, abbreviated AW UMa. It is an A-type W Ursae Majoris variable (W UMa) with an apparent visual magnitude of 6.83, which is near the lower limit of visibility to the naked eye. This is an eclipsing binary with the brightness dropping to magnitude 7.13 during the primary eclipse and to 7.08 with the secondary eclipse. Parallax measurements give a distance estimate of 221 light years from the Sun. It is drifting closer to the Sun with a radial velocity of approximately −17 km/s. The system has a high proper motion, traversing the celestial sphere at the rate of per annum.
While observing the variable star TU UMa in 1964, B. Paczyński noted that the comparison star BD +30°2163 was itself variable. The latter was determined to be a W UMa-type eclipsing binary with a period of 0.438727 days. A flat light curve during the minimum suggested the primary eclipse is full or annular. In 1972, S. W. Mochnacki and N. A. Doughty modelled the system and determined a very low mass ratio of 0.079 for the pair, indicating that the secondary has 8% of the mass of the primary.
E. J. Woodward and associates in 1980 found evidence of a recent period change for the system and suspected an intrinsic variability based on mismatches in the light curves over time. In 1981, B. J. McLean made radial velocity measurements of the system and used them to compute orbital elements. R. K. Srivastava confirmed period changes in the range of to days occurred during the interval from 1963 to 1988. Further period changes were noted in 1997. In 1999, T. Pribulla and associates proposed that observed velocity changes to the system are the result of an undetected third component. This would have 0.85 times the mass of the Sun and an orbital period of 398 days. Period changes to the binary are attributed to mass transfer.
B. Paczyński and associates in 2007 proposed an evolutionary model for the system. They suggested that the current secondary was the original primary for the system, and as a result was the first to evolve off the main sequence and expand. Most of the star's mass was then transferred to the companion, until the system reached the current mass ratio. This left the current secondary with a helium core and much of its outer hydrogen envelope stripped away. Because of the mass acquisition, the present day primary now resembles a zero age main sequence star. In 2008, T. Pribulla and S. M. Rucinski called into question the assumption that this is a contact binary system, suggesting instead that the pair share a luminous equatorial belt.
O. J. Eggen in 1967 noted that a nearby star is a common proper motion companion to AW UMa, which may form a tertiary component to this system. This magnitude 9.41 star is located at an angular separation of from the binary pair. The star has a parallax of , indicating a distance of 222 light years, and is modelled to be a middle-aged main sequence star similar to the Sun.
References
Further reading
F-type main-sequence stars
W Ursae Majoris variables
Ursa Major
BD+30 2163
099946
056109
Ursae Majoris, AW | AW Ursae Majoris | [
"Astronomy"
] | 715 | [
"Ursa Major",
"Constellations"
] |
71,862,930 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Museums%20in%20Kangla | There are three notable museums inside the Kangla Fort in Imphal West district of , which are the Kangla Museum, the Archaeological Museum and the Memento Museum. Some people also count the Hijagang (Boatyard of traditional Meitei watercrafts) as a museum.
Kangla Museum
The Kangla Museum showcases the lifestyles of royalties, ancient artistic and cultural heritage and maps of .
In the year 2018, alongside the annual Sangai festival celebrations, the Kangla Museum was visited by Maha Chakri Sirindhorn, the princess of Thailand.
Archaeological Museum
Inaugurated on the 20th of November 2017, by Nongthombam Biren Singh, the Chief Minister of Manipur, the Archaeological Museum inside the Kangla Fort in Imphal, houses replicas including that of the memorial stone of Maharaja Chandrakirti Singh at Ukhrul district, Churachandpur, Tipaimukh and areas of Imphal Valley.
Besides, stone tools belonging to Stone Age found in the Tharon Cave and the Kangkhui Cave are also kept in the museum. Hardened pots and inscriptions are preserved. Various antique coins are also on display in the museum.
Ancient artefacts collected from the excavations of Sekta, Khangabok and the Kangla itself are also on display.
Memento Museum
On the 21st of November 2018, Nongthombam Biren Singh, the Chief Minister of Manipur, inaugurated the Memento Museum inside Kangla Fort before the beginning of the annual Sangai festival 2018. It was done before the arrival of Maha Chakri Sirindhorn, the princess of Thailand, for meeting Leishemba Sanajaoba, the titular King of Manipur, for gracing the annual Sangai festival and for visiting the Kangla Fort.
See also
Sekta Archaeological Living Museum
Manipur State Museum
Imphal Peace Museum
INA War Museum
Hijagang
Notes
References
External links
Meitei architecture
Museums in Manipur | Museums in Kangla | [
"Engineering"
] | 395 | [
"Meitei architecture",
"Architecture"
] |
71,864,306 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LDN%201641 | LDN 1641 or Lynds 1641 is a dark cloud in the constellation Orion. It encompasses a large part of the Orion A molecular cloud in the Orion molecular cloud complex, which is the closest giant molecular cloud to earth. At its northern end it is connected to the Orion Nebula and at its southern end it is connected to the dark cloud LDN 1647. LDN 1641 contains more than a thousand young stellar objects (YSOs). It is a relative low density star-forming region without any massive O- or B-type stars that could disturb the formation of young stars with their ultraviolet radiation. This means that researchers can study star formation that is happening in a very different environment when compared to the Orion Nebula.
Star-formation began in Lynds 1641 about 2-3 million years ago. About 50% of the YSOs in Lynds 1641 have circumstellar disks of which many were directly imaged with ALMA. The YSOs have a large fraction (21%) of so-called transitional disks, which are disks with a gap. Many of the directly imaged disks of other stars appearing in news coverage are in much closer star-forming regions, such as the Scorpius-Centaurus association. The disks will appear much smaller in ALMA images because of the 4 times larger distance compared to such a region.
Lynds 1641 has a strong distance gradient. The southern part of the cloud lies at around 428±10 parsec and the Orion Nebula lies at 388±5 parsecs according to VLBA observations. Gaia data has shown that the stars of Orion A follow a trend towards a closer distance at the northern part of the dark cloud. A distance of about 453 parsecs for the southern end of LDN 1641 and a distance of about 383 parsecs at the northern end of LDN 1641 was measured with Gaia.
Other nebulae overlap with Lynds 1641 and are associated with it, such as NGC 1999, IC 427/428, IC 429/430, HH34 and HH 1/2.
Gallery
References
Dark nebulae
Orion (constellation)
Star-forming regions
Orion molecular cloud complex | LDN 1641 | [
"Astronomy"
] | 449 | [
"Constellations",
"Orion (constellation)"
] |
71,864,887 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%20Centauri | The Bayer designations b Centauri and B Centauri are distinct. Due to technical limitations, both designations link here. For the star
b Centauri, see HD 129116
B Centauri, see HD 102964
See also
β Centauri
Centaurus | B Centauri | [
"Astronomy"
] | 58 | [
"Centaurus",
"Constellations"
] |
71,865,071 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1%2C2%2C4%2C5-Tetrachloro-3-nitrobenzene | 1,2,4,5-Tetrachloro-3-nitrobenzene (tecnazene) is an organic compound with the formula . It is a colorless solid. A related isomer is 1,2,3,4-tetrachloro-5-nitrobenzene.
It is used as a standard for quantitative analysis by nuclear magnetic resonance.
1,2,4,5-Tetrachloro-3-nitrobenzene is also a fungicide used to prevent dry rot and sprouting on potatoes during storage.
References
Fungicides
Analytical standards
Nitrobenzene derivatives
Chlorobenzene derivatives | 1,2,4,5-Tetrachloro-3-nitrobenzene | [
"Chemistry",
"Biology"
] | 144 | [
"Fungicides",
"Organic compounds",
"Analytical standards",
"Biocides",
"Organic compound stubs",
"Organic chemistry stubs"
] |
71,865,156 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaia%20BH1 | Gaia BH1 (Gaia DR3 4373465352415301632) is a binary system consisting of a G-type main-sequence star and a likely stellar-mass black hole, located about away from the Solar System in the constellation of Ophiuchus. , it is the nearest known system that astronomers are reasonably confident contains a black hole, followed by Gaia BH3, Gaia BH2 and A0620-00.
Characteristics
The star and black hole orbit each other with a period of 185.59 days and an eccentricity of 0.45. The star is similar to the Sun, with about and , and a temperature of about , while the black hole has a mass of about . Given this mass, the black hole's Schwarzschild radius should be about .
Discovery
Gaia BH1 was discovered in 2022 via astrometric observations with Gaia, and also observed via radial velocity. The discovery team found no astrophysical scenario that could explain the observed motion of the G-type star, other than a black hole. The system differs from "black hole impostors" such as LB-1 and HR 6819 in that the evidence for a black hole does not depend on the mass of the star or the inclination of the orbit, and there is no evidence of mass transfer. The discovery team also found a second system that is a candidate for containing a black hole, which was also reported by another team of astronomers, and was confirmed in 2023 as Gaia BH2.
The black hole was also independently detected by a second team, who found slightly different parameters.
See also
GRS 1915+105
OGLE-2011-BLG-0462
VFTS 243
References
Ophiuchus
G-type main-sequence stars
Stellar black holes
Astrometric binaries
20220914 | Gaia BH1 | [
"Physics",
"Astronomy"
] | 383 | [
"Black holes",
"Stellar black holes",
"Unsolved problems in physics",
"Constellations",
"Ophiuchus"
] |
71,866,432 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myriostoma%20capillisporum | Myriostoma capillisporum is a fungal species in the family Geastraceae. Basidiocarps resemble earthstars, but the spore sac is supported by multiple columns (instead of a single column) and has multiple ostioles instead of a single, apical ostiole. The fungus was originally described as a variety of Myriostoma coliforme, based on the distinctive and conspicuous ornamentation of its basidiospores. Recent molecular research, based on cladistic analysis of DNA sequences, has shown that it is a separate species, so far only known from South Africa.
References
fungi of Africa
Geastraceae
Fungus species | Myriostoma capillisporum | [
"Biology"
] | 140 | [
"Fungi",
"Fungus species"
] |
71,866,625 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myriostoma%20calongei | Myriostoma calongei is a fungal species in the family Geastraceae. Basidiocarps resemble earthstars, but the spore sac is supported by multiple columns (instead of a single column) and has multiple ostioles instead of a single, apical ostiole. The fungus was described from Brazil in 2017 as a result of molecular research, based on cladistic analysis of DNA sequences. Previously, it had been identified as Myriostoma coliforme, now known to be restricted to northern, temperate regions. Myriostoma calongei can be distinguished by the conspicuously verrucose (finely warted) endoperidium. The species has also been confirmed from Argentina, Mexico, and the United States (New Mexico).
References
Fungi of the United States
Fungi of South America
Fungi of Mexico
Geastraceae
Fungi described in 2017
Fungus species | Myriostoma calongei | [
"Biology"
] | 184 | [
"Fungi",
"Fungus species"
] |
71,867,310 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safety%20and%20liveness%20properties | Properties of an execution of a computer program—particularly for concurrent and distributed systems—have long been formulated by giving safety properties ("bad things don't happen") and liveness properties ("good things do happen").
A program is totally correct with respect to a precondition and postcondition if any execution started in a state satisfying terminates in a state satisfying . Total correctness is a conjunction of a safety property and a liveness property:
The safety property prohibits these "bad things": executions that start in a state satisfying and terminate in a final state that does not satisfy . For a program , this safety property is usually written using the Hoare triple .
The liveness property, the "good thing", is that execution that starts in a state satisfying terminates.
Note that a bad thing is discrete, since it happens at a particular place during execution.
A "good thing" need not be discrete, but the liveness property of termination is discrete.
Formal definitions that were ultimately proposed for safety properties and liveness properties demonstrated that this decomposition is not only intuitively appealing but is also complete: all properties of an execution are a conjunction of safety and liveness properties. Moreover, undertaking the decomposition can be helpful, because the formal definitions enable a proof that different methods must be used for verifying safety properties versus for verifying liveness properties.
Safety
A safety property proscribes discrete bad things from occurring during an execution. A safety property thus characterizes what is permitted by stating what is prohibited. The requirement that the bad thing be discrete means that a bad thing occurring during execution necessarily occurs at some identifiable point.
Examples of a discrete bad thing that could be used to define a safety property include:
An execution that starts in a state satisfying a given precondition terminates, but the final state does not satisfy the required postcondition;
An execution of two concurrent processes, where the program counters for both processes designate statements within a critical section;
An execution of two concurrent processes where each process is waiting for another to change state (known as deadlock).
An execution of a program can be described formally by giving the infinite sequence of program states that results as execution proceeds,
where the last state for a terminating program is repeated infinitely.
For a program of interest, let denote the set of possible program states, denote the set of finite sequences of program states,
and denote the set of infinite sequences of program states. The relation holds for sequences and iff is a prefix of or equals .
A property of a program is the set of allowed executions.
The essential characteristic of a safety property is:
If some execution does not satisfy then the defining bad thing
for that safety property occurs at some point in . Notice that after such a bad thing, if further execution results in an execution
, then also does not satisfy ,
since the bad thing in also occurs in .
We take this inference about the irremediability of bad things to be the defining characteristic for to be a safety property.
Formalizing this in predicate logic gives a formal definition for being a safety property.
This formal definition for safety properties implies that if an execution
satisfies a safety property then every prefix of (with the last state repeated)
also satisfies .
Liveness
A liveness property prescribes good things for every execution or, equivalently, describes something that must happen during an execution. The good thing need not be discrete—it might involve an infinite number of steps. Examples of a good thing used to define a liveness property include:
Termination of an execution that is started in a suitable state;
Non-termination of an execution that is started in a suitable state;
Guaranteed eventual entry to a critical section whenever entry is attempted;
Fair access to a resource in the presence of contention.
The good thing in the first example is discrete but not in the others.
Producing an answer within a specified real-time bound is a safety property rather than a liveness property.
This is because a discrete bad thing is being proscribed: a partial execution that reaches a state where the answer still has not been produced and the value of the clock (a state variable) violates the bound. Deadlock freedom is a safety property: the "bad thing" is a deadlock (which is discrete).
Most of the time, knowing that a program eventually does some "good thing" is not satisfactory; we want to know that the program performs the "good thing" within some number of steps or before some deadline. A property that gives a specific bound to the "good thing" is a safety property (as noted above), whereas the weaker property that merely asserts the bound exists is a liveness property. Proving such a liveness property is likely to be easier than proving the tighter safety property because proving the liveness property doesn't require the kind of detailed accounting that is required for proving the safety property.
To differ from a safety property, a liveness property cannot rule
out any finite prefix
of an execution (since such
an would be a "bad thing" and, thus, would be defining a safety property).
That leads to defining a liveness property to be a property that does not rule out any finite prefix.
This definition does not restrict a good thing to being discrete—the
good thing can involve all of , which is an infinite-length execution.
History
Lamport used the terms safety property and liveness property
in his 1977 paper on proving the correctness of multiprocess (concurrent) programs.
He borrowed the terms from Petri net theory, which was using the terms
liveness and boundedness for describing how the assignment of a Petri net's "tokens"
to its "places" could evolve; Petri net safety was a specific form of boundedness.
Lamport subsequently developed a formal definition of safety for a
NATO short course on distributed systems in Munich.
It assumed that properties are invariant under stuttering.
The formal definition of safety given above appears in a paper by Alpern and
Schneider;
the connection between the two formalizations of safety properties
appears in a paper by Alpern, Demers, and Schneider.
Alpern and Schneider gives the formal definition for liveness, accompanied by a proof that all properties can be constructed using safety properties and liveness properties. That proof was inspired by Gordon Plotkin's insight that safety properties correspond to closed sets and liveness properties correspond to dense sets in a natural topology on the set of infinite sequences of program states. Subsequently, Alpern and Schneider not only gave a Büchi automaton characterization for the formal definitions of safety properties and liveness properties but used these automata formulations to show that verification of safety properties would require an invariant and verification of liveness properties would require a well-foundedness argument. The correspondence between the kind of property (safety vs liveness) with kind of proof (invariance vs well-foundedness) was a strong argument that the decomposition of properties into safety and liveness (as opposed to some other partitioning) was a
useful one—knowing the type of property to be proved dictated the type of proof that is required.
References
Concurrent computing
Theoretical computer science
Model checking | Safety and liveness properties | [
"Mathematics",
"Technology"
] | 1,453 | [
"Computing platforms",
"IT infrastructure",
"Theoretical computer science",
"Applied mathematics",
"Concurrent computing"
] |
71,867,438 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge%20falsification | Knowledge falsification is the deliberate misrepresentation of what one knows under perceived social pressures. The term was coined by Timur Kuran in his book Private Truths, Public Lies: The Social Consequences of Preference Falsification.
Motives
According to Kuran’s analysis of preference falsification, knowledge falsification is usually undertaken to signal a preference that differs from one’s private preference, in other words, to support preference falsification. Successful misrepresentation of one's private preferences requires hiding the knowledge on which they rest. Thus, people engage in preference falsification, or bolster it, by misrepresenting their information, interpretations, and understanding.
Such misrepresentation is a response to perceived social, economic, and political pressures. The perceived pressures could be partly, if not fully, imaginary. The pressures may be rooted in speech controls imposed by a state and enforced through state-enforced punishments. But, as with preference falsification, knowledge falsification need not be a response solely, or even mainly, to pressures from the state or some other organized political entity. The source of pressures is partly individuals seeking to display conformity to an agenda that appears politically popular. In any given context, knowledge falsification may end abruptly, through a self-reinforcing shift in public opinion.
Social effects
Among the effects of knowledge falsification is the distortion, corruption, and impoverishment of knowledge in the public domain. Society is denied exposure to what is believed to be true, and it gets exposed instead to information that its bearers consider false. A further effect is widespread ignorance about policy failures and about the potential advantages of reforms. Knowledge falsification can also bring intellectual narrowness and ossification, harming innovation. Yet another possible consequence is the persistence of policies, customs, norms, fashions, and institutions that are widely disliked.
Knowledge falsification not only misinforms others about social reality, observes Learry Gagné, it also leads to widespread self-deception. Because people systematically underestimate others’ motivations to keep private knowledge out of the public domain, they find it easy to accept beliefs that appear widespread. In reinforcing one another’s incentives to falsify knowledge, members of a community also keep one another from gaining awareness of the mechanisms through which they deceive themselves.
Focusing on the inefficiencies of knowledge falsification, Cass Sunstein argues that societies benefit from institutions aimed at minimizing it. He observes: “Knowledge falsification, bred by the natural human inclination to defer to the crowd, can create serious problems for the crowd itself. If members of the crowd are not revealing what they know, errors and even disasters are inevitable.” On that basis, he argues that leaders, legislatures, corporations, schools, and committees should deliberately promote their own exposure to dissenting discourses. Courts work better, he shows, when their decision-making bodies include people who bring to evaluations diverse information and interpretations of facts.
Building on Sunstein’s insights, Graham McDonough argues that knowledge falsification can undermine a central aim of moral education: making the personal judgments needed to maintain personal relationships. It can do so by impairing the communication of reasonable differences and, in the process, curtailing epistemological diversity. Airing differences in understandings facilitates the construction of politically, ethically, and epistemically satisfying moral guidelines.
On any given issue, the prevalence of knowledge falsification may vary systematically across demographic groups that differ in endured social, cultural, and political pressures. And, the members of any given demographic group may differ in what knowledge they convey to others, depending on the audience. In this vein, Kuran and Edward McCaffery show that publicly conveyed perceptions of discrimination differ systematically depending on survey mode. On controversial matters of discrimination, Americans appear more willing to reveal pertinent knowledge online than offline.
Institutions for minimizing knowledge falsification
The observations of Kuran and Sunstein echo Friedrich Hayek’s views about the advantages of democracy. “Democracy is, above all, a process of forming opinion,” wrote Hayek, and “it is in its dynamic, rather than its static, aspects that the value of democracy proves itself.” Developing Hayek’s claim, Michael Wohlgemuth argues that democratic constitutions limit the scope of both preference falsification and knowledge falsification (he coins the term “opinion falsification” as an aggregate concept that captures both knowledge and preference falsification). Democratic constitutions facilitate, on the one hand, the process of filtering out of public discourses contrived public knowledge and public preferences and, on the other, the discovery of knowledge and preferences that individuals keep private.
An intellectual tradition going back at least to John Stuart Mill holds that meaningful social deliberation requires the freedoms to express thoughts and to pursue knowledge wherever it leads. Building on that tradition, Russell Blackford notes that societies need institutional defenses not only against government efforts to control knowledge but also against conformist pressures that induce knowledge falsification. The latter category of institutions includes norms that enhance the social status of heretics, eccentrics, truth-tellers, artists, and comedians for the enrichment they bring to the pool of public knowledge. The celebration of disseminating controversial knowledge should be limited, Blackford holds, only in cases of dehumanizing hate speech. This exception brings into play multiple widely accepted principles, so it must be handled on a case by case basis, but always with attention to maintaining incentives to publicize useful knowledge.
See also
Common knowledge
Conformity
Disinformation
Epistemic community
Fake news
Knowledge
Lying
Preference falsification
Secret ballot
Signalling theory
Social desirability bias
Social proof
Spiral of silence
References
Sociology of knowledge
Social epistemology
Conformity
Social influence
Political concepts
Motivational theories
Deception | Knowledge falsification | [
"Technology",
"Biology"
] | 1,205 | [
"Social epistemology",
"Behavior",
"Conformity",
"Science and technology studies",
"Human behavior"
] |
71,867,836 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JMA%20Wireless | JMA Wireless is an American wireless networking hardware manufacturing company in Syracuse, New York. It was founded in 2012 by the current chief executive officer John Mezzalingua.
It offers Open-RAN compliant 5G Radio access network (RAN) products, 5G millimeter wave products, private wireless technology hardware products, focusing on design, code, and manufacture of 4G and 5G devices in the United States. JMA Wireless created the first fully virtualized RAN for carrier and private networks as well as the first indoor 5G millimeter wave radio in the United States.
On May 19, 2022, JMA Wireless and Syracuse University announced the signing of a 10-year naming rights deal of the on-campus stadium, renaming the Carrier Dome after 42 years. The stadium was renamed as the JMA Wireless Dome, referred to as the JMA Dome.
History
The company was founded in 2012 by John D. Mezzalingua as John Mezzalingua Associates LLC, initially employing about 150 people. He previously ran the Production Products Company (PPC), which was sold to Belden Incorporated for $515.7 million.
The headquarters, located in Clay, New York was expanded in 2017. In 2021, the company operated manufacturing facilities in Syracuse, with additional R&D, manufacturing, and sales staff Dallas, Austin, Chicago, Boulder, Richmond, VA, and Europe. In 2022, the company's $100 million 5G manufacturing campus was inaugurated by New York state Governor Kathy Hochul.
It is a member of the Wireless Infrastructure Association.
Software and other technology
JMA Wireless operates on a software-based XRAN architecture, which integrates processes into a single common server and removes the need for radios and jumpers in Distributed antenna system (DAS) deployments.
In 2018, JMA Wireless acquired 5G radio provider PHAZR for an undisclosed amount. The deal allowed JMA Wireless to offer 5G RAN technologies that supports spectrum from 600 MHz all the way up to 47 GHz.
Notable projects
JMA Wireless has deployed 5G in many large stadiums including SoFi Stadium (Los Angeles), Fiserv Forum (of the Milwaukee Bucks), Sacramento Kings, JMA Wireless Dome (of Syracuse University), and other large settings, such as Carnegie Mellon University, the city of Tucson, American Dream Meadowlands, Crowne Plaza Atlanta-Midtown, and Olympic Stadium in Italy.
References
External links
2012 establishments in New York (state)
American companies established in 2012
Companies based in Syracuse, New York
Electronics companies established in 2012
Electronics companies of the United States
Networking hardware companies
Telecommunications equipment vendors
Telecommunications billing systems
Computer companies of the United States
Computer hardware companies | JMA Wireless | [
"Technology"
] | 541 | [
"Computer hardware companies",
"Computers",
"Telecommunications systems",
"Telecommunications billing systems"
] |
71,868,863 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Everett%20Shock | Everett L. Shock is an American geochemist and former experimental rock singer and songwriter. He is currently a professor with joint appointments in the School of Earth and Space Exploration and School of Molecular Sciences at Arizona State University. Shock and his research group work within a framework of chemical thermodynamics applied to field, experimental, and theoretical geochemical investigations to understand how geochemical processes provide energy to support microbial life on Earth and potentially on other ocean worlds.
Early life and music
Shock grew up in Garden Grove, California and studied earth sciences at UC Santa Cruz, graduating in 1978. In the San Francisco Bay Area, he and high school friends Erling Wold, Lynn Murdock, and Brian Woodbury formed a music theater group called Splendrix, performing in a San Francisco theater they rented. After hearing the group promoting their show on UC Berkeley campus radio, musician and composer Henry Kaiser contacted them, planting the seeds for future collaboration. Later, with Woodbury having left the Bay Area, Shock, Wold, and Murdock along with high school classmates Bob Adams, Mark Crawford, and Rick Crawford began recording and performing experimental/avant-garde rock music with Kaiser, calling themselves Name. The group self-released an EP in 1981 and a LP in 1985 and performed at venues in the Bay Area with acts such as Negativland. In 1987, Shock earned his PhD in geology at Berkeley and Kaiser approached Shock about recording previously unrecorded material from the previous years before Shock left the Bay Area. The album Ghost Boys was released by SST Records in 1988 under Shock's name but with most members of Name also credited. The album features Wold's use of a synclavier as well as a version of the song "Stay a Little Longer". Shock is also credited on the SST album Crazy Backwards Alphabet.
Scientific career
At Berkeley, Shock worked with Hal Helgeson on the estimation of thermodynamic properties for aqueous ionic species and aqueous organic species up to high temperatures and pressures. Shock was a professor in the Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences at Washington University in St. Louis from 1987 to 2002 before moving to Arizona State University. Shock's research group maintains an extensive thermodynamic database for aqueous solutes that enables geochemical modeling of aqueous solutions at hydrothermal conditions and of water-rock reactions. Continuing with a focus on the high-temperature aqueous chemistry of organic compounds, Shock leads an interdisciplinary group conducting experiments on the reactivity of organic compounds at hydrothermal conditions found in Earth's subsurface. The group recently patented a process for the synthesis of isooctane, a fuel component, in high-temperature water in the presence of the Earth-abundant metals nickel and iron.
Areas of focus for fieldwork include hydrothermal systems in Yellowstone National Park and serpentinizing systems of the Samail Ophiolite in Oman. Shock and collaborators cataloged chemical energy supplies available to thermophilic microbes in geochemically diverse hot springs in Yellowstone. Shock collaborated on a project that demonstrated that substrate use in culture of a strain of Acidianus is not controlled by energy supply but rather by demand and the cost of catalyzing specific reactions. His research group has also examined how the geochemical composition of hot spring fluids affects microbial community composition, such as the oxidation state of microbial lipids and the distribution of microbial phototrophs. The archaeon Thermogladius shockii was named in honor of Shock's work in Yellowstone. In Oman, the team determined the energy requirements for the oxidation of molecular hydrogen by methanogens may be higher in hyperalkaline fluids compared to freshwater or marine sediments, and this may contribute to competition with sulfate reducers. Work in Oman also led to the idea that changes in the rate of weathering of ultramafic rocks such as those found at the ophiolite may have contributed to enabling the Great Oxidation Event.
Submarine hydrothermal vents are another environment where chemical energy supports unique ecosystems. Shock and collaborator Jeffrey Dick used thermodynamic calculations based on the genome of Methanocaldococcus jannaschii to reveal that protein biosynthesis is an exergonic (energy-releasing) process in ultramafic submarine hydrothermal vents where the vent fluids mix with oxygenated seawater. Shock and postdoctoral researcher Vincent Milesi also developed an approach to geochemical modeling in support of ROV exploration of hydrothermal systems at Gorda Ridge off the coast of California aboard the EV Nautilus where data returned from the ROV is used to constrain models developed in advance nearly in real time, allowing for informed decision making about next steps. The researchers even tested how the approach can handle a built-in time delay between measurements by the ROV and receipt of the data to simulate exploration in space, in preparation for implementation of the method on the Europa Clipper mission to Jupiter. Shock is a co-investigator on the MASPEX team designing the mass spectrometer that will fly on Europa Clipper to provide compositional data at Europa.
References
External links
Everett Shock at Discogs
Everett Shock at Google Scholar
American geochemists
Living people
Year of birth missing (living people)
Arizona State University faculty
Fellows of the American Geophysical Union
University of California, Santa Cruz alumni
University of California, Berkeley alumni
Washington University in St. Louis faculty | Everett Shock | [
"Chemistry"
] | 1,111 | [
"Geochemists",
"American geochemists"
] |
71,869,796 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanggai%20Yumpham | The Sanggāi Yumpham , () was the citadel, a fortified royal residence within the Kangla Fort, Imphal. It is preserved as an archaeological site as well as a tourist attraction.
History
The construction of the Citadel of the Kangla Fort in Imphal started in 1611, during the era of reign of King Khagemba.
The Kangla Fort was destroyed and abandoned multiple times during Burmese invasions, especially during the Chahi-Taret Khuntakpa, or Seven Years' Devastation (1819-1826). Later, the citadel was re-constructed during the reign of Chandrakirti Singh in 1873.
As a result of the Anglo Manipur War of 1891, on 27 April 1891, General Maxwell annexed the Kangla and the citadel was demolished simultaneously.
Features
The citadel is inside the fort's inner brick wall. It measures around , and its walls are high. There are four guarding pillars in the 4 corners of 4 directions.
The southern passageway door leads to the Govindajee Temple.
It built of bricks. It houses many holy sites, including the coronation site of Pakhangba. It has three main entrance gates, two on the western side, one facing the Royal Coronation Hall and one facing the darbar hall, and one on the southern side that leads to a passageway to the Shree Govindajee Temple.
It is surrounded by five walls of the Kangla Fort. The innermost wall is the only one that is standing still today. There is one octagonal watchtower at every corner of the wall, serving as sentry posts. Its entire perimeter has military installations (emplacements) of around 500 defender soldiers.
There was an old bridge built over the Imphal River from the passageway between the Sanggai Yumpham and the Govindajee Temple inside the Kangla. Later, it got deteriorated in 1891. During the 28th meeting of the Kangla Fort Board, on 15 December 2018, Nongthombam Biren Singh, the Chief Minister of Manipur, took a decision that a new bridge will be constructed similar to the features of the old bridge.
See also
Kangla Sanathong
Statue of Meidingu Nara Singh
Hijagang
Pakhangba Temple, Kangla
Manung Kangjeibung
Museums in Kangla
Kangla Nongpok Torban
Notes
References
External links
Meitei architecture
Royal residences in India
Tourist attractions in Manipur
Buildings and structures in Imphal
Monuments and memorials to Meitei royalty | Sanggai Yumpham | [
"Engineering"
] | 501 | [
"Meitei architecture",
"Architecture"
] |
71,869,948 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KIF4B | KIF4B is a human protein encoded by the gene KIF4B. It is part of the kinesin family of motor proteins.
Function
KIF4B and the closely related protein KIF4A are essential for regulating anaphase spindle dynamics during mitosis.
References
Motor proteins | KIF4B | [
"Chemistry"
] | 63 | [
"Molecular machines",
"Molecular and cellular biology stubs",
"Motor proteins",
"Biochemistry stubs"
] |
71,869,980 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KIF7 | Kinesin family member 7 (KIF7), also known as kinesin-4, is a human protein encoded by the gene KIF7. It is part of the kinesin family of motor proteins.
Function
KIF7 depolymerises the growing plus-end of microtubules, and is involved in regulating Hedgehog signalling.
References
Motor proteins | KIF7 | [
"Chemistry"
] | 79 | [
"Molecular machines",
"Molecular and cellular biology stubs",
"Motor proteins",
"Biochemistry stubs"
] |
71,870,007 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KIF9 | Kinesin family member 9 (KIF9), also known as kinesin-9, is a human protein encoded by the KIF9 gene. It is part of the kinesin family of motor proteins.
Function
The beating of the flagella in sperm is regulated by KIF9 activity.
References
Human proteins
Motor proteins | KIF9 | [
"Chemistry"
] | 70 | [
"Molecular machines",
"Molecular and cellular biology stubs",
"Motor proteins",
"Biochemistry stubs"
] |
71,870,067 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KIF12 | Kinesin family member 12 (KIF12), also known as kinesin-12, is a human protein encoded by the gene KIF12. It is part of the kinesin family of motor proteins.
Clinical significance
Mutations in KIF12 are associated with cholestatic liver disease.
References
Motor proteins | KIF12 | [
"Chemistry"
] | 68 | [
"Biochemistry stubs",
"Motor proteins",
"Molecular and cellular biology stubs",
"Molecular machines"
] |
71,870,181 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International%20System%20Safety%20Society | The International System Safety Society (ISSS) is a non-profit professional organization for system safety engineers. ISSS was established in 1963 to support the development of system safety as a distinct engineering discipline.
ISSS has local chapters in several states across the United States, as well as in Singapore and Canada. The society currently has members from over 25 countries across the world.
History
The event recognized as the founding of the Society occurred on December 4, 1963, in the main lecture hall at the School of Aviation Safety on the University of Southern California campus in Los Angeles. The gathering consisted of about 40 individuals, including many students and others from the USAF Aerospace Safety Center, some USC faculty members, along with system safety representatives of the numerous aerospace companies located in the area.
Events
Since the first event in 1972, the society has sponsored the annual International System Safety Conference. The society also sponsors annual member awards which are presented at the annual awards banquet during the International System Safety Conference. In addition, the society and local chapters organize webinars and symposia for society members.
ISSS is also one of the sponsoring societies for the annual Reliability and Maintainability Symposium. The society is also a sponsor of the Board of Certified Safety Professionals (BCSP) Global Learning Summit.
Publications
The society publishes the Journal of System Safety, a triannual peer-reviewed academic journal, as well as periodic member newsletters and formerly the System Safety Analysis Handbook. The journal was established in 1965 as Hazard Prevention and obtained its current name in 1999. It is considered one of the important journals in the field of reliability and safety and is one of the oldest in continuous publication. The journal seeks to advance the discipline of system safety across a wide range of application domains, including aerospace, automotive, nuclear power, and military applications. The editor-in-chief is Charles Muniak (Syracuse Safety Research). In 2022 the journal began transitioning to a gold open access publishing model with no article processing charges.
See also
System safety
Safety engineering
Risk management
References
International organizations based in the United States
Engineering organizations
Engineering societies
Professional associations | International System Safety Society | [
"Engineering"
] | 423 | [
"Engineering societies",
"nan"
] |
71,870,839 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IFIP%20Working%20Group%202.3 | IFIP Working Group 2.3 on Programming Methodology is a working group of the International Federation for Information Processing (IFIP). Its main aim is to increase programmers’ ability to compose programs. To this end, WG2.3 provides an international forum for discussion and cross-fertilization of ideas between researchers in programming methodology and neighboring fields. Generally, members report on work in progress and expect suggestions and advice. Discussions are often broadened by inviting "observers" to meetings as full participants, some of whom eventually become members.
Scope
This scope of work in WG2.3 was introduced by Edsger W. Dijkstra in meeting 0 (Oslo, Norway, July 1969).
Identification of sources of difficulties encountered in present-day programming;
The interdependence between the formulation of problems and the formulation of programs, and the mapping of relations existing in the world of problems into the relations among programs and their components;
Intellectual disciplines and problem-solving techniques that can aid programmers in the composition of programs;
The problem of achieving program reliability;
The consequences of requirements for program adaptability;
The problem of provability of program correctness and its influence on the structure of programs and on the process of their composition;
Guidelines of partitioning large programming tasks and defining the interfaces between the parts;
Software for mechanized assistance to program composition.
History
In December 1968, IFIP Working Group 2.1 adopted the proposal by Aad van Wijngaarden as a successor to Algol 60 (ultimately leading to ALGOL 68). A group of members of WG2.1 opposed it and produced a minority report. The group also felt that rather than just programming languages, a forum was needed to discuss the general problem of programming. Another impetus for the creation of a group was the findings of the first of the NATO Software Engineering Conferences, held in 1968, which spoke of the "software crisis" then seen as gripping the computing world.
The parent committee TC2 of IFIP approved the formation of a new Working Group, WG2.3, for this purpose. Mike Woodger agreed to chair it.
An organizing meeting was held in Oslo, 20–22 July 1969, with Ole-Johan Dahl, Edsger W. Dijkstra, Douglas McIlroy, Brian Randell, Gerhard Seegmueller, Wlad Turski,
Mike Woodger, and (chair of WG2.1) attending. Doug Ross was also a founding member. Brian Randell suggested the title Programming Methodology.
The founding members were predominately academic, and a deliberate
attempt was made to bring in members from industry and commerce as well as from
Asia and the USSR. WG2.3 generally meets once or twice a year for five days at a time.
Until 1976, all meetings were held in Europe, but after that meetings often alternated between Europe and North America. Several meetings have been held in Australia.
The first meeting was held in Copenhagen, Denmark in 1970. It was attended by
Ole-Johan Dahl, Edsger W. Dijkstra, Per Brinch Hansen,
Tony Hoare, M. M. Lehman, J. Madey, Doug McIlroy,
George Radin, Brian Randell,
John Reynolds,
Doug Ross,
Christopher Strachey, and Warren Teitelman.
For more on the history of WG2.3, read Mike Woodger's A history of IFIP WG2.3.
In its initial years, WG2.3 did not produce reports of any kind of its meetings. Meetings
centered on the presentation and discussion of research underway, which meant that members
could receive their colleagues' constructive criticism at a much earlier stage that usual.
As such, WG2.3 became a productive assembly at which researchers such as Dijkstra could work out many of the ideas that they subsequently brought forth in published papers.
Ideas from the members of WG2.3 made their way into at least one well-reviewed book written in the mid-1970s.
In the late 1970s, it was felt that WG2.3 should make more public the nature
of its work and what had been accomplished. Accordingly, the
book Programming Methodology: A Collection of Articles by Members of IFIP WG2.3 was published.
In 2003, a second book Programming Methodology of articles was published. Some essays contained new material while others aimed to review or evaluate an area or to outline problems for further investigation.
Members on Wikipedia, former and current
WG 2.3 has, and has had, many members. Some are the subject of Wikipedia articles.
Jean-Raymond Abrial Emeritus
Ralph-Johan Back
Dines Bjørner Emeritus
Per Brinch Hansen (d. 2007)
Manfred Broy
Rod Burstall Emeritus
Michael Butler
William R. Cook (d. 2022)
Patrick Cousot
Ole-Johan Dahl (d. 2002)
Edsger W. Dijkstra (d. 2002)
Sophia Drossopoulou
David Gries Emeritus
John Guttag Emeritus
Eric C. R. Hehner Emeritus
Tony Hoare
Jim Horning (d. 2013)
Daniel Jackson
Michael Jackson
Cliff Jones
Shriram Krishnamurthi Emeritus
Butler W. Lampson Emeritus
Gary T. Leavens
Doug McIlroy Emeritus
Annabelle K McIver
George H. Mealy (d. 2010)
Bertrand Meyer
Jayadev Misra
Carroll Morgan
Peter Naur (d. 2016)
Greg Nelson (d. 2015)
Susan Owicki Emeritus
David Lorge Parnas Emeritus
Benjamin C. Pierce Emeritus
George Radin (d. 2013)
Brian Randell Emeritus
John C. Reynolds (d. 2013)
Douglas T. Ross (d. 2007)
Fred B. Schneider Emeritus
Natarajan Shankar
Michel Sintzoff (d. 2010)
Jan L. A. van de Snepscheut (d. 1994)
Christopher Strachey (d. 1975)
Warren Teitelman Emeritus
Emina Torlak
Jim Woodcock
Niklaus Wirth Emeritus
Mike Woodger Emeritus
Pamela Zave
Meetings
Meeting 41, Biarritz, France, 24–28 March 2003
Meeting 40, Turku, Finland, 12–16 August 2002
Meeting 39, Hanover, New Hampshire, USA, 2–6 October 2001
Meeting 38, Santa Cruz, California, USA, 8–12 January 2001
Meeting 37, Longhorseley, UK, 3–7 April 2000
Meeting 36, Munich, Germany, 21–25 June 1999
Meeting 35, Bloomington, Indiana, USA, 1–5 June 1998
Meeting 34, Alsace, France, September 1997
Meeting 33, Napa Valley, California, January 1997
Meeting 32, Han-sur-Lesse, Belgium, April 1996
Meeting 31, Ithaca, New York, USA, July 1995
Meeting 30, Ispra, Italy, June 1994
Meeting 29, Lake Simcoe, Ontario, Canada, May 1993.
Meeting 28, New Forest, July 1992.
Meeting 27, Pouilly-en-Auxois, France, September 1991.
Meeting 26, Santa Catalina Island, California, USA, December 1990.
Meeting 25, Munich, Germany, March 1990
Meeting 24, Zaborów, Poland, June 1989
Meeting 23, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA, August 1988
Meeting 22, Habay-la-Neuve, Belgium, November 1987
Meeting 21, Manchester, UK, April 1985
Meeting 20, Victoria, British Columbia, Canada, July 1984
Meeting 19, Pont-à-Mousson, France, September 1983
Meeting 18, New Paltz, New York, USA, September 1982
Meeting 17, Sintra, Portugal, October 1981
Meeting 16, Han-sur-Lesse, Belgium, January 1981
Meeting 15, Kazimierz Dolny, Poland, April 1980
Meeting 14, Santa Cruz, California, USA, August 1979
Meeting 13, Warwick, UK, April 1978
Meeting 12, Niagara-on-the-Lake, Ontario, Canada, August 1977
Meeting 11, St. Pierre de Chartruese, France, December 1976
Meeting 10, Cazenovia, Illinois, USA, July 1976
Meeting 9, Baden bei Wien, Austria, September 1975
Meeting 8, Munich, Germany, December 1974
Meeting 7, Boldern, Switzerland, April 1974
Meeting 6, Blanchland, UK, October 1973
Meeting 5, Munich, Germany, April 1973
Meeting 4, Warsaw, Poland, September 1972
Meeting 3, Bristol, UK, January 1972
Meeting 2, Warwick, UK, April 1971
Meeting 1, Copenhagen, Denmark, March 1970
Meeting 0, Oslo, Norway, July 1969
Source:
References
External links
IFIP WG 2.3, Working Group on Programming Methodology
International Federation for Information Processing
Software development process
Software engineering organizations | IFIP Working Group 2.3 | [
"Engineering"
] | 1,755 | [
"Software engineering",
"Software engineering organizations"
] |
71,872,047 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tripartite%20symbiosis | Tripartite symbiosis is a type of symbiosis involving three species. This can include any combination of plants, animals, fungi, bacteria, or archaea, often in interkingdom symbiosis.
Ants
Fungus-growing ants
Ants of Attini cultivate fungi. Microfungi, specialized to be parasites of the fungus gardens, coevolved with them.
Allomerus-Hirtella-Trimmatostroma
Allomerus decemarticulatus ants use Trimmatostroma sp. to create structures within Hirtella physophora. The fungi are connected endophytically and actively transfer nitrogen.
Lichen
The mycobiont in a lichen can form a relationship with both cyanobacteria and green algae as photobionts concurrently.
Legumes
Rhizobia are nitrogen-fixating bacteria that form symbiotic relationships with legumes. Sometimes, this is aided by the presence of a fungal species. This is most effective in undistributed soil. The presence of mycorrhizae can improve the rhizobial-liquorice nutrient transfer in droughts. Soybeans in particular can improve their ability to withstand soil salinity with the presence of both rhizobium and mycorrhizae.
References
Symbiosis | Tripartite symbiosis | [
"Biology"
] | 280 | [
"Biological interactions",
"Behavior",
"Symbiosis"
] |
71,872,279 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pittsfield%20phylactery | The Pittsfield phylactery is a missing phylactery with a black leather strap. It was reported to have been discovered by Joseph Merrick. It contained Hebrew writing, and later was lost.
"In June 1815, a boy employed by Merrick 'to clear the yard between the house and the wood house' found a black leather strap among the debris left by plowing. According to Josiah Priest, who took the account from the Reverend Mr. Ethan Smith, author of "View of the Hebrews," Merrick tossed the object in a box and forgot about it for several days until his curiosity got the better of him. When Merrick cut the strap open, he found that the box contained several tightly scrolled pieces of parchment inscribed with Hebrew characters."
At one time some believed the artifact was evidence of a relationship between the Lost Tribes of Israel and Native Americans. Lee M. Friedman wrote about it in 1917 but found no conclusive evidence support that theory. The other theory is it was dropped by a prisoner during the War of 1812.
Discussion of the artifact was part of a 2011 historical reenactment in the area.
References
Armwear
Archaeology
Jewish ritual objects
Leather clothing
Religious headgear | Pittsfield phylactery | [
"Physics"
] | 247 | [
"Lost objects",
"Physical objects",
"Matter"
] |
71,873,992 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human%20composting | Human composting (also known as soil transformation) is a process for the final disposition of human remains in which microbes convert a deceased body into compost. It is also called natural organic reduction (NOR) or terramation.
Although the natural decomposition of human corpses into soil is a long-standing practice, a more rapid process that was developed in the early 21st century by Katrina Spade, entails encasing human corpses in wood chips, straw, and alfalfa until thermophile microbes decompose the body. In this manner, the transformation can be sped up to as little as 1–2 months. The accelerated process is based in part on techniques developed for the composting of livestock.
Though human composting was common before modern burial practices and in some religious traditions, contemporary society has tended to favor other disposition methods. However, cultural attention to concerns like sustainability and environmentally friendly burial has led to a resurgence in interest in direct composting of human bodies. Some religious and cultural communities have been critical of this modern composting practice, even though it is in many ways a return to more traditional practices. Human composting is legal in multiple US states, and natural burials without a casket or with a biodegradable container are common practice in Muslim and Jewish traditions and are allowed in the UK, the US, and many other locations throughout the world.
Reception
Proponents say human composting is more economical, environmentally friendly, and respectful of the body and the earth than the methods of disposal that are typically practiced in technologically advanced societies. Cremation uses fossil fuels or large amounts of wood for funeral pyres (both of which generate polluting smoke and release large amounts of carbon), and conventional burial is land-intensive, has a high carbon footprint, and frequently involves disposing of bodily fluids and liquefied organs in the sewer and injecting the body with toxic embalming chemicals. By contrast, human composting, like natural burial, is a natural process and contributes ecological value by preserving the body's nutrient material. Some have argued that "natural organic reduction respects the human body and spirit, supports rather than sullies the earth, and works with nature rather than against it."
Critics say the rapid decomposition process is inappropriate for human bodies. The Catholic Church in the United States, for example has argued that it does not confer the respect due to bodily remains, though other Catholics have maintained that human composting "fulfill[s] in a more direct way the Biblical declaration that we are dust and to dust we shall return (Genesis 3:19)." Orthodox Jewish interpretations of Halakha religious law oppose the sped-up composting process, saying it lacks appropriate reverence for the dead, with the matter under debate in other variations of Judaism.
Muslim burial practices ordinarily involve natural burials without embalming or cremation. They involve prompt washing of the corpse, wrapping it in a simple plain-cloth shroud, and rapid burial without a casket, with some soil placed under the body. Jewish burial practices are very similar. If a casket is used in a Jewish burial, the casket is generally simple and made of unfinished wood, and strictly-observant practice avoids all use of metal; the wood parts of the casket are joined by wood dowels rather than nails. Caskets are not used in Israel.
Washington was the first U.S. state to allow the practice of human composting. Three burial businesses in the state of Washington offer human composting .
Legal status
Human composting is legal multiple US states, and natural burials without a casket or with a biodegradable container are allowed in the UK, the US, and many other locations throughout the world.
In the United States, rapid human composting has become legally allowed or approved to become allowed in the future in seven states
Washington (approved in May 2019, took effect on May 1, 2020)
Colorado (approved in May 2021, took effect on August 8, 2021)
Oregon (approved in June 2021, took effect on January 1, 2022)
Vermont (approved in June 2022, took effect on January 1, 2023)
California (approved on September 18, 2022, to take effect in 2027)
New York (approved on December 31, 2022, pending further regulatory action)
Nevada (approved in May 2023, took effect on January 1, 2024)
References
Burials
Funeral-related industry
Legal aspects of death
Waste management
Biodegradation | Human composting | [
"Chemistry"
] | 925 | [
"Biodegradation"
] |
71,874,409 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/56%20Leonis | 56 Leonis is a red giant variable star located approximately 390 light years away in the constellation Leo.
The apparent magnitude of 56 Leonis varies between 5.69 and 6.03, making it dimly visible to the naked eye, and it has been given the variable star designation VY Leo. The type of variability is uncertain. The General Catalogue of Variable Stars suggests it may be a slow irregular variable, but some sources have found periods and report it as semiregular.
The spectral class of 56 Leonis is M5.5III, indicating a cool red giant star that has exhausted the supply of hydrogen at its core and evolved away from the main sequence. It is undecided whether it is currently on the red giant branch or asymptotic giant branch. The star has an estimated 1.1 times the mass of the Sun but has expanded to 192 times the Sun's radius. The star is radiating 1,479 times the Sun's luminosity from its enlarged photosphere at an effective temperature of 3,279 K.
References
Leo (constellation)
Leonis, VY
094706
4267
M-type giants
053449
Durchmusterung objects | 56 Leonis | [
"Astronomy"
] | 246 | [
"Leo (constellation)",
"Constellations"
] |
71,875,254 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steeple%20ball | The steeple ball (also tower ball from ) is a closed, typically rounded, capsule on the finial of many buildings in the German-speaking countries. A steeple ball is highly visible and hard to reach for repairs, so attention is paid to the quality of design, construction, and materials. The combination of durability and inaccessibility makes the steeple ball attractive for use as a time capsule. When roofs are renovated or replaced, new items (most often newspapers or coins) are added to the existing ones.
Shiny and visible from many places in the city, capsules are also used as target points during geodetic surveying.
Installing the steeple ball is one of the final steps in building or renovating a church roof. This event is often celebrated with a so-called Kugelfest.
See also
Time ball
References
Sources
Anne-Chantal Zimmermann: Briefkästen und Zeitkapseln. Eine kleine Geschichte der Turmkugeln des Rathauses von Sursee. Masterarbeit, 2010.
External links
Inhalt der Turmkugel vom Stephansdom
Turmkugel des Klosters Fahr
Architectural elements
German architectural styles | Steeple ball | [
"Technology",
"Engineering"
] | 246 | [
"Building engineering",
"Architectural elements",
"Components",
"Architecture"
] |
71,875,354 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/YY%20Mensae | YY Mensae, also known as HD 32918, is a variable star located in the southern circumpolar constellation Mensa. It has an apparent magnitude that fluctuates between 8.6 and 8.9, which is within the visibility of binoculars. Based on parallax measurements from Gaia DR3, it is estimated to be 715 light years distant. It appears to be approaching the Solar System with a heliocentric radial velocity of .
This star was known to have an unusual spectrum since the 1970's, but its variability wasn't observed until the 1980's. Collier (1982) found it to be a FK Comae Berenices variable, a class of rapidly rotating giant stars. After a few additional years of observations, HD 32918 was given the variable star designation YY Mensae. A paper in 1987 observed a long and powerful flare coming from the star. X-ray emissions from YY Mensa have been detected in its corona, which may be a result of its fast rotation.
YY Mensae has a stellar classification of K1 III/IVe, indicating an evolved red giant with the blended luminosity class of a giant star and a subgiant. It is chromospherically active and emission lines are also present in its spectra. It has 98% the mass of the Sun but has expanded to 12.3 times its girth. It radiates 68.5 times the luminosity of the Sun from its photosphere at an effective temperature of , giving it an orange hue. Typical for stars its type, YY Mensae spins rapidly, having a projected rotational velocity of . The star is metal deficient, having an iron abundance only 26% that of the Sun.
References
Further reading
K-type giants
K-type subgiants
FK Comae Berenices variables
Mensae, YY
Emission-line stars
Mensa (constellation)
032918
023106
CD-75 00189 | YY Mensae | [
"Astronomy"
] | 413 | [
"Mensa (constellation)",
"Constellations"
] |
56,208,586 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meltdown%20%28security%20vulnerability%29 | Meltdown is one of the two original speculative execution CPU vulnerabilities (the other being Spectre). Meltdown affects Intel x86 microprocessors, IBM Power microprocessors, and some ARM-based microprocessors. It allows a rogue process to read all memory, even when it is not authorized to do so.
Meltdown affects a wide range of systems. At the time of disclosure (2018), this included all devices running any but the most recent and patched versions of iOS, Linux, macOS, or Windows. Accordingly, many servers and cloud services were impacted, as well as a potential majority of smart devices and embedded devices using ARM-based processors (mobile devices, smart TVs, printers and others), including a wide range of networking equipment.
A purely software workaround to Meltdown has been assessed as slowing computers between 5 and 30 percent in certain specialized workloads, although companies responsible for software correction of the exploit reported minimal impact from general benchmark testing.
Meltdown was issued a Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures ID of , also known as Rogue Data Cache Load (RDCL), in January 2018. It was disclosed in conjunction with another exploit, Spectre, with which it shares some characteristics. The Meltdown and Spectre vulnerabilities are considered "catastrophic" by security analysts. The vulnerabilities are so severe that security researchers initially believed the reports to be false.
Several procedures to help protect home computers and related devices from the Meltdown and Spectre security vulnerabilities have been published. Meltdown patches may produce performance loss. Spectre patches have been reported to significantly reduce performance, especially on older computers; on the then-newest (2017) eighth-generation Core platforms, benchmark performance drops of 2–14 percent have been measured. On 18 January 2018, unwanted reboots, even for newer Intel chips, due to Meltdown and Spectre patches, were reported. Nonetheless, according to Dell, "No 'real-world' exploits of these vulnerabilities [i.e., Meltdown and Spectre] have been reported to date [26 January 2018], though researchers have produced proof-of-concepts." Dell further recommended "promptly adopting software updates, avoiding unrecognized hyperlinks and websites, not downloading files or applications from unknown sources ... following secure password protocols ... [using] security software to help protect against malware (advanced threat prevention software or anti-virus)."
On 15 March 2018, Intel reported that it would redesign its CPUs to help protect against the Meltdown and related Spectre vulnerabilities (especially, Meltdown and Spectre-V2, but not Spectre-V1), and expected to release the newly redesigned processors later in 2018. On 8 October 2018, Intel is reported to have added hardware and firmware mitigations regarding Spectre and Meltdown vulnerabilities to its latest processors.
Overview
Meltdown exploits a race condition, inherent in the design of many modern CPUs. This occurs between memory access and privilege checking during instruction processing. Additionally, combined with a cache side-channel attack, this vulnerability allows a process to bypass the normal privilege checks that isolate the exploit process from accessing data belonging to the operating system and other running processes. The vulnerability allows an unauthorized process to read data from any address that is mapped to the current process's memory space. Because the affected processors implement instruction pipelining, the data from an unauthorized address will almost always be temporarily loaded into the CPU's cache during out-of-order execution – from which the data can be recovered. This can occur even if the original read instruction fails due to privilege checking, or if it never produces a readable result.
Since many operating systems map physical memory, kernel processes, and other running user space processes into the address space of every process, Meltdown effectively makes it possible for a rogue process to read any physical, kernel or other processes' mapped memory – regardless of whether it should be able to do so. Defenses against Meltdown would require avoiding the use of memory mapping in a manner vulnerable to such exploits (i.e. a software-based solution) or avoidance of the underlying race condition (i.e. a modification to the CPUs' microcode or execution path).
The vulnerability is viable on any operating system in which privileged data is mapped into virtual memory for unprivileged processes – which includes many present-day operating systems. Meltdown could potentially impact a wider range of computers than presently identified, as there is little to no variation in the microprocessor families used by these computers.
A Meltdown attack cannot be detected if it is carried out, as it does not leave any traces in traditional log files.
History
Meltdown was discovered independently by Jann Horn from Google's Project Zero, Werner Haas and Thomas Prescher from Cyberus Technology, and Daniel Gruss, Moritz Lipp, Stefan Mangard and Michael Schwarz from Graz University of Technology. The same research teams that discovered Meltdown also discovered Spectre. The security vulnerability was called Meltdown because "the vulnerability basically melts security boundaries which are normally enforced by the hardware".
On 8 May 1995, a paper called "The Intel 80x86 Processor Architecture: Pitfalls for Secure Systems" published at the 1995 IEEE Symposium on Security and Privacy warned against a covert timing channel in the CPU cache and translation lookaside buffer (TLB). This analysis was performed under the auspices of the National Security Agency's Trusted Products Evaluation Program (TPEP).
In July 2012, Apple's XNU kernel (used in macOS, iOS, and tvOS, among others) adopted kernel address space layout randomization (KASLR) with the release of OS X Mountain Lion 10.8. In essence, the base of the system, including its kernel extensions (kexts) and memory zones, is randomly relocated during the boot process in an effort to reduce the operating system's vulnerability to attacks.
In March 2014, the Linux kernel adopted KASLR to mitigate address leaks.
On 8 August 2016, Anders Fogh and Daniel Gruss presented "Using Undocumented CPU Behavior to See Into Kernel Mode and Break KASLR in the Process" at the Black Hat 2016 conference.
On 10 August 2016, Moritz Lipp et al. of Graz University of Technology published "ARMageddon: Cache Attacks on Mobile Devices" in the proceedings of the 25th USENIX security symposium. Even though focused on ARM, it laid the groundwork for the attack vector.
On 27 December 2016, at 33C3, Clémentine Maurice and Moritz Lipp of Graz University of Technology presented their talk "What could possibly go wrong with <insert x86 instruction here>? Side effects include side-channel attacks and bypassing kernel ASLR" which outlined already what was coming.
On 1 February 2017, the CVE numbers 2017–5715, 2017-5753 and 2017-5754 were assigned to Intel.
On 27 February 2017, Bosman et al. of Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam published their findings of how address space layout randomization (ASLR) could be abused on cache-based architectures at the NDSS Symposium.
On 27 March 2017, researchers at Graz University of Technology developed a proof-of-concept that could grab RSA keys from Intel SGX enclaves running on the same system within five minutes by using certain CPU instructions in lieu of a fine-grained timer to exploit cache DRAM side-channels.
In June 2017, KASLR was found to have a large class of new vulnerabilities. Research at Graz University of Technology showed how to solve these vulnerabilities by preventing all access to unauthorized pages. A presentation on the resulting KAISER technique was submitted for the Black Hat congress in July 2017, but was rejected by the organizers. Nevertheless, this work led to kernel page-table isolation (KPTI, originally known as KAISER) in 2017, which was confirmed to eliminate a large class of security bugs, including some limited protection against the not-yet-discovered Meltdown – a fact confirmed by the Meltdown authors.
In July 2017, research made public on the CyberWTF website by security researcher Anders Fogh outlined the use of a cache timing attack to read kernel space data by observing the results of speculative operations conditioned on data fetched with invalid privileges.
In October 2017, KASLR support on amd64 was added to NetBSD-current, making NetBSD the first totally open-source BSD system to support kernel address space layout randomization. However, the partially open-source Apple Darwin, which forms the foundation of macOS and iOS (among others), is based on FreeBSD; KASLR was added to its XNU kernel in 2012 as noted above.
On 14 November 2017, security researcher Alex Ionescu publicly mentioned changes in the new version of Windows 10 that would cause some speed degradation without explaining the necessity for the changes, just referring to similar changes in Linux.
After affected hardware and software vendors had been made aware of the issue on 28 July 2017, the two vulnerabilities were made public jointly, on 3 January 2018, several days ahead of the coordinated release date of 9 January 2018 as news sites started reporting about commits to the Linux kernel and mails to its mailing list. As a result, patches were not available for some platforms, such as Ubuntu, when the vulnerabilities were disclosed.
On 28 January 2018, Intel was reported to have shared news of the Meltdown and Spectre security vulnerabilities with Chinese technology companies before notifying the U.S. government of the flaws.
On 8 October 2018, Intel was reported to have added hardware and firmware mitigations regarding Spectre and Meltdown vulnerabilities to its latest processors.
In November 2018, two new variants of the attacks were revealed. Researchers attempted to compromise CPU protection mechanisms using code to exploit weaknesses in memory protection and the instruction. They also attempted but failed to exploit CPU operations for memory alignment, division by zero, supervisor modes, segment limits, invalid opcodes, and non-executable code.
Mechanism
Meltdown relies on a CPU race condition that can arise between instruction execution and privilege checking. Put briefly, the instruction execution leaves side effects that constitute information not hidden to the process by the privilege check. The process carrying out Meltdown then uses these side effects to infer the values of memory mapped data, bypassing the privilege check. The following provides an overview of the exploit, and the memory mapping that is its target. The attack is described in terms of an Intel processor running Microsoft Windows or Linux, the main test targets used in the original paper, but it also affects other processors and operating systems, including macOS (aka OS X), iOS, and Android.
Background – modern CPU design
Modern computer processors use a variety of techniques to gain high levels of efficiency. Four widely used features are particularly relevant to Meltdown:
Virtual (paged) memory, also known as memory mapping – used to make memory access more efficient and to control which processes can access which areas of memory.
A modern computer usually runs many processes in parallel. In an operating system such as Windows or Linux, each process is given the impression that it alone has complete use of the computer's physical memory, and may do with it as it likes. In reality it will be allocated memory to use from the physical memory, which acts as a "pool" of available memory, when it first tries to use any given memory address (by trying to read or write to it). This allows multiple processes, including the kernel or operating system itself, to co-habit on the same system, but retain their individual activity and integrity without being affected by other running processes, and without being vulnerable to interference or unauthorized data leaks caused by a rogue process.
Privilege levels, or protection domains – provide a means by which the operating system can control which processes are authorized to read which areas of virtual memory.
As virtual memory permits a computer to refer to vastly more memory than it will ever physically contain, the system can be greatly sped up by "mapping" every process and their in-use memory – in effect all memory of all active processes – into every process's virtual memory. In some systems all physical memory is mapped as well, for further speed and efficiency. This is usually considered safe, because the operating system can rely on privilege controls built into the processor itself, to limit which areas of memory any given process is permitted to access. An attempt to access authorized memory will immediately succeed, and an attempt to access unauthorized memory will cause an exception and void the read instruction, which will fail. Either the calling process or the operating system directs what will happen if an attempt is made to read from unauthorized memory – typically it causes an error condition and the process that attempted to execute the read will be terminated. As unauthorized reads are usually not part of normal program execution, it is much faster to use this approach than to pause the process every time it executes some function that requires privileged memory to be accessed, to allow that memory to be mapped into a readable address space. If the operating system immediately suspends and terminates any process that attempts to access an unauthorized memory location, then the process will have tricked the processor into accessing only one illegal memory address for it, and probably not have time to analyze the side-effects and store the result. If the operating system allows the process to simply recover from the access violation and continue, then the process can analyze the side-effects, store the result, and repeat the sequence millions of times per second, thereby uncovering thousands of bytes of privileged data per second.
Instruction pipelining and speculative execution – used to allow instructions to execute in the most efficient manner possible – if necessary allowing them to run out of order or in parallel across various processing units within the CPU – so long as the outcome is correct.
Modern processors commonly contain numerous separate execution units, and a scheduler that decodes instructions and decides, at the time they are executed, the most efficient way to execute them. This might involve the decision that two instructions can execute at the same time, or even out of order, on different execution units (known as "instruction pipelining"). So long as the correct outcome is still achieved, this maximizes efficiency by keeping all of the processor's execution units in use as much as possible. Some instructions, such as conditional branches, will lead to one of two different outcomes, depending on a condition. For example, if a value is 0, it will take one action, and otherwise will take a different action. In some cases, the CPU may not yet know which branch to take. This may be because a value is uncached. Rather than wait to learn the correct option, the CPU may proceed immediately (speculative execution). If so, it can either guess the correct option (predictive execution) or even take both (eager execution). If it executes the incorrect option, the CPU will attempt to discard all effects of its incorrect guess.
CPU cache – a modest amount of memory within the CPU used to ensure it can work at high speed, to speed up memory access, and to facilitate "intelligent" execution of instructions in an efficient manner.
From the perspective of a CPU, the computer's physical memory is slow to access. Also the instructions a CPU runs are very often repetitive, or access the same or similar memory numerous times. To maximize efficient use of the CPU's resources, modern CPUs often have a modest amount of very fast on-chip memory, known as CPU cache. When data is accessed or an instruction is read from physical memory, a copy of that information is routinely saved in the CPU cache at the same time. If the CPU later needs the same instruction or memory contents again, it can obtain it with minimal delay from its own cache rather than waiting for a request related to physical memory to take place.
Meltdown exploit
Ordinarily, the mechanisms described above are considered secure. They provide the basis for most modern operating systems and processors. Meltdown exploits the way these features interact to bypass the CPU's fundamental privilege controls and access privileged and sensitive data from the operating system and other processes. To understand Meltdown, consider the data that is mapped in virtual memory (much of which the process is not supposed to be able to access) and how the CPU responds when a process attempts to access unauthorized memory. The process is running on a vulnerable version of Windows, Linux, or macOS, on a 64-bit processor of a vulnerable type. This is a very common combination across almost all desktop computers, notebooks, laptops, servers and mobile devices.
The CPU encounters an instruction accessing the value, A, at an address forbidden to the process by the virtual memory system and the privilege check. Because of speculative execution, the instruction is scheduled and dispatched to an execution unit. This execution unit then schedules both the privilege check and the memory access.
The CPU encounters an instruction accessing address Base+A, with Base chosen by the attacker. This instruction is also scheduled and dispatched to an execution unit.
The privilege check informs the execution unit that the address of the value, A, involved in the access is forbidden to the process (per the information stored by the virtual memory system), and thus the instruction should fail and subsequent instructions should have no effect. Because these instructions were speculatively executed, however, the data at Base+A may have been cached before the privilege check – and may not have been undone by the execution unit (or any other part of the CPU). If this is indeed the case, the mere act of caching constitutes a leak of information in and of itself. At this point, Meltdown intervenes.
The process executes a timing attack by executing instructions referencing memory operands directly. To be effective, the operands of these instructions must be at addresses which cover the possible address, Base+A, of the rejected instruction's operand. Because the data at the address referred to by the rejected instruction, Base+A, was cached nevertheless, an instruction referencing the same address directly will execute faster. The process can detect this timing difference and determine the address, Base+A, that was calculated for the rejected instruction – and thus determine the value A at the forbidden memory address.
Meltdown uses this technique in sequence to read every address of interest at high speed, and depending on other running processes, the result may contain passwords, encryption data, and any other sensitive information, from any address of any process that exists in its memory map. In practice, because cache side-channel attacks are slow, it is faster to extract data one bit at a time (only attacks needed to read a byte, rather than if it tried to read all 8 bits at once).
Impact
The impact of Meltdown depends on the design of the CPU, the design of the operating system (specifically how it uses memory paging), and the ability of a malicious party to get any code run on that system, as well as the value of any data it could read if able to execute.
CPU – Many of the most widely used modern CPUs from the late 1990s until early 2018 have the required exploitable design. However, it is possible to mitigate it within CPU design. A CPU that could detect and avoid memory access for unprivileged instructions, or was not susceptible to cache timing attacks or similar probes, or removed cache entries upon non-privilege detection (and did not allow other processes to access them until authorized) as part of abandoning the instruction, would not be able to be exploited in this manner. Some observers consider that all software solutions will be "workarounds" and the only true solution is to update affected CPU designs and remove the underlying weakness.
Operating system – Most of the widely used and general-purpose operating systems use privilege levels and virtual memory mapping as part of their design. Meltdown can access only those pages that are memory mapped so the impact will be greatest if all active memory and processes are memory mapped in every process and have the least impact if the operating system is designed so that almost nothing can be reached in this manner. An operating system might also be able to mitigate in software to an extent by ensuring that probe attempts of this kind will not reveal anything useful. Modern operating systems use memory mapping to increase speed so this could lead to performance loss.
Virtual machine – A Meltdown attack cannot be used to break out of a virtual machine, i.e., in fully virtualized machines guest user space can still read from guest kernel space, but not from host kernel space. The bug enables reading memory from address space represented by the same page table, meaning the bug does not work between virtual tables. That is, guest-to-host page tables are unaffected, only guest-to-same-guest or host-to-host, and of course host-to-guest since the host can already access the guest pages. This means different VMs on the same fully virtualized hypervisor cannot access each other's data, but different users on the same guest instance can access each other's data.
Embedded device – Among the vulnerable chips are those designed by ARM and Intel designed for standalone and embedded devices, such as mobile phones, smart TVs, networking equipment, vehicles, hard drives, industrial control, and the like. As with all vulnerabilities, if a third party cannot run code on the device, its internal vulnerabilities remain unexploitable. For example, an ARM processor in a cellphone or Internet of Things "smart" device may be vulnerable, but the same processor used in a device that cannot download and run new code, such as a kitchen appliance or hard drive controller, is believed to not be exploitable.
The specific impact depends on the implementation of the address translation mechanism in the OS and the underlying hardware architecture. The attack can reveal the content of any memory that is mapped into a user address space, even if otherwise protected. For example, before kernel page-table isolation was introduced, most versions of Linux mapped all physical memory into the address space of every user-space process; the mapped addresses are (mostly) protected, making them unreadable from user-space and accessible only when transitioned into the kernel. The existence of these mappings makes transitioning to and from the kernel faster, but is unsafe in the presence of the Meltdown vulnerability, as the contents of all physical memory (which may contain sensitive information such as passwords belonging to other processes or the kernel) can then be obtained via the above method by any unprivileged process from user-space.
According to researchers, "every Intel processor that implements out-of-order execution is potentially affected, which is effectively every processor since 1995 (except Intel Itanium, and Intel Atom before 2013)." Intel responded to the reported security vulnerabilities with an official statement.
The vulnerability is expected to impact major cloud providers, such as Amazon Web Services (AWS) and Google Cloud Platform. Cloud providers allow users to execute programs on the same physical servers where sensitive data might be stored, and rely on safeguards provided by the CPU to prevent unauthorized access to the privileged memory locations where that data is stored, a feature that the Meltdown exploit circumvents.
The original paper reports that paravirtualization (Xen) and containers such as Docker, LXC, and OpenVZ, are affected. They report that the attack on a fully virtualized machine allows the guest user space to read from the guest kernel memory, but not read from the host kernel space.
Affected hardware
The Meltdown vulnerability primarily affects Intel microprocessors, but the ARM Cortex-A75 and IBM's Power microprocessors are also affected. The vulnerability does not affect AMD microprocessors. When the effect of Meltdown was first made public, Intel countered that the flaws affect all processors, but AMD denied this, saying "we believe AMD processors are not susceptible due to our use of privilege level protections within paging architecture".
Researchers have indicated that the Meltdown vulnerability is exclusive to Intel processors, while the Spectre vulnerability can possibly affect some Intel, AMD, and ARM processors. However, ARM announced that some of their processors were vulnerable to Meltdown. Google has reported that any Intel processor since 1995 with out-of-order execution is potentially vulnerable to the Meltdown vulnerability (this excludes Itanium and pre-2013 Intel Atom CPUs). Intel introduced speculative execution to their processors with Intel's P6 family microarchitecture with the Pentium Pro IA-32 microprocessor in 1995.
ARM has reported that the majority of their processors are not vulnerable, and published a list of the specific processors that are affected. The ARM Cortex-A75 core is affected directly by both Meltdown and Spectre vulnerabilities, and Cortex-R7, Cortex-R8, Cortex-A8, Cortex-A9, Cortex-A15, Cortex-A17, Cortex-A57, Cortex-A72, and Cortex-A73 cores are affected only by the Spectre vulnerability. This contradicts some early statements made about the Meltdown vulnerability as being Intel-only.
A large portion of the then-current mid-range Android handsets use the Cortex-A53 or Cortex-A55 in an octa-core arrangement and are not affected by either the Meltdown or Spectre vulnerability as they do not perform out-of-order execution. This includes devices with the Qualcomm Snapdragon 630, Snapdragon 626, Snapdragon 625, and all Snapdragon 4xx processors based on A53 or A55 cores. Also, no Raspberry Pi computers are vulnerable to either Meltdown or Spectre, except the newly released Raspberry Pi 4, which uses the ARM Cortex-A72 CPU.
IBM has also confirmed that its Power CPUs are affected by both CPU attacks. Red Hat has publicly announced that the exploits are also for IBM System Z, POWER8, and POWER9 systems.
Oracle has stated that V9-based SPARC systems (T5, M5, M6, S7, M7, M8, M10, M12 processors) are not affected by Meltdown, though older SPARC processors that are no longer supported may be impacted.
Mitigation
Mitigation of the vulnerability requires changes to operating system kernel code, including increased isolation of kernel memory from user-mode processes. Linux kernel developers have referred to this measure as kernel page-table isolation (KPTI). KPTI patches have been developed for Linux kernel 4.15, and have been released as a backport in kernels 4.14.11 and 4.9.75. Red Hat released kernel updates to their Red Hat Enterprise Linux distributions version 6 and version 7. CentOS also already released their kernel updates to CentOS 6 and CentOS 7.
Apple included mitigations in macOS 10.13.2, iOS 11.2, and tvOS 11.2. These were released a month before the vulnerabilities were made public. Apple has stated that watchOS and the Apple Watch are not affected. Additional mitigations were included in a Safari update as well a supplemental update to macOS 10.13, and iOS 11.2.2.
Microsoft released an emergency update to Windows 10, 8.1, and 7 SP1 to address the vulnerability on 3 January 2018, as well as Windows Server (including Server 2008 R2, Server 2012 R2, and Server 2016) and Windows Embedded Industry. These patches are incompatible with third-party antivirus software that use unsupported kernel calls; systems running incompatible antivirus software will not receive this or any future Windows security updates until it is patched, and the software adds a special registry key affirming its compatibility. The update was found to have caused issues on systems running certain AMD CPUs, with some users reporting that their Windows installations did not boot at all after installation. On 9 January 2018, Microsoft paused the distribution of the update to systems with affected CPUs while it investigated and addressed this bug.
It was reported that implementation of KPTI may lead to a reduction in CPU performance, with some researchers claiming up to 30% loss in performance, depending on usage, though Intel considered this to be an exaggeration. It was reported that Intel processor generations that support process-context identifiers (PCID), a feature introduced with Westmere and available on all chips from the Haswell architecture onward, were not as susceptible to performance losses under KPTI as older generations that lack it. This is because the selective translation lookaside buffer (TLB) flushing enabled by PCID (also called address space number or ASN under the Alpha architecture) enables the shared TLB behavior crucial to the exploit to be isolated across processes, without constantly flushing the entire cache – the primary reason for the cost of mitigation.
A statement by Intel said that "any performance impacts are workload-dependent, and, for the average computer user, should not be significant and will be mitigated over time". Phoronix benchmarked several popular PC games on a Linux system with Intel's Coffee Lake Core i7-8700K CPU and KPTI patches installed, and found that any performance impact was small to non-existent. In other tests, including synthetic I/O benchmarks and databases such as PostgreSQL and Redis, an impact in performance was found, accounting even to tens of percent for some workloads. More recently, related tests, involving AMD's FX and Intel's Sandybridge and Ivybridge CPUs, have been reported.
Several procedures to help protect home computers and related devices from the Meltdown and Spectre security vulnerabilities have been published. Meltdown patches may produce performance loss. On 18 January 2018, unwanted reboots, even for newer Intel chips, due to Meltdown and Spectre patches, were reported. According to Dell, "No 'real-world' exploits of these vulnerabilities [ie, Meltdown and Spectre] have been reported to date [26 January 2018], though researchers have produced proof-of-concepts." Dell further recommended "promptly adopting software updates, avoiding unrecognized hyperlinks and websites, not downloading files or applications from unknown sources ... following secure password protocols ... [using] security software to help protect against malware (advanced threat prevention software or anti-virus)."
On 25 January 2018, the current status and possible future considerations in solving the Meltdown and Spectre vulnerabilities were presented. In March 2018, Intel announced that it had designed hardware fixes for future processors for Meltdown and Spectre-V2 only, but not Spectre-V1. The vulnerabilities were mitigated by a new partitioning system that improves process and privilege-level separation. The company also announced it had developed workarounds in microcode for processors dating back to 2013, and that it had plans to develop them for most processors dating back to 2007 including the Core 2 Duo; however, a month later in April 2018, it announced it was backing off that plan for a number of processor families and that no processor earlier than 2008 would have a patch available.
On 8 October 2018, Intel was reported to have added hardware and firmware mitigations regarding Spectre and Meltdown vulnerabilities to its latest processors.
See also
Intel Management Engine – an Intel subsystem which was discovered to have a major security vulnerability in 2017
Pentium F00F bug
Pentium FDIV bug
Row hammer – an unintended side effect in dynamic random-access memory causing memory cells to interact electrically
Spoiler − a Spectre-like, though unrelated, vulnerability affecting only Intel microprocessors, disclosed in 2019.
References
External links
Official website of the Meltdown and Spectre vulnerabilities
Google Project Zero write-up
CVE-2017-5754 at National Vulnerability Database
Meltdown's proof-of-concept released by researchers that also published the meltdown paper.
Am I Affected by Meltdown – Meltdown Checker Tool created by Raphael S. Carvalho
Meltdown/Spectre Checker Gibson Research Corporation
Intel x86 microprocessors
Transient execution CPU vulnerabilities
X86 memory management
2018 in computing | Meltdown (security vulnerability) | [
"Technology"
] | 6,700 | [
"Transient execution CPU vulnerabilities",
"Computer security exploits"
] |
56,208,957 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NGC%206028 | NGC 6028 is a barred lenticular galaxy and a ring galaxy located about 200 million light-years away in the constellation Hercules. Ring galaxies such as NGC 6028 are also known as Hoag-type galaxies as they may have a resemblance to the prototype, Hoag's Object. NGC 6028 was discovered by astronomer William Herschel on March 14, 1784. It was then rediscovered by astronomer Guillaume Bigourdan on May 4, 1886.
Physical characteristics
NGC 6028 consists of a luminous core that is surrounded by a fainter outer ring. Unlike Hoag's Object, NGC 6028's core is elongated indicating the presence of a weak bar embedded in a lens-like structure. The outer ring of the galaxy appears asymmetric in structure and may be made up of tightly wound spiral arms. The observed asymmetry could be the result of one arm being richer in H II regions than the other arm.
Group membership
NGC 6028 appears to lie near the Hercules cluster in the sky. However, NGC 6028 is not a member of that cluster but instead belongs to a foreground group of galaxies known as G47.
See also
List of NGC objects (6001–7000)
List of ring galaxies
Hoag's Object
Cartwheel Galaxy
PGC 1000714
UGC 4599 - galaxy closely resembling Hoag's Object
References
External links
Hercules (constellation)
Ring galaxies
Lenticular galaxies
Barred lenticular galaxies
6028
56716
10135
Astronomical objects discovered in 1784
Discoveries by William Herschel | NGC 6028 | [
"Astronomy"
] | 308 | [
"Hercules (constellation)",
"Constellations"
] |
56,209,204 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spectre%20%28security%20vulnerability%29 | Spectre is one of the two original speculative execution CPU vulnerabilities (the other being Meltdown), which involve microarchitectural side-channel attacks. These affect modern microprocessors that perform branch prediction and other forms of speculation.
On most processors, the speculative execution resulting from a branch misprediction may leave observable side effects that may reveal private data to attackers. For example, if the pattern of memory accesses performed by such speculative execution depends on private data, the resulting state of the data cache constitutes a side channel through which an attacker may be able to extract information about the private data using a timing attack.
Two Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures IDs related to Spectre, (bounds check bypass, Spectre-V1, Spectre 1.0) and (branch target injection, Spectre-V2), have been issued. JIT engines used for JavaScript were found to be vulnerable. A website can read data stored in the browser for another website, or the browser's memory itself.
In early 2018, Intel reported that it would redesign its CPUs to help protect against the Spectre and related Meltdown vulnerabilities (especially, Spectre variant 2 and Meltdown, but not Spectre variant 1). On 8 October 2018, Intel was reported to have added hardware and firmware mitigations regarding Spectre and Meltdown vulnerabilities to its latest processors.
History
In 2002 and 2003, Yukiyasu Tsunoo and colleagues from NEC showed how to attack MISTY and DES symmetric key ciphers, respectively. In 2005, Daniel Bernstein from the University of Illinois, Chicago reported an extraction of an OpenSSL AES key via a cache timing attack, and Colin Percival had a working attack on the OpenSSL RSA key using the Intel processor's cache. In 2013 Yuval Yarom and Katrina Falkner from the University of Adelaide showed how measuring the access time to data lets a nefarious application determine if the information was read from the cache or not. If it was read from the cache the access time would be very short, meaning the data read could contain the private key of encryption algorithms. This technique was used to successfully attack GnuPG, AES and other cryptographic implementations. In January 2017, Anders Fogh gave a presentation at the Ruhr University Bochum about automatically finding covert channels, especially on processors with a pipeline used by more than one processor core.
Spectre proper was discovered independently by Jann Horn from Google's Project Zero and Paul Kocher in collaboration with Daniel Genkin, Mike Hamburg, Moritz Lipp, and Yuval Yarom. It was made public in conjunction with another vulnerability, Meltdown, on 3 January 2018, after the affected hardware vendors had already been made aware of the issue on 1 June 2017. The vulnerability was called Spectre because it was "based on the root cause, speculative execution. As it is not easy to fix, it will haunt us for quite some time."
On 28 January 2018, it was reported that Intel shared news of the Meltdown and Spectre security vulnerabilities with Chinese technology companies, before notifying the U.S. government of the flaws.
On 29 January 2018, Microsoft was reported to have released a Windows update that disabled the problematic Intel Microcode fix—which had, in some cases, caused reboots, system instability, and data loss or corruption—issued earlier by Intel for the Spectre Variant 2 attack. Woody Leonhard of ComputerWorld expressed a concern about installing the new Microsoft patch.
Since the disclosure of Spectre and Meltdown in January 2018, much research had been done on vulnerabilities related to speculative execution. On 3 May 2018, eight additional Spectre-class flaws provisionally named Spectre-NG by c't (a German computer magazine) were reported affecting Intel and possibly AMD and ARM processors. Intel reported that they were preparing new patches to mitigate these flaws. Affected are all Core i Series processors and Xeon derivates since Nehalem (2010) and Atom-based processors since 2013. Intel postponed their release of microcode updates to 10 July 2018.
On 21 May 2018, Intel published information on the first two Spectre-NG class side-channel vulnerabilities (Rogue System Register Read, Variant 3a) and (Speculative Store Bypass, Variant 4), also referred to as Intel SA-00115 and HP PSR-2018-0074, respectively.
According to Amazon Germany, Cyberus Technology, SYSGO, and Colin Percival (FreeBSD), Intel revealed details on the third Spectre-NG variant (Lazy FP State Restore, Intel SA-00145) on 13 June 2018. It is also known as Lazy FPU state leak (abbreviated "LazyFP") and "Spectre-NG 3".
On 10 July 2018, Intel revealed details on another Spectre-NG class vulnerability called "Bounds Check Bypass Store" (BCBS), or "Spectre 1.1" (), which was able to write as well as read out of bounds. Another variant named "Spectre 1.2" was mentioned as well.
In late July 2018, researchers at the universities of Saarland and California revealed ret2spec (aka "Spectre v5") and SpectreRSB, new types of code execution vulnerabilities using the return stack buffer (RSB).
At the end of July 2018, researchers at the Graz University of Technology revealed "NetSpectre", a new type of remote attack similar to Spectre v1, but which does not need attacker-controlled code to be run on the target device at all.
On 8 October 2018, Intel was reported to have added hardware and firmware mitigations regarding Spectre and Meltdown vulnerabilities to its latest processors.
In November 2018, five new variants of the attacks were revealed. Researchers attempted to compromise CPU protection mechanisms using code to exploit the CPU pattern history table, branch target buffer, return stack buffer, and branch history table.
In August 2019, a related speculative execution CPU vulnerability, Spectre SWAPGS (), was reported.
In July 2020 a team of researchers from TU Kaiserslautern, Germany published a new Spectre variant called "Spectre-STC" (single-threaded contention). This variant makes use of port contention in shared resources and can be applied even in single-threaded cores.
In late April 2021, a related vulnerability was discovered that breaks through the security systems designed to mitigate Spectre through use of the micro-op cache. The vulnerability is known to affect Skylake and later processors from Intel and Zen-based processors from AMD.
In February 2023, a team of researchers at North Carolina State University uncovered a new code execution vulnerability called Spectre-HD, also known as "Spectre SRV" or "Spectre v6". This vulnerability leverages speculative vectorization with selective replay (SRV) technique showing "Leakage from Higher Dimensional Speculation".
Mechanism
Instead of a single easy-to-fix vulnerability, the Spectre white paper describes a whole class of potential vulnerabilities. They are all based on exploiting side effects of speculative execution, a common means of hiding memory latency and so speeding up execution in modern microprocessors. In particular, Spectre centers on branch prediction, which is a special case of speculative execution. Unlike the related Meltdown vulnerability disclosed at the same time, Spectre does not rely on a specific feature of a single processor's memory management and protection system, but is instead a more generalized idea.
The starting point of the white paper is that of a side-channel timing attack applied to the branch prediction machinery of modern microprocessors with speculative execution. While at the architectural level documented in processor data books, any results of misprediction are specified to be discarded after the fact, the resulting speculative execution may still leave side effects, like loaded cache lines. These can then affect the so-called non-functional aspects of the computing environment later on. If such side effects including but not limited to memory access timing are visible to a malicious program, and can be engineered to depend on sensitive data held by the victim process, then these side effects can result in such data becoming discernible. This can happen despite the formal architecture-level security arrangements working as designed; in this case, lower, microarchitecture-level optimizations to code execution can leak information not essential to the correctness of normal program execution.
The Spectre paper explains the attack in four essential steps:
First, it shows that branch prediction logic in modern processors can be trained to reliably hit or miss based on the internal workings of a malicious program.
It then goes on to show that the subsequent difference between cache hits and misses can be reliably timed, so that what should have been a simple non-functional difference can in fact be subverted into a covert channel which extracts information from an unrelated process's inner workings.
Thirdly, the paper synthesizes the results with return-oriented programming exploits and other principles with a simple example program and a JavaScript snippet run under a sandboxing browser; in both cases, the entire address space of the victim process (i.e. the contents of a running program) is shown to be readable by simply exploiting speculative execution of conditional branches in code generated by a stock compiler or the JavaScript machinery present in an existing browser. The basic idea is to search existing code for places where speculation touches upon otherwise inaccessible data, manipulate the processor into a state where speculative execution has to contact that data, and then time the side effect of the processor being faster, if its by-now-prepared prefetch machinery indeed did load a cache line.
Finally, the paper concludes by generalizing the attack to any non-functional state of the victim process. It briefly discusses even such highly non-obvious non-functional effects as bus arbitration latency.
Meltdown can be used to read privileged memory in a process's address space which even the process itself would normally be unable to access (on some unprotected OSes this includes data belonging to the kernel or other processes). It was shown that under certain circumstances, the Spectre vulnerability is also capable of reading memory outside of the current process's memory space.
The Meltdown paper distinguishes the two vulnerabilities thus: "Meltdown is distinct from the Spectre Attacks in several ways, notably that Spectre requires tailoring to the victim process's software environment, but applies more broadly to CPUs and is not mitigated by KAISER."
Remote exploitation
While Spectre is simpler to exploit with a compiled language such as C or C++ by locally executing machine code, it can also be remotely exploited by code hosted on remote malicious web pages, for example interpreted languages like JavaScript, which run locally using a web browser. The scripted malware would then have access to all the memory mapped to the address space of the running browser.
The exploit using remote JavaScript follows a similar flow to that of a local machine code exploit: flush cache → mistrain branch predictor → timed reads (tracking hit / miss).
The clflush instruction (cache-line flush) cannot be used directly from JavaScript, so ensuring it is used requires another approach. There are several automatic cache eviction policies which the CPU may choose, and the attack relies on being able to force that eviction for the exploit to work. It was found that using a second index on the large array, which was kept several iterations behind the first index, would cause the least recently used (LRU) policy to be used. This allows the exploit to effectively clear the cache just by doing incremental reads on a large dataset. The branch predictor would then be mistrained by iterating over a very large dataset using bitwise operations for setting the index to in-range values, and then using an out-of-bounds address for the final iteration. A high-precision timer would then be required in order to determine if a set of reads led to a cache-hit or a cache-miss. While browsers like Chrome, Firefox, and Tor Browser (based on Firefox) have placed restrictions on the resolution of timers (required in Spectre exploit to determine if cache hit/miss), at the time of authoring the white paper, the Spectre author was able to create a high-precision timer using the web worker feature of HTML5.
Careful coding and analysis of the machine code executed by the just-in-time compilation (JIT) compiler was required to ensure the cache-clearing and exploitive reads were not optimized out.
Impact
As of 2018, almost every computer system is affected by Spectre, including desktops, laptops, and mobile devices. Specifically, Spectre has been shown to work on Intel, AMD, ARM-based, and IBM processors. Intel responded to the reported security vulnerabilities with an official statement. AMD originally acknowledged vulnerability to one of the Spectre variants (GPZ variant 1), but stated that vulnerability to another (GPZ variant 2) had not been demonstrated on AMD processors, claiming it posed a "near zero risk of exploitation" due to differences in AMD architecture. In an update nine days later, AMD said that "GPZ Variant 2 ... is applicable to AMD processors" and defined upcoming steps to mitigate the threat. Several sources took AMD's news of the vulnerability to GPZ variant 2 as a change from AMD's prior claim, though AMD maintained that their position had not changed.
Researchers have indicated that the Spectre vulnerability can possibly affect some Intel, AMD, and ARM processors. Specifically, processors with speculative execution are affected with these vulnerabilities.
ARM has reported that the majority of their processors are not vulnerable, and published a list of the specific processors that are affected by the Spectre vulnerability: Cortex-R7, Cortex-R8, Cortex-A8, Cortex-A9, Cortex-A15, Cortex-A17, Cortex-A57, Cortex-A72, Cortex-A73 and ARM Cortex-A75 cores. Other manufacturers' custom CPU cores implementing the ARM instruction set, such as those found in newer members of the Apple A series processors, have also been reported to be vulnerable. In general, higher-performance CPUs tend to have intensive speculative execution, making them vulnerable to Spectre.
Spectre has the potential of having a greater impact on cloud providers than Meltdown. Whereas Meltdown allows unauthorized applications to read from privileged memory to obtain sensitive data from processes running on the same cloud server, Spectre can allow malicious programs to induce a hypervisor to transmit the data to a guest system running on top of it.
Mitigation
Since Spectre represents a whole class of attacks, most likely, there cannot be a single patch for it. While work is already being done to address special cases of the vulnerability, the original website devoted to Spectre and Meltdown states, "As [Spectre] is not easy to fix, it will haunt us for a long time." At the same time, according to Dell: "No 'real-world' exploits of these vulnerabilities [i.e., Meltdown and Spectre] have been reported to date [7 February 2018], though researchers have produced proof-of-concepts."
Several procedures to help protect home computers and related devices from the vulnerability have been published. Spectre patches have been reported to significantly slow down performance, especially on older computers; on the newer eighth-generation Core platforms, benchmark performance drops of 2–14 percent have been measured. On 18 January 2018, unwanted reboots, even for newer Intel chips, due to Meltdown and Spectre patches, were reported.
In early January 2018, Chris Hoffman of the website HowToGeek suggested that the fix would require "a complete hardware redesign for CPUs across the board" and noted how, once software fixes were released, benchmarks showed and vendors claimed that some users may notice slowdowns on their computers once patched.
As early as 2018, machine learning has been employed to detect attacks in real time. This has led to an arms race where attackers also employ machine learning to thwart machine learning based detectors, and detectors in turn employ Generative Adversarial Networks to adapt detection techniques.
On 4 January 2018, Google detailed a new technique on their security blog called "Retpoline" (a portmanteau of return and trampoline) which can overcome the Spectre vulnerability with a negligible amount of processor overhead. It involves compiler-level steering of indirect branches towards a different target that does not result in a vulnerable speculative out-of-order execution taking place. While it was developed for the x86 instruction set, Google engineers believe the technique is transferable to other processors as well.
On 25 January 2018, the current status and possible future considerations in solving the Meltdown and Spectre vulnerabilities were presented.
In March 2018, Intel announced that they had developed hardware fixes for Meltdown and Spectre-V2 only, but not Spectre-V1. The vulnerabilities were mitigated by a new partitioning system that improves process and privilege-level separation.
On 8 October 2018, Intel is reported to have added hardware and firmware mitigations regarding Spectre and Meltdown vulnerabilities to its Coffee Lake-R processors and onwards.
On 18 October 2018, MIT researchers suggested a new mitigation approach, called DAWG (Dynamically Allocated Way Guard), which may promise better security without compromising performance.
On 16 April 2019, researchers from UC San Diego and University of Virginia proposed Context-Sensitive Fencing, a microcode-based defense mechanism that surgically injects fences into the dynamic execution stream, protecting against a number of Spectre variants at just 8% degradation in performance.
On 26 November 2021, researchers from Texas A&M University and Intel showed that Spectre attack (and other family of transient attacks) cannot be detected by typical antivirus or anti-malware software currently available, before they leak data. Especially, they show that it is easy to generate evasive versions of these attacks to build malware instead of their generic gadgets to bypass current antivirus applications. It was shown that this is due to the fact that these attacks can leak data using transient instructions that never get committed during a very short transient window and so are not visible from architecture layer (software) before leakage, but they are visible in microarchitecture layer (hardware). Additionally, software is limited to monitor four Hardware Performance Counters (HPCs) every 100 ns, which makes it difficult and almost impossible to collect information about malicious activity correlated with these attacks from software using antivirus applications before they can leak data.
On 20 October 2022, researchers from North Carolina State University, UC San Diego and Intel announced that they were able to design the first detection technology that can detect transient attacks before leakage in the microarchitecture layer (hardware). This was accomplished by building the first machine learning accelerator for security, designed to be built in Intel chips. This technology has a fast speed of sampling activity of transient instructions every 1ns and making predictions every 10 nanoseconds, allowing detection of transient attacks such as Spectre and Meltdown before data leakage occurs, and it automatically enables counter measurements in the chip. This technology is also equipped with adversarial training, making it immune to large category of adversarial and evasive versions of Spectre attack.
Linux
When Intel announced that Spectre mitigation can be switched on as a "security feature" instead of being an always-on bugfix, Linux creator Linus Torvalds called the patches "complete and utter garbage". Ingo Molnár then suggested the use of function tracing machinery in the Linux kernel to fix Spectre without Indirect Branch Restricted Speculation (IBRS) microcode support. This would, as a result, only have a performance impact on processors based on Intel Skylake and newer architecture. This ftrace and retpoline-based machinery was incorporated into Linux 4.15 of January 2018. The Linux kernel provides a sysfs interface to enumerate the current status of the system regarding Spectre in /sys/devices/system/cpu/vulnerabilities/
Microsoft Windows
On 2 March 2019, Microsoft is reported to have released an important Windows 10 (v1809) software mitigation to the Spectre v2 CPU vulnerability.
Other software
Several procedures to help protect home computers and related devices from the vulnerability have been published.
Initial mitigation efforts were not entirely without incident. At first, Spectre patches were reported to significantly slow down performance, especially on older computers. On the newer eighth generation Core platforms, benchmark performance drops of 2–14 percent were measured. On 18 January 2018, unwanted reboots were reported even for newer Intel chips.
Since exploitation of Spectre through JavaScript embedded in websites is possible, it was planned to include mitigations against the attack by default in Chrome 64. Chrome 63 users could manually mitigate the attack by enabling the site isolation feature (chrome://flags#enable-site-per-process).
As of Firefox 57.0.4, Mozilla was reducing the resolution of JavaScript timers to help prevent timing attacks, with additional work on time-fuzzing techniques planned for future releases.
On January 15, 2018, Microsoft introduced mitigation for Spectre in Visual Studio. This can be applied by using the /Qspectre switch. A developer would need to download and install the appropriate libraries using the Visual Studio installer.
Immune hardware
ARM:
A55
A53
A32
A7
A5
x86:
Intel Atom N270 / N280
i486 and older
See also
Row hammer
SPOILER (security vulnerability)
Speculative execution CPU vulnerabilities
References
Further reading
External links
Website detailing the Meltdown and Spectre vulnerabilities, hosted by Graz University of Technology
Google Project Zero write-up
Meltdown/Spectre Checker Gibson Research Corporation
Spectre & Meltdown vulnerability/mitigation checker for Linux
Transient execution CPU vulnerabilities
2018 in computing
X86 memory management | Spectre (security vulnerability) | [
"Technology"
] | 4,620 | [
"Transient execution CPU vulnerabilities",
"Computer security exploits"
] |
56,209,584 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trametes%20africana | Trametes africana is a poroid bracket fungus in the family Polyporaceae. It was described as new to science in 2004 by Norwegian mycologist Leif Ryvarden. It is found in Africa, where it has been recorded from Cameroon, Ethiopia, Kenya, Rwanda and Uganda. The fungus is characterized by its perennial habit and hard woody fruit bodies that become reddish to bay in colour with a waxy surface texture around the base. The pore surface and context are brownish to yellowish. Spores made by the fungus are cylindrical, hyaline, and thin-walled, measuring 5–8 by 2.5–3.3 μm.
See also
List of Trametes species
References
Polyporaceae
Fungi described in 2004
Fungi of Africa
Taxa named by Leif Ryvarden
Fungus species | Trametes africana | [
"Biology"
] | 164 | [
"Fungi",
"Fungus species"
] |
56,209,602 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dimethomorph | Dimethomorph is a fungicide with systemic function. It is used for treating mildew and root rot caused by organisms such as Pythium and Phytophthora species.
References
Fungicides
4-Chlorophenyl compounds
4-Morpholinyl compounds
Methoxy compounds | Dimethomorph | [
"Biology"
] | 65 | [
"Fungicides",
"Biocides"
] |
56,209,785 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20taxa%20with%20candidatus%20status | This is a list of taxa with Candidatus status. For taxa not covered by this list, see also:
the GenBank taxonomy for "effective" names as published;
the Candidatus Lists and LPSN for latinate names, some sanitized to match the Code.
Phyla
"Ca. Absconditabacteria" (previously Candidate phylum SR1)
ABY1 aka OD1-ABY1, subgroup of OD1 ("Ca. Parcubacteria")
Candidate phylum AC1
"Ca. Acetothermia" (previously Candidate phylum OP1)
"Ca. Aerophobetes" (previously Candidate phylum CD12 or BHI80-139)
"Ca. Aminicenantes" (previously Candidate phylum OP8)
aquifer1
aquifer2
"Ca. Berkelbacteria" (previously Candidate phylum ACD58)
BRC1
CAB-I
"Ca. Calescamantes" (previously Candidate phylum EM19)
Candidate phylum CPR2
Candidate phylum CPR3
Candidate phylum NC10
Candidate phylum OP2
Candidate phylum RF3
Candidate phylum SAM
Candidate phylum SPAM
Candidate phylum TG2
Candidate phylum VC2
Candidate phylum WS1
Candidate phylum WS2
Candidate phylum WS4
Candidate phylum WYO
CKC4
"Ca. Cloacimonetes" (previously Candidate phylum WWE1)
CPR1
"Ca. Dependentiae" (previously Candidate phylum TM6)
EM 3
"Ca. Endomicrobia" Stingl et al. 2005
"Ca. Fermentibacteria" (Hyd24-12)
"Ca. Fervidibacteria" (previously Candidate phylum OctSpa1-106)
GAL08
GAL15
GN01
GN03
GN04
GN05
GN06
GN07
GN08
GN09
GN10
GN11
GN12
GN13
GN14
GN15
GOUTA4
"Ca. Gracilibacteria" (previously Candidate phylum GN02, BD1-5, or BD1-5 group)
Guaymas1
"Ca. Hydrogenedentes" (previously Candidate phylum NKB19)
JL-ETNP-Z39
"Ca. Katanobacteria" (previously Candidate phylum WWE3)
Kazan-3B-09
KD3-62
kpj58rc
KSA1
KSA2
KSB1
KSB2
KSB4
"Ca. Latescibacteria" (previously Candidate phylum WS3)
LCP-89
LD1-PA38
"Ca. Marinamargulisbacteria" (previously Candidate division ZB3)
"Ca. Marinimicrobia" (previously Marine Group A or Candidate phylum SAR406)
"Ca. Melainabacteria"
"Ca. Microgenomates" (previously Candidate phylum OP11)
"Ca. Modulibacteria" (previously Candidate phylum KSB3)
MSBL2
MSBL3
MSBL4
MSBL5
MSBL6
NPL-UPA2
NT-B4
OC31
"Ca. Omnitrophica" (previously Candidate phylum OP3)
OP4
OP6
OP7
OS-K/OS-K group
"Ca. Parcubacteria" (previously Candidate phylum OD1)
PAUC34f
"Ca. Peregrinibacteria" (previously Candidate phylum PER)
"Ca. Poribacteria"
RsaHF231
S2R-29
"Ca. Saccharibacteria" (previously Candidate phylum TM7)
SBR1093
SBYG-2791
Candidate phylum SC3
Candidate phylum SC4
Sediment-1
Sediment-2
Sediment-3
Sediment-4
SHA-109
SM2F11
TA06
"Ca. Tectomicrobia"
TG3 ("Ca. Chitinivibrionia")
WCHB1-60
WD272
WOR-1
WOR-3
WPS-1
WPS-2
WS5
WS6
ZB2 aka OD1-ZB2 subgroup of OD1 ("Ca. Parcubacteria")
"Ca. Zixibacteria"
Classes
"Ca. Lambdaproteobacteria" Anantharaman et al. 2016
"Ca. Muproteobacteria" Anantharaman et al. 2016
"Ca. Zetaproteobacteria" Emerson et al. 2007
Orders
"Ca. Nitrosopumilales" Könneke et al. 2005
Families
"Ca. Midichloriaceae" Montagna et al. 2013
"Ca. Nitrosopumilaceae" Könneke et al. 2005
"Ca. Procabacteriaceae"
"Ca. Rhabdochlamydiaceae"
Genera
"Ca. Accumulibacter" Hesselmann et al. 1999
"Ca. Allobeggiatoa" Hinck et al. 2011
"Ca. Arthromitus" Snel et al. 1995
"Ca. Bacilloplasma" Kostanjšek et al. 2007
"Ca. Baumannia" Moran et al. 2003
"Ca. Blochmannia" Sauer et al. 2000
"Ca. Carsonella" Thao et al. 2000
"Ca. Chlorothrix" Klappenbach and Pierson 2004
"Ca. Competibacter" Crocetti et al. 2002
"Ca. Contubernalis" Zhilina et al. 2005
"Ca. Desulforudis"
"Ca. Endomicrobium" Stingl et al. 2005
"Ca. Epixenosoma"
"Ca. Giganthauma"
"Ca. Glomeribacter" Bianciotto et al. 2003
"Ca. Kleidoceria" Kuechler et al. 2010
"Ca. Kuenenia" Schmid et al. 2000
"Ca. Liberibacter"
"Ca. Lokiarchaeum"
"Ca. Lumbricincola" Nechitaylo et al. 2009
"Ca. Magnetobacterium" Murray and Stackebrandt 1995
"Ca. Methanoregula"
"Ca. Microthrix"
"Ca. Nardonella" Lefèvre et al. 2004
"Ca. Nitrosoarchaeum" Blainey et al. 2011
"Ca. Nitrosopumilus" Könneke et al. 2005
"Ca. Pelagibacter" Rappe et al. 2002
"Ca. Photodesmus" Hendry and Dunlap 2011
"Ca. Phytoplasma" Firrao et al. 2004
"Ca. Portiera" Thao and Baumann 2004
"Ca. Procabacter" Horn et al. 2002
"Ca. Rhabdochlamydia"
"Ca. Riegeria" Gruber-Vodicka et al. 2011
"Ca. Rohrkolberia" Kuechler et al. 2011
"Ca. Salinibacter" Antón et al. 2000
"Ca. Savagella" Thompson et al. 2012
"Ca. Scalindua"
"Ca. Similichlamydia" Stride et al. 2013
"Ca. Symbiothrix" Hongoh et al. 2007
"Ca. Tremblaya" Thao et al. 2002
"Ca. Xiphinematobacter" Vandekerckhove et al. 2000
Species and subspecies
Unless otherwise noted (♦), these entries are from LPSN.
"Ca. Acaryochloris bahamiensis" López-Legentil et al. 2011
"Ca. Acidianus copahuensis" Giaveno et al. 2013
"Ca. Aciduliprofundum boonei" Schouten et al. 2008
"Ca. Accumulibacter phosphatis" Hesselmann et al. 1999
"Ca. Actinobaculum timonae" Drancourt et al. 2004
"Ca. Adiaceo aphidicola" Darby et al. 2005
"Ca. Allobeggiatoa salina" Hinck et al. 2011
"Ca. Alysiomicrobium bavaricum" Kragelund et al. 2006
"Ca. Alysiosphaera europaea" Kragelund et al. 2006
"Ca. Amoebinatus massiliae" Greub et al. 2004
"Ca. Amoebophilus asiaticus" Horn et al. 2001
"Ca. Amphibiichlamydia ranarum" Martel et al. 2013
"Ca. Anadelfobacter veles" Vannini et al. 2010
"Ca. Ancillula trichonymphae" Strassert et al. 2012
"Ca. Anammoxoglobus propionicus" Kartal et al. 2007
"Ca. Anaplasma sparouinense" Duron et al. 2022
"Ca. Aquiluna rubra" Hahn 2009
"Ca. Aquirestis calciphila" Hahn and Schauer 2007
"Ca. Arcobacter sulfidicus" Wirsen et al. 2002
"Ca. Arsenophonus arthropodicus" Dale et al. 2002
"Ca. Arsenophonus phytopathogenicus" Bressan et al. 2012
"Ca. Arsenophonus triatominarum" Hypsa and Dale 1997
"Ca. Aschnera chinzeii" Hosokawa et al. 2012
"Ca. Atelocyanobacterium thalassa(♦)
"Ca. Azoamicus ciliaticola" Graf et al. 2021
"Ca. Bacteroides massiliae" Drancourt et al. 2004
"Ca. Bartonella ancashi" Blazes et al. 2013
"Ca. Bartonella antechini" Kaewmongkol et al. 2011
"Ca. Bartonella breitschwerdtii(♦)
"Ca. Bartonella bandicootii" Kaewmongkol et al. 2011
"Ca. Bartonella durdenii(♦)
"Ca. Bartonella eldjazairii(♦)
"Ca. Bartonella mayotimonensis" Lin et al. 2010
"Ca. Bartonella melophagi(♦)
"Ca. Bartonella merieuxii" Chomel et al. 2012
"Ca. Bartonella monaxi(♦)
"Ca. Bartonella rudakovii(♦)
"Ca. Bartonella thailandensis" Saisongkorh et al. 2009
"Ca. Bartonella volans(♦)
"Ca. Bartonella woyliei" Kaewmongkol et al. 2011
"Ca. Baumannia cicadellinicola" Moran et al. 2003
"Ca. Benitsuchiphilus tojoi" Hosokawa et al. 2010
"Ca. Berkiella aquae" Mehari et al. 2016
"Ca. Berkiella cookevillensis" Mehari et al. 2016
"Ca. Blochmannia floridanus" Sauer et al. 2000
"Ca. Blochmannia herculeanus" Sauer et al. 2000
"Ca. Blochmannia rufipes" Sauer et al. 2000
"Ca. Borrelia tachyglossi" Loh et al. 2017
"Ca. Borrelia texasensis" Lin et al. 2005
"Ca. Branchiomonas cysticola" Toenshoff et al. 2012
"Ca. Brocadia anammoxidans" Jetten et al. 2001
"Ca. Brocadia caroliniensis" Magrí et al. 2012
"Ca. Brocadia fulgida" Kartal et al. 2004
"Ca. Brocadia sinica" Hu et al. 2010
"Ca. Brownia rhizoecola" Gruwell et al. 2010
"Ca. Burkholderia andongensis" Lemaire et al. 2011
"Ca. Burkholderia calva" Van Oevelen et al. 2004
"Ca. Burkholderia crenata(♦)
"Ca. Burkholderia hispidae" Lemaire et al. 2012
"Ca. Burkholderia kirkii" Van Oevelen et al. 2002
"Ca. Burkholderia mamillata(♦)
"Ca. Burkholderia nigropunctata" Van Oevelen et al. 2004
"Ca. Burkholderia petitii" Lemaire et al. 2011
"Ca. Burkholderia rigidae" Lemaire et al. 2012
"Ca. Burkholderia schumannianae" Lemaire et al. 2012
"Ca. Burkholderia verschuerenii(♦)
"Ca. Burkholderia virens(♦)
"Ca. Caedibacter acanthamoebae" Horn et al. 1999
"Ca. Caldiarchaeum subterraneum" Nunoura et al. 2011
"Ca. Campylobacter hominis" Lawson et al. 1998
"Ca. Captivus acidiprotistae" Baker et al. 2003
"Ca. Cardinium hertigii" Zchori-Fein et al. 2004
"Ca. Carsonella ruddii" Thao et al. 2000
"Ca. Chloracidobacterium thermophilum" Bryant et al. 2007
"Ca. Chlorothrix halophila" Klappenbach and Pierson 2004
"Ca. Chryseobacterium massiliae" Greub et al. 2004
"Ca. Chryseobacterium timonae" Drancourt et al. 2004
"Ca. Clavochlamydia salmonicola" Karlsen et al. 2008
"Ca. Cloacamonas acidaminovorans" Pelletier et al. 2008
"Ca. comitans" Jacobi et al. 1996
"Ca. Competibacter phosphatis" Crocetti et al. 2002
"Ca. Consessoris aphidicola" Darby et al. 2005
"Ca. Contubernalis alkalaceticum" Zhilina et al. 2005
"Ca. Cryptoprodotis polytropus" Ferrantini et al. 2009
"Ca. Curculioniphilus buchneri" Toju et al. 2009
"Ca. Cyrtobacter comes" Vannini et al. 2010
"Ca. Cyrtobacter zanobii" Boscaro et al. 2013
"Ca. Defluviella procrastinata" Boscaro et al. 2013
"Ca. Desulforudis audaxviator" Chivian et al. 2008
"Ca. Desulfovibrio trichonymphae" Sato et al. 2009
"Ca. Devosia euplotis" Vannini et al. 2004
"Ca. Ecksteinia adelgidicola" Toenshoff et al. 2012
"Ca. Ehrlichia walkerii" Brouqui et al. 2003
"Ca. Endobugula glebosa" Lim and Haygood 2004
"Ca. Endobugula sertula" Haygood and Davidson 1997
"Ca. Endolissoclinum faulkneri" Kwan et al. 2012
"Ca. Endoecteinascidia frumentensis" Pérez-Matos et al. 2007
"Ca. Endomicrobium pyrsonymphae" Stingl et al. 2005
"Ca. Endomicrobium trichonymphae" Stingl et al. 2005
"Ca. Endonucleobacter bathymodioli" Zielinski et al. 2009
"Ca. Endoriftia persephone" Robidart et al. 2008
"Ca. Endowatersipora palomitas" Anderson and Haygood 2007
"Ca. Endowatersipora rubus" Anderson and Haygood 2007
"Ca. Entotheonella palauensis" Schmidt et al. 2000
"Ca. Epiflobacter spp." Xia et al. 2008
"Ca. Erwinia dacicola" Capuzzo et al. 2005
"Ca. Evansia muelleri" Kuechler et al. 2013
"Ca. Flaviluna lacus" Hahn 2009
"Ca. Fodinabacter communificans" Bertin et al. 2011
"Ca. Francisella noatunensis subsp. endociliophora" Schrallhammer et al. 2011
"Ca. Frankia datiscae" Persson et al. 2011
"Ca. Fritschea bemisiae" Everett et al. 2005
"Ca. Fritschea eriococci" Everett et al. 2005
"Ca. Gillettellia cooleyia" Toenshoff et al. 2012
"Ca. Gilliamella apicola" Martinson et al. 2012
"Ca. Glomeribacter gigasporarum" Bianciotto et al. 2003
"Ca. Gortzia infectiva" Boscaro et al. 2012
"Ca. Haliscomenobacter calcifugiens" Hahn and Schauer 2007
"Ca. Halomonas phosphatis" Nguyen et al. 2012
"Ca. Hamiltonella defensa" Moran et al. 2005
"Ca. Helicobacter bovis" De Groote et al. 1999
"Ca. Helicobacter heilmannii" O'Rourke et al. 2004
"Ca. Helicobacter suis" De Groote et al. (includes strains previously known as Helicobacter heilmannii type one)
"Ca. Heliomonas lunata" Asao et al. 2012
"Ca. Hemipteriphilus asiaticus" Bing et al. 2013
"Ca. Hemobacterium ranarum" Zhang and Rikihisa 2004 (previously known as Aegyptianella ranarum)
"Ca. Hepatincola porcellionum" Wang et al. 2004
"Ca. Hepatobacter penaei" Numan et al. 2013
"Ca. Hepatoplasma crinochetorum" Wang et al. 2004
"Ca. Hodgkinia cicadicola" McCutcheon et al. 2009
"Ca. Holdemania massiliensis(♦)
"Ca. Ishikawaella capsulata" Hosokawa et al. 2006
"Ca. Isobeggiatoa divolgata" Salman et al. 2011
"Ca. Jettenia asiatica" Quan et al. 2008
"Ca. Kinetoplastibacterium blastocrithidii" Du et al. 1994
"Ca. Kinetoplastibacterium crithidii" Du et al. 1994
"Ca. Kleidoceria schneideri" Kuechler et al. 2010
"Ca. Kopriimonas aquarianus" Quinn et al. 2012
"Ca. Korarchaeum cryptofilum" Elkins et al. 2008
"Ca. Koribacter versatilis" Ward et al. 2009
"Ca. Kuenenia stuttgartiensis" Schmid et al. 2000
"Ca. Lariskella arthropodarum" Matsuura et al. 2012
"Ca. Legionella jeonii" Park et al. 2004
"Ca. Liberibacter americanus" Teixeira et al. 2005 - one cause of Citrus greening disease
"Ca. Liberibacter africanus" Roberts et al. 2015 - one cause of Citrus greening disease
"Ca. Liberibacter africanus" corrig. Jagoueix et al. 1994 (previously "Ca. Liberobacter africanum)
"Ca. Liberibacter africanus subsp. capensis" Garnier et al. 2000
"Ca. Liberibacter asiaticus" corrig. Jagoueix et al. 1994 (previously "Ca. Liberobacter asiaticum) - one cause of Citrus greening disease
"Ca. Liberibacter europaeus" Raddadi et al. 2011
"Ca. Liberibacter psyllaurous" Hansen et al. 2008
"Ca. Liberibacter solanacearum" Liefting et al. 2009 - cause of Psyllid yellows and Zebra chip
"Ca. Limnoluna rubra" Hahn 2009
"Ca. Macropleicola appendiculatae" Kölsch et al. 2009
"Ca. Macropleicola muticae" Kölsch et al. 2009
"Ca. Magnetobacterium bavaricum" Spring et al. 1993
"Ca. Magnetoglobus multicellularis" Abreu et al. 2007
"Ca. Magnospira bakii" Snaidr et al. 1999
"Ca. Maribeggiatoa vulgaris" Salman et al. 2011
"Ca. Marispirochaeta associata" Shivani et al. 2016
"Ca. Marithioploca araucae" Salman et al
"Ca. Marithrix sessilis" Salman et al. 2011
"Ca. Mesochlamydia elodeae" Corsaro et al. 2013
"Ca. Metachlamydia lacustris" Corsaro et al. 2010
"Ca. Methanogranum caenicola" Iino et al. 2013
"Ca. Methanomethylophilus alvus" Borrel et al. 2012
"Ca. Methanoregula boonei" Bräuer et al. 2006
"Ca. Methylacidiphilum infernorum" Hou et al. 2008
"Ca. Methylomirabilis oxyfera" Ettwig et al. 2010
"Ca. Micrarchaeum acidiphilum(♦)
"Ca. Microthrix calida" Levantesi et al. 2006
"Ca. Microthrix parvicella" Blackall et al. 1996
"Ca. Midichloria mitochondrii" Sassera et al. 2006
"Ca. Monilibacter batavus" Kragelund et al. 2006
"Ca. Moranella endobia" McCutcheon and von Dohlen 2011
"Ca. Mycoplasma aoti" Barker et al. 2011
"Ca. Mycoplasma corallicola" Neulinger et al. 2009
"Ca. Mycoplasma haematoparvum" Sykes et al. 2005
"Ca. Mycoplasma haemobos" Tagawa et al. 2008
"Ca. Mycoplasma haemodidelphidis" Messick et al. 2002
"Ca. Mycoplasma haemofelis" Neimark et al. 2001 (synonymous with Haemobartonella felis)
"Ca. Mycoplasma haemolamae" Messick et al. 2002
"Ca. Mycoplasma haemomacaque" Maggi et al. 2013
"Ca. Mycoplasma haemominutum" Foley and Pedersen 2001 (previously "Haemobartonella felis small form (Hfsm)")
"Ca. Mycoplasma haemomuris" Neimark et al. 2001 (synonymous with Haemobartonella muris)
"Ca. Mycoplasma haemomuris subsp. musculi" Harasawa et al. 2015
"Ca. Mycoplasma haemomuris subsp. ratti" Harasawa et al. 2015
"Ca. Mycoplasma haemosuis" Neimark et al. 2001 (synonymous with Eperythrozoon suis and Mycoplasma suis)
"Ca. Mycoplasma haemovis" Hornok et al. 2009
"Ca. Mycoplasma haemozalophi" Volokhov et al. 2011
"Ca. Mycoplasma kahanei" Neimark et al. 2002
"Ca. Mycoplasma ravipulmonis" Neimark et al. 1998
"Ca. Mycoplasma turicensis" Willi et al. 2006
"Ca. Mycoplasma wenyonii" Neimark et al. 2001 (synonymous with Eperythrozoon wenyonii)
"Ca. Nebulobacter yamunensis" Boscaro et al. 2012
"Ca. Neoehrlichia arcana" Gofton et al. 2016
"Ca. Neoehrlichia australis" Gofton et al. 2016
"Ca. Neoehrlichia lotoris" Yabsley et al. 2008
"Ca. Neoehrlichia mikurensis" Kawahara et al. 2004
"Ca. Nitrosoarchaeum koreensis" Kim et al. 2011
"Ca. Nitrosoarchaeum limnia" Blainey et al. 2011
"Ca. Nitrosocaldus yellowstonii" de la Torre et al. 2008
"Ca. Nitrosopelagicus brevis(♦)
"Ca. Nitrosopumilus koreensis" Park et al. 2012
"Ca. Nitrosopumilus maritimus" Könneke et al. 2005
"Ca. Nitrosopumilus salaria" Mosier et al. 2012
"Ca. Nitrosopumilus sediminis" Park et al. 2012
"Ca. Nitrososphaera gargensis" Hatzenpichler et al. 2008
"Ca. Nitrososphaera viennensis" Tourna et al. 2011
"Ca. Nitrospira bockiana" Lebedeva et al. 2008
"Ca. Nitrospira defluvii" Spieck et al. 2006
"Ca. Nitrosotalea devanaterra" Lehtovirta-morley et al. 2011
"Ca. Nitrotoga arctica" Alawi et al. 2007
"Ca. Nostocoida limicola" Blackall et al. 2000 (strains Ben 17, Ben 18, Ben 67, Ben 68 and Ben 74 are now Tetrasphaera jenkinsii, strain Ben 70 is Tetrasphaera vanveenii, and strains Ver 1 and Ver 2 are Tetrasphaera veronensis)
"Ca. Odyssella thessalonicensis" Birtles et al. 2000
"Ca. Ovobacter propellens" Fenchel and Thar 2004
"Ca. Paenicardinium endonii" Noel and Atibalentja 2006
"Ca. Parabeggiatoa communis" Salman et al. 2011
"Ca. Paracaedibacter acanthamoebae" Horn et al. 1999
"Ca. Paracaedibacter symbiosus" Horn et al. 1999
"Ca. Paraholospora nucleivisitans" Eschbach et al. 2009
"Ca. Parilichlamydia carangidicola" Stride et al. 2013
"Ca. Parvarchaeum acidophilus(♦)
"Ca. Pasteuria aldrichii" Giblin-Davis et al. 2011
"Ca. Pasteuria usgae" Giblin-Davis et al. 2003
"Ca. Pelagibacter ubique" Rappe et al. 2002
"Ca. Peptostreptococcus massiliae" Drancourt et al. 2004
"Ca. Phlomobacter fragariae" Zreik et al. 1998
"Ca. Photodesmus katoptron" Hendry and Dunlap 2011
"Ca. Phytoplasma 16SrII-U" Yang et al. 2016
"Ca. Phytoplasma allocasuarinae" Marcone et al. 2004
"Ca. Phytoplasma americanum" Lee et al. 2006
"Ca. Phytoplasma asteris" Lee et al. 2004
"Ca. Phytoplasma aurantifolia" Zreik et al. 1995
"Ca. Phytoplasma australiense" Davis et al. 1997
"Ca. Phytoplasma balanitae" Win et al. 2013
"Ca. Phytoplasma brasiliense" Montano et al. 2001
"Ca. Phytoplasma caricae" Arocha et al. 2005
"Ca. Phytoplasma castaneae" Jung et al. 2002
"Ca. Phytoplasma cirsii" Safarova et al. 2016
"Ca. Phytoplasma convolvuli" Martini et al. 2012
"Ca. Phytoplasma costaricanum" Lee et al. 2011
"Ca. Phytoplasma cynodontis" Marcone et al. 2004
"Ca. Phytoplasma fragariae" Valiunas et al. 2006
"Ca. Phytoplasma fraxini" Griffiths et al. 1999 - cause of Lilac witches'-broom
"Ca. Phytoplasma graminis" Arocha et al. 2005
"Ca. Phytoplasma hispanicum" Davis et al. 2016
"Ca. Phytoplasma japonicum" Sawayanagi et al. 1999
"Ca. Phytoplasma lycopersici" Arocha et al. 2007
"Ca. Phytoplasma malaysianum" Nejat et al. 2013
"Ca. Phytoplasma mali" Seemüller and Schneider 2004
"Ca. Phytoplasma meliae" Fernandez et al. 2016
"Ca. Phytoplasma omanense" Al-Saady et al. 2008
"Ca. Phytoplasma oryzae" Jung et al. 2003
"Ca. Phytoplasma palmicola" Harrison et al. 2014
"Ca. Phytoplasma phoenicium" Verdin et al. 2003
"Ca. Phytoplasma pini" Schneider et al. 2005
"Ca. Phytoplasma pruni" Davis et al. 2013
"Ca. Phytoplasma prunorum" Seemüller and Schneider 2004
"Ca. Phytoplasma pyri" Seemüller and Schneider 2004
"Ca. Phytoplasma rhamni" Marcone et al. 2004
"Ca. Phytoplasma rubi" Malembic-Maher et al. 2011
"Ca. Phytoplasma rubi" Franova et al. 2016
"Ca. Phytoplasma solani" Quaglino et al. 2013
"Ca. Phytoplasma spartii" Marcone et al. 2004
"Ca. Phytoplasma sudamericanum" Davis et al. 2012
"Ca. Phytoplasma tamaricis" Zhao et al
"Ca. Phytoplasma trifolii" Hiruki and Wang 2004
"Ca. Phytoplasma ulmi" Lee et al. 2004
"Ca. Phytoplasma vitis" Marzorati et al. 2006 - cause of Flavescence dorée
"Ca. Phytoplasma ziziphi" Jung et al. 2003
"Ca. Piscichlamydia salmonis" Draghi et al. 2004
"Ca. Planktoluna difficilis" Hahn 2009
"Ca. Planktomarina temperata" Giebel et al. 2011
"Ca. Planktophila limnetica" Jezbera et al. 2009
"Ca. Portiera aleyrodidarum" Thao and Baumann 2004
"Ca. Prevotella massiliensis" Drancourt et al. 2004
"Ca. Procabacter acanthamoebae" Horn et al. 2002
"Ca. Profftia tarda" Toenshoff et al. 2012
"Ca. Profftia virida" Toenshoff et al. 2012
"Ca. Protochlamydia amoebophila" Collingro et al. 2005
"Ca. Puchtella pedicinophila" Fukatsu et al. 2009
"Ca. Puniceispirillum marinum" Oh et al. 2010
"Ca. Purcelliella pentastirinorum" Bressan et al. 2009
"Ca. Regiella insecticola" Moran et al. 2005
"Ca. Renichlamydia lutjani" Corsaro and Work 2012
"Ca. Rhabdochlamydia crassificans" Corsaro et al. 2006
"Ca. Rhabdochlamydia porcellionis" Kostanjšek (morphology matches the description of Chlamydia isopodii)
"Ca. Rhizobium massiliae" Greub et al. 2004
"Ca. Rhodoluna limnophila" Hahn 2009
"Ca. Rhodoluna planktonica" Hahn 2009
"Ca. Rickettsia amblyommii" Labruna et al. 2004
"Ca. Rickettsia andeanae" Jiang et al. 2005
"Ca. Rickettsia asemboensis" Jiang et al. 2013
"Ca. Rickettsia barbariae" Mura et al. 2008
"Ca. Rickettsia hebeiii" Yaxue et al. 2011
"Ca. Rickettsia hungarica" Hornok et al. 2010
"Ca. Rickettsia hoogstraalii" Mattila et al. 2007
"Ca. Rickettsia kellyi" Rolain et al. 2006
"Ca. Rickettsia kingi" Anstead and Chilton 2013
"Ca. Rickettsia kotlanii" Sréter-Lancz et al. 2006
"Ca. Rickettsia liberiensis" Mediannikov et al. 2012
"Ca. Rickettsia principis" Mediannikov et al. 2006
"Ca. Rickettsia senegalensis" Mediannikov, Aubadie-Ladrix, and Raoult 2015
"Ca. Rickettsia tarasevichiae" Shpynov et al. 2003
"Ca. Rickettsia tasmanensis" Izzard et al. 2009
"Ca. Rickettsia vini" Palomar et al. 2012
"Ca. Riegeria galateiae" Gruber-Vodicka et al. 2011
"Ca. Riesia pediculicola" Sasaki-Fukatsu et al. 2006
"Ca. Rohrkolberia cinguli" Kuechler et al. 2011
"Ca. Roseomonas massiliae" Greub et al. 2004
"Ca. Ruthia magnifica" Newton et al. 2007
"Ca. Scalindua arabica" Woebken et al. 2008
"Ca. Scalindua brodae" Schmid et al. 2003
"Ca. Scalindua pacifica" Dang et al. 2003
"Ca. Scalindua profunda" Van De Vossenberg et al. 2008
"Ca. Scalindua richardsii" Fuchsman et al. 2012
"Ca. Scalindua sorokinii" Kuypers et al. 2003
"Ca. Scalindua wagneri" Schmid et al. 2003
"Ca. Serratia symbiotica" Moran et al. 2005
"Ca. Similichlamydia latridicola" Stride et al. 2013
"Ca. Snodgrassella alvi" Martinson et al. 2012
"Ca. Snodgrassella alvi" Martinson et al. 2012
"Ca. Sodalis melophagi" Chrudimský et al. 2012
"Ca. Sodalis pierantonius" Oakeson et al. 2014
"Ca. Sphaeronema italicum" Kragelund et al. 2006
"Ca. Stammerula tephritidis" Mazzon et al. 2008
"Ca. Steffania adelgidicola" Toenshoff et al. 2012
"Ca. Streptomyces philanthi" Kaltenpoth et al. 2006
"Ca. Sulcia muelleri" Moran et al. 2005
"Ca. Sulfurovum sediminum" Park et al. 2012
"Ca. Symbiothrix dinenymphae" Hongoh et al. 2007
"Ca. Synechococcus spongiarum" Usher et al. 2004
"Ca. Tammella caduceiae" Hongoh et al. 2007
"Ca. Tenderia electrophaga" Eddie et al. 2016
"Ca. Thermochlorobacter aerophilum" Liu et al. 2012
"Ca. Thiobios zoothamnicoli" Rinke et al. 2006
"Ca. Thiodictyon syntrophicum" Peduzzi et al. 2012
"Ca. Thioglobus singularis" Marshall and Morris 2013
"Ca. Thiomargarita joergensenii" Salman et al. 2011
"Ca. Thiomargarita nelsonii" Salman et al. 2011
"Ca. Thiophysa hinzei" Salman et al. 2011
"Ca. Thiopilula aggregata" Salman et al. 2011
"Ca. Thioturbo danicus" Muyzer et al. 2005
"Ca. Tremblaya phenacola" Gruwell et al. 2010
"Ca. Tremblaya princeps" Thao et al. 2002
"Ca. Troglogloea absoloni" Kostanjšek et al. 2013
"Ca. Uzinura diaspidicola" Gruwell et al. 2007
"Ca. Vallotia cooleyia" Toenshoff et al. 2012
"Ca. Vallotia tarda" Toenshoff et al. 2012
"Ca. Vallotia virida" Toenshoff et al. 2012
"Ca. Veillonella atypica" Drancourt et al. 2004
"Ca. Vesicomyosocius okutanii" Kuwahara et al. 2007
"Ca. Vestibaculum illigatum" Stingl et al. 2004
"Ca. Vidania fulgoroideae" Gonella et al. 2011
"Ca. Wolinella africanus" Bohr et al. 2003
"Ca. Xenohaliotis californiensis" Friedman et al. 2000
"Ca. Xiphinematobacter americani" Vandekerckhove et al. 2000
"Ca. Xiphinematobacter brevicolli" Vandekerckhove et al. 2000
"Ca. Xiphinematobacter rivesi" Vandekerckhove et al. 2000
"Ca. Zinderia insecticola" McCutcheon and Moran 2010
Former candidatus taxa
Armatimonadota, formerly Candidate phylum OP10
Atribacterota (previously Candidate phylum OP9 or JS1)
Caldisericota, formerly Candidate phylum OP5
Elusimicrobiota, formerly Termite Group 1
Ignavibacteriota (previously Candidate phylum ZB1)
Lentisphaerota, formerly vadinBE97
Nitrospinota
See also
Uncultivated bacterial phyla and metagenomics
Open nomenclature, a system of notations used in taxonomy to indicate a taxonomist's judgement about taxon affinities
Glossary of scientific naming
incertae sedis, a taxon of uncertain position in a classification
nomen dubium, a name of unknown or doubtful application
References
Candidatus taxa
Bacterial nomenclature
Bacteria taxa
Bacteriology
Taxonomy (biology)
Taxonomic lists
Bacterial taxonomy
Biological classification
Candidatus | List of taxa with candidatus status | [
"Biology"
] | 8,490 | [
"Bacteria taxa",
"Bacterial nomenclature",
"Lists of biota",
"Lists of bacteria",
"Biological nomenclature",
"Taxonomy (biology)",
"Taxonomic lists",
"Bacteria",
"nan"
] |
56,209,806 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datroniella%20minuta | Datroniella minuta is a species of fungus in the family Polyporaceae. It was described in 2016 by mycologists Carla Rejane Sousa de Lira and Leif Ryvarden from collections made in northeast Brazil. The fungus is characterized by its tiny, cup-shaped fruit bodies that are reddish to dark brown, and microscopically by its large cylindrical spores that typically measure 9–10 by 3 μm.
References
Fungi of Brazil
Polyporaceae
Fungi described in 2016
Taxa named by Leif Ryvarden
Fungus species | Datroniella minuta | [
"Biology"
] | 111 | [
"Fungi",
"Fungus species"
] |
56,210,030 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paper-based%20microfluidics | Paper-based microfluidics are microfluidic devices that consist of a series of hydrophilic cellulose or nitrocellulose fibers that transport fluid from an inlet through the porous medium to a desired outlet or region of the device, by means of capillary action. This technology builds on the conventional lateral flow test which is capable of detecting many infectious agents and chemical contaminants. The main advantage of this is that it is largely a passively controlled device unlike more complex microfluidic devices. Development of paper-based microfluidic devices began in the early 21st century to meet a need for inexpensive and portable medical diagnostic systems.
Architecture
Paper-based microfluidic devices feature the following regions:
Inlet: a substrate (typically cellulose) where liquids are dispensed manually.
Channels: hydrophilic sub-millimeter networks that guide liquid throughout a device.
Flow amplifiers: regions of varying geometry where the flow velocity is modified to impart a steady state flow of controllable velocity
Flow resistors: a capillary element used to impart a reduced flow velocity in order to control the residence time of a fluid in a microfluidic device
Barriers: hydrophobic regions that prevent fluid from leaving the channel.
Outlets: location where a chemical or biochemical reaction takes place.
Flow
The movement of fluid through a porous medium such as paper is governed by permeability (earth sciences), geometry and evaporation effects. Collectively these factors results in evaporation limited capillary penetration that can be tuned by controlling porosity and device geometry. Paper is a porous medium in which fluid is transported primarily by wicking and evaporation. The capillary flow during wetting can be approximated by Washburn's equation, which is derived from Jurin's law and the Hagen–Poiseuille equation. The average velocity of fluid flow is generalized as, where is the surface tension, the contact angle, is the viscosity, and is the distance traveled by the liquid. More extensive models account for paper tortuosity, pore radius, and paper deformation.
Once the medium is fully wetted, subsequent flow is laminar and follows Darcy's law. The average velocity of fluid flow is generalized as, where is the medium permeability and is the pressure gradient. One consequence of laminar flow is that mixing is difficult and based solely on diffusion, which is slower in porous systems.
Manufacturing
Paper-based microfluidic devices can be manufactured based on the dimensions, i.e. 2D and 3D. To fabricate 2D paper-based microfluidics, variations of methods, such as wax printing, inkjet printing, photolithography, flexographic printing, plasma treatment, laser treatment, etching (microfabrication), screen printing, digital light processing (DLP) 3-D printer, and wax screening, have been employed. Further lamination of multiple paper microfluidics creates pseudo-3D microfluidics that could provide an additional dimension of the fluidic network and increase the complexity. Each technique aims to create hydrophobic physical barriers on hydrophilic paper that passively transport aqueous solutions. Biological and chemical reagents must then be deposited selectively along the device by either dipping the substrate into a reagent solution or locally spotting a reagent onto the substrate.
Wax printing
Wax printing uses a simple printer to pattern wax on paper in a desired design. The wax is then melted with a hotplate to create channels. This technique is fast and low cost, but has relatively low resolution due to the isotropy of the melted wax.
Inkjet printing
Inkjet printing requires coating paper in a hydrophobic polymer, and then selectively placing an ink that etches the polymer to reveal paper. This technique is low cost with high resolution, but is limited by the speed of placing one ink droplet at a time.
Photolithography
Photolithographic techniques are similar to inkjet printing, using a photomask to selectively etch a photoresist polymer. This technique has high resolution and is quick, but has high equipment and material costs.
DLP printing
This technique utilizes a DLP printing technique in which photo-curable resin polymers are exposed to lights to form hydrophobic boundaries of open microchannels in a porous paper. If the effects of evaporation are of concern in the specific application then two additional layers of the curable resin can be used on the top and bottom of the channel. Excess uncured resin is then cleaned off using ethanol. This technique has relatively low equipment costs and utilizes readily available materials making it a promising candidate for mass production of point of care diagnostic devices.
Plasma processing
In this technique, paper is first rendered hydrophobic using a hydrophobizing agent such as AKD or fluorocarbon plasma polymerization, and then O2 plasma etching with a mask is used to create hydrophilic patterns in the paper. One benefit of plasma based processes is that the complex designs and functionalities such as fully and semi-enclsoed channels, on-off flow switches, and fluid flow control channels can be incorporated relatively easily. However, cost of production is relatively higher than other fabrication methods.
Analytical applications
Mass spectrometry
Paper-spray ionization is being rapidly developed as an interface for micro paper-based analytical devices μPAD and mass spectrometry. The technique, first described by Graham Cooks group at Purdue, involves applying a voltage to a triangular sheet of wet paper near the inlet of a mass spectrometer. Although the exact mechanism is not well understood, two modes of operation can occur: a multicone spray at high flow rates, and a single cone spray that occurs when solvent has been depleted. This is part of a larger effort to combine complex microfluidic manipulations with mass spectral detection. Wax printing hydrophobic barriers is a common method for creating distinct flow channels within paper devices, and this has been extended to μPAD-MS to enhance ionization efficiency (by enabling focusing of the analyte stream) and enable reaction mixing by wax printing on the triangular paper surface. Chromatographic separations have also been demonstrated on μPADs prior to paper-spray detection. Initially, paper-spray ionization was applied for the detection of small molecules, such as pharmaceuticals and drugs of abuse. However, it has also been shown that paper-spray ionization can ionize large proteins while retaining non-covalent interactions.
Separation methods
Few analytical detectors are truly specific for a single species; therefore some type of separation step is often necessary prior to detection. Moreover, separation allows for detection of multiple analytes within a single platform. Separations based upon planar chromatography (TLC) are perhaps the easiest to implement, since many μPADs are constructed with chromatographic paper. Typically, the separation channel is defined by wax-printing two hydrophobic barriers. Electrochemical detection is perhaps most common, likely due to its ease of implementation, although colorimetry, chemiluminscence, and mass spectral detection have also been used in conjunction with paper-based chromatographic separations. Despite the ease of implementation, planar chromatography is hindered by relatively low plate height (i.e., poor separation efficiency). Since the Chakraborty group demonstrated the feasibility of electrokinetic flow on μPADs, several applications of electrophoretic separations on μPADs have appeared in the literature. The Crooks group at UT-Austin successfully demonstrated that electrophoretic separations on μPADs could be accomplished at relatively low applied voltages compared to conventional electrophoretic devices due to the high field strengths that can be generated on very thin (180 μm) sheets of origami paper. Simpler separation methods can also be used on μPADs, for instance, the Henry group demonstrated the separation of plasma from whole blood using blood separation membranes.
Flow control
There are various ways to control the fluid flow in the channels. They include changing the channel width and length, altering the wettability of the paper, diverting some fluid through a parallel channel, or changing the viscosity of the fluid. The flow in PADs can be turned off with dissolvable sugar bridges, Corona discharge treatment to alter a coating on the paper from a hydrophobic to hydrophilic state, or the use of an expandable polymer triggered by the flow to close the flow path.
Electronic integration
Integration of microfluidic platforms and electronic components have the potential to generate micro total analysis systems (μTAS), which are devices that include and automate all essential steps for sample preparation and analysis. Paper electronics rely on functional structures like conductors to be fabricated on the surface of paper, but paper-based microfluidics rely on channels and barriers to be fabricated inside the substrate. This incompatibility led to a majority of μTAS being developed using external electrodes contacted with the paper channels. However, in 2009, screen-printed electrodes were integrated into a paper-based microfluidic device to create a biosensor for glucose, lactate, and uric acid. This first report of electronic integration for paper-based microfluidics illustrated how this can improve the design of μTAS at a low cost. Since then, a variety of electrode fabrication techniques have been developed, including screen printing, inkjet printing, metal sputter deposition, pencil drawing, laser-induced pyrolysis and external electrodes to create a network of conductive traces.
Screen printing
Screen printing is the most popular method to create electronic traces onto paper. In this process, the ink is transferred onto areas of the paper-based microfluidic channels using a stencil. Dungchai et al. demonstrated electrochemical sensing using screen-printed carbon ink for the working and counter electrodes and silver/silver chloride ink as the reference electrode at the end of the microfluidic channel. Screen-printed electrodes on paper-based microfluidic devices have been used not only to develop biosensors for metabolites, but also to detect bacteria and heavy metals in food and water. The scalabile nature of this process make it promising to create electrochemical devices at ultra-low cost suitable for field testing.
Inkjet printing
A promising physical technique is inkjet printing, which allows for conductive materials to be deposited in a precise and reproducible fashion onto paper. As a proof-of-concept, Ko et al. developed a paper-based electrical chip using a home office printer, an ink made of carbon nanotubes, and magazine paper. Similarly, silver nanoparticles were printed into microfluidic channels to sense changes in the permittivity of fluids, revealing information about concentration and mixing ratios. Research groups have found, however, that these nanoparticle containing inks can self-aggregate on the paper due to uneven drying, which leads to non-uniform coverage and non-linear responses. A promising physical technique is inkjet printing, which allows for conductive materials to be deposited in a precise and reproducible fashion onto paper.
In this regards, the controlled growth of nanoparticles can help to improve conductivity and sensing performances.
As the seeds clusters grow and interconnect inside of the paper fibers, there properties and structure of the final material can be controlled through the process and chemical conditions.
A typical growth process conditions consist dissolved metal ions in a reductive chemical environment. Once the nanoparticles have grown, they can be functionalized with recognition biomolecules to increase the specificity and sensitivity of the microfluidic devices.
Inkjet printing is compatible with a wide variety of materials, and is a promising technology to not only fabricate conductive traces, but also incorporate advanced electronic components such as transistors into paper-based devices.
Metal sputtering
Sputtering of metals and metal oxide is one of the most established technique in cleanroom microfabrication. This approach has been adapted to sputter gold electrode onto paper-based microfluidic devices and demonstrated excellent performances DNA detection using quantum dots labels. One notable benefit of employing pure gold as the electrode material is the potential for leveraging self-assembled monolayer chemistry, which facilitates functionalization and anti-fouling of the electrode surface.
Pencil drawing
The pencil-on-paper technique is arguibly the simplest and most accessible way of creating electrodes on paper-based microfluidics as it uses inexpensive, common office supplies. Here, graphitic circuitry is created on the paper-based microfluidic device by repeatedly sketching with a pencil. For example, this electrical integration method was used in a completely hand-drawn paper microfluidic device for point-of-care cancer screening. This solvent-free technique allows the potential to create improvised paper-based μTAS. However, pencil-on-paper can also lead to a non-uniform deposition of graphite, limiting the performance of these hand-drawn circuits. Additionally, even though the process can be automated, the repeated drawing procedure is poorly scalable.
Laser-induced pyrolysis
Laser-induced pyrolysis of cellulose represents a practical method for transforming the non-conductive paper into a graphene-like material, thereby offering a readily available means of patterning electrodes on paper. The electrodes are created in situ, and retain the porous and wicking propertie of the paper substrate, whilst demonstrating large electroactive surface area for sensing. Since the electrode are fully permeable to capillary flow, electrochemical flow-through devices can be built using this technology. Nevertheless, as a reagentless fabrication method, there is little room for tuning the surface properties and chemical composition of the resulting electrodes.
External electrodes
The advancement of technologies like 3D printing has enabled the creation of electrodes using simple and easily accessible equipment, leading to numerous instances where these electrodes are patterned as standalone units and subsequently integrated with paper-based microfluidic devices. To this end, there have been several examples of a thermoplastic electrode patterning and their use for electrochemical sensing, for example in flow injection analysis.
Other
Other physical integration methods (spray or spin coating, blending, and vacuum filtration) have been developed for paper electronics, but have yet to be implemented in paper-based microfluidic devices.
Applications
The main advantage of paper-based microfluidic devices over traditional microfluidics devices is their potential for use in the field rather than in a laboratory. Filter paper is advantageous in a field setting because it is capable of removing contaminants from the sample and preventing them from moving down the microchannel. This means that particles will not inhibit the accuracy of paper-based assays when they are used outdoors. Paper-based microfluidic devices are also small in size (approximately a few mm to 2 cm in length and width) compared to other microfluidic platforms, such as droplet-based microfluidic devices, which often use glass slides up to 75 mm in length. Because of their small size and relatively durable material, paper-based microfluidic devices are portable. Paper-based devices are also relatively inexpensive. Filter paper is very cheap, and so are most of the patterning agents used in the fabrication of microchannels, including PDMS and wax. Most of the major paper-based fabrication methods also do not require expensive laboratory equipment. These characteristics of paper-based microfluidics make it ideal for point-of-care testing, particularly in countries that lack advanced medical diagnostic tools. Paper-based microfluidics has also been used to conduct environmental and food safety tests. The main issues in the application of this technology are the lack of research into the flow control techniques, accuracy, and precision, the need for simpler operator procedures in the field, and the scaling of production to meet the volume requirements of a global market. This is largely due to the focus in the industry on utilizing the current silicon based manufacturing channels to commercialized LOC technologies more efficiently and economically.
For diagnostics
The original goal for paper-based microfluidics (μPAD) was to make low-cost and user-friendly point-of-care (POC) devices that can be operated without the assistance of medical personnel or any other qualified specialist in resource-limited and rural areas. To achieve this goal, μPAD should fit the "Affordable, Sensitive, Specific, User-friendly, Rapid and robust, Equipment-free, Deliver" criteria, provided by the World Health Organization (WHO), which are the requirements for diagnostic testing for resource-constrained settings. However, in POC's official "Guide to aid the selection of diagnostic tests", it is stated that these criteria are generic and can be modified according to test application. The main problem of paper-based microfluidic diagnostics is that research in this field is directed on providing new concepts and ideas rather than on improving user acceptance and as a result, most μPAD devices are still unable to be interpreted by non-professional users. However, POC is not the only application of paper-based microfluidics for diagnostics. Recently, a paper was employed in the production of more complicated microfluidic analytical devices, called lab-on-a-chip (LOC) devices, which are also used in diagnostics. Using paper to make LOC devices instead of polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) and glass can decrease cost and size while increasing portability. This allows LOC devices to become more accessible in resource-limited conditions.
Use of paper microfluidics in blood grouping
Recently, paper microfluidics was used in the fabrication of numerous immunological tests. Khan et al. in 2010 investigated a blood typing device based on the principle that red blood cell agglutination, triggered by specific antigeninteraction, drastically decreases blood wicking and transport on paper or chromatographic media. The concept was exhibited with a paper-based microfluidic device prototype, made from a filter paper shaped to a central zone with three extending channels. Each channel is treated with a different solution of antibody (Epiclone Anti-A, Anti-B, and Anti-D). Since μPADs were purposely created for use in resource-shortage conditions, it is highly important to provide the capability to analyze real samples like non-pretreated human blood and urine. This device is constructed to analyze whole-blood samples, which is an important step to increase the user acceptance of paper-based microfluidic diagnostics. The analysis is based on the wicking behavior of blood or antibody mixture on paper. Mixing blood samples with immunoglobulin M antibodies, specific for each blood group, causes agglutination of the red blood cells (RBC) by polymer bridging upon adsorption on the corresponding RBC antigens, and chromatographic separation of sample on the certain channel of the device occurs. Simultaneously, separation doesn’t happen on hands soaked in non-specific antibody and the blood sample is weakened as a uniform and stable solution. From the evident difference in the transport of solution and channel appearance, one can identify the separation effect for the determination of blood type.
Noiphung et al. at 2014 followed up an approach in paper-based microfluidic blood typing using antibodies to cause red blood cells agglutination, and the group designed a new paper-based analytical device (PAD) for blood grouping that can be used for the synchronous performation of Rh and forward and reverse ABO blood grouping on the same device. Forward grouping is a blood typing procedure whereby patient red blood cells are mixed with Anti-A and Anti-B reagents. On the other hand, reverse typing is a blood typing procedure where patient serum is mixed with reagent A cells and reagent B cells. The results should be the opposite of forward typing. The designed device has two sides: forward (F) side, made of chromatography paper with three channels spotted with 1.5 mL Anti-A, Anti-B, and Anti-D antibody solutions each, and reverse (R) side, made with blood separation membrane and connected to A-type and B-type antibodies channels. The PAD is fabricated using a combination of wax dipping technologies to join Whatman chromatography paper and blood separation membrane. The device included three wax-printed channels for forward grouping, two of which were also applied for reverse grouping. While R-side was capable for whole blood sample analysis, Noiphung’s group found that whole blood samples are too viscous to be directly applied on a paper-side of the device. During the experiment, it was determined that the optimal blood-water dilution ratio is 1:2. The blood typing was executed by measuring the ratio of red blood cells (RBC) and plasma transport distances. The accuracy of the proposed PADs in blood typing was 92%, 85%, 89%, 93%, and 96% for A, B, AB, O, and Rh+ blood types respectively.
Glucose detection
Paper-based microfluidic devices have been designed to monitor a wide variety of medical ailments. Glucose plays an important role in diabetes and cancer, and it can be detected through a catalytic cycle involving glucose oxidase, hydrogen peroxide, and horseradish peroxidase that initiates a reaction between glucose and a color indicator, frequently potassium iodide, on a paper-based microfluidic device. This is an example of colorimetric detection. The first paper-based microfluidic device, developed by George Whitesides’ group at Harvard, was able to simultaneously detect protein as well as glucose via color-change reactions (potassium iodide reaction for glucose and tetrabromophenol blue reaction for the protein BSA). The bottom of the paper device is inserted into a sample solution prepared in-lab, and the amount of color change is observed. More recently, a paper-based microfluidic device using colorimetric detection was developed to quantify glucose in blood plasma. Blood plasma is separated from whole blood samples on a wax-printed device, where red blood cells are agglutinated by antibodies and the blood plasma is able to flow to a second compartment for the color-change reaction. Electrochemical detection has also been used in these devices. It provides greater sensitivity in quantification, whereas colorimetric detection is primarily used for qualitative assessments. Screen-printed electrodes and electrodes directly printed on filter paper have been used. One example of a paper-based microfluidic device utilizing electrochemical detection has a dumbbell shape to isolate plasma from whole blood. The current from the hydrogen peroxide produced in the aforementioned catalytic cycle is measured and converted into concentration of glucose.
3D devices for glucose detection
Whitesides' group also developed a 3D paper-based microfluidic device for glucose detection that can produce calibration curves on-chip because of the improved fluid flow design. This 3D device consists of layers of paper patterned with microfluidic channels that are connected by layers of double-sided adhesive tape with holes. The holes in the tape permit flow between channels in alternating layers of paper, so this device allows for more complicated flow paths and enables the detection of multiple samples in a large number (up to ~1,000) of detection zones in the last layer of paper. More recently, 3D paper-based microfluidic devices assembled using origami were developed. Unlike Whitesides' design, these devices utilize a single layer of patterned paper that is then folded into multiple layers before sample solution is injected into the device. Subsequently, the device can be unfolded, and each layer of the device can be analyzed for the simultaneous detection of multiple analytes. This device is simpler and less expensive to fabricate than the aforementioned device using multiple layers of paper. Mixing between the channels in the different layers was not an issue in either device, so both devices were successful in quantifying glucose and BSA in multiple samples simultaneously.
Environmental and food safety tests
Paper-based microfluidic devices have several applications outside of the medical field. For example, paper-based biosensors have been used extensively in environmental monitoring. Two recent devices were developed for the detection of Salmonella and E. coli. The latter device was specifically used to detect E. coli in seven field water samples from Tucson, Arizona. Antibody-conjugated polystyrene particles were loaded in the middle of the microfluidic channel, after the sample inlet. Immunoagglutination occurs when samples containing Salmonella or E. coli, respectively, come into contact with these particles. The amount of immunoagglutination can be correlated with increased Mie scattering of light, which was detected with a specialized smartphone application under ambient light. Paper-based microfluidics has also been used to detect pesticides in food products, such as apple juice and milk. A recent design used piezoelectric inkjet printing to imprint paper with the enzyme acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and the substrate indophenyl acetate (IPA), and this paper-based microfluidic device was used to detect organophosphate pesticides (AChE inhibitors) via a decrease in blue-purple color. This device is distinguished by its use of bioactive paper instead of compartments with pre-stored reagents, and it was demonstrated to have good long-term stability, making it ideal for field use. A more recent paper-based microfluidic design utilized a sensor, consisting of fluorescently labeled single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) coupled with graphene oxide, on its surface to simultaneously detect heavy metals and antibiotics in food products. Heavy metals increased fluorescence intensity, whereas antibiotics decreased fluorescence intensity. Recently, paper-based devices have become very attractive for making inexpensive, disposable and convenient analytical devices for the determination of reactive phosphate in water. These devices utilize the molybdenum blue protocol for phosphate detection.
References
Microfluidics | Paper-based microfluidics | [
"Materials_science"
] | 5,408 | [
"Microfluidics",
"Microtechnology"
] |
56,210,699 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truncospora%20macrospora | Truncospora macrospora is a species of poroid fungus in the family Polyporaceae. It was described as new to science in 2013 by Chinese mycologists Bao-Kai Cui and Chang-Lin Zhao. The fungus, found in southwest China, is distinguished by its annual growth habit, and the distinct dark brownish crust on its caps. The semicircular caps measure about long, wide, and thick. Microscopic characteristics include its relatively large spores (for which the fungus is named), measuring 16.5–19.5 by 8.0–9.5 μm, which have a strongly dextrinoid reaction. The type was collected in the Gaoligong Mountains (Baoshan, Yunnan) at an altitude of , where it was found growing on a fallen angiosperm branch.
Molecular phylogenetic analysis demonstrated a close relationship of T. macrospora to Truncospora ochroleuca. This latter species is distinguished by its cream to ochre cap, and smaller spores that measure 14.0–17.0 by 7.0–9.5 μm.
References
Fungi of China
Fungi described in 2013
Taxa named by Bao-Kai Cui
Fungus species | Truncospora macrospora | [
"Biology"
] | 249 | [
"Fungi",
"Fungus species"
] |
56,212,326 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society%20of%20X-Ray%20Technology | The Society of X-Ray Technology was a British professional association for work with X-rays.
History
The Institute of X-Ray Engineers was formed in 1944 in Liverpool, soon after changing its name to the Society of X-Ray Technology.
In the mid-1980s it was one of 51 societies in the new Engineering Council, in group four.
Merger
In 1990 it joined the Institute of Hospital Engineers, which became the Institute of Hospital Engineering and Estate Management, which is now the Institute of Healthcare Engineering and Estate Management.
Function
It published a journal, The Journal of X-ray Technology, twice a year and arranged lectures.
Structure
Those belonging to the organisation were physicists, radiographers, engineers and technicians.
The vast majority of members were Engineers and Technicians engaged in the installation and service of X-ray equipment.
Most of these members were working for the major suppliers of X-ray equipment.
Some Engineers, Technicians, Physicists and Radiographers worked in the NHS or private hospitals.
See also
Academy for Healthcare Science (United Kingdom)
American Society of Radiologic Technologists
Institute of Physics and Engineering in Medicine (IPEM)
Society of Critical Care Technologies (SCCT)
References
1944 establishments in the United Kingdom
1990 disestablishments in the United Kingdom
Defunct professional associations based in the United Kingdom
Engineering societies based in the United Kingdom
Medical associations based in the United Kingdom
Medical imaging in the United Kingdom
Organizations disestablished in 1990
Physics societies
Radiology professional associations
Scientific organizations established in 1944
X-rays | Society of X-Ray Technology | [
"Physics"
] | 303 | [
"X-rays",
"Spectrum (physical sciences)",
"Electromagnetic spectrum"
] |
56,212,511 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspergillus%20dybowskii | Aspergillus dybowskii is a species of fungus in the genus Aspergillus which occurs in Southeast Asia.
References
Further reading
dybowskii
Fungi described in 1985
Fungus species | Aspergillus dybowskii | [
"Biology"
] | 43 | [
"Fungi",
"Fungus species"
] |
56,213,273 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parvimonas%20micra | Parvimonas micra is a Gram positive anaerobic coccus which is frequently isolated from dental plaque in patients with chronic periodontitis. It is the only species in its genus, and is a common constituent of mixed anaerobic infections such as intra-abdominal abscess. It has rarely been implicated as a sole pathogen in septic arthritis, osteomyelitis and discitis associated with recent dental procedures.
References
External links
Type strain of Parvimonas micra at BacDive - the Bacterial Diversity Metadatabase
Bacillota
Pathogenic bacteria
Anaerobes | Parvimonas micra | [
"Biology"
] | 121 | [
"Bacteria",
"Anaerobes"
] |
56,213,481 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analitik | Analitik () is a programming language, developed in 1968 at the Institute of Cybernetics of the Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian SSR in the USSR. It is a development on the ALMIR-65 language, keeping compatibility with it.
Distinctive features of the language are abstract data types, calculations in arbitrary algebras, and analytic transformations.
It was implemented on MIR-2 machines.
Later, a version of Analitik-74 was developed, implemented on MIR-3 machines.
At the moment, the language exists as a computer algebra system, Analitik-2010, which is being developed jointly by the Institute of Mathematical Machines and Systems of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine and the Poltava National Technical University.
References
Programming languages created in 1968
Programming languages
Computing in the Soviet Union | Analitik | [
"Technology"
] | 163 | [
"Natural language and computing",
"Computing in the Soviet Union",
"History of computing"
] |
56,214,154 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intensity%20measure | In probability theory, an intensity measure is a measure that is derived from a random measure. The intensity measure is a non-random measure and is defined as the expectation value of the random measure of a set, hence it corresponds to the average volume the random measure assigns to a set. The intensity measure contains important information about the properties of the random measure. A Poisson point process, interpreted as a random measure, is for example uniquely determined by its intensity measure.
Definition
Let be a random measure on the measurable space and denote the expected value of a random element with .
The intensity measure
of is defined as
for all .
Note the difference in notation between the expectation value of a random element , denoted by and the intensity measure of the random measure , denoted by .
Properties
The intensity measure is always s-finite and satisfies
for every positive measurable function on .
References
Measures (measure theory)
Probability theory | Intensity measure | [
"Physics",
"Mathematics"
] | 184 | [
"Measures (measure theory)",
"Quantity",
"Physical quantities",
"Size"
] |
56,214,308 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C/2017%20T1%20%28Heinze%29 | C/2017 T1 (Heinze) is a hyperbolic comet that passed closest to Earth on 4 January 2018 at a distance of .
Discovery and observations
It was discovered on 2 October 2017 by Aren N. Heinze of the University of Hawaiʻi, using the 0.5-m Schmidt telescope at the Mauna Loa Observatory used for the Asteroid Terrestrial-impact Last Alert System (ATLAS). Perihelion was reached on 21 February 2018, and it was expected peak magnitude about 8.8. However, this intrinsically faint comet began to disintegrate around this time. It was last observed as a dim 16th-magnitude object on 23 April 2018.
Observation path
References
External links
Non-periodic comets
Hyperbolic comets
Near-Earth comets
Destroyed comets
20171002
Comets in 2017
Comets in 2018 | C/2017 T1 (Heinze) | [
"Astronomy"
] | 166 | [
"Astronomy stubs",
"Comet stubs"
] |
56,215,685 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C8H10N2O3S | {{DISPLAYTITLE:C8H10N2O3S}}
The molecular formula C8H10N2O3S (molar mass: 214.242 g/mol) may refer to:
Diazald, or N-methyl-N-nitroso-p-toluenesulfonamide
Sulfacetamide
Molecular formulas | C8H10N2O3S | [
"Physics",
"Chemistry"
] | 76 | [
"Molecules",
"Set index articles on molecular formulas",
"Isomerism",
"Molecular formulas",
"Matter"
] |
56,216,519 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM%20Laboratory%20Vienna | IBM Laboratory Vienna was an IBM research laboratory based in Vienna, Austria.
The laboratory started with a group led by Heinz Zemanek that moved from the Technische Hochschule (now the Technical University of Vienna). Initially, the group worked on computer hardware projects. Later a compiler for the ALGOL 60 programming language was produced. The group built on ideas of Calvin C. Elgot, Peter Landin, and John McCarthy, to create an operational semantics that could define the whole of IBM's PL/I programming language. The meta-language used for this was dubbed by people outside the laboratory as the Vienna Definition Language (VDL). These descriptions were used for compiler design research into compiler design during 1968–70.
The formal method VDM (Vienna Development Method) was a result of research at the laboratory by Dines Bjørner, Cliff Jones, Peter Lucas, and others.
See also
IBM Research
References
Organizations with year of establishment missing
Organizations with year of disestablishment missing
Laboratory Vienna
Computer science research organizations
Computer science institutes
Organisations based in Vienna
Research institutes in Austria | IBM Laboratory Vienna | [
"Technology"
] | 224 | [
"Computing stubs",
"Computer science",
"Computer science stubs"
] |
56,219,026 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CMTM3 | CKLF-like MARVEL transmembrane domain-containing protein 3 (i.e. CMTM3), also termed chemokine-like factor superfamily 3 (i.e. CKLFSF3), is a member of the CKLF-like MARVEL transmembrane domain-containing family (i.e. CMTM) of proteins. In humans, CMTM2 protein is encoded by the CMTM3 gene located in band 22.1 on the long (i.e. "q") arm of chromosome 16. This protein is expressed in a wide range of tissues, including fetal tissues. It is highly expressed in the male reproductive system, particularly testicular tissues and may play a role in the development of this tissue. It is also highly expressed in the immune system including circulating blood cells, i.e. B lymphocytes, CD4+ T lymphocytes, and monocytes. However, CMTM3 protein is weakly expressed or unexpressed in the malignant tissues of several types of cancers. In many but not all of theses cancers, this decreased or lack of expression appears due to methylation of the GpC islands in the promoter region, and thereby the silencing, of the CMTM3 gene.
Studies of CMTM3 protein levels in normal versus malignant tissues found that the malignant tissue levels of several types of cancer were lower, in a variable percentage of cases, than the levels in the normal tissues as well as the cases with high CMTM2 levels in the same cancer type. These cancers included those of the stomach, breast, nasopharynx (e.g. oral squamous cell carcinoma), male larynx, esophagus, prostate gland, colon, and kidney (i.e. the kidney clear-cell type). Moreover, low cancer tissue levels of CTMT3 protein were found to be associated with poorer prognoses compared to cases with higher levels of this protein in cancers of the stomach, esophagus, nasopharynx (i.e. oral squamous cell carcinoma type), and prostate gland. These finding suggest that the CMTM3 protein may act to suppress the development and/or progression of these cancers. Further studies are needed to support this suggestion and determine if CMTM3 protein can be a useful clinical marker to predict the severity of these cancers and/or serve as a therapeutic target for treating them.
Contrastingly, other studies have reported that: 1) CMTM3 protein promoted the proliferation of cultured glioblastoma immortalized cells; 2) high levels of CMTM3 protein were associated with shorter survival times in individuals with glioblastomas and gastric cancer; 3) analyses of 178 patients with pancreatic cancer found that their tumor tissues had higher CMTM3 protein levels than normal nearby pancreas tissues; and 4) patients with high levels of CMTM3 protein in their pancreatic cancer tissues had poorer prognoses and overall survival rates compared to patients with lower CMTM3 levels in their pancreatic cancer tissues. These findings suggest that CMTM3 acts to promote the development and/or progression of these three cancer types. They support further studies to confirm this suggestion, to determine if CMTM3 can be use as a prognostic indicator and a clinical therapeutic target for these three cancer types. Further investigations into the mechanisms behind the apparent ability of CMTM3 to suppress or promote these cancers are also needed.
References
Further reading
Human proteins
DNA replication
Gene expression | CMTM3 | [
"Chemistry",
"Biology"
] | 733 | [
"Genetics techniques",
"Gene expression",
"DNA replication",
"Molecular genetics",
"Cellular processes",
"Molecular biology",
"Biochemistry"
] |
61,029,825 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konstantin%20Skoptsov | Konstantin Skoptsov () (born 13 December 1958) is a Ukrainian artist, drawing artist, painter and an illustrator.
Biography
Skoptsov was born in Odesa, Ukraine. After completing middle school, he began working as a metalworker while simultaneously pursuing his interests in drawing and illustration. He served in the USSR Airforce, and upon the conclusion of his military service, he attempted to enter arts major programs in Odesa and Moscow. However, during his pursuit of formal education, he discovered that the subject matter requirements imposed by the Communist Party conflicted with his artistic vision and personal beliefs. As a result, Skoptsov abandoned his efforts towards obtaining a college degree and instead joined the growing underground movement of young and politically independent artists.
Artist career
His first public exhibitions started in 1976, mostly in the apartment galleries hosted by private art collectors, accessible by invitation only.
Today, his works are displayed throughout the world, in major galleries and museums.
In 2000 Skoptsov was introduced to his future mentor, Temistokl Vyrsta, a renowned French abstractionist. This relationship had marked an important milestone in the artist's career as he became a representative of the French Art Association Fenix and established a large presence in Paris, in collaboration with the art project Paris School of Ukrainian Painting.
In 2004, Skoptsov received a recognition award by Sovereign Military Hospitaller Order of Saint John for his illustrations to Henri de Régnier.
Concurrently he was awarded an Honorary Fellowship by the Russian-Italian Academy Ferroni for illustrations to Dante Alighieri, as well as an essay on Giotto di Bondone's frescoes at the La Basilica di San Francesco d'Assisi.
Skoptsov develops and promotes his signature Semantic Realism style, and uses a variety of media for his artistic inspirations, from canvas and paper to natural leather.
He considers such Masters of drawing and painting as Pieter Bruegel the Elder and Hieronymus Bosch to be an inspiration and predecessors of Semantic Realism.
Based on his own interviews and similarity in themes and style, he is frequently referred to as "Bosch From Odesa" by the Ukrainian media.
Currently, Konstantin Skoptsov lives and works in his home city of Odesa, continuing collaborations with international galleries and museums.
Quotes From Him
About Drawing and Painting: “Line expresses everything permanent, while color – transient. The line, reigning this world, determines everything – it is a solely abstract symbol: Line reflect both character of the subject and unity of narrative. Line defines the whole atmosphere and fixates your feelings. Reality here can only serve as a starting point for Art to travel to the place where Idea dwells “Clothed in sensual form”.
About Underground: “True art was and always will be an outsider, staying beyond the limits of the aquarium of art life and always remote from the crafty art feeder. It is the “salt”, without it art becomes bland, it is the “cut” of the diamond, and as defined by Jean Cocteau, reflects artistic aristocracy. Only when we look at the pieces created by such artists as Van Gogh, Gauguin, and Modigliani, cast out by contemporaries, we see deeply into fundamental reasoning of art”.
Quotes About Him
By Russian Art Critic Stanislav Aidenyan: "His [Konstantin Skoptsov's] name is among the most talented graphic artists in Odesa.
Konstantin is an artist and a poet, though also is known to be a kind of a philosopher, a thinker who encourages submerging into the subconscious mind.
His creative work combines avant-garde and tradition, mysticism and unchained elaborate imagery... That could be said in reference to both his visually- artistic and literary-poetic experiments".
By Ukrainian journalist Viktor Tymoshenko: “the subjects [of Skoptsov artworks] are inspired by the ancient chinese and japanese poets, by the couplets of their genius creations.
It is a mystery how Konstantin Skoptsov "materializes", populates a sheet of paper with dreams, "phantoms", horrors, outer worlds of the remote, unfamiliar to us time".
Gallery
Achievements and awards
A registered member of Professional Artist Union of Russian Federation.
Representative of Paris School of Ukrainian Painting in Odesa, founded by Temistokl Vyrsta.
Representative of Art-Association Fenix, Paris.
Founder of Semantic Realism art style.
Honorary Fellow of Russian-Italian Academy Ferrony.
Fellowship at Nouvelle Academie Libre (Paris).
Member of Art-Club Ekaterinenskaya Square, Moscow.
Recipient of Ordre souverain militaire hospitalier de Saint-Jean, de Jérusalem, de Rhodes et de Malte award for Achievements in Art.
Finalist of Ukrainian Rating Project Top 100 Pride of Ukraine: Men.
Solo and group exhibitions
1986 – Participant, Group Exhibition Salon of Association of Galleries of Taiwan and Hong Kong.
1989 – Participant, Group Exhibition City Dreams, State Literary Museum, Odesa, Ukraine.
1990 – Participant, Group Exhibition Mystic Art, Odesa Museum of History and Ethnography, Odesa, Ukraine.
1991 – Solo Exhibition, Museum of Anastasia and Marina Tsvetaevy, Alexandrov, Russia.
1991 – Solo Exhibition. Osuuskuntamuotoinen nettigalleria. Suomeksi, Finland.
1992 – Art Installation Silence, Group Art Visual and Musical Installation, with elements of Choreography: Kamil Chalaev (France), Sabine Jame (France), Konstantin Skoptsov (Ukraine). Odesa Art Museum, Odesa, Ukraine.
1992 — Solo Exhibition. Taidegalleria Hämeenlinnassa, Turku, Finland.
1992 — Solo Exhibition. Cazots art gallery, Copenhagen, Denmark.
1993 – Solo Exhibition. Krymski Val Gallery, Central House of Artist, Moscow, Russia.
1993 – 1993 Participant, Group Exhibition Russian Art. Drawing (M. Chemiakin, А. Zverev, V. Yakovlev, О. Rabin, L. Krapivnicki, К. Skoptsov.). Krymski Val Gallery, Central House of Artist, Moscow, Russia.
1993 – Participant, Group Exhibition of Artists-Illustrators. State Literary Museum, Moscow, Russia.
1994 – Participant, Group Exhibition Silver Soul of Odesa, TASS Gallery, Moscow, Russia.
1995 – Konstantin Skoptsov, Solo Exhibition. Odesa Art Museum, Odesa, Ukraine.
1995 – Solo Exhibition. Art association Le Fenix, Paris, France.
1998 – Participant, Group Art Project I See a Ship, Space Gallery, Moscow, Russia.
1999 – Participant, Group Exhibition. Manezh—Art-Aqua, Moscow, Russia.
1999 – Participant, Group Exhibition Where the Light moves, Irena Gallery, Kyiv, Ukraine.
2000 – Participant, Group Illustrations Exposition for Museum of Anastasia and Marina Tsvetaevy, Alexandrov, Russia – Traveling Exposition.
2000 – Solo Exhibition. Nouvelle Academie Libre, Paris, France.
2004 – Solo Exhibition. An Invitation to travel. Art-Club "Ekaterininskaya Square", Моscow, Russia.
2005 – Participant Paris School of Ukrainian Painting – 2005, Art association Le Fenix Gallery, Paris. France.
2007 – Solo Exhibition Prospero's Books. Anthony Brunelli Fine Arts Gallery, Binghamton, USA.
2009 – Solo Exhibition "aTTesting to Dreams", Museum of Ideas Gallery, Lviv, Ukraine.
2012 – Solo Exhibition dedicated to Art Festival Life after Euro, Juzovski Passazh, Donetsk, Ukraine.
2012 – Solo Exhibition Contre-Illusions. Gallery of Contemporary Art NT-Art, Odesa, Ukraine.
2013 – Solo Exhibition Within Exposition Themed: Odesa Art School. Traditional and Current Art, Art-Donbass Museum, Donetsk, Ukraine. Project Co-Founder.
2013 – Solo Exhibition within Exposition Themed Odesa Art School. Traditional and Current Art, National Museum of Art and Culture Mistecki Arsenal, Kyiv, Ukraine.
2013 – Solo Exhibition Metamorphosis. Gallery of Contemporary Art NT-Art, Odesa,Ukraine.
2014 – Participant, Group Exhibition Semantic Surrealism, Art-Residence House of Mechanic, Donetsk, Ukraine.
2014 – Solo Exhibition in the Center of Circle, Dymchuk Gallery, Kyiv, Ukraine.
2014 – Solo Exhibition in the Center of Circle, Gallery of Contemporary Art NT-Art, Odesa, Ukraine.
2015 – Solo Exhibition. Konstantin Skoptsov. Chamber of Commerce of Ukraine, Kyiv, Ukraine.
2016 – Participant and Co-Founder Sacred Geometry Art Project (Konstantin Skoptsov, Vadim Bondero), Gallery of Contemporary Art NT-Art, Odesa, Ukraine.
2018 – Solo Exhibition. Permanent Exposition: Path of the Symbol, Exposition within Wall Street Business Center, Odesa, Ukraine.
2020 – Solo Exhibition Parables of Masters Museum of Ideas Gallery, Lviv, Ukraine.
2020 – Participant, Group Exhibition Dreams of Gogol, gallery #ArtOdesa at the Summer Theater in city garden, Odesa, Ukraine.
2021 — Solo Exhibition New Millenium, Exposition within Wall Street Business Center, Odesa, Ukraine.
References
1958 births
Living people
Ukrainian male artists
Draughtsmen | Konstantin Skoptsov | [
"Engineering"
] | 1,895 | [
"Design engineering",
"Draughtsmen"
] |
61,030,587 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cold%20quasar | A cold quasar is a rare population of luminous unobscured quasars associated with starburst galaxies with an high rate of star formation of about 1000 solar masses per year. Theses quasars have a significant amount of cold gas at the center of the galaxy. Theses rare types of quasars are not well explained by simplistic models of quasar evolution and fueling.
There are 64 galaxies that are described to host a cold quasar.
Discovery
The discovery of cold quasars was formally announced in 2019 by Professor Allison Kirkpatrick at the 234th meeting of the American Astronomical Society in St. Louis.
References
Galaxies | Cold quasar | [
"Astronomy"
] | 136 | [
"Galaxy stubs",
"Astronomy stubs"
] |
61,035,728 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics%20dumping | Ethics dumping is a concept in research ethics that describes the export of unethical research practices from higher-income to lower-income settings. Ethics dumping can occur intentionally when researchers knowingly side-step restrictive regulatory regimes to undertake research abroad that would be prohibited in their home setting. It can also occur unintentionally, especially in the context of international research, if researchers lack the knowledge or ethics awareness to undertake studies appropriately in unfamiliar settings.
History
The term 'ethics dumping' originated with a call for funding in the European Union Horizon 2020 framework program. In December 2013, funding stream GARRI.6.2014 invited proposals to reduce the risk of ethics dumping, defined as “the exportation of research practices that would not be accepted in Europe on ethical grounds”. The European Commission describes ethics dumping within Horizon 2020 as follows:
"Due to the progressive globalisation of research activities, the risk is higher that research with sensitive ethical issues is conducted by European organisations outside the EU in a way that would not be accepted in Europe from an ethical point of view. This exportation of these non-compliant research practices is called ethics dumping".
In 2015, a proposal from the TRUST consortium was selected by peer reviewers from a range of proposals submitted to GARRI.6.2014 to tackle the problem of ethics dumping. The primary output from the TRUST project work to reduce the risk of ethics dumping was a new code of ethics: the Global Code of Conduct for Research in Resource-Poor Settings (see below).
Examples
The following are some examples of different types of ethics dumping.
Choosing a location or population for research, which is unlikely to benefit in full, or at all, from the research, for instance: Avian influenza research involving Indonesian human blood samples, when Indonesians were unlikely to benefit from the resulting vaccines.
Imposing burdens and risks on research participants who are unlikely to benefit themselves, for instance: Ebola virus research undertaken in a resource-poor setting that had no incidence of Ebola, and amongst vulnerable populations who were unlikely to obtain access to the resulting products and services.
Exporting valuable materials abroad without benefit sharing, for instance: Export of biological samples from South Africa “to developed countries occurs frequently” and whilst research “participants were supportive of providing samples for research, serious concerns were voiced about future use, benefit sharing and export of samples”.
Undertaking medical research where the control group is only offered placebo even though an effective alternative is available, for instance: Three clinical trials on cervical cancer in India contributed to the deaths of 254 women in the control group as “known and effective methods of screening for cervical cancer were … withheld from 141,000 women in areas where it was known to be of high incidence and prevalence”.
Undertaking research without ethics approval, for instance: Failure to obtain ethical approval for research in Nepal or effort to obtain retrospective ethical approval in Liberia when the publication of research results was otherwise blocked.
Refusing to accept research participants’ rights, for instance: Refusal by an overseas company conducting a Chinese clinical trial to pay financial compensation for harm incurred as a result of taking part in medical research.
Culturally inappropriate conduct of researchers, for instance: “Researchers took photographs of individuals in their homes, of breastfeeding mothers, or of underage children, whilst ignoring our social customs and norms. Bribes or other advantages were offered”.
The Global Code of Conduct for Research in Resource-Poor Settings
The main initiative to counter ethics dumping is the Global Code of Conduct for Research in Resource-Poor Settings. This was developed by the multinational TRUST project team of ethicists, researchers, policy makers, research funders, industry personnel, medics, and representatives from communities who had extensive experience of being exploited in research. For example, Andries Steenkamp, a revered San Leader (1960-2016) and member of the TRUST consortium, expressed the need for a code of ethics. "We get given consent forms and documents, often in a hurry. We sign because we need the money and then end up with regret. It feels like a form of abuse. They want something from us and they know how to get it. Because of our socio-economic conditions, we will always be vulnerable to those from the North. A code of ethics is needed".
The resultant code consists of 23 short articles (stipulations), that are designed to address risks for ethics dumping, and framed around a new moral framework (fairness, respect, care and honesty). The ethics code applies across all research disciplines from biology to zoology and aims to establish equitable partnerships in research. In 2018 it was adopted by the European Commission as a mandatory reference document for applicants to Europe’s biggest research fund: Horizon 2020 and the forthcoming Horizon Europe, to ensure its impact on the practice of ethics dumping. This code of conduct is mandatory for researchers applying for these funding streams and who plan to undertake research activities in low and middle-income countries.
References
Research ethics
Concepts in ethics
Horizon 2020 projects | Ethics dumping | [
"Technology"
] | 1,006 | [
"Research ethics",
"Ethics of science and technology"
] |
61,037,921 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scale%20cube | The scale cube is a technology model that indicates three methods (or approaches) by which technology platforms may be scaled to meet increasing levels of demand upon the system in question. The three approaches defined by the model include scaling through replication or cloning (the “X axis”), scaling through segmentation along service boundaries or dissimilar components (the “Y axis”) and segmentation or partitioning along similar components (the “Z axis”).
History
The model was first published in a book in the first edition of The Art of Scalability.
The authors claim first publishing of the model online in 2007 in their company blog.
Subsequent versions of the model were published in the first edition of Scalability Rules in 2011, the second edition of The Art of Scalability in 2015 and the second edition of Scalability Rules in 2016.
Model overview
The X axis of the model describes scaling a technology solution through multiple instances of the same component through cloning of a service or replication of a data set. Web and application servers performing the same function may exist behind a load balancer for scaling a solution. Data persistence systems such as a database may be replicated for higher transaction throughput.
The Y axis of the model describes scaling a technology solution by separating a monolithic application into services using action words (verbs), or separating “dissimilar” things. Data may be separated by nouns. Services should have the data upon which they act separated and isolated to that service.
The Z axis of the cube describes scaling a technology solution by separating components along “similar” boundaries. Such separations may be done on a geographic basis, along customer identity numbers, etc.
X axis
X axis scaling is the most commonly used approach and tends to be the easiest to implement. Although potentially costly, the speed at which it can be implemented and start alleviating issues tends to offset the cost. The X Axis tends to be a simple copy of a service that is then load balanced to either help with spikes in traffic or server outages. The costs can start to become overwhelming, particularly when dealing with the persistence tier.
Pros of X axis scaling
Intellectually easy
Scales transactions well
Quick to implement
Cons of X axis scaling
Cost (multiple database copies)
Does not address caching
Does not address organizational scale
Y axis
Y axis scaling starts to break away chunks of monolithic code bases and creates separate services, or sometimes microservices. This separation creates clearly defined lanes for not only responsibility and accountability, but also for fault isolation. If one service fails, it should only bring down itself and not other services.
Pros of Y axis scaling
Allows for organizational scale
Scales transactions well
Fault isolation
Increases cache hit rate
Cons of Y axis scaling
Intellectually hard
Takes time to implement
Z axis
Z axis scaling is usually looking at similar use cases of data. Whether that be geographic in nature or how customers use your website, or even just a random modulus of your customer dataset. The Z Axis breaks customers into sequestered sections to benefit response time and to help eliminate issues if a particular region or section should go down.
Pros of Z axis scaling
Intellectually easy
Scales transactions well
Can provide fault isolation
Can improve response times
Cons of Z axis scaling
Takes time to implement
Does not address organizational scale
Requires increased automation to reduce systems overhead
References
Computer architecture
Computational resources
Computer systems
Engineering concepts | Scale cube | [
"Technology",
"Engineering"
] | 679 | [
"Computer engineering",
"Computer architecture",
"Computer systems",
"Computer science",
"nan",
"Computers"
] |
61,038,111 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SMM%20J2135-0102 | SMM-J2135-0102 (also known as the Cosmic Eyelash) is a galaxy discovered using the Large Apex Bolometer Camera (LABOCA) of the Atacama Pathfinder Experiment (APEX) telescope.
The object was discovered by a group of researchers during an observation session of the galaxy supercluster, MACSJ2135-010217. The cluster causes a gravitational lens effect that amplified SMM-J2135-0102 by 32 times. It was possible to identify four molecular clouds whose solar luminosities were 100 times higher than that of similar regions in the Milky Way. This suggests a process of star formation that is 250 times faster.
References
Galaxies
Aquarius (constellation) | SMM J2135-0102 | [
"Astronomy"
] | 153 | [
"Galaxy stubs",
"Galaxies",
"Astronomy stubs",
"Constellations",
"Aquarius (constellation)",
"Astronomical objects"
] |
61,039,020 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%E2%80%93V%20distinction%20in%20the%20world%27s%20languages | The T–V distinction (from the Latin pronouns and ) is a contrast, within one language, between various forms of addressing one's conversation partner or partners. This may be specialized for varying levels of politeness, social distance, courtesy, familiarity, age or insult toward the addressee. The distinction occurs in a number of the world's languages.
Indo-European languages
Germanic languages
Afrikaans
Modern Afrikaans rarely makes the distinction between the informal second-person singular / and the more formal ( when addressing God), with jy supplanting u in most cases. When speaking to a significantly older person, titles are often used in place of the formal singular second person pronoun , e.g. "Sal oom my asseblief help?" English: "Will uncle (can be non-familial) please help me?" ; "Hoe gaan dit met ouma?"; "How is grandma (2nd person) doing?"
The distinction of is sometimes upheld in a formal setting, such as in politics, business, speaking to a customer, or polite conversation. The second-person plural is used in all social contexts.
Dutch
Old Dutch did not appear to have a T–V distinction. was used as the second-person singular, and as the second-person plural. In early Middle Dutch, influenced by Old French usage, the original plural pronoun (or in the north) came to be used as a respectful singular pronoun, creating a T–V distinction. However, the formal started to be used in more and more situations. By the 17th century, had largely fallen out of use, although it lingered on in some of the more peripheral areas. At this point, the original T–V distinction had been lost, and the original V-pronoun / was used universally for both singular and plural regardless of the type of address. This resembled the state of English today, which has also (outside of dialectal, literary or religious use) lost its original T-pronoun thou.
Around this time, a new formal pronoun started to come into use. This was also the object form of the subject pronoun /, and how it came to be used as a subject pronoun is not exactly clear. It is usually related to a form of address in writing of the time: letters were often addressed formally to , standing for ("Your Highness"), which is thought to have been shortened to eventually. It can be compared to the Spanish , which is a similar contraction of a phrase of indirect address. As in Spanish, the Dutch was originally conjugated as the third person in verbs, although most verbs had identical second- and third-person singular forms, so that this difference was not apparent for the most part. It remains today in the use of ("you (formal) have", like "he has"), compared to ("you (informal) have"). However, is now also common.
Around the same time, it became more common to clarify when multiple people were being spoken to, by adding , ("people"), or a shortened variety, to the end of the pronoun. Thus, when speaking to multiple people, one would use or . This combination was contracted and fused over time, eventually resulting in , the informal plural pronoun that is used today. It can be compared, in its origin, to the English y'all or Spanish .
Modern northern Dutch, and usually standard Dutch as well, has two forms of second person pronouns, namely and . is the formal pronoun, whereas is used as the informal personal pronoun to address a single person. In the plural, is also used, alongside the informal . In the south, only one pronoun, , is generally used in all three roles: both singular and plural, formal and informal. U is sometimes also used in formal situations, but the southern does not have a distinct informal connotation like the northern/standard , and can be used to address anyone without offence. Religious Dutch speakers in all areas address God using either or ; is never used. Some would not at the start of a sentence only capitalize the U for God. For speakers of the north, this is usually the only place where is encountered, giving it a formal and archaic tone, even though it is neutral in the southern areas where it is still used. Officially, the verb in the imperative with U should get the suffix t [see https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gebiedende_wijs#Beleefdsheidsvorm] but few seem to know or use this rule.
The pronoun (unstressed variant of ) can also be used impersonally, corresponding to the English generic you. The more formal Dutch term corresponding to English generic you or one is .
In Dutch the formal personal pronoun is used for older people or for people with a higher or equal status, unless the addressed makes it clear they want to be spoken to with the informal pronoun. Unlike for example in German, there is no defined line (in the case of German, roughly when someone passes the age of 16) in which everyone, apart from family, is addressed with the formal pronoun. Addressing parents by has become very rare; is often even used to address grandparents. There is also a tendency towards more use of the informal pronoun. Some companies such as IKEA consciously address their customers with the informal . However, can still be considered more or less obligatory in situations where, for example, a pupil addresses their teacher, people testify in court or communication between a doctor and their patient.
English
Contemporary English generally uses only the form "you", regardless of level of familiarity.
Old English used in the second-person singular for both formal and informal contexts. Following the Norman Conquest, the Middle English that emerged continued to use at first, but by the 13th century, Norman French influence had led to the use of the second-person plural or in formal contexts.
In Early Modern English superiors and strangers were therefore respectfully addressed as ye in the nominative and you in the objective; thou and thee were used for familiars and subordinates. The more widespread and observed this division became, the more pejorative it became to strangers to be called by the familiar form of address. By the 17th century, such a use among the nobility was strongly and deliberately contemptuous, as in the declamation of the prosecutor at Sir Walter Raleigh's 1603 trial "I thou thee, thou traitor!" Accordingly, the use of thou began to decline and it was effectively extinct in the everyday speech of most English dialects by the early 18th century, supplanted by the polite you, even when addressing children and animals, something also seen in Dutch and Latin America (most of Brazil and parts of Costa Rica and Colombia). Meanwhile, as part of English's continuing development away from its synthetic origins since the influx of French vocabulary following the Norman invasion, you had been replacing ye since the 15th century. Standard English was left with a single second-person pronoun for all cases, numbers and contexts and largely incapable of maintaining a T–V distinction.
Notwithstanding all of this, the translators of the King James Version of the Bible chose to employ the older forms in their work (1604–1611) in order to convey the grammatical distinctions made by their Hebrew, Greek and Latin sources. Its subsequent popularity and the religious rationale of many who continued to employ thou has preserved its use in English, but made it seem pious and ironically more formal and respectful than the everyday you.
In the United States, Mormons, and some Protestant sects, such as the Quakers, insisted on addressing everyone as thou, because they considered every person to be a friend and an equal. This persisted until the 19th or early 20th century.
Frisian (West)
In West Frisian, the formal singular nominative (pronounced yo) is very close to the English you and the Middle and Early Modern English . There is no such distinction in the plural; the plural second person pronoun is always . , a Dutch dialect with strong Frisian influence, parallels this distinction (, , ).
West Frisian is used slightly more often than Dutch . Native speakers of Dutch are sometimes warned against addressing newly acquainted people with too soon.
German
and
In German, the formal address is the same as the third person plural pronoun . Verbs used with this form of address are also identical to third person plural forms. The polite form and its inflected forms are always capitalized in writing, to avoid any ambiguity.
The corresponding informal German address is or . The verbs and mean respectively "to address using " and "to address using " and the phrases or mean, "to be on terms". The use of often coincides with the use of the title plus surname, usage of which is more widespread in German-speaking areas than Anglophone areas. In general terms, is used to children, animals and God, and between adults (or between adults and children) who are good friends of or related to each other. is used in other situations, such as in a business situation or where there is no existing relationship. In Internet chats and forums, Germans rarely use , although there are exceptions. Except in the case of adults addressing children, where it is common for the child to address the adult as , but be addressed as in return, it is not common in German for one party to address the other as , but be addressed as in return. In almost all cases it can be considered as impolite to use the "wrong" pronoun, that is a pronoun that is not expected by the other party. However, on the other hand, using an unexpected can also be a very welcome sign of affection, and using an unexpected can, in the young, be a very welcome sign of appreciation of the addressed one's maturity.
High school students in Germany are often called plus given name () by their teachers when they enter the —the last 2 or 3 years of high school—around the age of 16.
Children and teenagers are expected to use when addressing all adults except for family members and family friends whom they have known since early childhood. Street and similar social workers, sports clubs trainers will sometimes tell children and teens to address them with . In shops, bars, and other establishments, if they target a younger audience, it is becoming increasingly common for customers and staff to address each other as , to the degree that it is sometimes considered awkward if a waitress and a customer who are both in their twenties call each other .
The use of or between two strangers may also be determined by the setting in which they meet (casual/formal), as well as clothing (casual/formal), gender (same/opposite), and personal preference. For example, it is customary to use in traditional small pubs and taverns in certain regions (including the Rhineland). This applies also to older people, whom one would otherwise address as . Two people who addressed each other as in a pub may go back to when they meet in the street if their acquaintance was only very superficial. During the famous Rhenish carnival, it is customary for most revelers to address each other as . Only if the age difference is more than one generation, the younger person might still use . Another setting in which is often used between adults is sporting events.
Being has also become increasingly common in workplace environments (depending on the line of business and corporate culture to varying degrees), mostly regardless of age. In such environments, the basis may also be observed as a (sometimes necessary) mark of good social integration within a working group. As a rule of thumb, one might expect to see team colleagues on the workplace level in many industries on a customary basis with each other, though not always with the group manager and more rarely with higher-ranking managers. As entrants to a team are more closely integrated, this is often marked by making an informal affirmation to that basis or by formally offering it, as a matter of style and habituality. Both the tempo and extent of using the basis depends much on the culture (and sometimes the climate) of the business, and in some places even more so on that of the particular workgroup itself. Business cultures that pride themselves on a "flat hierarchy" are more likely to adopt or accent a general professional parlance of and given name while inside corporations tending to emphasize professional formality, a may be expected to be used always except between very close colleagues or inside closed groups (sometimes including managers meeting on the same level with the exclusion of any subordinates), and strictly always in the presence of a superior. The superior, on the other hand, has the right to address the other person informally or formally, which is a personal preference.
Customarily, the switch from to is initially proposed by the elder of the two people, the person with socially higher standing or by the lady to the gentleman. Alternatively, one person may use while they ask the other person if it is acceptable to be addressed informally, and then act accordingly. One way to propose the use of rather than is by stating one's first name (as in: ). One accepts the proposal by introducing one's own first name. Should a person later forget that they have adopted , it is polite to remind them by saying, (We moved on to terms). Sometimes switching back to is used as a method of distancing oneself from the addressee; the connotation is slightly ironic courtesy.
The inappropriate and uninvited use of towards someone who would otherwise reasonably expect to be addressed as is considered to be condescending and disrespectful, although insistence on in an environment where is largely accepted (flat hierarchies) can be interpreted as being equally disrespectful. The degree of offense that might be taken will depend on how obvious the etiquette violation was (an example of an obvious violation would be a teenager in the street addressing an elderly stranger on the street with , addressing a senior manager with as a result of a misjudged professional relationship would probably be taken with less offense), and will also depend on the upbringing of the person in question—progressive vs. conservative outlooks and age are examples of factors which can play a role in how individuals prefer to be addressed and choose to address others.
It has become the policy of some businesses for their employees to address customers with , often to set a progressive, "modern" tone, occasionally for other cultural reasons. IKEA, for instance, does this to reflect the widespread use of the form in Sweden (see ).
In Germany, an old custom (called , drinking brotherhood) involves two friends formally sharing a bottle of wine or drinking a glass of beer together to celebrate their agreement to call one another rather than . This custom has also been adopted among the Swiss-French of the Jura, in Poland and Russia (called by its German name, spelled and respectively), though the custom in Poland is now slowly disappearing. It was formerly found also in Sweden.
Although the use of generally coincides with the use of title plus surname, especially in northern and eastern Germany, there is an intermediate address combining with the first name (), whereas in the Berlin region, sometimes is combined with the surname (). The former usage also occurs when addressing teenagers, household staff, or guests of TV or radio programs, while the latter style is usually considered inferior and mainly occurs in working class environments, on schoolyards and in barracks. It may be associated with professional contexts, when colleagues have known one another for a long time, but, e.g. due to differences of status, do not want to switch to the usual style; or in situations where strangers (e.g. customers) are present for whom it would not be appropriate to learn the first name of the addressee.
When speaking to more than one person in formal situations where one would use to each one of them separately, Standard German uses . However, in this situation can often be heard instead, especially in the South of Germany and in Swiss German dialects, and is standard usage for pastors when preaching. If the standard here is followed, then the usage varies when addressing a group containing both and persons: Some speakers use the informal plural , others prefer the formal , and many, concerned that both pronouns might cause offence, prefer to use circumlocutions that avoid either pronoun, for example by expressing an imperative in infinitive form (), by applying the passive voice (), or using the indefinite pronoun ().
Historical predecessors: and /
Formerly, the 2nd person plural ("ye") was used to address social superiors, unless more informal relations had been established. The use of as the polite form, has still survived in Bernese German and other Alemannic dialects, as this is the case with in the French language. in this case has to be capitalized. However, itself shows a degree of informality, and would for example be used in addressing one's father. For the formal address, the third person would be used; and this in the singular with , (capitalized) to a social inferior, as a farmer addressing a stableboy, or in the plural to a social superior. It is from the latter occurrences that modern takes its origin; is the 3rd person plural pronoun. However, itself is relatively young, and it was rather the formal addresses, often itself singular forms, that took the plural. Even as late as in Dürrenmatt's "The Visit" (written in 1956), an address ("You do know that, Mr Mayor", modern German would just say ) can be found; Herr Bürgermeister is the formal address and itself a singular term, but is plural. However, if the formal address itself contains a personal pronoun as in ("His Majesty") etc., this one would be put to the 2nd person plural: (not: ) ("What does [but plural] Your Majesty condescend to order?")
Thus, all these go by a similar grammar rule pertaining to the verb used with these addresses as modern . The dated capitalized address demands the same verb form as the modern second person plural pronoun , the dated / demands the same verb form as the modern third person singular and , and the dated 3rd person plural address without demands, just as itself, the same verb form as the 3rd person plural pronoun ("they").
The forms are still found today in some dialects as a respectful way of addressing elders and are still very often found in works of art and literature (such as books and movies) depicting events at least several centuries in the past, or in a "past-like" fantasy setting, even if modern German is otherwise used in these works; indeed, using the modern in such a setting would be considered an out-of-place anachronism. and the 3rd person plural without are somewhat analogous to the English majestic plural.
The / form is not widely known or understood by the average person any more, whereas is often still used in dubbed films, especially in medieval/fantasy contexts such as The Lord of the Rings, e.g. "" ("you have entered the Realm of the Lady of the Wood, you can not turn back"). In this context, a historical level is used where the second person plural indicates some nobility of or respect for the addressee, such that from being used to address a single person, the viewer could mostly, without looking, conclude that the person was of elevated rank such as a king or nobleman, or at least being treated with expressed regard. would not normally be used to address a peasant (unless he is a prince in disguise or a future prince and the person addressing him has gathered some knowledge or presumption thereof).
Scandinavian languages
Danish
In Danish, the informal second-person singular is and the formal form of address uses the third-person plural , capitalized to distinguish it from its other use. The second-person plural and the third-person singular ("he") or ("she") were sometimes used until the early 19th century in standard Danish and awhile longer in the countryside. The German-inspired form entered Danish in the 18th century, too late to enter liturgical use. In church, as in rural or dialect-speaking areas, has always been the universal form, especially in Jutland.
As in other Scandinavian languages, even among the prestige dialects, the formal pronoun is waning in use—in the case of Danish, since ("The Youth Revolts") during and after the protests of 1968. As a general rule, the informal is accepted everywhere today, except when addressing royalty or during military service. In other contexts, it has come to seem excessively formal and old-fashioned to most Danes. Even at job interviews and among parliamentarians, has become standard.
In written Danish, remains current in legal, legislative, and formal business documents, as well as in some translations from other languages. This is sometimes audience-dependent, as in the Danish government's general use of except in healthcare information directed towards the elderly, where is still used. Other times, it is maintained as an affectation, as by the staff of some formal restaurants, the newspaper, TV 2 announcers, and the avowedly conservative Maersk corporation. Attempts by other corporations to avoid sounding either stuffy or too informal by employing circumlocutions—using passive phrasing or using the pronoun ("one")—have generally proved awkward and been ill-received, and (with the notable exception of the national railway DSB) most have opted for the more personable form.
Icelandic
Modern Icelandic is the Scandinavian language closest to Old Norse, which made a distinction between the plural and the dual . This distinction continued in written Icelandic the early 1920 when the plural was also used on formal occasions. The formal usage of seems to have pushed the dual to take over the plural so modern Icelandic normally uses as a plural. However, in formal documents such as by the president is still used as plural, and the usage of as plural and as dual is still retained in the Icelandic translation of the Christian scriptures. There are still a number of fixed expressions—particularly religious adages such as "seek and ye shall find" ()—and the formal pronoun is sometimes used in translations from a language that adheres to a T–V distinction, but otherwise it appears only when one wants to be excessively formal either from the gravity of the occasion (as in court proceedings and legal correspondence) or out of contempt (in order to ridicule another person's self-importance), and is used in all other cases.
Norwegian
In Norwegian, the polite form / () and / () has more or less disappeared in both spoken and written language. Norwegians now exclusively use , and the polite form does not have a strong cultural pedigree in the country. Until recently, would sometimes be found in written works, business letters, plays and translations where an impression of formality must be retained. The popular belief that is reserved for the king is incorrect, since according to royal etiquette, the King (and other members of the royal family) will be addressed as ()/ () (Your majesty) or in third person singular as (His majesty), / (Her majesty), (the King), (the Queen) and similar.
Norwegians generally refer to one another by first name only, unless the person is better known by full or last name only. This also contributes to the weakening of these pronouns and a general pattern of declining use of polite speech. For example, a student might address their professor by their first name, but would refer to a leading politician by their last name. Norwegian politicians and celebrities are sometimes referred to by their first names, especially in newspaper headlines, while the text of the article most likely would use the person's last name. Nicknames are not very common.
The distinction between and exists primarily for written Norwegian (most Norwegians speak dialects that differ from the standard written forms), and the T–V rules are the same for both forms—except that uses the third person plural to indicate politeness (as in German), while uses the second person plural (as in French). In both forms, when these pronouns are used to indicate politeness, they are always capitalised (to show deference, and separate them from when they indicate, respectively, the third and second person plural).
Swedish
In Swedish, there has in the last two centuries been a marked difference between usage in Finland Swedish and that of Sweden.
In the Swedish of Sweden, the polite survived from earlier epochs, but had come to be considered somewhat careless, bullying or rude; instead, an intricate system had evolved in order to prudently step around pronouns almost completely. Parts of this system began to erode around the Second World War or so, but the essentials held up into the 1960s.
As the 20th century progressed, Swedish speakers increasingly came to find this circumlocutive system of addressing, with its innumerable ambiguities and opportunities for unintentional offence, as a nuisance. In the 1960s, the so-called ('thou-reform') was carried out. First, authorities and influential circles tried rehabilitating the in a so-called " reform"—but most people could not bring themselves to feel civil using that. Then, almost overnight in what became known as the " reform", the system broke down, and (noted as informal above) became the accepted way of addressing anyone except for royalty.
Addressing royalty went somewhat more slowly from a universal ('Your Majesty'), etc., to that address only on formal occasions, otherwise replaced by third-person (singular if the addressee is single) with title ( 'the King', etc.).
These rules still apply, with marginal exceptions. The vast majority of Swedes, including younger people in most or all situations, stick to . In order to "alleviate the intrusion" in writing, e.g. in letters or in advertisement, the can be capitalized. That usage was most widespread in the early days of universal du-address; it has become slightly more common again simultaneously with the partial revival.
Finland Swedish has undergone a similar development to mainland Swedish since the 1960s, but more slowly and slightly less radically. In Finland one may have to reckon with influence from the Finnish language, still slightly more conservative. In Finland Swedish, the second-person plural form (noted as formal above) was indeed the traditional respectful address to a single person up to the 1970s or so.
Swedish also has verbs for the addresses: 'to say ', and 'to say '.
Scots
In Modern Scots the second person singular nominative (, Southern Scots , Shetland dialect ) survived in colloquial speech until the mid 19th century in most of lowland Scotland. It has since been replaced by / in most areas except in Insular Scots where (, Shetland dialect ) is also used, in North Northern Scots and in some Southern Scots varieties. is used as the familiar form by parents speaking to children, elders to youngsters, or between friends or equals. The second person formal singular or is used when speaking to a superior or when a youngster addresses an elder. The older second person singular possessive (), and (, Shetland dialect along with ) still survive to some extent where remains in use.
Yiddish
Yiddish makes use of the second person plural form as the polite form for both singular and plural. In the second person plural form (), there is therefore no distinction between formal and informal forms. There is a dialectal pronoun () strictly for informal second-person plural form, but this pronoun is rarely used today and is only found in some dialects of Poland and neighboring regions.
Given that medieval German dialects were the main influence on the development of the Yiddish language, this form may be recognized with older polite forms of the German language.
Romance languages
Catalan
Catalan uses the singular pronouns (informal) and (formal), while (informal) and (formal) are used for two or more addressees. The form , used instead of to address someone respectfully, follows the same concordance rules as the French (verbs in second person plural, adjectives in singular), and follows the same concordance rules as the Spanish (verbs in third person). originated from as a calque from Spanish, and replaced the original Catalan form .
In some dialects, is no longer used. Other dialects have a three-way distinction / / , where is used as a respectful form for elders and respected friends, and for foreigners and people whom one does not know well. is more distant than .
The Administration uses to address people.
French
In most French-speaking regions (with the exception of Canada, see North American French below), a rigid T–V distinction is upheld. With regard to the second person singular, is used informally, whereas is used to convey formality. The second person plural is always . The formal is expected when encountering any unknown adult under normal circumstances. In general, the switch from to is "negotiated" on a case-by-case basis; it can happen nearly unconsciously, or can be explicitly negotiated. For instance, some couples have been known to call each other for some time while dating, and gradually switch to calling each other . The verb means "address someone with -forms, speak informally"; by contrast means "address someone with forms". Rigidly sticking to vous can become equally awkward in a long-standing relationship.
In certain circumstances, however, is used more broadly. For example, new acquaintances who are conscious of having something socially significant in common (e.g., student status, or the same "rank" in some hierarchy) often use tu more or less immediately. In some cases, there may be an explicitly defined practice in a particular company, political party, as to the use of and . Also, using the in conjunction with someone's given name is rather current in France as a less formal way of addressing someone, e.g. at work, among members of an association etc. Children and adolescents generally use to speak with someone of their own age, whether known or not. can also be used to show disrespect to a stranger, such as when surprising a thief or cursing other drivers on the road.
may be used to distance oneself from a person with whom one does not want to interact. Additionally, two people who use in their private interactions may consciously switch back to in public in order to act appropriately in a formal or professional environment, to play the part in an artificially constructed situation (such as between co-hosts of a television show), or simply to conceal the nature of their relationship from others.
In families, was traditionally used to address older family members. Children were taught to use to address their parents, and was used until about 1950 between spouses of the higher classes. Former president Jacques Chirac and his wife Bernadette served as a prominent example of the continuation of this usage.
When praying, is nowadays often used in addressing the deity, though was used in Catholic prayers until the Second Vatican Council, and is still used to address the Blessed Virgin Mary. In Louisiana, however, is always used to convey a sense of respect and reverence when praying.
In the , the use of honorific styles or their abbreviation (literally she, irrespective of the gender of the addressee, as the honorifics were feminine nouns) together with the 3rd person singular was also common. See below for Italian which has kept this style.
African French
In , local languages (such as Baoulé, Dioula, etc.) do not make a distinction between informal or formal pronouns, which reflects on the local usage of French. It is thus uncommon to call an individual . A waiter, shop-keeper or taxi driver can very well call a customer , just like an employee towards a superior. For example, an accountant could call her direct branch manager , but will still use to address the company's CEO.
Relationships between men and women are typically less formal than between people of the same gender (a female supermarket worker will more easily say towards a male customer than her male colleague).
Even in formal situations (business, politics), the superiors can often be called in a familiar way by subordinates who will use affectionate terms of address such as , , , , for males, , , , for females, instead of the standard and . Superiors reciprocate with terms of address such as , , , . All those terms of address typically exclude the use of "vous".
The use is also conditioned to the "level" of French being spoken: using a Standard French code and/or accent (what is called in Ivorian French) will prompt addresses of , whereas code switching to Ivorian French will typically invite a concomitant switch to .
Informed local people will still, most of the time, make a conscious effort to use and / when addressing Westerners in formal situations (unless, again, that Westerner talks Ivorian French rather than Standard French). Other groups of foreigners such as other Africans, Asians or Middle-Eastern people are less likely to enjoy that "privilege".
The use of , just like the use of and , is thus restricted to very formal situations where Standard French is being used, mostly for the higher class between themselves: managers at a meeting with the CEO, representatives of different political parties, upper-class people who don't know each other at a social gathering. A switching to can still happen as soon as the formal event is over (such as managers getting out of the meeting room) or just after having been introduced to each other—usually simultaneous to a switch from Standard French to Ivorian French.
North American French
North American dialects of French, including Quebec, Acadian and Louisiana French, permit and expect a far broader usage of the familiar than in European French. There are still circumstances in which it is necessary to say : in a formal interview (notably for a job) or when addressing people of very high rank (such as judges or prime ministers), senior citizens, between professors and students in universities, towards customers or new acquaintances in a formal setting. As acquaintances become familiar with one another, they may find to be unnecessarily formal and may agree to return to the with which they are generally more comfortable.
For a number of Francophones in Canada, sounds stilted or snobbish, and archaic. is by no means restricted to intimates or social inferiors. There is however an important minority of people who prefer to be addressed as . At Radio-Canada (the public broadcaster, often considered as establishing the normative objectives of standard French in Canada), the use of is widespread, even among colleagues.
Galician
Galician uses the personal pronouns ti (in Eastern and part of Central Galician, tu) and vós as the singular informal second person and plural informal second person respectively. Formality is expressed by the use of vostede, instead of ti, with the verb conjugated in singular third person form. The plural form is vostedes.
In Galicia, it's common to see instructions and written information, like in museums and bus stops, using the formal pronoun vostede to address the reader. However, it's more likely that a worker and costumer use ti/tu when communicating, or to switch to Spanish with informal pronouns (see Spanish below), than using the formal pronoun vostede.
Italian
In Standard Italian the informal second-person singular pronoun is and the formal second-person singular pronoun is (inf. "she", lit. "her"), always used with the third-person singular conjugation of the verb. The pronouns may be freely omitted. Despite the original meaning of , modern Italian typically concords with the gender of the addressee when is the sentence subject; using feminine adjectives for a male addressee is not insulting. When is an object, using feminine adjectives is normal (, i.e. "I saw you (m.)"), whereas gender concord is considered non-standard (, i.e. "I saw you (m.)).
is normally used in formal settings or with strangers, although it implies a sense of distance (even coldness) similar to the French use of . Presently Italian adults prefer to employ towards strangers until around 30 years old. It is used reciprocally between adults; the usage may not be reciprocal when young people address older strangers or otherwise respected people. Students are addressed with by their teachers until the end of high school with few exceptions and usually with in universities. Students might use with their teachers in elementary school, but switch to from middle school. is the common form of address on the Internet and within some professions such as journalism and law as a recognition of comradeship. In law school, however the is only used in informal settings; in the courtroom it is used only to small children, if ever any happens to appear there. The second-person plural pronoun is . Its polite counterpart is ("They"), but it is now little used outside of very formal situations.
is the traditional polite form of address in Tuscan dialects: Dante employs it in his 14th-century Divine Comedy when showing particular respect. began to replace it during the Renaissance and then, under Spanish influence, it became common to contract obsequious honorifics such as "Your Lordship", "Eminence", and "Majesty", all of which are feminine third-person singular nouns in Italian (, , ). Over the next four centuries, all three pronouns—, , —were employed together to express degrees of formality and status, as displayed in Manzoni's 19th-century The Betrothed. In Lampedusa's The Leopard, when the Prince proposes on his nephew's behalf to the daughter of the rich but plebeian mayor, the latter suddenly switches from using the style of Your Excellency and the form Lei to the style of Prince and the form Voi: still respectful, but with much shorter social distance. continues to be used by some speakers, particularly of Southern dialects, as an alternative to in polite address, but its use is increasingly uncommon. The use of was imposed by the Fascists from 1938 to 1944. still appears in comics, and in instruction books and advertisements where would sound too distant, but in the latter case most of the time it is used directly as a plural and not as a polite singular. (An example of all three forms of address in action is the Italian The Lord of the Rings translation: a character such as Aragorn is usually addressed as , but neither nor seemed appropriate for how Samwise addresses his higher-class friend and employer Frodo; Sam calls Frodo , in consequence.)
Although seldom encountered, the third person or is sometimes seen in formal correspondence and invitations, as a stronger form of its descendant .
Portuguese
Brazilian Portuguese
For the most part, in Brazilian Portuguese, and (singular and plural "you", respectively) are used as the V form in more relaxed situations (for example, between two strangers with the same age in the streets), while and ("Mr"/"Sir" and "Mrs"/"Madam", plurals and ) are used in formal speech, as well as towards elders. Although now seen as archaic, is used when speaking ironically, very formally or when one is demonstrating respect to a superior and it is sometimes replaced by ("Lady"). Informal terms of respect to superiors, elders or strangers are (abbreviation of ) and (feminine of i.e. ). / and ("Lad"/"Young man" and "Lady") are used by seniors when addressing non-intimate youths and also as an equalizing form among strange youths. ("youngster") is used in the same manner by elders when addressing strange youths of both genders.
On premises where the atmosphere requires extreme formality like the Senate or different courts, the protocolar forms to address dignitaries ("Your Excellence") and ("Your Lordship/Ladyship") can still be heard. In a direct address to a judge or the president, must follow the vocatives ("Your Honour", literally "full of merit") and ("Mr/Mrs" President). When addressing an ecclesiastical dignitary the form ("Your Reverence") is used. Although is regarded as protocolar, it is an equalizing form.
In some parts of the country and in television speech (that used by reporters and actors, for instance) is used even between intimate speakers. In other parts of the geographic extension of the language e.g. most of Southern and Northeastern Brazil, some sociolects of coastal São Paulo, mainly in Greater Santos, colloquial sociolect, mainly among the less educated and some all-class youths of Greater Rio de Janeiro, and in Uruguay, tu (singular "you" or simply "thou") is used informally, but the plural form is always . For the overwhelming majority of people, the pronoun is commonly used with the verb conjugated as (third-person singular) rather than in the traditional conjugation (second-person singular). is somewhat familiar, even intimate, and should never be addressed to superiors, or strange elders, while is much more neutral, although equalizing.
The dialect that includes , capital city of Santa Catarina, as well as its shore and inner regions in the proximity like Blumenau, is an exception, as the use of is widespread, even addressing formally to an authority or to a superior. It is one of the few dialects in Brazil in which second-person singular agreement is used (along with the relatively conservative dialect of the state of ).
European Portuguese
In European Portuguese (as well as in Africa, Timor-Leste and Macau), (singular "you") is commonly used as the familiar addressing pronoun, while is a general form of address; (plural both of and ) is used for both familiar and general. The forms and (plurals and ) are used for more formal situations (roughly equivalent to "Mr/Sir" and "Mrs/Madam".) Similarly to some Romance languages (e.g. Italian), , or / can be omitted because the verb ending provides the necessary information. The second person plural pronoun , from Latin , is archaic in most of the Portuguese-speaking world, but can be heard in liturgy, poetry and has a limited regional use.
Romanian
The Romanian word when used for the second-person singular formal takes plural verbs but singular adjectives, similar to French . It is used roughly in the same manner as in Continental French and shows no signs of disappearing. It is also used as a more formal . It originates from – your lordship. In the past it was used extreme rarely to nobles especially, but its sense extended to other people in the 20th century but not so common and when the communists arrived it took the actual form. As happens with all subject pronouns, is often omitted from sentences, its use being implied by verbs in the second person plural form.
The form (originating from – thy lordship) is less distant than and somewhat midway between and . The verb is conjugated, as for , in the second person singular form. Older people towards younger people and peers favor . Its use is gradually declining.
A more colloquial form of is , or . It is more familiar than and is used only in some regions of Romania. It is used only with immediate family members, and is spelled and pronounced the same in all cases, similar to . It is used with verbs in the second person singular, as is .
The plural form is a recent borrowing. Proto-Romanian and Aromanian, like Classical Latin, do not have the plural form.
Sicilian
Most dialects of the Sicilian language have utilised , , or to express formality. However, due to encroachment by the Italian language has become increasingly common particularly among younger speakers.
Spanish
In Peninsular, Mexican, and Peruvian Spanish, as in Italian, an original and usage similar to French disappeared in the Early Modern period. Today, is used for informal and familiar address while the respectful form is the third-person , which can be used respectfully to anyone. Scholars agree that evolved as a contraction of the Old Spanish ("your grace"), with as a transitional form. In some cases, the title is also employed when speaking to a respected older man, while is used for older women.
Among Spanish dialects, the situation is complicated by the fact that the Spanish Empire was created during the middle of this linguistic shift, and geographically remote regions did not participate fully in it. The region surrounding the Colombian capital of Bogotá (although not the city itself) preserves an alternate respectful form simplified from a different contraction of . In Rioplatense (Argentinian) Spanish, was preserved—but as a replacement for and not as a respectful form of address; in Chile, in Western Venezuela, parts of Colombia and in Central America, is used in spoken address and is used in print and to express moderate formality, that is, it has essentially switched its function to the former role of . In Costa Rica and part of Colombia, is used as the common pronoun, using it both in formal and informal situations.
In the second-person plural, modern Spanish speakers in most of Spain employ (masculine) and (feminine) informally and (as the third-person plural) to express respect. In western Andalusia, is used in both contexts, but its verbs are conjugated in the second-person plural. Throughout the Americas and the Canaries, is used in all contexts and in the third person.
In peninsular Spain, the use of usted/ustedes has been diminishing in recent decades and may disappear in the near future. It is seldom used by younger speakers, even when addressing an older person, or in situations that would be considered formal by people one generation their senior.
In Equatoguinean and Philippine Spanish, and are interchangeable.
Judeo-Spanish (Ladino)
Judeo-Spanish (Ladino), which diverged just as Old Spanish was evolving into modern Spanish, lacks the pronouns usted and ustedes. In most dialects, it uses vos for the second-person formal singular, which takes second-person plural endings. Vozotros/vozotras is used for the second-person plural, whether formal or informal. In some dialects, however, it uses el, eya, and eyos instead of vos and vozotros/vozotras.
Walloon
In Walloon, the use of which tends, in any case, to be restricted mostly to "familiar" contexts, (equivalent to ) is the general usage and is considered informal and friendly. (equivalent to ), on the other hand, is considered vulgar, and its use can be taken as an expression of an aggressive attitude towards the person addressed. This influence from Walloon affects the usage of and in the French spoken in Belgium, though more so among people accustomed to using Walloon as their everyday language (a tiny minority, mostly in the countryside). The influence of Standard French, particularly as exercised through the mass media, is eroding this particularity among younger French-speakers.
Hellenic languages
Ancient and Hellenistic or Koine Greek
In Ancient Greek, () was the singular, and () the plural, with no distinction for honorific or familiar. Paul addresses King Agrippa II as (Acts 26:2).
Later, and (,"we") became too close in pronunciation, and a new plural or (/) was invented, the initial () being a euphonic prefix that was also extended to the singular (/).
Modern Greek
In Modern Greek, (, second person plural) with second person plural verb conjugation is used as the formal counterpart of (, second person singular) when talking to strangers and elders, although in everyday life it is common to speak to strangers of your age or younger using the singular pronoun. In addition, the informal second person singular is used even with older people you are acquainted with, depending on the level of mutual familiarity.
Since the formal () has become less common outside schools and workplaces, many people often do not know which form to use (because using a formal version might sound too snobbish even to an elder and using the informal version might sound inappropriate to some strangers) and thus prefer to replace verbs with nouns (avoiding the dilemma) until enough information on the counterpart's intentions is gathered in order to choose between formal or informal second person pronoun and verb conjugation. A good rule of thumb is that singular accompanies first names and plural accompanies surnames with title (Mr, Mrs, etc.). Exceptions are rare, for example younger schoolchildren may address their teacher in the plural, title and first name, or an officer may address a soldier in the singular and surname. The sequence singular–title–surname is a faux pas that can often indicate lack of education, of good manners, or of both.
The modern social custom when using Greek in Greece is to ask the other person "may we speak in the singular?" in which the other person is expected to answer "yes" and afterwards the discussion continues using the informal (); it is unthinkable for the other person to answer "no" or show preference for plural forms, and for this reason one should not even ask this question to a person of high status, such as a professional. Therefore, asking this question can itself be considered a form of disrespect in some social situations. Likewise, not asking this question and simply using the singular without prior explicit or implicit agreement would also be considered disrespectful in various social contingencies. In other cases, even using the formal plural (without a question) could also be considered offensive. A person being inappropriately addressed in the singular will often indicate their displeasure by insisting on responding in the plural, in a display of irony that may or may not be evident to the other party. A similar social custom exists with the words (Mr/Sir) and (Mrs/Madam), which can show both respect and a form of "mock respect" essentially communicating disapproval, often depending on the voice intonation and the social situation. Overall, the distinction between formal and informal forms of address and when to use each can be quite subtle and not easily discernible by a non-native speaker.
Cypriot Greek traditionally had no T–V distinction, with even persons of very high social status addressed in the singular, usually together with an honorific or title such as ("teacher", mainly for priests) or (literally "master", loosely "sir"). Even today, the singular form is used much more frequently in Cyprus compared to Greece, although this is changing under the influence of Standard Modern Greek. The plural form is now expected in a formal setting.
Celtic
Scottish Gaelic
In Scottish Gaelic, the informal form of the second-person singular is / (emphatic: /), used when addressing a person the speaker knows well, or when addressing a person younger or relatively the same age as the speaker. When addressing a superior, an elder, or a stranger, or in conducting business, the form (emphatic: ) is used. ( is also the second person plural). This distinction carries over into prepositional pronouns: for instance, and (at you), and (against you), and (before you), etc., and into possessive pronouns and (your).
Irish
In Irish, the use of as an address to one person has died out, and is preferred. Formerly, Roman Catholic priests were addressed with the plural form , especially in Ulster, due to the possibility that the priest may be carrying the Eucharist on his person—belief in the real presence of Christ in the Eucharist would require the use of the plural.
Welsh, Cornish and Breton
Modern Welsh, Cornish and Breton all retain a T–V distinction to varying degrees.
In spoken Welsh, the plural pronoun is used when speaking to strangers, elders or superiors, while (or in some parts of the North) is used with friends, close family, animals and children. is also the form used when addressing God. Nonetheless, the use of and varies between families and regions, but those guidelines are generally observed.
is an alternative to found in very formal literary language. Alongside the usages explained above, those born before 1945 would, in their youth, use with a girl of about the same age. Similarly to Italian, the third person singular is used by some speakers in the former Dyfed region of west Wales; it appears, however, that the pronoun used—between either or (masculine, South), or (masculine, North) and (feminine)—depends on the gender of the listener.
A similar distinction exists between Cornish singular / and plural / . The singular form is used when talking to friends, family, animals and children, and the plural form is used to talk to a group of people, or when being especially polite to one person.
In Breton the second person plural is used as a polite form when addressing a single person and the singular is reserved for informal situations. However, in a large area of central Brittany the singular form has been entirely replaced by , as in English.
Balto-Slavic languages
Belarusian, Russian, and Ukrainian (mainly Eastern)
East Slavic Languages distinguish between the familiar () and the respectful (), the latter also being the plural of both forms. (Respectful () may be capitalised in formal written correspondence, while plural is not.) The distinction appeared relatively recently and began to gain currency among the educated classes in the 18th century through French influence.
Generally, is used among friends and relatives, but the usage depends not only on the closeness of the relationship but also on age and the formality of the situation (e.g., work meeting vs. a party). Children always use to address each other and are addressed in this way by adults but are taught to address adults with . Younger adults typically also address older adults outside the family as regardless of intimacy, and may be addressed as in return. When talking to each other young people often start with the formal but may transition to very quickly in an informal situation. Among older people, is often reserved for closer acquaintances. Unless there is a substantial difference in age, the choice of the form is symmetric: if A uses to address B, then B also uses to address A. While people may transition quickly from to , such transition presumes mutual agreement. Use of without consent of the other person is likely to be viewed as poor conduct or even as an insult (or, in the case of opposite-sexed people, overly flirtatious), particularly if the other party maintains using .
Historically, the rules used to be more class-specific: as late as at the end of the 19th century, it was accepted in some circles (in aristocracy and especially gentry) that was to be used also between friends, between husband and wife, and when addressing one's parents (but not one's children), all of which situations today would strongly call for using . Meanwhile, up to this day, common people, especially those living in rural areas, hardly ever use the polite . Russian and Belarusian speakers online uphold the distinction and mainly use for strangers, although in the earlier days of internet it was more common and expected to use to address everyone.
The choice between and is closely related to, yet sometimes different from, the choice of the addressing format—that is, the selection from the first name, patronymics, last name, and the title to be used when addressing the person. Normally, is associated with the informal addressing by first name only (or, even more informally, by the patronymic only), whereas is associated with the more formal addressing format of using the first name together with patronymics (roughly analogous to "title followed by last name" in English) or the last name together with a title (the last name is almost never used together with either of the other two names to address someone, although such combinations are routinely used to introduce or mention someone). However, nowadays, can also be employed while addressing by first name only.
In Ukrainian, the present practice is essentially the same as in Russian. Historically, this was primarily the case in the Eastern, Russian-ruled part of Ukraine. Until about 1945, due to Polish influence, the practices in the former Galicia and Volyn regions, tended to more closely resemble the Polish practices, as described below. But since those areas became annexed to the Soviet Union, the East Ukrainian and Russian practices have become prevalent all over Ukraine, with the , , , etc. forms only being preserved in the émigré diaspora.
Serbo-Croatian
In all standard forms of Serbo-Croatian, i.e. Serbian, Croatian, Montenegrin and Bosnian, the use of is limited to friends and family, and used among children. In any formal use, , the second-person plural, is used only; can be used among peers in a workplace but is rare in official documents.
With the polite , masculine plural (in participles and adjectives) is used regardless of the sex of the person addressed.
Bulgarian
Bulgarian distinguishes between familiar () and respectful (). is always singular and implies familiarity. , the plural of , also functions as the formal singular.
In addressing more than one person, the plural is always used. For example, " means "You two leave, please!"). Here, although and both means you, can not be used.
When addressing a single person, if the people talking are acquainted then singular is used, otherwise plural should be used. Sometimes people start a new acquaintance straightforwardly with singular , but generally this is considered offensive, rude, or simply impolite. Children are taught to always use between themselves, but for addressing more than one child or an unknown adult.
The grammatically correct spelling of the singular word is always with a capital letter, whether being the first word in a sentence or not. For example, the sentence "But you are wrong!", if spelled (in Bulgarian) (the word with capital ), it would convey that the speaker is addressing an individual person with a plural, because he/she wants to express a polite, official manner; if spelt (the second possible Bulgarian translation of "But you are wrong!"), it would then mean that someone is talking to several persons.
Generally, is used among friends and relatives. When talking to each other, young people often start with the formal but quickly transition to in an informal situation. Unless there is a substantial difference in social situation (e.g. a teacher and a student), the choice of the form is symmetric: if A. uses to address B., then B. also uses to address A. While people may transition quickly from to , such transition presumes mutual agreement. There is a recent trend not to use the formal at all, but this can lead to awkward situations.
Macedonian
Macedonian distinguishes between familiar () and respectful ()—which is also the plural of both forms, used to address a pair or group. (Respectful may be capitalized, while plural is not.) Generally, is used among friends and relatives, but the usage depends not only on the closeness of the relationship but also on age and the formality of the situation (e.g., work meeting vs. a party). Children always use to address each other and are addressed in this way by adults, but are taught to address adults with . Younger adults typically also address older adults outside the family as regardless of intimacy, and may be addressed as in return. When talking to each other young people often start with the formal , but may transit to very quickly in an informal situation. Among older people, is often reserved for closer acquaintances. Unless there is a substantial difference in age, the choice of the form is symmetric: if A uses to address B, then B also uses to address A. While people may transit quickly from to , such transition presumes mutual agreement. Use of without consent of the other person is likely to be viewed as poor conduct or even as an insult, particularly if the other party maintains using .
Polish
Polish uses as formal forms the words (meaning "mister" or "gentleman") and ("lady"), and in the plural ("gentlemen") and ("ladies") respectively, being used for mixed groups (originally a neutral noun, meaning roughly "lordship", but also, and even today, "state"). is used with the plural, like and . Because of their character as nouns (and not pronouns) these words are used with the third person: For example, the familiar ("You want to drink") becomes (literally "The gentleman wants to drink").
Further, and can be combined with the first name, the last name and with titles like "President", "Professor", "Doctor", "Editor" and others (, etc.; using these titles is considered necessary); using both (, ) is considered more polite or, in some context, even submissive. Addressing a present person with the last name is only usual in court or in other affairs, where government authority is involved, and generally considered impolite or condescending. When addressing someone, all these forms always require the vocative case, which is otherwise optional (for example ("Mr Kowalski!"), ("Mrs Joanna!"), ("Professor!")). For , etc. alone, + genitive is used instead of vocative: , , , and .
A unique practice among both Poles is addressing a lawyer as , meaning "Mr. Philanthropist", derived from the name of Gaius Maecenas, an ancient Roman patron of the arts.
The V-forms are capitalized only in actual letters (or e-mails), where the T-forms and are also capitalized.
Plural is also used as V-form in dialects, for example ("Mother, what are you eating?"). Following its Russian usage, the plural V-form was also promoted in the Polish language from 1945, becoming associated with Communist ideology and addressing of a person by a government or Party official.
Besides, other forms can be sometimes used like in third person when talking to older family members (, "May mother say"), to clergy (, "Yes, priest got it right") or to other people in less formal or semi-formal situations, e.g. polite quarrel or dispute (, "Also, may my dear friend please learn more and only then instruct others").
Slovene
In Slovenian, although informal address using the second person singular form (known as ) is officially limited to friends and family, talk among children, and addressing animals, it is increasingly used instead of its polite or formal counterpart using the second person plural form (known as ).
There is an additional nonstandard but widespread use of a singular participle combined with a plural auxiliary verb (known as ) that also reveals the gender of the person and is used in somewhat less formal situations:
('You did not see him': both the auxiliary verb and the participle are plural masculine.)
('You did not see him': the auxiliary verb is plural but the participle is singular masculine/feminine.)
The use of the third person plural form (known as in both direct address and indirect reference) as an ultra-polite form is now archaic or dialectal; it is associated with servant-master relationships in older literature, the child-parent relationship in certain conservative rural communities, and in general with relationships with people of highest respect (parents, clergy, royalty).
Similar to , but less common, was also , where third person was used instead of second in all numbers.
Gender can also change. In and forms, all words referring to the subject are in masculine forms, in this is only limited to pronouns. In , all words referring to the subject are in neuter forms.
Czech
In Czech, there are three levels of formality. The most formal is using the second person plural verb forms (V form) with the surname or title of the addressed person, usual between strangers or people in a professional relationship. The second common form is made by using the second person singular verb forms (T form) together with the given name of the other person, used between friends and in certain social groups (students etc.). The third form, which is rather less common, is using the V form in combination with the given name. It may be used by a teacher when addressing a student (especially at the secondary school level), by a boss addressing their secretary, or in other relationships where a certain degree of familiarity has developed, but has not superseded some level of mutually acknowledged respect or distance. This form of address is usually asymmetrical (the perceived social superior uses V form in combination with the first name, the perceived social inferior using V form and the surname or honorific), less often symmetrical. Using the singular verb forms together with the surname or title is considered very rude. Where a stranger introduces themself with title (like , ), it is considered more polite to address them using the V form in combination with their title (always preceded by the honorific /, i.e. Mr/Ms), rather than their surname. However, it is considered poor manners to address somebody with their title in combination with the T form.
Traditionally, use of the informal form was limited for relatives, very close friends, and for children. During the second half of the 20th century, use of the informal form grew significantly among coworkers, youth and members of organisations and groups. The formal form is always used in official documents and when dealing with a stranger (especially an older one) as a sign of respect. 2nd-person pronouns (, , , ) are often capitalized in letters, e-mails, advertisement, etc. The V verbs always end with te. A variant of the formal form modeled after German (/, /, verb ) was frequently used during the 19th century but has since disappeared. This form is also associated with the Czech Jewish community before Second World War, and still appears very often in Jewish humour as sign of local colour. Sometimes it is used as irony.
In the Internet age, where people communicate under nicknames or pseudonymes and almost solely in an informal way, capitalizing (/) is used to emphasise respect, or simply presence of respect. ( = friends, honored acquaintance, strangers = basic form, / = most formal, capitalized to show respect, used to create distance).
In grammar, plural forms are used in personal and possessive pronouns ( – you, – your) and in verbs, but not in participles and adjectives, they are used in singular forms (when addressing a single person). This differs from some other Slavic languages (Slovak, Russian, etc.)
Greetings are also connected with T–V distinction. Formal (good day) and (good-bye) are used with formal , while , , (meaning both hello, hi, and bye) are informal and used with .
Lithuanian
In Lithuanian, historically, aside from familiar and respectful or , also used to express plural, there was a special form , mostly referred to in third person singular (although referring in second person singular is also not uncommon). This form was used to communicate with a stranger who has not earned particular respect (a beggar, for example). Modern Lithuanian Dictionary describes as a polite form of second singular person , making its meaning somewhere in the middle between informal and formal . Through the Soviet occupation period, however, this form was mostly replaced by standard neutral form (the vocative case for , "comrade", the latter being the standard formal form of addressing in all languages of the Soviet Union used in all situations, from "comrade Stalin" to "comrade student"), and by now is used sparsely. A common way of addressing people whom one doesn't know well is also (m) and (f), from Polish forms of address and , respectively.
Indic languages
Hindi and Urdu
In the standard forms of both Hindi and Urdu there are three levels of honorifics:
: The formal V-form used to address another person. Used with third-person verbs or separate honorific verb forms in all formal settings and when speaking to persons who are senior in age or social hierarchy. No difference between the singular and the plural; plural reference can, however, be indicated by the use of "you people" ( ) or "you all" ( ). In certain dialects, it is sometimes combined with a second-person verb when speaking to persons lower in social hierarchy or, generally, to reduce distance while avoiding the informal flavour of . This form is, however, strictly dialectal and not considered standard in Hindi and Urdu. Aap should always be used for strangers, and especially in Urdu, is the preferred pronoun for normal conversation.
: Originally, a plural pronoun ("you"), it is nowadays used as singular V-form in all informal settings and when speaking to persons who are junior in age or social hierarchy. No difference between the singular and the plural; plural reference can, however, be indicated by the use of "you people" ( ) or "you all" ( ).
: Originally, a singular pronoun ("thou"), it is nowadays used exclusively as a T-form, in extremely informal settings: to address own children, very close friends, or in poetic language (either with God or with lovers). When used to others (e.g., strangers), it is considered offensive both in Pakistan and India. For Urdu in particular, is considered extremely rude in normal conversation, and is reserved for poetry; some Urdu speakers use this to refer to God.
Punjabi
ਤੁਸੀਂ/- Just like the Hindustani आप/ it is used in formal contexts for a person higher in social hierarchy
ਤੂੰ/- Punjabi lacks a तुम-/तू- distinction. The speaker must decide whether to use ਤੁਸੀਂ/ or ਤੂੰ/ with a person. While तुम- is not considered offensive in most informal social interactions, in Punjabi तुम- doesn't exist so usually ਤੂੰ/ is considered inappropriate for a person higher in social hierarchy and ਤੁਸੀਂ/ is used. ਤੁਸੀਂ/ is also used with strangers.
Bengali
Bengali has three levels of formality in its pronouns; the most neutral forms of address among closer members of a family are and (plural). These two pronouns are also typically used when speaking to children, or to younger members of the extended family. is also used when addressing God. When speaking with adults outside the family, or with senior members of the extended family, the pronouns and (plural) are used. This is also true in advertisements and public announcements. A third set of pronouns, and (plural), is reserved for use between very close friends, and by extension, between relatives who share a bond not unlike a close friendship. It is also used when addressing people presumed to be of "inferior" social status; this latter use is occasionally used when speaking to housemaids, rickshaw-pullers, and other service workers, although this use is considered offensive.
The situations in which these different pronouns can be used vary considerably depending on many social factors. In some families, children may address their parents with and , although this is becoming increasingly rare. Some adults alternate between all three pronoun levels when speaking to children, normally choosing and , but also often choosing and to indicate closeness. Additionally, Bengalis vary in which pronoun they use when addressing servants in the home; some may use and to indicate respect for an adult outside the family, while others may use and to indicate either inclusion into the family or to indicate somewhat less honorable status. Others may even use and to indicate inferior status.
Uralic languages
Finnish
In Finnish, today the use of the informal singular form of address () is widespread in all social circles, even among strangers and in business situations. The use of formal address has not disappeared however, and persists in situations involving customer service (especially if the customer is clearly older than the person serving them) and in general in addressing the elderly or in situations where strict adherence to form is expected, such as in the military. An increase in the use of formal address has been reported in recent years, whereby some people are choosing to use the formal form more often.. As the use of the form conveys formal recognition of the addressee's status and, more correctly, of polite social distance, the formal form might also occasionally be used jeeringly or to protest the addressee's snobbery. A native speaker may also switch to formal form when speaking in anger, as an attempt to remain civil. Advertisements, instructions and other formal messages are mostly in informal singular form ( and its conjugations), but the use of formal forms has increased in recent years. For example, as the tax authorities tend to become more informal, in contrast the social security system is reverting to using the formal form.
The same forms, such as the pronoun , are used for formal singular and for both formal and informal plural.
In Finnish the number is expressed in pronouns ( for second person singular, or for second person plural), verb inflections, and possessive suffixes. Almost all of these elements follow the grammar of the second person plural also in the formal singular form. For example, polite vs. informal , "Could you move your car, (please)?". Each of the person markers are modified: to (verb person), to (pronoun), to (possessive suffix).
As a few examples of this could be mentioned the way imperatives are expressed: "Go!" (plural), vs. "Go!" (singular), and the usage of the plural suffix "your" instead of the singular "your".
There is number agreement in Finnish, thus you say "you are" (singular), but "you are" (plural). However, this does not extend to words describing the addressee, which are in the singular, e.g. "are you doctor?" (plural, plural, singular)
A common error, nowadays often made even by native speakers unused to the formal forms, is to use the plural form of the main verb in the perfect and pluperfect constructions. The main verb should be in the singular when addressing one person in the formal plural: instead of "Have you heard?"
Sometimes the third person is used as a polite form of address, after the Swedish model: "What would madam like to have?" This is far less common in the Eastern parts of Finland, influenced less by the Swedish language and all in all a declining habit. The passive voice may be used to circumvent the choice of the correct form of address. In another meaning, the passive voice is also the equivalent of the English patronizing we as in "How are we feeling today?"
Finnish language includes the verbs for calling one with informal singular or formal plural: , , respectively.
In the Bible and in the Kalevala, only the "informal" singular is used in all cases.
Estonian
Estonian is a language with T–V distinction, second person plural () is used instead of second person singular () as a means of expressing politeness or formal speech. is the familiar form of address used with family, friends, and minors. The distinction is still much more widely used and more rigid than in closely related Finnish language.
Similar to the French language , the verb is used, and is used when addressing a (new) customer or a patient, or when talking to a person in his/her function. In hierarchical organizations, like large businesses or armies, is used between members of a same rank/level while is used between members of different ranks. (the verb is also used) is used with relatives, friends, when addressing children and with close colleagues. Borderline situations, such as distant relatives, young adults, customers in rental shops or new colleagues, sometimes still present difficulties.
Hungarian
Hungarian provides numerous, often subtle means of T–V distinction:
The use of the second-person conjugation with the pronoun (plural ) is the most informal mode. As in many other European languages, it is used within families, among children, lovers, close friends, (nowadays often) among coworkers, and in some communities, suggesting an idea of brotherhood. Adults unilaterally address children this way, and it is the form used in addressing God and other Christian figures (such as Jesus Christ or the Blessed Virgin), animals, and objects or ideas. Sociologically, the use of this form is widening. Whereas traditionally the switch to is often a symbolic milestone between people, sometimes sealed by drinking a glass of wine together (, cf. Brüderschaft (trinken) in German), today people under the age of about thirty will often mutually adopt automatically in informal situations. A notable example is the Internet: strangers meeting online often use the informal forms of address, regardless of age or status differences.
Nevertheless, formal forms of address are alive and well in Hungarian:
The third-person verb conjugation is the primary basis of formal address. The choice of which pronoun to use, however, is fraught with difficulty (and indeed a common solution when in doubt is to simply avoid using any pronoun at all, using the addressee's name or title instead).
The pronoun (plural ), for instance, is considered the basic formal equivalent of "you", but may not be used indiscriminately, as it tends to imply an existing or desired personal acquaintance. (It would not, for instance, ordinarily be used in a conversation where the relative social roles are predominantly important—say, between professor and student.) Typical situations where might be used are, e.g., distant relatives, neighbours, fellow travellers on the train, or at the hairdresser's. If one already knows these people, they may even take offence if one were to address them more formally. On the other hand, some urbanites tend to avoid , finding it too rural, old-fashioned, offensive or even intimate. Note that coincides with the reflexive pronoun (cf. him/herself), so e.g. the sentence can have three meanings: "Did he hit himself?", "Did he hit you?" or "Did you hit yourself?".
(plural ) is the formal, official and impersonal "you". It is the form used when people take part in a situation merely as representatives of social roles, where personal acquaintance is not a factor. It is thus used in institutions, business, bureaucracy, advertisements, by broadcasters, by shopkeepers to their customers, and whenever one wishes to maintain one's distance. It is less typical of rural areas or small towns, more typical of cities. It's often capitalized in letters.
Other pronouns are nowadays rare, restricted to rural, jocular, dialect, or old-fashioned speech. Such are, for instance, and .
There is a wide spectrum of third-person address that avoids the above pronouns entirely; preferring to substitute various combinations of the addressee's names and/or titles. Thus, for instance, a university student might ask ("What does Professor X. think?", meant for the addressee) rather than using the insufficiently formal or the overly impersonal . If the difference in rank is not to be emphasized, it is perfectly acceptable to use the addressed person's first name instead of a second-person pronoun, e.g. ("I'd like to ask [you,] Peter to…"). (Note that these are possible because the formal second-person conjugation of verbs is the same as the third-person conjugation.)
Finally, the auxiliary verb (lit. "it pleases [you]") is an indirect alternative (or, perhaps, supplement) to direct address with the third or even second person. In terms of grammar, it can only be applied if the addressed person is mentioned in the nominative, otherwise it is replaced by forms with the name or . It is very polite (sometimes seen as over-polite) and not as formal as the form. Children usually address adults outside their family this way. Adults may address more distant relatives, housekeepers and older persons using this form, and some men habitually address older or younger women this way (this is slightly old-fashioned).
It is important to keep in mind that formal conjugation doesn't automatically imply politeness or vice versa; these factors are independent of each other. For example, "What would you like to have?" (literally, "What do you command?") is in the informal conjugation, while it can be extremely polite, making it possible to express one's honour towards people one has previously established a friendly relationship with. On the other hand, "What do you want?" is expressed with the formal conjugation, nevertheless it may sound rude and aggressive; the formal conjugation does not soften this tone in any way.
* is a form of addressing for professors (cf. "Sir"); is the accusative. Other forms of addressing are also possible, to avoid specifying the and pronouns.
** is an example name in the accusative (cf. "Aunt Mary").
Turkic
Turkish
In modern Turkish, the T–V distinction is strong. Family members and friends speak to one another using the second-person singular , and adults use to address minors. In formal situations (business, customer–clerk, and colleague relationships, or meeting people for the first time) the plural second-person is used almost exclusively. In very formal situations, the double plural second-person may be used to address a much-respected person. Rarely, the third-person plural form of the verb (but not the pronoun) may be used to emphasize utmost respect. Additionally, if there are two or more person or could be used. For example, or have same meaning that "You have been chosen". However, are not certain whether plural or singular. It changes; formal speaking specifies one person or more but informal speaking it specifies only two or more person. In the imperative, there are three forms: second person singular for informal, second person plural for formal, and second person double plural for very formal situations: (second person singular, informal), (second person plural, formal), and (double second person plural, very formal). The very formal forms are not frequently used in spoken Turkish, but is pretty common in written directives, such as manuals and warning signs.
Uyghur
Uyghur is notable for using four different forms, to distinguish both singular and plural in both formal and informal registers. The informal plural originated as a contraction of , which uses a regular plural ending. In Old Turkic, as still in modern Turkish, () was the original second-person plural. However, in modern Uyghur () has become restricted to the formal singular, requiring the plural suffix for the plurals.
as the formal singular pronoun is characteristic of the Ürümqi dialect, which is the Uyghur literary standard. In Turpan they say () and in Kashgar dialect, . is also used in other areas sometimes, while in literary Uyghur as a singular pronoun is considered a "hyperdeferential" level of respect; the deferential plural form is .
Northwest Caucasian
Ubykh
In the extinct Ubykh language, the T–V distinction was most notable between a man and his mother-in-law, where the plural form supplanted the singular very frequently, possibly under the influence of Turkish. The distinction was upheld less frequently in other relationships, but did still occur.
Semitic
Arabic
Modern Standard Arabic uses the majestic plural form of the second person ( ) in respectful address. It is restricted to highly formal contexts, generally relating to politics and government. However, several varieties of Arabic have a clearer T–V distinction. The most developed is in Egyptian Arabic, which uses (literally, "Your Grace"), and (literally, "Your Lordship") as the "V" terms, depending on context, while is the "T" term. is the most usual "V" term, with and being reserved for situations where the addressee is of very high social standing (e.g. a high-ranking government official or a powerful businessman). Finally, the "V" term is used only with social superiors (including elders); unfamiliar people perceived to be of similar or lower social standing to the speaker are addressed with the T term .
Hebrew
In modern Hebrew, there is a T–V distinction used in a set of very formal occasions, for example, a lawyer addressing a judge, or when speaking to rabbis. The second person singular (, masculine) or (, feminine) are the usual form of address in all other situations, e.g. when addressing ministers or members of the Knesset.
The formal form of address when speaking to a person of higher authority is the third person singular using the person's title without the use of the pronoun. Thus, a rabbi could be asked: (, "would the honorable rabbi like to eat?") or a judge told: (, "his honour is considering my request").
Other persons of authority are normally addressed by their title only, rather than by name, using the second person singular. For example, officers and commanders in the army are addressed as (, "the commander") by troops.
In non-Hebrew-speaking Jewish culture, the second-person form of address is similarly avoided in cases of higher authority (e.g., a student in a yeshiva would be far more likely to say in a classroom discussion "yesterday the Rav told us..." than "yesterday you told us..."). However, this usage is limited to more conservative (i.e. Orthodox) circles.
Dravidian
Tamil
In Tamil, the second-person singular pronoun நீ and its derived forms are used to address children, (younger or very close) members of the family and to people who are younger than the speaker. The second person plural pronoun நீங்கள் is used to address elders (also within the extended family), teachers, people who are older than the speaker and anyone whom the speaker does not personally know, especially in formal situations.
However, in Sri Lankan Tamil dialects, the second person plural pronoun நீங்கள் is used in colloquial situations as well.
Sino-Tibetan
Chinese
Chinese culture has taken naming and forms of address very seriously, strictly regulating which people were permitted to use which terms in conversation or in writing. The extreme example is the 1777 execution of Wang Xihou and his entire family and the confiscation of their entire estate as his penalty for writing the Qianlong Emperor's personal name as part of a criticism of the Kangxi Dictionary. Many honorifics and niceties of address fell by the wayside during the Cultural Revolution of the late 1960s amid Mao Zedong's campaign against the "Four Olds". This included an attempt to eradicate expressions of deference to teachers and to others seen as preserving "counter-revolutionary" modes of thought. The defeat of the Maoist Gang of Four in the late 1970s and continuing reforms since the 1980s has, however, permitted a return of such traditional and regional expressions.
Historically, the T–V distinction was observed among the Chinese by avoiding any use of common pronouns in addressing a respected audience. Instead, third-person honorifics and respectful titles were employed. One aspect of such respectful address was avoiding the use of the first-person pronoun as well, instead choosing a (typically humble) epithet in its place. The extreme of this practice occurred when Shi Huangdi abrogated the then-current first-person pronoun (zhèn); the present first-person pronoun (wǒ) subsequently developed out of the habit of referring to "this [worthless] body", the character's original meaning. An important difference between the T–V distinction in Chinese compared with modern European languages is that Chinese culture considers the relative age of the speakers an important aspect of their social distance. This is especially strong within families: while the speakers of European languages may generally prefer forms of address such as "father" or "grandpa", Chinese speakers consider using the personal names of elders such a taboo that they may not even know the given names of grandparents who live in the same apartment. While strictures against writing the personal name of any ancestor of the last seven generations are no longer observed, it remains very uncommon to name children for any living relative: younger people using the name freely would disrespect the original bearer.
In the present day, the informal second-person pronoun is (Mandarin: nǐ; Minnan: lí) and the honorific pronoun is (Mandarin: nín; Minnan: lín). Much like European languages, the honorific form developed out of an earlier second-person plural: during the Jin and Yuan dynasties, the Mandarin dialects mutated (nǐměi) into (nǐmen) and then into . (A similar form , tān developed for the third-person singular but is now generally unused. While unseen elsewhere, some Beijing dialects use a further wǎnmen for the first-person plural to include a person worthy of respect, where wǎn is from wǒmen.)
It is worth noting that the T–V distinction in Mandarin does not connote a distance or lack of intimacy between the speakers (as implied, e.g., in the French vous). On the contrary, it is often noted that the respectful form contains the radical for "heart" (, xīn); although this is actually for phonetic reasons, the implication is that the addressee is loved and cherished by the speaker.
Most southern dialects, however, do not make this distinction in speech at all. Cantonese and Shanghainese speakers learn to write both forms in school but pronounce them identically: the Cantonese as nei5 and the Shanghainese as nóng. Formality is still respected, but their languages like Japanese and Vietnamese retain the earlier Chinese tradition of employing epithets or honorifics instead of using any pronouns at all when showing formal respect.
Japonic
Japanese
Under heavy Chinese influence, traditional Japanese culture eschewed the use of common pronouns in formal speech; similarly, the Chinese first-person singular (, chin) was arrogated to the personal use of the emperor. The formality of Japanese culture was such that its original pronouns have largely ceased to be used at all. Some linguists therefore argue that Japanese lacks any pronouns whatsoever, but although it is a larger and more complex group of words than most languages employ Japanese pronouns do exist, having developed out of the most common epithets used to express different relationships and relative degrees of social status. As in Korean, polite language encompasses not only these specific pronouns but also suffixes and vocabulary as well.
Most commonly, (, kimi, orig. "prince", "lord") is used informally as the second-person singular and (, anata, lit. "dear one") is the most common polite equivalent, but is also commonly used by women towards an intimate as a term of endearment. The pronoun (, kisama) is illustrative of the complexity that can be involved, though, in that its literal meaning is quite flattering lit. "dear and honorable sir" but its ironic use has made it a strong insult in modern Japanese. Similarly, (, omae) lit. "(one who is) before (me)" was traditionally a respectful pronoun used toward aristocrats and religious figureheads, but today is considered very informal and impolite, yet also commonly used by husbands towards their wives in an endearing manner.
Austro-Asiatic
Vietnamese
Under heavy Chinese influence, Vietnamese culture has eschewed the use of common pronouns in formal speech; similarly, the Chinese first-person singular (Vietnamese: trẫm) was arrogated to the personal use of the emperor.
In modern Vietnamese, only the first-person singular tôi is in common use as a respectful pronoun; any other pronoun should be replaced with the subject's name or with an appropriate epithet, title, or relationship in polite formal speech. Similar to modern Chinese (but to a much greater extent), modern Vietnamese also frequently replaces informal pronouns with kinship terms in many situations. The somewhat insulting second-person singular mày is also frequently used in informal situations among young Vietnamese.
Kra–Dai languages
Thai
In Thai, first, second, and third person pronouns vary in formality according to the social standing of the speaker and the referent and the relationship between them.
Austronesian
Indonesian
In Indonesian, the T–V distinction is extremely important; addressing a stranger with the pronoun kau or kamu (you) is considered rude and impolite (unless the stranger is, for example, a child). When addressing a stranger or someone older, typically Bu ('ma'am') or Pak ('sir') is used. People also use mas (Javanese for 'older brother') or mbak (Javanese for 'older sister') when addressing someone that is not old enough to be called Bu or Pak. There are variations in different areas. If the situation is more formal, such as in meetings or news broadcasting, Anda is always used, even if those addressed would otherwise be addressed by kau or kamu in informal situations.
A more informal pronoun, written lu, lo, or sometimes as loe (originated from Hokkien language) is considered very impolite. This is normally used around the capital Jakarta, as in other areas the use of loe is still perceived as rather unusual or as an attempt to imitate Jakartans. Loe is generally used by teenagers to their peers. Adults can sometimes be heard using this pronoun with their close friends or when they are angry.
Lu siap? ('Are you ready?'): This form is used between friends in very informal situations without the presence of someone who has higher status.
Kamu siap? ('Are you ready?'): This form is used between friends in either informal or formal situations without the presence of someone who has higher status.
Anda siap? ('Are you ready?'): This form is used between friends in formal situations, between business partners, or with someone who has higher status.
Apakah Anda siap? (Are you ready?): This form is used between friends in very formal situations, among strangers, or toward someone who has higher status. Note that Apakah is an optional question word that is used in close-ended questions (similar to the use of 'to be' and other auxiliary verbs to form close-ended questions in English). This is a form of Bahasa Baku, i.e. formal standard language.
Similarly, kalian and Anda/Anda sekalian are used.
It's worth noting that the pronoun kamu in Indonesian was originally used for plural, but has shifted to be used in singular today. The modern form of plural you is kalian, which is a shortened form of "kamu sekalian" (sekalian meaning 'all at once').
This mirrors the development of the use of you in English, which replaced thee/thou, and in which certain modern varieties developed a form for second person plural, notable examples would be y'all, you guys, and youse.
Unlike in English, where thee/thou is no longer used, in Indonesian the original pronoun for singular, kau or engkau, isn't completely supplanted by kamu.
This is similar to the situation in some Latin American countries, where tu and vos (originally plural. cf. tu vs voi/vous in Romanian, Italian and French.) exist side by side.
Tagalog
In Tagalog, the familiar second person is ikáw/ka (in the nominative case). This is replaced by kayó (which is actually the second person plural) when the situation calls for a more polite tone. The pronoun kayó is accompanied by the particle pô. This form is generally used to show respect to close, older relatives. This is also the form expected when talking with the peers of parents or grandparents.
Traditionally, when a higher degree of formality is required, the third person plural (silá) is used instead. It is used when addressing people of higher social rank, such as government officials and senior clergymen. It may also be used when speaking to complete strangers as a matter of courtesy, such as when answering the door or an unknown caller.
Sino ka? (Who are you?) [Used to ask for the identity of a peer or one of equal social rank, such as a student to a fellow student. Depending on intonation, this question may sound impolite.]
Sino pô kayó? (Who are you?) [This form implies that the speaker believes the person addressed is a relative or an individual of a higher rank, and is thus used to confirm the relationship.]
Sino pô silá? (Who are you, Sir/Ma'am?) [Though 'pô' does not really translate as 'Sir' or 'Ma'am', this form implies that the person being addressed is a complete stranger and the speaker has no idea who they are.]
Younger Filipinos tend to mix these forms of address, resulting in questions such as Sino ka pô ba? in an attempt to sound polite towards a total stranger. This and other nonstandard variants are very widespread, especially in the Manila dialect of Tagalog and its surrounding suburbs.
Other languages
Basque
Basque has two levels of formality in every dialect, which are hi and zu, but in some areas of Gipuzkoa and Biscay, the respectful form berori is still used by some speakers, just as the familiar xu in some areas of the Eastern Low Navarrese dialect, when addressing children and close friends. Most speakers only use the zu form (zuka level) and that is the usual one used in methods, slogans... although the hi form (hika) is very common in villages.
The neutral or formal one is zu, which originally used to be the plural form of the second person. The informal one is hi, whose use is limited to some specific situations: among close friends, to children (children never use it when addressing their parents, neither the spouses among them), when talking to a younger person, to animals (cattle, pets...), in monologues, and when speaking angrily to somebody. Their common plural form is zuek, whenever the speaker is talking to a group of listeners who would all be individually addressed with the form zu, or the form hi, or both (a conversation where some listeners are addressed as zu—i.e., somebody's parents, for instance—and others as hi—the speaker's siblings).
Unlike zu, hi sometimes makes a distinction whether the addressed one is a male or a female. For example: duk (thou, male, hast) and dun (thou, female, hast). The use of the hika level requires the allocutive agreement (hitano or zeharkako hika, i.e., indirect hika) in non-subordinate sentences to mark this distinction for the first and third person verbs. Those allocutive forms are found in the indicative and conditional moods, but never in the subjunctive and imperative moods, with the one exception of goazemak (let's go, said to a male) and goazeman (said to a female) in Western dialects, opposed to goazen, the neutral form. For example:
du (neutral, s/he has, neutral form), dik (s/he has, male thou) and din (s/he has, female thou), as in aitak ikasi du (polite: Dad has learned it), aitak ikasi dik (informal, said to a male), and aitak ikasi din (informal, said to a female).
dio (neutral, s/he has it for him / her), ziok (familiar, s/he has it for him / her, said to a male), and zion (familiar, s/he has it for him / her, said to a female), as in aitak erosi dio (polite: Dad has bought it for him / her), aitak erosi ziok (informal, said to a male), and aitak erosi zion (informal, said to a female).
nintzen (neutral, I was), ninduan (familiar, said to a male), and nindunan (familiar, said to a female), as in hona etorri nintzen (polite: I came here), hona etorri ninduan (informal, said to a male), and hona etorri nindunan (informal, said to a female).
Nevertheless, if any of the allocutive sentences becomes subordinate, the formal one is used: aitak ikasi duelako (because dad has learned it), aitak erosi diolako (because dad bought it for him / her), and hona etorri nintzenean (when I came here).
On the other hand, in past tense verbal forms, no distinction is made when the addressee is the subject or the direct object in the sentence. For example:
hintzen, in etxera joan hintzen (thou wentst home),
huen, in filma ikusi huen (thou sawst the film),
hindugun, in ikusi hindugun (we saw thee).
But if the familiar second-person appears in the verb, or if the verb is an allocutive form in a non-dependent clause, the masculine and feminine forms differ. For example:
genian / geninan (we had something for thee, male / female): hiri eman genian, Piarres (we gave it to thee, Peter), and hiri eman geninan, Maddi (we gave it to thee, Mary).
geniean / genienan (male allocutive / female allocutive, we had something for them): haiei eman geniean, Piarres (we gave it to them, Peter), and haiei eman genienan, Maddi (we gave it to them, Mary). Their corresponding neutral form is haiei eman genien.
banekian erantzuna (I knew the answer, said to a male), and banekinan erantzuna (I knew the answer, said to a female). Their corresponding neutral form is banekien erantzuna.
The friendly xu form or xuketa resembles the zuka forms of the verbs, and includes another kind of allocutive, as hika: cf. egia erran dut (formal: I told the truth), egia erran diat (informal, said to a male), egia erran dinat (informal, said to a female), egia erran dautzut (in formal Eastern Low Navarrese, I told you the truth) and egia erran dixut (xuketa). It is mainly used among relatives and close friends.
The berori form or berorika is very formal, and hardly used nowadays, mainly in some areas of Biscay and Gipuzkoa, to address priests, the elderly, judges and the nobility. Verbs are inflected in their singular third form, like in Italian ((Lei) è molto gentile, opposed to (tu) sei molto gentile, you are very nice / thou art very nice) or the Spanish (usted) es muy amable, opposed to (tú) eres muy amable:
neutral: zuk badakizu hori (you know it, formal), and zu, eser zaitez hemen (you, sit here),
familiar: hik badakik hori (thou knowest that, said to a male), hik badakin hori (to a female), and hi, eser hadi hemen (sit here, for both genders),
very formal: berorrek badaki hori (you know that: cf. hark badaki hori, s/he knows that, neutral), and berori, eser bedi hemen (you, sit down here: cf hura, eser bedi hemen, let him sit down here).
Unlike the hika level, berorika has no allocutive forms.
The extinct dialect of Erronkari or Roncal, spoken in the easternmost area of Navarre, presented a four-levelled system:
neutral or zuketza, the local equivalent of zuka: etxeara xuan zra (you went home, you have gone home), etxeara xuan naz (I went home, I have gone home),
informal or yiketza, which corresponds to hika: etxeara xuan yaz, (thou wentst home, thou hast gone home), etxeara xuan nuk / etxeara xuan nun (I went home, I have been home, said to a male / to a female),
familiar or tzuketza, like the Eastern Navarrese xuka: etxeara xuan nuzu (I went home, I have been home),
and orika, duka or duketza, the local form of berorika: ori etxeara xin da (you went home, you have been home).
Constructed languages
Esperanto
Esperanto is a T–V-distinguishing language, but usually vi is used for both singular and plural, just like you in modern English. An informal second person singular pronoun, ci, indeed exists, but it is seldom used in practice. It is intended mainly to mark the familiar/respectful distinction when translating literature from languages with the T–V distinction into Esperanto.
Some have imagined ci as an archaic term that was used before and then fell out of common usage; however, this is not true. It has appeared only sometimes in experimental language. In standard Esperanto, vi is always used since the beginning. For example, ci appears in neither the Fundamenta Gramatiko nor the Unua Libro. But, especially in some circles, people have begun to use ci in practical language, mainly as the familiar and intimate singular, reserving vi for the plural and formal singular. Others use ci as singular and vi as plural regardless of formality.
Ido
In Ido, in theory tu is limited to friends and family, whereas vu is used anywhere else. However, many users actually adapt the practice in their own mother tongue and use tu and vu accordingly. In the plural, though, the only form in use is vi, which does not distinguish between formal and informal address.
In all cases, an -n is added to the original pronoun to indicate a direct object that precedes its own verb: Me amoras tu (I love you) becomes Tun me amoras if the direct object takes the first place, for example for emphatic purposes.
Tolkien's High Elvish
In High Elvish, self-named Quenya, there is a distinction between singular informal tyë and singular formal lyë. The plural of both forms is lë. The formal form is expected between all but family members and close friends. The appendices to The Lord of the Rings state that Westron followed a similar pattern, although the dialect of Shire had largely lost the formal form.
Klingon
The Klingon language does not have a T-V distinction, with the second-person pronouns SoH (singular) and tlhIH (plural) and their appropriate conjugating verb prefixes covering all forms of address. However, Klingon does employ a number of honorifics, such as qaH (Sir or Madam) or joHwI' (my lord or my lady) to express formality. An honorific verb suffix -neS exists, used to express extreme politeness or deference towards a superior in a social or military hierarchy. It is rarely employed and never required.
References
Etiquette
Personal pronouns
Language comparison
Sociolinguistics | T–V distinction in the world's languages | [
"Biology"
] | 22,582 | [
"Etiquette",
"Behavior",
"Human behavior"
] |
61,039,963 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypnospace%20Outlaw | Hypnospace Outlaw is a 2019 simulation video game developed by Tendershoot and published by No More Robots. Set in an alternate history 1999, the game takes place inside a parody of the early Internet and its culture that users visit in their sleep called Hypnospace. The player assumes the role of an "Enforcer" for the fictional company Merchantsoft—creator of Hypnospace—and seeks to police illegal content, copyright violations, viruses, and cyberbullying by users on the service. In the process, the player engages in detective work and puzzle-solving. It was released for Windows, macOS, and Linux in March 2019 and for Nintendo Switch, PlayStation 4, and Xbox One in August 2020.
Gameplay
Hypnospace Outlaw utilizes an interface based on that of a typical graphical interface for a desktop operating system, similar to the likes of Windows 9x, with the player using a fictional in-game "web browser" called Hypnospace Explorer, akin to the massively popular Internet Explorer. The mission is to discover and report objectionable content they have been assigned to investigate by Hypnospace staff. Many aspects of the story can be accessed in a non-linear fashion, and others are completely optional. Investigation of cases requires exploration of web pages and searching, aided by hints given by the content of the pages. HypnoCoin, the game's main currency is earned by reporting and closing assigned cases. This currency is exchanged for various downloadable programs, virtual pets, wallpapers, themes, and content that advance the story. It also features musical pastiches of popular bands of the era, with much of the soundtrack originating from in-game bands such as "Seepage", "Fre3zer", and the "Chowder Man".
Plot
The game takes place in an alternate history version of 1999. Hypnospace is a technology created by the in-universe company Merchantsoft, that allows users to browse an intranet while they sleep by using a HypnOS headband. The player is a Hypnospace Enforcer, a moderator of the online community of Hypnospace. The player, as an enforcer, is blocked from directly communicating with other users, and initially only has access to a limited portion of the themed "zones" (much like GeoCities's neighborhoods), though more are accessible later. The user can choose when to take action on some of the game's optional reports, though some are mandatory for the game to progress.
The player must solve a variety of cases, initially given only vague information on what the violation is. Early cases include a copyright violation case over a teacher uploading her students' drawings of an old cartoon, users harassing each other, and reporting pages that were hacked to show disturbing content.
Development
Hypnospace Outlaw was designed by Jay Tholen, creator of the earlier game Dropsy. The new game was funded via a successful Kickstarter campaign, and was a finalist for the Independent Game Festival's 2019 Seumas McNally Grand Prize and "Excellence in Audio". It was released for Windows, macOS, and Linux on March 12, 2019, and for Nintendo Switch, PlayStation 4, and Xbox One on August 27, 2020. A free content update was released for the PC versions alongside the console releases.
Reception
The game received "generally positive reviews" according to review aggregator Metacritic. It was nominated for the Tin Pan Alley Award for Best Music in a Game, the Statue of Liberty Award for Best World, and the Herman Melville Award for Best Writing at the New York Game Awards. According to PC Gamer, the game is reminiscent of when the internet was more like a cool underground club than a widespread hell from which there is no escape. Both The Gamer and Eurogamer mention the sense of nostalgia that the game brings.
Sequels
A sequel, Dreamsettler, and a spinoff first-person shooter, , were both announced in 2022.
Slayers X was released on June 1, 2023, for Microsoft Windows and Xbox Series X and S.
References
External links
2019 video games
Alternate history video games
Internet-based works
Detective video games
Kickstarter-funded video games
Linux games
MacOS games
Mass media about Internet culture
Nintendo Switch games
No More Robots games
Parody video games
PlayStation 4 games
Point-and-click adventure games
Retro-style video games
Single-player video games
Video games about computing
Video games about dreams
Video games about virtual reality
Video games developed in the United States
Video games set in 1999
Video games set in computers
Windows games
Xbox Cloud Gaming games
Xbox One games
Indie games | Hypnospace Outlaw | [
"Technology"
] | 943 | [
"Multimedia",
"Works about computing",
"Video games about computing",
"Internet-based works"
] |
61,042,055 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithium%20triflate | Lithium triflate (lithium triflouromethanesulfonate or LiOTf) is a salt with the chemical formula LiCF3SO3. It is composed of the lithium cation (Li+) and triflate anion (CF3SO3−; TfO−). It is very hygroscopic. The salt is used in lithium-ion battery production.
References
Triflates
Lithium salts | Lithium triflate | [
"Chemistry"
] | 91 | [
"Lithium salts",
"Salts"
] |
61,042,319 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bellatrix%20Aerospace | Bellatrix Aerospace is an Indian private aerospace manufacturer and small satellite manufacturing company, headquartered in Bangalore, Karnataka. The company was established in 2015 and in June 2022, the company raised $8 million in a Series A funding round to pursue the development of in-space propulsion systems.
Name
The name Bellatrix is from the Latin bellātrix which means "female warrior". It was also used in naming the red supergiant star Bellatrix.
History
Bellatrix Aerospace had initially proposed the development of its small-lift orbital class launch vehicle named Chetak and had planned for its launch in 2023. The two-stage Chetak was to be powered by a number of its proposed Aeon engines which would use liquid methane as propellant. Later in 2019, water was proposed as a propellant for an electric propulsion system. On 8 February 2021, Bellatrix Aerospace announced its partnership with Skyroot Aerospace. However, on 9 February 2022, Founder Rohan Ganapathy announced on Twitter that the company had stopped working on its rocket and instead focusing exclusively on propulsion systems.
On October 9, 2024, Bellatrix Aerospace and NewSpace India Limited signed a contract for the integration of Pushpak Orbital Transfer Vehicle (OTV) for NSIL's launch missions. With the ability to move satellites into other orbits with more accuracy and efficiency, Pushpak OTV is made for in-orbit maneuvering. According to Bellatrix Aerospace, launching a satellite on a specialized launch vehicle for micro and nano satellites costs about $45,000/kg; if launched on a Pushpak, the cost drops to $25,000/kg for low earth orbit. Additionally, it can facilitate future deep space missions, inclination changes, GEO transfer missions, and multi-orbit deployment sequences. Pushpak OTV to assist small satellites and CubeSats to reach their designated orbits. The first launch with Pushpak OTV integrated into an ISRO rocket is expected to be in early 2026, with the company saying that it has already on-boarded two customers, with talks ongoing with others.
Product development
ARKA series
Hall-effect thrusters developed by the company for micro-satellites weighing 50-500 kg. All the ground tests were completed by 2021. Successfully completed tests in space on POEM-3.
RUDRA series
It is the first high-performance green propulsion (HPGP) system in India that can replace hydrazine-based satellite propulsion systems. Saagar Malaichamy, co-founder and senior scientist at Bellatrix Aerospace's Mono-propellant Systems Division, collaborated with Profession Charlie Oommen from the Indian Institute of Science's (IISc) Department of Aerospace Engineering to develop the green mono-propellant. A 1N thruster that can be used in micro and small spacecraft weighing between 50 and 1,000 kg is now undergoing ground testing. The successful space test of RUDRA 0.3 HPGP on POEM-3 took place on January 27, 2024. On January 2, 2025, an upgraded RUDRA 0.3 HPGP was successfully tested in space on the POEM-4.
Project 200
Project 200 by Bellatrix Aerospace aims to build an Ultra-Low Orbit satellite that will orbit at a height of less than 200 kilometers. By 2026, it hopes to launch its first satellite. Comparatively greater resolution imagery is possible with ultra-LEO satellites for Earth observation uses like mapping, agriculture, and climate modeling. Additionally, communication latency with ground stations is decreased by low orbits. Significant air drag also affects satellites at very low earth orbit. Hence, the orbits are "self-cleaning," meaning space trash is less of an issue because satellites quickly fall back to Earth at the end of their lives. In order to combat air drag, the spacecraft must carry a lot of propellant to power its engines, which might make it heavier and bulkier and significantly reduce its operating time. By creating a unique air-intake electric propulsion system that gathers air particles from the upper atmosphere and uses them as propellant, Bellatrix overcame this difficulty. After successful ground testing, the startup showcased the technology at Bengaluru Space Expo 2024. The platform that the company is developing will be around two meters long and have a payload capacity of fifty to seventy kg. It is intended to operate between 180 and 200 kilometers and will generate more than 1 kilowatt of power from a solar panel array. The firm has developed a hybrid engine that ionizes the gas using radio waves and then accelerates it using a Hall-effect thruster. In order to balance the combination of passive and active compression, the startup had to carefully tune the satellite's size, shape, and intake. Although the engine has been proven, Bellatrix plans to demonstrate the satellite on a large scale in 2026.
See also
Space industry of India
Indian Space Research Organisation
New Space India Limited
IN–SPACe
Indian Space Association
List of private spaceflight companies
AgniKul Cosmos
Skyroot Aerospace
Pixxel
Satellize
References
External links
Indian private spaceflight companies
Private spaceflight companies
Rocket engine manufacturers of India
Commercial launch service providers
Spacecraft manufacturers
Indian companies established in 2015
Manufacturing companies based in Bengaluru
Indian brands
2015 establishments in Karnataka | Bellatrix Aerospace | [
"Astronomy"
] | 1,054 | [
"Outer space stubs",
"Outer space",
"Astronomy stubs"
] |
61,042,842 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PathoPhenoDB | PathoPhenoDB is a biological database. The database connects pathogens to their phenotypes using multiple databases such as NCBI, Human Disease Ontology Human Phenotype Ontology, Mammalian Phenotype Ontology, PubChem, SIDER and CARD. Pathogen-disease associations were gathered mainly through the CDC and the List of Infectious Diseases page on Wikipedia. The manner by which they assigned taxonomy was semi-automatic. When mapped against NCBI Taxonomy, if the pathogen was not an exact match, it was then mapped to the parent class. PathoPhenoDB employs NPMI in order to filter pairs based on their co-occurrence statistics.
See also
Antimicrobial Resistance databases
References
Biological databases
Bioinformatics
Pathogen genomics | PathoPhenoDB | [
"Engineering",
"Biology"
] | 154 | [
"Biological engineering",
"Bioinformatics",
"Molecular genetics",
"DNA sequencing",
"Biological databases",
"Pathogen genomics"
] |
61,043,379 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ASEAN%20Academy%20of%20Engineering%20and%20Technology | The ASEAN Academy of Engineering and Technology is a learned society of engineers and technologists, policy makers, the public, and the private sectors from Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) member states. It was founded in 2004 and was registered with the ASEAN Secretariat as an accredited Civil Society Organization (CSO) on 11 July 2007.
Fellowships
Fellowship of the academy is awarded to individuals from academia, research institutes, industry, and government who have demonstrated successful leadership or outstanding contributions to engineering and technology over an extended period. Fellowship of the AAET is in two categories:
Voting-Fellows
Distinguished Fellow;
Senior Fellows; and
Ordinary Fellows.
Non Voting-Fellows
Distinguished Honorary Fellows;
Honorary Fellows;
Foreign Fellows; and
Associate Fellows.
Post-nominal letters
Each category of fellows of the ASEAN Academy of Engineering and Technology is entitled to use the respective post-nominal letters as follows:
D. Hon. FAAET for Distinguished Honorary Fellow
Hon. FAAET for Honorary Fellow
D. FAAET for Distinguished Fellow
SFAAET for Senior Fellow
FAAET for Ordinary Fellow
FAAET(F) for Foreign Fellow
AFAAET for Associate Fellow
Pre-nominal letters
Distinguished Fellows and Senior Fellows are entitled to use the pre-nominal letters of Academician.
References
External links
Constitution of AAET
Kuala Lumpur Engineering Science Fair
Organizations associated with ASEAN
Engineering societies | ASEAN Academy of Engineering and Technology | [
"Engineering"
] | 263 | [
"Engineering societies"
] |
61,043,737 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Degenerate%20Higher-Order%20Scalar-Tensor%20theories | Degenerate Higher-Order Scalar-Tensor theories (or DHOST theories) are theories of modified gravity. They have a Lagrangian containing second-order derivatives of a scalar field but do not generate ghosts (kinetic excitations with negative kinetic energy), because they only contain one propagating scalar mode (as well as the two usual tensor modes).
History
DHOST theories were introduced in 2015 by David Langlois and Karim Noui. They are a generalisation of Beyond Horndeski (or GLPV) theories, which are themselves a generalisation of Horndeski theories. The equations of motion of Horndeski theories contain only two derivatives of the metric and the scalar field, and it was believed that only equations of motion of this form would not contain an extra scalar degree of freedom (which would lead to unwanted ghosts). However, it was first shown that a class of theories now named Beyond Horndeski also avoided the extra degree of freedom. Originally theories which were quadratic in the second derivative of the scalar field were studied, but DHOST theories up to cubic order have now been studied. A well-known specific example of a DHOST theory is mimetic gravity, introduced in 2013 by Chamseddine and Mukhanov.
Action
All DHOST theories depend on a scalar field . The general action of DHOST theories is given by
where is the kinetic energy of the scalar field, , and the quadratic terms in are given by
where
and the cubic terms are given by
where
The and are arbitrary functions of and .
References
Theories of gravity
General relativity | Degenerate Higher-Order Scalar-Tensor theories | [
"Physics"
] | 333 | [
"General relativity",
"Theoretical physics",
"Theory of relativity",
"Theories of gravity"
] |
61,045,835 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holt-Dern%20process | The Holt-Dern process is a method by which silver and gold can be extracted from low-grade ores.
The method was applied in mining at Park City, Utah, and in the Tintic Mining District at the Tintic Smelter Site. It was named for George Dern and T.P. Holt.
References
Chemical processes
Mining techniques
Smelting | Holt-Dern process | [
"Chemistry"
] | 76 | [
"Smelting",
"Metallurgical processes",
"Chemical processes",
"nan",
"Chemical process engineering",
"Chemical process stubs"
] |
61,045,899 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slimicide | Slimicide (or antislime agent) is a broad-spectrum antimicrobial pesticide used to kill slime-producing microorganisms such as algae, bacteria, fungi, and slime molds. One primary application domain is in the papermaking industry, where it reduces the occurrence of paper holes and spots, as well as protecting the machinery from odor, clogs, corrosion, and breakdown. Slimicides come in variants effective in acidic and/or alkaline media, in liquid or solid form, and are based on chemicals such as aldehydes, bromium or quaternary ammonium compounds, and others. Additional significant application areas for slimicides include industrial water recirculation systems such as cooling towers, fuel storage tanks and wells, and in conjunction with fluids used for oil extraction. In some application domains, slimicides may be formulated specifically to target slime molds.
References
Pesticides | Slimicide | [
"Biology",
"Environmental_science"
] | 191 | [
"Biocides",
"Toxicology",
"Pesticides"
] |
66,034,897 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleoside-modified%20messenger%20RNA | A nucleoside-modified messenger RNA (modRNA) is a synthetic messenger RNA (mRNA) in which some nucleosides are replaced by other naturally modified nucleosides or by synthetic nucleoside analogues. modRNA is used to induce the production of a desired protein in certain cells. An important application is the development of mRNA vaccines, of which the first authorized were COVID-19 vaccines (such as Comirnaty and Spikevax).
Background
mRNA is produced by synthesising a ribonucleic acid (RNA) strand from nucleotide building blocks according to a deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) template, a process that is called transcription. When the building blocks provided to the RNA polymerase include non-standard nucleosides such as pseudouridine — instead of the standard adenosine, cytidine, guanosine, and uridine nucleosides — the resulting mRNA is described as nucleoside-modified.
Production of protein begins with assembly of ribosomes on the mRNA, the latter then serving as a blueprint for the synthesis of proteins by specifying their amino acid sequence based on the genetic code in the process of protein biosynthesis called translation.
Overview
To induce cells to make proteins that they do not normally produce, it is possible to introduce heterologous mRNA into the cytoplasm of the cell, bypassing the need for transcription. In other words, a blueprint for foreign proteins is "smuggled" into the cells. To achieve this goal, however, one must bypass cellular systems that prevent the penetration and translation of foreign mRNA. There are nearly-ubiquitous enzymes called ribonucleases (also called RNAses) that break down unprotected mRNA. There are also intracellular barriers against foreign mRNA, such as innate immune system receptors, toll-like receptor (TLR) 7 and TLR8, located in endosomal membranes. RNA sensors like TLR7 and TLR8 can dramatically reduce protein synthesis in the cell, trigger release of cytokines such as interferon and TNF-alpha, and when sufficiently intense lead to programmed cell death.
The inflammatory nature of exogenous RNA can be masked by modifying the nucleosides in mRNA. For example, uridine can be replaced with a similar nucleoside such as pseudouridine (Ψ) or N1-methyl-pseudouridine (m1Ψ), and cytosine can be replaced by 5-methylcytosine. Some of these, such as pseudouridine and 5-methylcytosine, occur naturally in eukaryotes, while m1Ψ occurs naturally in archaea. Inclusion of these modified nucleosides alters the secondary structure of the mRNA, which can reduce recognition by the innate immune system while still allowing effective translation.
Significance of untranslated regions
A normal mRNA starts and ends with sections that do not code for amino acids of the actual protein. These sequences at the 5′ and 3′ ends of an mRNA strand are called untranslated regions (UTRs). The two UTRs at their strand ends are essential for the stability of an mRNA and also of a modRNA as well as for the efficiency of translation, i.e. for the amount of protein produced. By selecting suitable UTRs during the synthesis of a modRNA, the production of the target protein in the target cells can be optimised.
Delivery
Various difficulties are involved in the introduction of modRNA into certain target cells. First, the modRNA must be protected from ribonucleases. This can be accomplished, for example, by wrapping it in liposomes. Such "packaging" can also help to ensure that the modRNA is absorbed into the target cells. This is useful, for example, when used in vaccines, as nanoparticles are taken up by dendritic cells and macrophages, both of which play an important role in activating the immune system.
Furthermore, it may be desirable that the modRNA applied is introduced into specific body cells. This is the case, for example, if heart muscle cells are to be stimulated to multiply. In this case, the packaged modRNA can be injected directly into an artery such as a coronary artery.
Applications
An important field of application are mRNA vaccines.
Replacing uridine with pseudouridine to evade the innate immune system was pioneered by Karikó and Weissman in 2005. They won the 2023 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine as a result of their work.
Another milestone was achieved by demonstrating the life-saving efficacy of nucleoside modified mRNA in a mouse model of a lethal lung disease by the team of Kormann and others in 2011.
N1-methyl-pseudouridine was used in vaccine trials against Zika, HIV-1, influenza, and Ebola in 2017–2018.
The first authorized for use in humans were COVID-19 vaccines to address SARS-CoV-2. Examples of COVID-19 vaccines using modRNA include those developed by the cooperation of BioNTech/Pfizer (BNT162b2), and by Moderna (mRNA-1273). The zorecimeran vaccine developed by Curevac, however, uses unmodified mRNA, instead relying on codon optimization to minimize the presence of uridine. This vaccine is less effective, however.
Other possible uses of modRNA include the regeneration of damaged heart muscle tissue, an enzyme-replacement tool and cancer therapy.
References
Further reading
RNA
Molecular genetics
Life sciences industry | Nucleoside-modified messenger RNA | [
"Chemistry",
"Biology"
] | 1,156 | [
"Molecular genetics",
"Life sciences industry",
"Molecular biology"
] |
66,035,678 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bimodal%20reproduction | Bimodal reproduction is the ability of a vertebrate animal to reproduce by both laying eggs and giving birth. Examples of these animals include Saiphos equalis and Zootoca vivipara,
References
Reproduction in animals | Bimodal reproduction | [
"Biology"
] | 47 | [
"Reproduction in animals",
"Behavior",
"Reproduction"
] |
66,036,592 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project%20Hyperion%20%28interstellar%29 | Project Hyperion, launched in December 2011 by Andreas M. Hein in the context of Icarus Interstellar, is a project aimed at performing a preliminary study that defined integrated concepts for a crewed interstellar starship or generation ship. This is a study mainly based out of the WARR student group at the Technical University of Munich (TUM). The study aims to provide an assessment of the feasibility of crewed interstellar flight using current and near-future technologies. It also aims to guide future research and technology development plans as well as to inform the public about crewed interstellar travel.
Notable results of the project include an assessment of world ship system architectures and adequate population size. The project has also been featured in the TV-series Rendezvous with the Future (BBC/Bilibili), popular science books as well as art.
The core team members have transferred to the Initiative for Interstellar Studies's world ship project and have presented their results at the ESA Interstellar Workshop in 2019 as well as in ESA's Acta Futura journal.
An interdisciplinary design competition was launched in 2024.
References
Hypothetical technology
Interstellar travel
Hypothetical spacecraft
Space colonization | Project Hyperion (interstellar) | [
"Astronomy",
"Technology"
] | 237 | [
"Hypothetical spacecraft",
"Astronomical hypotheses",
"Interstellar travel",
"Exploratory engineering"
] |
66,036,791 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroleum%20Remediation%20Product | Petroleum Remediation Product (PRP) is a registered trade name of United Remediation Technology for a line of biodegradable wax-based hydrocarbon adsorbents and bioremediation agents. PRP was created in the 1990s by NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory and has been used to assist in remediating oil spills such as the 2010 Deepwater Horizon oil spill. PRP is a powder composed of microscopic hollow spheres of wax up to 150 microns in size.
Properties
PRP is a loose dry powder composed of hollow microspheres of beeswax, soy wax, and other natural waxes. PRP microspheres range in size from 10 microns to 150 microns. The waxes that comprise PRP are natural hydrocarbons making them oleophilic (having a strong affinity for oils rather than water) and hydrophobic. The high surface area and oleophilic properties of PRP allow the microspheres to adsorb at least twice PRP’s weight in hydrocarbons such as crude oil or diesel. PRP stimulates the growth of hydrocarbon-metabolizing microorganisms such as Yarrowia lipolytica that are included along with additional nutrients in the wax microspheres. In scientific studies PRP has been found to biodegrade hydrocarbons several times faster than natural attenuation.
History
In the early 1980s, NASA engineers and researchers from the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) as well as the Marshall Space Flight Center were researching methods for the creation of hollow, spherical, latex microcapsules capable of containing live cells for use in time-released antibiotics or targeted doses of medication. Due to Earth's gravity, NASA’s initial experimentation failed to produce spherical microcapsules larger than 10 microns. Subsequent experiments aboard the Space Shuttle yielded microspheres up to 30 microns in size.
Later in the early 1990s, independent researchers proposed that beeswax and other natural waxes could be used instead of latex, and that they may have oil adsorbing properties. This led to NASA’s earlier experiments being refined by independent researchers and Pittsburgh based company “PetrolRem” in partnership with JPL and Marshal Space Flight Center scientists.
These experiments were able to improve on earlier NASA techniques and developed proprietary methods to counteract the effects of gravity that yielded microspheres up to 500 microns in size.
In the mid 1990s PRP was tested and evaluated by the National Environmental Technology Applications Corporation in partnership with the EPA and the University of Pittsburgh and found to be “capable of significantly accelerating the natural rate of diesel oil degradation in near-environmental conditions.” PRP microspheres were found to be highly oleophilic as well as hydrophobic making it an ideal solution for hydrocarbon spills that contaminate water such as ocean spills, mangroves and marshes, and in groundwater aquifers. As a result, the powder was named “Petroleum Remediation Product.” At the time PRP was the only biological product approved for use in the Chesapeake bay.
In 1994 PRP was officially recognized as a NASA spinoff technology.
After the 1989 Exxon Valdez oil spill multiple PRP based products were developed, to assist in the later remediation of contaminated sites, such as PRP filled containment booms, bilge socks, and a PRP slurry that could be sprayed from a hydroseeder.
In 2004 PetrolRem and its assets, including PRP were acquired by Universal Remediation Inc. Universal Remediation broadened production and availability of PRP making it accessible to more clients in more varied forms. Universal Remediation also developed a variant of PRP that could be used on hard surfaces called “Oil Buster.” “Oil Buster” was initially used primarily by the railroad industry to remediate tracks that were saturated with diesel fuel and oil. Universal Remediation also developed the Wellboom, a thin weighted PRP filled sock that could be used in petroleum storage facilities, gasoline stations, and to remediate groundwater contamination.
In 2007 PRP was featured in the History Channel’s “Modern Marvels” episode “It came from outer space”
In 2008 PRP was inducted into the Space Foundation's Space Technology Technology Hall of Fame.
In 2010 PRP and its derivative products were used to assist in the remediation of the Deepwater Horizon spill.
In 2019 Universal Remediation and its assets including PRP were acquired by United Remediation Technology, LLC.
References
Bioremediation
Oil spill remediation technologies | Petroleum Remediation Product | [
"Chemistry",
"Biology",
"Environmental_science"
] | 938 | [
"Biodegradation",
"Ecological techniques",
"Environmental soil science",
"Bioremediation"
] |
66,037,456 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yitzhak%20Maron | Yitzhak Maron () is a plasma physicist and a professor at the Weizmann Institute of Science. He is known for pioneering spectroscopic techniques to measure and characterize plasmas under extreme conditions (e.g. high-current, high-voltage, high-fields, short-duration) which won him the 2007 IEEE Plasma Science and Applications (PSAC) Award and the 2009 John Dawson Award for Excellence in Plasma Physics Research.
Early life and education
Maron obtained a Ph.D. in Physics from the Weizmann Institute of Science in 1977. Upon graduation, he remained at the institution and worked as a postdoctoral fellow until 1980. He then moved to the Laboratory of Plasma Studies at Cornell University and became a Research Associate until 1984. Maron eventually returned to the Weizmann Institute of Science (WIS) as a professor in the Faculty of Physics and became head of the WIS Plasma Laboratory.
Honours and awards
Maron was inducted as a fellow of the American Physical Society in 1996 and the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) in 2003.
References
Living people
21st-century Israeli physicists
Plasma physicists
Fellows of the IEEE
Fellows of the American Physical Society
Academic staff of Weizmann Institute of Science
Weizmann Institute of Science alumni
1949 births | Yitzhak Maron | [
"Physics"
] | 260 | [
"Plasma physicists",
"Plasma physics"
] |
66,037,756 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bmon | bmon is a free and open-source monitoring and debugging tool to monitor bandwidth and capture and display networking-related statistics. It features various output methods including an interactive curses user interface and programmable text output for scripting. bmon allows the user to see:
Network bandwidth real-time visualization
Total amount of transmitted data
CRC errors
Collisions
ICMPv6 traffic packets
References
Linux software
Free software programmed in C
Software using the BSD license
Software using the MIT license
Debuggers
Network software | Bmon | [
"Engineering"
] | 104 | [
"Network software",
"Computer networks engineering"
] |
66,037,971 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WASP-55 | WASP-55 is a G-type main-sequence star about 980 light-years away. The star is much younger than the Sun at approximately . WASP-55 is similar to the Sun in concentration of heavy elements.
A multiplicity survey in 2016 found one candidate stellar companion to WASP-55 at a projected separation of . Follow-up observations in 2017 were unable to confirm if the suspected companion red dwarf star, with a temperature of , is gravitationally bound to WASP-55 or not.
Planetary system
In 2012 a transiting hot Jupiter planet b was detected on a tight, circular orbit. Its equilibrium temperature is .
References
Virgo (constellation)
G-type main-sequence stars
Planetary systems with one confirmed planet
Planetary transit variables
J13350194-1730124 | WASP-55 | [
"Astronomy"
] | 158 | [
"Virgo (constellation)",
"Constellations"
] |
66,038,122 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High%20performance%20positioning%20system | A high performance positioning system (HPPS) is a type of positioning system consisting of a piece of electromechanics equipment (e.g. an assembly of linear stages and rotary stages) that is capable of moving an object in a three-dimensional space within a work envelope. Positioning could be done point to point or along a desired path of motion. Position is typically defined in six degrees of freedom, including linear, in an x,y,z cartesian coordinate system, and angular orientation of yaw, pitch, roll. HPPS are used in many manufacturing processes to move an object (tool or part) smoothly and accurately in six degrees of freedom, along a desired path, at a desired orientation, with high acceleration, high deceleration, high velocity and low settling time. It is designed to quickly stop its motion and accurately place the moving object at its desired final position and orientation with minimal jittering.
HPPS requires a structural characteristics of low moving mass and high stiffness. The resulting system characteristic is a high value for the lowest natural frequency of the system. High natural frequency allows the motion controller to drive the system at high servo bandwidth, which means that the HPPS can reject all motion disturbing frequencies, which act at a lower frequency than the bandwidth. For higher frequency disturbances such as floor vibration, acoustic noise, motor cogging, bearing jitter and cable carrier rattling, HPPS may employ structural composite materials for damping and isolation mounts for vibration attenuation. Unlike articulating robots, which have revolute joints that connect their links, HPPS links typically consists of sliding joints, which are relatively stiffer than revolute joints. That is the reason why high performance positioning systems are often referred to as cartesian robots.
Performance
HPPS, driven by linear motors, can move at a combined high velocity on order of 3-5 m/s, high accelerations of 5-7 g, at micron or sub micron positioning accuracy with settling times on order of milliseconds and servo bandwidth of 30-50 Hz. Ball screw actuators, on the other hand, have typical bandwidth of 10-20 Hz and belt driven actuators at about 5-10 Hz. The bandwidth value of HPPS is about 1/3 of the lowest natural frequency in the range of 90-150 Hz. Settling time to +/- 1% Constant Velocity, or + / - 1 um jitter, after high acceleration or high deceleration respectively, takes an estimated 3 bandwidth periods. For example, a 50 Hz servo bandwidth, having a 1 / 50 · 1000 = 20 msec period, will settle to 1 um position accuracy within an estimated 3 · 20 = 60 msec. The lowest natural frequency equals the square root of system stiffness divided by moving inertia. A typical linear recirculating bearing rail, of a high performance positioning stage, has a stiffness on order of 100-300 N/um. Such a performance is required in semiconductor process equipment, electronics assembly lines, numerically controlled machine tools, coordinate-measuring machines, 3D Printing, pick-and-place machines, drug discovery assaying and many more. At their highest performance HPPS may use granite base for thermal stability and flat surfaces, air bearings for jitter free motion, brushless linear motors for non contact, frictionless actuation, high force and low inertia, and laser interferometer for sub micron position feedback. On the other hand, a typical 6 degrees of freedom articulated robot, with 1 m' reach, has a structural stiffness on the order of 1 N/um. That is why articulated robots are best being employed as automation equipment in processes which require position repeatability on the order of 100's microns, such as robot welding, paint robots, palletizers and many more.
History
The original HPPS were developed at Anorad Corporation (now Rockwell Automation) in the 1980s, after the invention of brushless linear motors by Anorad's Founder and CEO, Anwar Chitayat. Initially HPPS were used for high precision manufacturing processes in semiconductor applications such as Applied Materials, PCB Inspection Orbotech and High Velocity Machine Tool Ford. In parallel linear motor technology and their integration in HPPS, was expanded around the world. As a result, in 1996 Siemens integrated its CNC with Anorad linear motors to drive a 20 m' long Maskant machine at Boeing for chemical milling of aircraft wings. In 1997 FANUC licensed Anorad's linear motor technology and integrated it as a complete solution with their CNC products line. And in 1998, Rockwell Automation acquired Anorad to compete with Siemens and Fanuc in providing a complete linear motor solutions to drive high velocity machine tools in Automotive transfer lines. Today linear motors are being used in hundreds of thousands high performance positioning systems, which drive manufacturing processes around the world. Their market is expected to grow, according to some studies, at 4.4% a year and reach $1.5B in 2025.
System requirements
Applications
Semiconductors - Photolithography is a wafer (electronics) manufacturing process in semiconductor fabrication plants. It uses linear motor stages or maglev stages, for extreme positioning, to move its wafer stage.
Electronics - Surface-mount technology is using high performance, linear motor, positioning systems to mount integrated circuit chips on printed circuit boards.
Optics - Stereo microscopes use linear motor positioning stages for high smoothness of motion during scanning
Machine Tools - Wire electrical discharge machining is used for cutting thick hard metals such as in Die (manufacturing). Linear motor / air bearing positioning systems provide high smoothness of motion.
CMM - Coordinate-measuring machine often require granite base, isolation mounts, linear motor actuators, air bearing and laser interferometer.
Lab Automation - High-throughput screening process is used in laboratory automation for drug discovery, where linear motor positioning provides high acceleration / deceleration with short settling time.
Specifications
System specification (technical standard) is an official interface between the application requirements (problem), as described by the user (customer) and the design (solution) as optimized by the developer (supplier).
Inertia - Indicates the resistance of the moving load (tool or part) to linear (kg) and angular (kg·m2) change in velocity. To maximize natural frequency the inertia of the moving load should be minimal.
Size - Indicates the geometrical constraints of the system's width (m), length(m) and height (m), as may be needed for handling, transport as installation.
Motion - Indicates process cycle time (s) and process constraints for each degree of freedom, including maximum travel (m, rad), maximum velocity (m/s, rad/s) and maximum acceleration/deceleration (m/s2, rad/s2).
Precision - Indicates linear and angular resolution of position measurement and motion (um, urad) as well as total indicator reading of accuracy and precision for each degree of freedom.
Jitter - Indicates maximum amplitude (um) of high frequency vibrations which is allowed at stand still conditions.
Constant velocity - Indicates the required smoothness of motion and allowed variations in (+/- %) of required constant velocity (m/s, rad/s) during motion.
Stiffness - Indicates the resistance of position change in response to external load (N/um, N·m/rad).
Life - indicates the expected time (hrs) or travel (km) the most active degree of freedom of the system is expected to act reliably in process operation.
Reliability - Mean time between failures (hrs, cycles) often associated with a requirement for a Failure modes, effects, and diagnostic analysis
Maintainability - Mean time to repair (hrs), often associated with system manuals including, operation, maintenance schedule and spare parts list.
Environment - Indicates the expected disturbance conditions that the system may encounter during operation within its life time including Thermal, Humidity, Shock and Vibration, Cleanliness and Radiation.
Environment
Thermal - Indicates the highest and lowest temperature (°C) that the system may endure during operation. Effects structural deformations and precision. May require cooling, insulation and low thermal conductivity material.
Humidity - Indicated the level of water vapors in the surrounding air (%). May include the required system protection based on IP Code. May require protective seals.
Shock (mechanics) and Vibration - Indicates the level of floor vibration and other process disturbances. May require active or passive vibration isolation mounts and structural material with high damping.
Cleanliness - Indicates the allowable level (size and quantity per unit volume) of particles in the surrounding air. May require cleanroom operation, filtration of incoming air and protective seals.
Radiation - Electromagnetic interference may require shielded cable management, non ferrous structural material and protective shields of the linear motor magnet plates.
System solution
Configuration
HPPS configuration is typically optimized for maximum structural stiffness with maximum damping and minimum inertia, smallest Abbe error at the point of interest (POI), with minimum components and maximum maintainability.
X - A single linear stage, driven by linear motor, ball screw or timing belt, is typically available as a standard actuator (aka slide, axis or table) from many suppliers.
XYZ - A customized assembly of single stages, including moving cable management. Z axis is typically actuated with a ball screw or linear motor with a counterbalance. Axes may be separated to reduce inertia.
XYZR - Rotational axes including pitch, yaw and roll are typically added in HPPS for orienting the end of arm tool (EOAT) or Robot end effector.
Gantry - Gantry configuration provides maximum work envelope in XYZ configuration per given size constraints. It has 2 parallel axes for x, controlled as a single axis or master / slave. Ideal for transfer lines.
Rotary (pitch, yaw, roll) - Rotary stages may be customized with linear stage at various order to best meet the specifications. They are typically using direct-drive mechanism, analogous to linear motors.
Custom - Custom configurations of HPPS may be required in the mathematical optimization process of integrating the best system components into the most compact, and responsive system.
System analysis
System analysis is a process of understanding the relationships between design parameters, operating conditions, environmental variables and system performance based on system modeling and analysis tools
Dynamics (mechanics) - Optimizing linear motion and rotational profiles, dynamic accuracy, bearing loads, and motor power, using analysis tools such as MATLAB, Simulink, Mathcad, Microsoft Excel
Vibration analysis - Estimating natural frequency, servo bandwidth, settling times, using analysis tools such as MATLAB, Simulink, Mathcad, Microsoft Excel
Accuracy and precision - Estimating 3D static errors at the point of interest as a function of axes straightness, flatness, pitch, yaw, roll, wobble and ran-outs using analysis tools such as Mathcad, Microsoft Excel
Strength of materials - Estimating stiffness of axes, frames, supports and mounting structures, using Finite element method tools such as AutoCAD, Nastran
Thermal expansion - Predicting thermal expansions and optimizing heat transfer using insulation and cooling, using analysis tools such as AutoCAD, Nastran
Fluid dynamics - Estimating flow rates and supply pressures for fluid actuators and cooling using analysis tools such as Computational fluid dynamics
Servo control - Estimating required filters and tuning parameters for PID controller loops of system axes using analysis tools such as MATLAB, Simulink
Reliability engineering - Estimating system mean time between failures using analysis tools such as Mathcad, Microsoft Excel
Component sizing
Component sizing is the process of selecting standard parts from component suppliers, or designing a custom part for manufacturing
Frame - Typically made of aluminum or steel weldments of hollow tubes, possibly filled in with concrete composite for damping. Mounted on leveling pads and secured to floor possibly with earthquake posts.
Actuator
slide, base - High precision bases use granite for flatness and thermal stability. Lower precision standard stages use extruded aluminum. Custom stages typically use ribbed aluminum or stainless steel machined for low inertia high stiffness.
bearing - Options include cross roller bearing for relatively short travel, recirculating bearing for higher stiffness longer travel and air bearing with granite base for high smoothness of motion, higher precision.
servo motor - Typically linear brushless DC electric motor for horizontal axes with 3 phase synchronized current in moving coil and field in stationary, low cogging, magnet plates. For vertical linear motor axes a counterbalance may be used. Rotary stages use similar 2 parts, direct drive motor, including a stationary coil armature and a moving magnetic rotor.
feedback - Typically high resolution encoder, optical, magnetic or captative, analog or digital, linear or rotary, absolute or Incremental encoder with index mark for homing. Laser interferometry for long travel, sub-micron precision.
forcer - Forcer options include ball screw for high force, rack and pinion for long travel and timing belt drive for high velocity. Their limitations in HPPS is friction, jitter, backlash, lower stiffness and maintenance.
cable management - For power and signal transmission. The weakest link of the system reliability chain. Lower bend radius for low profile increases fatigue. Requires cable carrier or using flat ribbon cable. Introduce jitter.
Accessories - Hard stops, stiffening brackets, bellows, shock mounts, air cooling fans, limits, flexures, robot end effector grippers, machine vision camera and sensors for Artificial Intelligence, Machine learning, monitoring such as accelerometers, temperature sensors and gyroscopes.
servo drive - Amplifying motion control signals to drive servo motors. Ranging from low power to 10s KW. For example, 40 KW in driving high force linear motor of 10,000 N moving at 4 m/s. DC voltage ranges from a safe 24V/48V to over 400 V. High current loop update rates, of motor signals, are on order of thousands of Hz. Popular network communication with motion controller is via EtherCAT.
Motion PID controller - Options include computer numerical control (CNC), single axis, multi axis, PC based, stand alone or integrated with servo drive and /or PLC, including I/O, auto tuning, diagnostic and programming available from multiple sources.
Programmable logic controller (PLC) - Higher layer in the hierarchical control system for process sequence control, provided by many suppliers.
System testing
System testing is an iterative process of system development, intended to validate system analysis modeling, proof of concepts, safety factor of performance specifications and acceptant testing.
Motion travel, maximum velocity, maximum acceleration, jerk - Commonly provided within the motion controller.
Linear accuracy, repeatability, flatness, straightness, yaw, pitch - Laser interferometer.
Angular accuracy, repeatability, runout, wobble - Autocollimator.
Cycle time, settling time, jitter, constant velocity - Commonly provided within the motion controller.
Thermal stability - Temperature sensors mounted at multiple location to observe heat transfer.
Inertia, stiffness - scales, dial indicators and force gauge.
Natural frequency, servo bandwidth - Commonly provided with motion controller which has frequency response tools.
Mean time between failure, Life test - Non stop operation for specified period without a failure in extreme operating conditions under continuous monitoring with frequent visual and sensor checking.
References
Further reading
Positioning instruments
Motion control
Electric motors
Electromechanical engineering
Systems engineering | High performance positioning system | [
"Physics",
"Technology",
"Engineering"
] | 3,200 | [
"Systems engineering",
"Physical phenomena",
"Engines",
"Electric motors",
"Automation",
"Motion (physics)",
"Electromechanical engineering",
"Mechanical engineering by discipline",
"Motion control",
"Electrical engineering"
] |
66,038,471 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein%20arginine%20phosphatase | Protein Arginine Phosphatase (PAPs), also known as Phosphoarginine Phosphatase, is an enzyme that catalyzes the dephosphorylation of phosphoarginine residues in proteins. Protein phosphatases (PPs) are "obligatory heteromers" made up of two maximum catalytic subunits attached to a non-catalytic subunit. Arginine modification is a post-translational protein modification in gram-positive bacteria. McsB and YwIE were recently identified as phosphorylating enzymes in Bacillus Subtilis (B.Subtilis). YwIE was thought to be a protein-tyrosine-phosphatase, and McsB a tyrosine-kinase, however in 2012 Elsholz et al. showed that McsB is a protein-arginine-kinase (PAK) and YwlE is a phosphatase-arginine-phosphatase (PAP).
Many proteins rely on protein phosphatase activity for regulating their stability, localization, and interaction with other proteins. Arginine modification is a post-translational protein modification in gram-positive bacteria, and protein arginine phosphorylation regulates transcription factors, in addition to tagging rogue proteins for degradation in gram-positive bacteria. Like phosphorylation, dephosphorylation is a reversible post-translational event. It is reversible through the action of kinases (enzymes that adds a phosphate group to a protein via phosphorylation), and this antagonist activity of phosphorylation and dephosphorylation of proteins controls all aspect of prokaryotic and eukaryotic life. In general, protein phosphatases play a crucial role in cell signaling regulation in both eukaryotes and prokaryotes. They act by removing a phosphate group from proteins, and their activity counteracts that of protein kinases.
Function
YwIE is a member of the low-molecular-weight protein tyrosine phosphatase (LMW-PTP). It is the only active PAP present in B.subtilis, and PAPs exhibits almost no activity against Protein Serine, Protein Tyrosine, and Protein Threonine peptides. Also, YwIE has been shown to play a role in B.Subtilis's resistance to stress. Elsholz et al. (2012), reported in their paper that protein arginine phosphorylation likely plays a critical physiological and regulatory role in bacteria. They showed that protein arginine phosphorylation is involved in the regulation of homeostasis, biofilm formation, motility, competence, stress, and stringent responses by regulating gene expression and protein activity in Bacillus Subtilis. Their results suggested that the combined action of protein arginine phosphatase and kinase allows for rapid and reversible regulation of protein activity. Also, that protein-arginine-phosphatases reverse the effect of protein arginine kinases (PAKs) in living organisms. In B.Subtilis, YwIE, a PAP, counteracts the action of McsB, a protein arginine kinase (PAK). McsB phosphorylates arginine residues in the winged helix-turn-helix domain of CtsR4, preventing it from binding to DNA, allowing for the expression of the repressed gene. However, YwIE is capable of restoring the DNA-binding ability of the CtsR repressor, a stress response & heat shock regulator in B.Subtilis, by reversing the McsB-mediated phosphorylation4. It accomplishes this by dephosphorylating the CtsR Protein. Additionally, McsB and YwIE are capable of differentiating between phosphoarginine and other amino acid residues
Known PAPs
As of 2020, YwIE is the only known active PAP in B.Subtilis, although Fuhrmann et al. (2013). identified a YwIE homolog in Drosophila, but its role in the specie is still unknown. In contrast, Suzuki et al. (2013) identified the presence of McsB in over 150 bacteria species
Mechanism
The specific molecular mechanism of action of the ywIE protein is currently unknown. However, YwIE is believed to dephosphorylate phosphoarginine residues using a concerted, 2-step process via SN2 reactions. Step 1 involves a nucleophilic attack of Cys7 on the phosphorus atom of the phosphoric group. Then a thiophosphate intermediate is formed. In the second step, a phosphorylation-enzyme intermediate is hydrolyzed following the deprotonation of a water molecule by Asp118. Fuhrmann et al. (2016) believe that Asp118 likely promotes the reaction through the stabilization of the positive charge of the amino group via electrostatic interaction.
Sample general dephosphorylation reaction equation: H2O + C6H15N4O5P-> C6H14N4O2 + PO4^3-
History
2005: YwIE was classified as a tyrosine phosphatase and McsB was identified as a tyrosine Kinase
In 2005, Suskiewicz et al. classified the enzyme YwIE as a tyrosine phosphatase. And Kirstein et al. (2005) found that McsB is a tyrosine kinase that needs McsA to become activated. They also found that the interaction of McsA and McsB with CtsR results in the formation of a 3-protein complex that stops the binding of CtsR to its target DNA and leads to subsequent phosphorylation of McsB, McsA, and CtsR.
2009: McsB was unequivocally identified as a protein arginine kinase
In their study, Fuhrmann et al. (2009), performed a biochemical and structural analysis of the bacterial transcriptional regulators CtsR/McsB stress response. They sort to clarify and outline the exact function of CtsR and McsB in bacterial stress response. So, they screened proteins from various gram-negative bacteria for recombinant production and succeeded in reconstituting the Bacillus stearothermophilus CtsR/McsB system in vitro. Subsequently, they identified McsB as a protein kinase that targets arginine.
2012: YwlE was identified as a protein arginine phosphatase (PAP) in vivo & McsB was identified as a protein arginine kinase (PAK)
Elsholz et al. (2012), showed that McsB and YwlE are a protein arginine kinase and phosphatase, rather than a tyrosine kinase and phosphatase because they observed only an McsB/YwlE-dependent detection of protein arginine phosphorylation or dephosphorylation in vivo. Specifically, they suggested that YwIE acts as a PAP in vivo.
McsB and YwlE were thought to be tyrosine kinases and phosphatases. However, in 2012, Elsholz et al. detected 121 arginine phosphorylation sites in 87 proteins in living Bacillus Subtilis (B.subtillis), a gram-positive bacterium present in soil and human gastrointestinal tract. Their observations led them to believe that protein arginine phosphorylation exists in vivo as a posttranslational modification in bacteria. The arginine-phosphorylated proteins they detected were distributed among "distinct physiological classes of proteins" such as regulators, metabolic enzymes, stress, and ribosomal proteins. This result suggested that YwlE acts as a protein arginine phosphatase that explicitly dephosphorylates arginine residues both in vitro and in vivo
Secondly, Elsholz et al. (2012) were only able to detect protein arginine phosphorylation in a YwIE mutant gene and not the wild-type strain. But protein phosphorylates on either serine, threonine, or tyrosine were detected in both wild-type and a YwIE mutant strain in equal amounts. Therefore, they thought that YwIE might solely act as a protein arginine phosphatase. That is, the detection of protein arginine phosphorylation depended on the presence of YwIE. They confirmed this hypothesis after failing to detect protein arginine phosphorylation after (1) analyzing a mutant extract treated in vitro with purified YwIE protein before conducting mass spectroscopy analysis; and (2) overexpressing the YwIE in trans in a YwIE mutant in-vivo. The close interaction of the arginine phosphorylated proteins with YwIE suggested that the stability of the modifications was indeed influenced by the YwIE protein.
References
Biochemistry
Enzymes | Protein arginine phosphatase | [
"Chemistry",
"Biology"
] | 1,929 | [
"Biochemistry",
"nan"
] |
66,038,980 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endaze | Endaze is a defunct measurement unit of length used in the Ottoman Empire.
Endaze means pace. But it is shorter than the pace. It was equal to 65.25 cm. It was usually used in the silk trade. Its sub unit was rubu and
References
Ottoman units of measurement
Units of length
Human-based units of measurement | Endaze | [
"Mathematics"
] | 71 | [
"Quantity",
"Units of measurement",
"Units of length"
] |
66,041,273 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methylcitrate%20cycle | The methylcitrate cycle, or the MCC, is the mechanism by which propionyl-CoA is formed, generated by β-oxidation of odd-chain fatty acids, and broken down to its final products, succinate and pyruvate. The methylcitrate cycle is closely related to both the citric acid cycle and the glyoxylate cycle, in that they share substrates, enzymes and products. The methylcitrate cycle functions overall to detoxify bacteria of toxic propionyl-CoA, and plays an essential role in propionate metabolism in bacteria. Incomplete propionyl-CoA metabolism may lead to the buildup of toxic metabolites in bacteria, and thus the function of the methylcitrate cycle is an important biological process.
History
2-methylisocitric acid, an intermediate of the methylcitrate cycle, was first synthesized in 1886 as a mixture of four isomers. The pathway of the methylcitrate cycle was not discovered until 1973 in fungi, though it was not yet fully understood. Originally, the methylcitrate cycle was thought to be present only in fungal species, such as Candida lipolytica and Aspergillus nidulans. In 1999, it was discovered that the methylcitrate cycle was also present in bacteria Salmonella enterica and Escherichia coli. Much research has been done on the methylcitrate cycle's role in the development and function of various fungi and strains of bacteria, as well as its virulent properties in conjunction with the glyoxylate cycle.
Steps
There are three basic steps in the methylcitrate cycle, as outlined below. Additionally, the mechanism is shown with its reactants, products, intermediates, and enzymes.
The major enzymes involved in this process are methylcitrate synthase (MCS) in step one, methylcitrate dehydratase (MCD) in step two, and 2-methylisocitrate lyase (MCL) in step three.
The PrpC gene, which encodes for enzyme methylcitrate synthase in the first step of the methylcitrate cycle, is the gene responsible for propionate metabolism in the process. Without this gene, the methylcitrate cycle and ultimate metabolism would not occur, but rather catabolism. The reaction of the methylcitrate cycle both overlaps and intertwines with the citric acid cycle and the glyoxylate cycle. Odd-chain fatty acids acetate and propionate are broken down by the β-oxidation cycle to form acetyl-CoA, which is further oxidized by the citric acid cycle, and propionyl-CoA, which is oxidized by the methylcitrate cycle. The substrate oxaloacetate is generated by the citric acid and glyoxylate cycles, and the product succinate is taken from the methylcitrate cycle to be used in the citric acid cycle.
Products
One of the major products of the methylcitrate cycle is pyruvate. This pyruvate can be used by metabolic enzymes for energy and biomass formation. The other major product, succinate, is used in the citric acid cycle and helps to carry the reaction forward and restarts the cycle. Succinate is used by the citric acid and glyoxylate cycles to generate oxaloacetate, one of the key substrates necessary to begin the methylcitrate cycle.
References
Molecular biology | Methylcitrate cycle | [
"Chemistry",
"Biology"
] | 716 | [
"Biochemistry",
"Molecular biology"
] |
66,041,803 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journal%20of%20Limnology | The Journal of Limnology is a triannual peer-reviewed open access scientific journal covering all aspects of limnology, including the ecology, biology, microbiology, geology, physics, and chemistry of freshwater habitats, as well as the impact of human activities and the management and conservation of inland aquatic ecosystems. It was established in 1942 as the Memorie dell'Istituto Italiano di Idrobiologia by the Water Research Institute (Verbania) of which it is still the official journal, obtaining its current title in 1999.
Abstracting and indexing
The journal is abstracted and indexed by Aquatic Sciences and Fisheries Abstracts, BIOSIS Previews, EBSCO databases, GEOBASE, Science Citation Index Expanded, and Scopus.
Notable articles
The three most highly cited papers published in the journal are:
Jeppesen, E., Meerhoff, M., Davidson, T. A., Trolle, D., SondergaarD, M., Lauridsen, T. L., ... & Nielsen, A.
Michalczyk, Ł., & Kaczmarek, Ł.
Hall, R.
References
External links
English-language journals
Academic journals established in 1942
Ecology journals
Triannual journals | Journal of Limnology | [
"Environmental_science"
] | 254 | [
"Environmental science journals",
"Ecology journals"
] |
66,042,171 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Park%20Jin%20Hyok | Park Jin Hyok () is a North Korean programmer and hacker. He is best known for his alleged involvement in some of the costliest computer intrusions in history. Park is on the FBI's wanted list. North Korea denies his existence.
Life and career
Early life
Park attended the Kim Chaek University of Technology in Pyongyang. He has traveled to China in the past and conducted IT work for the North Korean company "Chosun Expo" in addition to activities conducted on behalf of North Korea's Reconnaissance General Bureau.
Lazarus group and computer hacking
Park is a member of a North Korea's government-funded hacking team known as “Lazarus Group (or APT 38)” and worked for Chosun Expo Joint Venture (aka Korea Expo Joint Venture), a North Korean government front company, to support the North Korean government’s malicious cyber actions. Chosun is affiliated with Lab 110, a component of North Korea's military intelligence. Expo Joint Venture had offices in China (PRC) and North Korea.
Sony Pictures hack
In November 2014, the conspirators launched a destructive attack on Sony Pictures Entertainment in retaliation for the movie The Interview, a political action comedy film that depicted the assassination of the DPRK’s leader by a CIA spy. North Korea denied allegations of hacking.
WannaCry ransomware attack
The United States Department of Justice has charged Park and other members of the Lazarus group for the WannaCry ransomware attack of 2017, which involved the spreading of ransomware that encrypted files on victims' computers after spreading itself to other vulnerable devices on the local network that the compromised computer could access. It would then request ransom payments be made in the form of cryptocurrency in exchange for decryption keys allowing victims to recover their files. The attack affected countless numbers of businesses and organizations throughout the world, including in one incident infecting the United Kingdom’s NHS, where nonfunctional computer systems led to thousands of appointments being canceled.
See also
Lazarus Group
2013 South Korea cyberattack
July 2009 cyberattacks
Sony Pictures hack
WannaCry ransomware attack
References
Kim Chaek University of Technology alumni
Living people
Hackers
Year of birth missing (living people)
Fugitives wanted by the United States
21st-century North Korean people
Ransomware
Possibly fictional people from Asia | Park Jin Hyok | [
"Technology"
] | 472 | [
"Lists of people in STEM fields",
"Hackers"
] |
66,042,826 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Book%20of%20Why | The Book of Why: The New Science of Cause and Effect is a 2018 nonfiction book by computer scientist Judea Pearl and writer Dana Mackenzie. The book explores the subject of causality and causal inference from statistical and philosophical points of view for a general audience.
Summary
The book consists of ten chapters and an introduction.
Introduction: Mind over Data
The introduction describes the inadequacy of early 20th century statistical methods at making statements about causal relationships between variables. The authors then describe what they term 'The Causal Revolution', which started in the middle of the 20th century, and provided new conceptual and mathematical tools for describing causal relationships.
Chapter 1: The Ladder of Causation
Chapter 1 introduces the 'ladder of causation' - a diagram used to illustrate the three levels of causal reasoning. The first level is named 'Association', which discusses associations between variables. Questions such as 'is variable X associated with variable Y?' can be answered at this level. However, crucially, causality is not invoked. An example of reasoning on this first level is the observation that a crowing rooster is associated with the sunrise. However, this kind of reasoning cannot describe causal relations. For example, we cannot say whether the sunrise causes the rooster to crow, or whether the rooster causes the sun to rise. Many of the early 20th century statistical tools, such as correlation and regression operate on this level.
The second level (or 'rung') on the ladder of causation is labelled 'Intervention'. Reasoning on this level answers questions of the form 'if I make the intervention X, how will this affect the probability of the outcome Y?'. For example, the question 'does smoking increase my chance of lung cancer?' exists on the second level of the ladder of causation. This kind of reasoning invokes causality and can be used to investigate more questions than the reasoning of the first rung.
The third rung of the ladder of causation is labelled 'Counterfactuals' and involves answering questions which ask what might have been, had circumstances been different. Such reasoning invokes causality to a greater degree than the previous level. An example counterfactual question given in the book is 'Would Kennedy be alive if Oswald had not killed him?'
Chapter 2: From Buccaneers to Guinea Pigs: The Genesis of Causal Inference
Chapter 2 starts with a brief summary of the contributions of Francis Galton and Karl Pearson (originally Carl Pearson) to the development of statistics in the late 19th Century and early 20th Centuries. The authors blame Karl Pearson for keeping the study of statistics on the first rung of the ladder of causation and discouraging any discussion of causality in statistics. Causal analysis using path diagrams is then introduced through the explanations of the work of Sewall Wright.
Chapter 3: From Evidence to Causes: Reverend Bayes meets Mr Holmes
Chapter 3 provides an introduction to Bayes' Theorem. Then Bayesian Networks are introduced. Finally, the links between Bayesian networks and causal diagrams are discussed.
Chapter 4: Confounding and Deconfounding, or, Slaying the Lurking Variable
This chapter introduces the idea of confounding and describes how causal diagrams can be used to identify confounding variables and determine their effect. Pearl explains that randomized controlled trials (RCTs) can be used to nullify the effect of confounders, but shows that, provided one has a causal model of confounding, an RCT does not necessarily have to be performed to get results.
Chapter 5: The Smoke-filled Debate: Clearing the Air
This chapter takes a historical approach to the question 'does smoking cause lung cancer?', focusing on the arguments made by Abraham Lilienfeld, Jacob Yerushalmy, Ronald Fisher and Jerome Cornfield. The authors explain that, though cigarette smoking was clearly correlated with lung cancer, some, such as Fisher and Yerushalmy, believed that the two variables were confounded and argued against the hypothesis that cigarettes caused the cancer. The authors then explain how causal reasoning (as developed in the rest of the book) can be used to argue that cigarettes do indeed cause cancer.
Chapter 6: Paradoxes Galore!
This chapter examines several paradoxes, including the Monty Hall Problem, Simpson's paradox, Berkson's paradox and Lord's paradox. The authors show how these paradoxes can be resolved using causal reasoning.
Chapter 7: Beyond Adjustment: The Conquest of Mount Intervention
This chapter looks at the 'second rung' of the ladder of causation introduced in chapter 1. The authors describe how to use causal diagrams to ascertain the causal effect of performing interventions (eg. smoking) on outcomes (such as lung cancer). The 'front-door criterion' and the 'do-calculus' are introduced as tools for doing this. The chapter finishes with two examples, used to introduce the use of instrumental variables to estimate causal relationships. The first is John Snow's discovery that cholera is caused by unsanitary water supplies. The second is the relationship between cholesterol levels and likelihood of a heart attack.
Chapter 8: Counterfactuals: Mining worlds that could have been
This chapter examines the third rung of the ladder of causation: counterfactuals. The chapter introduces 'structural causal models', which allow reasoning about counterfactuals in a way that traditional (non-causal) statistics does not. Then, the applications of counterfactual reasoning are explored in the areas of climate science and the law.
Chapter 9: Mediation: The Search for Mechanism
This chapter discusses mediation: the mechanism by which a cause leads to an effect. The authors discuss the work of Barbara Stoddard Burks on the causes of intelligence of children, the 'algebra for all' policy by Chicago public schools, and the use of tourniquets to treat combat wounds.
Chapter 10: Big Data, Artificial Intelligence and the Big Questions
The final chapter discusses the use of causal reasoning in big data and artificial intelligence (AI) and the philosophical problem that AI would have to reflect on its own actions, which requires counterfactual (and therefore causal) reasoning.
Reviews
Scientific background, excerpts, errata, and a list of 37 reviews of The Book of Why is provided on Judea Pearl's web page.
The Book of Why was reviewed by Jonathan Knee in The New York Times. The review was positive, with Knee calling the book "illuminating". However, he describes some parts of the book as "challenging", stating that the book is "not always fully accessible to readers who do not share the author's fondness for equations".
Tim Maudlin gave the book a mixed review in The Boston Review, calling it a "splendid overview of the state of the art in causal analysis". However, Maudlin criticizes the inclusion of "counterfactuals" as separate rung on the "ladder of causation", stating "[c]ounterfactuals are so closely entwined with causal claims that it is not possible to think causally but not counterfactually". Maudlin also criticizes the section on free will for its "imprecision and lack of familiarity with the philosophical literature". Finally he points to the work of several scientists (including Clark Glymour) who developed similar ideas to Pearl, and claims that Pearl "could have saved himself literally years of effort had he been apprised of this work". In a rebuttal, Pearl notes that at the time, he was intimately familiar with this work.
Zoe Hackett, writing in Chemistry World, gave The Book of Why a positive review, with the caveat that "[i]t requires concentration, and a studious effort to work through the mind-bending statistical problems posited in the text". The review concludes by stating that "[t]his book is a must for any serious student of philosophy of science, and should be required reading for any first-year undergraduate statistics class".
Lisa R. Goldberg wrote a detailed, technical review in Notices of the American Mathematical Society.
References
2018 non-fiction books
Basic Books books
Penguin Books books
Causality | The Book of Why | [
"Physics"
] | 1,684 | [] |
66,042,896 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Union%20of%20Textiles%2C%20Chemicals%20and%20Paper | The Union of Textiles, Chemicals and Paper (, GTCP; ) was a trade union representing workers in various industries in Switzerland.
In 1903, various local unions of dyers, trimmers, weavers and embroiderers formed a loose federation. In 1908, this was reformed as the more centralised Swiss Textile Workers' Union. It affiliated to the Swiss Trade Union Federation in 1914, although this prompted most of the weavers and embroiderers, not yet working in factories, to leave and form an independent union, rejoining only in 1948.
By 1919, the union had 23,991 members, but this fell to 7,626 in 1925 and remained low for the following decades. In 1926, the Union of Paper and Graphical Assistants was dissolved, the paper workers transferring to the Swiss Textile Workers' Union. In 1937, the union renamed itself as the Union of Textile and Factory Workers, reflecting its interest in organising workers not previously organised by any union. The bulk of these workers were in the chemical industry, and recruitment was hugely successful, membership reaching 38,648 in 1946, during a period in which the union was involved in several strikes.
After 1947, the union avoided industrial action, and its membership steadily fell. In 1963, it renamed itself as the GTCP. By 1991, it had only 11,581 members, of whom 70% worked in the chemical industry, 20% in textiles, and 10% in paper. In 1993, it merged with the Union of Construction and Wood, to form the Union of Construction and Industry.
References
Chemical industry trade unions
Textile and clothing trade unions
Trade unions established in 1908
Trade unions disestablished in 1993
Trade unions in Switzerland | Union of Textiles, Chemicals and Paper | [
"Chemistry"
] | 345 | [
"Chemical industry trade unions"
] |
66,044,705 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rothalpy | Rothalpy (or trothalpy) , a short name of rotational stagnation enthalpy, is a fluid mechanical property of importance in the study of flow within rotating systems.
Concept
Consider we have an inertial frame of reference and a rotating frame of reference which both are sharing common origin . Assume that frame is rotating around a fixed axis with angular velocity . Now assuming fluid velocity to be and fluid velocity relative to rotating frame of reference to be :
Rothalpy of a fluid point can be defined as
where and and is the stagnation enthalpy of fluid point relative to the rotating frame of reference , which is given by
and is known as relative stagnation enthalpy.
Rothalpy can also be defined in terms of absolute stagnation enthalpy:
where is tangential component of fluid velocity .
Applications
Rothalpy has applications in turbomachinery and study of relative flows in rotating systems.
One such application is that for steady, adiabatic and irreversible flow in a turbomachine, the value of rothalpy across a blade remains constant along a flow streamline:
so Euler equation of turbomachinery can be written in terms of rothalpy.
This form of the Euler work equation shows that, for rotating blade rows, the relative stagnation enthalpy is constant through the blades provided the blade speed is constant. In other words, , if the radius of a streamline passing through the blades stays the same. This result is important for analyzing turbomachinery flows in the relative frame of reference.
Naming
The function was first introduced by Wu (1952) and has acquired the widely used name rothalpy.
This quantity is commonly called rothalpy, a compound word combining the terms rotation and enthalpy. However, its construction does not conform to the established rules for formation of new words in the English language, namely, that the roots of the new word originate from the same language. The word trothalpy satisfies this requirement as trohos is the Greek root for wheel and enthalpy is to put heat in, whereas rotation is derived from Latin rotare.
See also
Stagnation enthalpy
Euler's pump and turbine equation
References
Fluid dynamics
Enthalpy | Rothalpy | [
"Physics",
"Chemistry",
"Mathematics",
"Engineering"
] | 466 | [
"Thermodynamic properties",
"Physical quantities",
"Chemical engineering",
"Quantity",
"Enthalpy",
"Piping",
"Fluid dynamics"
] |
66,045,014 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PogChamp | PogChamp is an emote used on the streaming platform Twitch intended to express excitement, intrigue, joy or shock. The image originally depicted streamer Ryan "Gootecks" Gutierrez with a surprised or shocked expression, which originated from a YouTube video uploaded to Gutierrez's channel, Cross Counter TV, on November 26, 2010. The original emote was added to Twitch's pool of global emotes in 2012 and was later removed in January 2021, after Gutierrez expressed support for the January 6 United States Capitol attack. Twitch responded to calls to revive the emote by alternating between several unique designs every 24 hours, each using a similar expression, and eventually allowed viewers to vote on one of these faces to become the permanent replacement during what they called "The PogChampening". Users voted for an image of a Komodo dragon, which is also the basis for the KomodoHype emote.
Ryan Gutierrez was initially reluctant to allow Twitch to use his likeness for the original PogChamp emote, but soon made a deal to allow its use for between US$50,000 and US$100,000 and undisclosed additional concessions.
The emote, like others on Twitch, is displayed at a very small size of 56 by 56 pixels. PC Gamer described the PogChamp emote as "one of the most ubiquitous emotes in Twitch history [...] used to react to decisive moments", while Kotaku stated it "[indicated] surprise and hype". CNN describes the use of PogChamp as a gamer's expression for excitement, expanding the use of the PogChamp emote to the word PogChamp and its variants "Pog" and "Poggers" to describe "particularly awesome" moments. Emotes in general have been reported by CNN to be popularly used "ad nauseum " during moments while gamer activity is livestreamed. Given the long history of the use of the PogChamp emote and its variants, Twitch acknowledges the impact of PogChamp's role in shaping the culture of its streaming services.
Etymology
The term "PogChamp" refers to a 2011 promotional video called "Pogs Championship" by Gutierrez, in which he wins a game of Pogs.
Usage statistics
PogChamp was the third-most-used emote on the platform. It was used a total of 813,916,297 times from January 9, 2016, until it was removed from Twitch on January 6, 2021.
Removal
Some Twitch users in 2020 petitioned for Twitch to remove Ryan Gutierrez as the face of the PogChamp emote, following numerous claims of Gutierrez promoting far-right conspiracies, such as anti-vaccination conspiracies, and spreading misinformation and denial of COVID-19.
On January 6, 2021, Twitch announced that they would remove the original PogChamp emote following comments from Gutierrez on his Twitter page supporting further civil unrest in response to the death of a participant in the United States Capitol attack occurring that day. Gutierrez responded to the removal of the original PogChamp critically several weeks after the removal date, stating rhetorically at social media companies sifting through his posts to allow them to judge any negative intent about himself as a person. "They're looking for people that are trying to incite violence, but that's not what they found on my account. [...] So, why is it then, that Twitch seems to have decision making super powers? Because in less than three hours from when I uploaded the video, they made the decision to remove PogChamp as a global emote."
FrankerFaceZ, a popular web browser extension for Twitch featuring custom emotes, took the decision to ban all user-upload instances and variations of Gutierrez. Another similar extension named BTTV (Better Twitch TV) announced that their platform would continue hosting PogChamp-related emotes, allowing broadcasters to use their own discretion of whether they would like the emote in their chats.
The Verge describes the removal of PogChamp as part of Twitch's move towards becoming more mainstream by detaching themselves from hateful behavior in the gaming community.
Changing the face of the PogChamp emote
Twitch later announced that they would upload a new version of the PogChamp face under the same title every 24 hours, with each replacing the last. Instead of using Ryan Gutierrez's face, a different streamer was used as the face of the PogChamp emote each 24 hours, starting from January 8, 2021. Twitch claimed that changing the PogChamp emote every 24 hours would prevent exclusive association with a single individual; according to Kotaku, this would help make sure that "the Eye Of Sauron Of Harassing Dickheads at least has to glance around a lot instead of focusing its fury in one place". Although members of the Twitch community praised the diverse inclusion of various streamers, specifically those from minorities, some concern was raised by members of minority communities over Twitch doing too little to protect streamers from harassment.
The first two streamers featured as PogChamp emotes were UnRooolie and UmiNoKaiju, who were Twitch Ambassadors in 2019 and 2018, respectively. Other faces included Gaules, DEERE, LittleSiha, Kahlief, Myth, and Granny, and the last streamer featured was SteveInSpawn. The first instance of the PogChamp emote not using a living person reused an existing Twitch emote, "KomodoHype", a depiction of a komodo dragon with a similar facial expression to the PogChamp emote. This resulted in fewer negative reactions. KomodoHype, which was previously less popular than PogChamp, has seen a significant increase in usage since the removal of the original emote.
On February 11, 2021, Twitch announced a poll that would take place the following day titled "The PogChampening", in which Twitch users would be able to vote for a new permanent PogChamp emote. There were two poll options: the face of American Twitch livestreamer UmiNoKaiju, and the existing KomodoHype emote. KomodoHype won with 81% of the votes, and PogChamp was permanently replaced with it. The original KomodoHype emote was kept, which left two different emotes with different names and duplicate images.
Reaction to the new system
The reception for the new changing system of the PogChamp emote has been mixed among streamers.
From streamers replacing Gutierrez
The temporary addition of Pokémon streamer Reversal as the face of PogChamp was described as a "positive experience" overall.
Omega "Critical Bard" Jones described his experience of being the face for PogChamp for a day as initially positive, though he later received comments after certain viewers who were unsatisfied that he "didn't look like PogChamp". He stated that the Twitch community "[doesn't] even care about PogChamp as a person" and rather prefers to keep "what they consider to be tradition", after a response to a viewer comment about white supremacy. What Jones saw as the Twitch community's reluctance to change and embrace diversity concerned him, especially given the lack of sufficient protection against "toxic elements" of the Twitch community applied by combinations of trolling, racism, and death threats.
Drag queen Deere experienced similar trolling incidents due to negative reception posted on Twitter and Reddit about her depiction of the PogChamp emote, although with simultaneous support for her too.
From the media
Andy Chalk of PC Gamer described Twitch's protection against harassment as insufficient, while Nick D'Orazio of InvenGlobal claimed that the regular PogChamp face changes may have "inadvertently [opened] up a whole new problem that sounds like a PR nightmare".
References
2021 in video gaming
2020 in video gaming
Emoticons
Internet culture
Internet memes introduced in 2010
Symbols introduced in 2012
Twitch (service)
Video game controversies
Internet slang
Lizards in popular culture | PogChamp | [
"Mathematics"
] | 1,699 | [
"Symbols",
"Emoticons"
] |
66,046,211 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WASP-60 | WASP-60 is a F-type main-sequence star about 1420 light-years away. The stars age is much younger than the Sun's at 1.7 billion years. WASP-60 is enriched in heavy elements, having 180% of the solar abundance of iron. The star does not have noticeable starspot activity, an unexpected observation for a relatively young star. The age of WASP-60 determined by different methods is highly discrepant though, and it may actually be an old star which experienced an episode of spin-up in the past.
The star was named Morava in 2019 by Serbian amateur astronomers as part of the NameExoWorlds contest, after the Morava River in Serbia.
A multiplicity survey in 2015 did not detect any stellar companions to WASP-60.
Planetary system
In 2012 a transiting hot Jupiter planet b was detected on a tight, circular orbit. The planet was named Vlasina by Serbian astronomers in December 2019, after the Vlasina River, a tributary of the Morava.
Its equilibrium temperature is .
Measurement of the Rossiter–McLaughlin effect in 2018 revealed WASP-60b is on a retrograde orbit relative to the equatorial plane of the star, orbital obliquity equal to 129°.
References
Pegasus (constellation)
G-type main-sequence stars
Planetary systems with one confirmed planet
Planetary transit variables
J23463997+3109213
Morava | WASP-60 | [
"Astronomy"
] | 292 | [
"Pegasus (constellation)",
"Constellations"
] |
66,046,454 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WASP-59 | WASP-59 is a K-type main-sequence star about 379 light-years away. The star's age is essentially unconstrained by observations. WASP-59 is slightly depleted in heavy elements, having 70% of the solar abundance of iron. The star produces extremely low levels of ultraviolet light, indicating an absence of flare activity.
A multiplicity survey in 2015 did not detect any stellar companions to WASP-59.
Planetary system
In 2012 a transiting hot Jupiter planet b was detected on a tight, mildly eccentric orbit.
Its equilibrium temperature is . The planet is unusually dense for a gas giant, representing an outlier on a mass-radius diagram.
References
Pegasus (constellation)
K-type main-sequence stars
Planetary systems with one confirmed planet
Planetary transit variables
J23182955+2453214 | WASP-59 | [
"Astronomy"
] | 167 | [
"Pegasus (constellation)",
"Constellations"
] |
66,046,471 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proton%20coupled%20amino%20acid%20transporter | Proton-coupled amino acid transporters belong to the SLC26A5 family; they are protein receptors whose main function is the transmembrane movement of amino acids and their derivatives. This family of receptors is most commonly found within the luminal surface of the small intestine as well as in some lysosomes. The solute carrier family (SLC) of genes includes roughly 400 membrane proteins that are characterized by 66 families in total. The SLC36 family of genes maps to chromosome 11. The diversity of these receptors is vast, with the ability to transport both charged and uncharged amino acids along with their derivatives. In research and practice, SLC36A1/2 are both targets for drug-based delivery systems for a wide range of disorders.
Structure
The human protein acid transporter (hPAT1) is 5585 base pairs long and codes for a protein 476 amino acids long. The transporter has nine transmembrane regions where the amino terminus faces the cytoplasm. The rat protein acid transporter (rPAT1) has been widely studied and an 85% amino acid sequence match was found between hPAT1 and rPAT1. The hPAT1 gene is located on chromosome 5q31-33 and has 11 exons that are coding regions. Its translation site begins in exon 2 and exon 11 contains the termination site.
Proton-coupled amino acid transporters 1 and 2
The molecular weight of Proton-coupled amino acid transporter 1 is 53.28 kDA; the molecular weight of Proton-coupled amino acid transporter 2 is 53.22 kDA. PAT1 has been found in lysosomes in brain neurons but also in the apical membrane of intestinal epithelial cells where it is associated with the brush border. Proton-coupled amino acid transporter 1 has a higher affinity for proline than it does for glycine and alanine Proton-coupled amino acid transporter 2 is found subcellularly in the kidneys, lungs, spinal cord, and brain and likely has a role in myelinating neurons. It has an overall higher affinity for glycine, alanine, and proline than PAT1 but is more specific for what can inhibit it.
Biochemistry
Unlike most amino acid transporters in the exchange of Na+ with amino acid symporters, proton-coupled amino acid transporters function as H+ with amino acid symporters. They are located within the luminal surface of the small intestine and within lysosomes, so their action functions in absorption in the intestine and in the efflux pathway after intralysosomal digestion. Unlike typical mammalian amino acid transporters which function in exchanging Na+/amino acid symporters, these- transporters function in exchanging H+/amino acid symporters. The activity of transporters, such as Proton-coupled amino acid transporter 1 and Proton-coupled amino acid transporter 2 can be measured at the apical membrane of the human epithelial layer of cells which are loaded with pH sensitive dyes. The change in membrane potential can be measured by the absorption of pH sensitive dyes and the associated influx of H+ ions. The proteins involved in these transporters are consider anion exchangers
Function
The function of proton-coupled amino acid transporters is the transmembrane movement of amino acids and their derivatives for absorption by the luminal surface of the small intestine or digestion by intralysosomal proteins. In Drosophila models, the expression of SLC family genes that code for proton-coupled amino acid transporters is directly linked to the nutrient-dependent growth. In humans, similar expression patterns are observed and their function correlates to their location anatomically. Being located within the lamina of the small intestine allows for functional absorption of transported amino acids and derivatives. The majority of nutrient absorption takes place within this region of the intestines, and makes sense that these transporters are located throughout this tissue.
Non-functional proton coupled amino acid transporter
In hereditary disease iminoglycinuria, there is a defect in the human proton-coupled amino acid transporter 1 and 2 genes which results in a defect in the absorption of proline and glycine. Iminoglycinuria is an autosomal recessive disorder of the renal tubular. Lack of glycine and proline absorption leads to excess urinary excretions containing amino acids. If the transporters are not working properly, a drug that they usually help gain entry in to the cell might not be absorbed Their function can also be inhibited by tryptophan derivatives and allow for exploration into the function of hPAT1 and hPAT2. Additionally, mutations that lead to structural changes in amino acid binding sites play a role in their functional transport.
Biosynthesis
The DNA sequence of these transporters is transcribed in the nucleus of the cell by RNA polymerase and undergoes splicing and capping before it travels to the cytoplasm. In the cytoplasm, translation begins via a sequence in exon 2 of the mRNA. Subsequently, protein folding and packaging insert the transporter into the membrane. The protein has a signal recognition particle that is recognized as it leaves the ribosome. N-glycosylation at various sites on hPAT1 is necessary for its transport function. Three of its extracellular residues are glycosylated and determine transport efficacy.
Clinical significance
PAT1 mRNA is expressed in the GI tract between the stomach and descending colon, but is generally absent in the esophagus, caecum, and rectum. This allows for different treatments that affect the affinity of the carrier protein for its substrates, giving the potential to treat various amino-acid related diseases. HPAT1 and HPAT2 are important in the absorption of certain drugs, especially pharmaceutically active amino acids derivatives. They have also been targeted with medications used as anticonvulsants, for prostate cancer, and for bladder cancer. HPAT1 and 2 are integral to the central nervous system because they transport GABA and its analogues which can induce and inhibitory and excitatory effect in the brain.
References
Proteins
Transmembrane proteins
Transmembrane receptors
Transmembrane transporters
Amino acids
Solute carrier family
Genetics | Proton coupled amino acid transporter | [
"Chemistry",
"Biology"
] | 1,302 | [
"Transmembrane receptors",
"Biomolecules by chemical classification",
"Genetics",
"Signal transduction",
"Amino acids",
"Molecular biology",
"Proteins"
] |
74,661,835 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nete%20virus | Nete virus is a lineage of segmented RNA viruses infecting animals which was discovered in 2020.
References
RNA viruses | Nete virus | [
"Biology"
] | 26 | [
"Virus stubs",
"Viruses"
] |
74,662,087 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MASCARA-1b | MASCARA-1b is a confirmed superjovian exoplanet, orbiting the A-type star MASCARA-1 (HD 201585).
Characteristics
MASCARA-1b is a hot Jupiter transiting its parent A-type star; its orbit is misaligned with the star's rotation. The planet was found unusually reflective for hot Jupiter with the measured geometric albedo of 0.171 and dayside temperature of 3062 K. Attempts to spectroscopically characterize its composition were failing as in 2022 due to relatively high planetary surface gravity resulting in compact atmosphere.
References
Equuleus
Exoplanets discovered by MASCARA
Exoplanets discovered in 2017 | MASCARA-1b | [
"Astronomy"
] | 136 | [
"Equuleus",
"Constellations"
] |
74,662,377 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyimine | Polyimines are classified as polymer materials that contain imine groups, which are characterised by a double bond between a carbon and nitrogen atom. The term polyimine can also be found occasionally in covalent organic frameworks (COFs). In (older) literature, polyimines are sometimes also referred to as poly(azomethine) or polyschiff.
Synthesis
Polyimines can be synthesised via a condensation reaction between aldehydes and (primary) amines. During this reaction, water is also formed as byproduct. Often, the synthesis can be performed at room temperature, but to fully cure the materials and remove remaining water, they can be dried at slightly elevated temperatures and/or in vacuum.
Applications
One of the applications of polyimines is as in covalent adaptable networks (CANs). These are polymer materials that are crosslinked via dynamic covalent bonds. Besides polyimines, other types of dynamic covalent chemistry can also be used.
Polyimine CANs are largely investigated to create recyclable and self-healing thermoset materials, but they can also find use in composite materials with higher performance.
Flame retardants
Because of the free radical scavenging properties of imines, they are well fit to be used in flame retardant materials. In addition, different polyimine materials have also been investigated for which phosporous species have been incorporated. These materials represent more sustainable and less harmful alternatives to previously used halogenated polymers.
Sensory devices
The dynamic characteristics of polyimines enables them to be used as sensory devices. An example of this is the sensing of amine compounds. Polyimine materials have been constructed that enable penetration of (small) monoamine molecules. These amines can perform bond exchange reactions with the polyimine network, and as a result reduce the crosslinking density. As a result, the materials soften or even liquify. The change in material properties provides a "read-out" of the presence of amines.
Electronic skin
Polyimines have been investigated for their use in the production of electronic skins (e-skin). For this, Polyimine networks were doped with conductive silver nanoparticles. The malleability of the polyimine network enables the e-skin to conform to complex or uneven surfaces without introducing excessive interfacial stresses.
Bio-based polyimines
Various studies have been conducted to synthesise bio-based polyimines due the great natural abundance of aldehydes and amines. Popular sources for aldehydes include vanilin, which can be obtained from lignin, or 2,5-furandicarboxaldehyde (FDC), which can be derived from fructose.
Imines in other polymers
Apart from polyimine polymers that are formed directly via the condensation reaction from aldehydes and amines, it is also possible to incorporate imines in other existing polymer materials. Imines have, for example, been incorporated into recyclable epoxy-based thermosets and polyesters.
See also
Imine
Polyimide
Polyamide
Vitrimers
Covalent adaptable network (CAN)
References
Imines
Polymers | Polyimine | [
"Chemistry",
"Materials_science"
] | 673 | [
"Polymers",
"Polymer chemistry"
] |
74,663,059 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spherics | Spherics (sometimes spelled sphaerics or sphaerica) is a term used in the history of mathematics for historical works on spherical geometry, exemplified by the Spherics ( ), a treatise by the Hellenistic mathematician Theodosius (2nd or early 1st century BC), and another treatise of the same title by Menelaus of Alexandria ().
References
Spherical geometry
Classical geometry
Spherical astronomy | Spherics | [
"Mathematics"
] | 83 | [
"Geometry",
"Geometry stubs"
] |
74,663,368 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interstellar%3A%20The%20Search%20for%20Extraterrestrial%20Life%20and%20Our%20Future%20in%20the%20Stars | Interstellar: The Search for Extraterrestrial Life and Our Future in the Stars (also known as Interstellar) is a popular science book written by American theoretical physicist and Harvard University astronomer Avi Loeb that was published by Mariner Books on 29 August 2023.
On 24 August 2023, The New York Times published an article about Loeb and his related search for signs of extraterrestrial life, as well as his related publications, including Extraterrestrial (2021) and Interstellar (2023).
Contents
Author Avi Loeb, according to Sarah Scoles of Undark Magazine, claims that a "search for physical evidence of alien technology within our solar system represents not just an interesting scientific pursuit but also one that will elevate our species, perhaps by connecting it to more advanced cosmic civilizations." According to Loeb, it's "arrogant of us to think that we are alone, that we don't have a neighbor out there. ... There are tens of billions of planets in the Milky Way galaxy alone and hundreds of billions of galaxies like the Milky Way in the observable volume of the universe, ... Perhaps noticing a neighbor will be a wake-up call that will bring us together, ... There might be many more neighbors that are far more accomplished than we are, and we can learn from them. So my hope is that it will bring humanity to a better place in the long term future."
Reviews
Book reviewer Leonard David notes that Interstellar is a "mind-meld of philosophy, physics, and cutting-edge science ... [and] blueprints a radical approach to our search for ET – and how best to brace for the reality of what's ahead". Sarah Scoles of Undark Magazine states that, "Loeb makes solid points about how modern science works, and could work better." but also writes that "the book is a fairly disorganized, rambling affair whose topics and metaphors leap wildly to and fro." A Daily Kos book reviewer writes that Interstellar "provides a realistic and practical blueprint for how a [human and alien life] interaction might actually occur, resetting our cultural understanding and expectation of what it means to identify an extraterrestrial object. ... [the author] also lays out the profound implications of becoming—or not becoming—interstellar; in an urgent, eloquent appeal for more proactive engagement with the world beyond ours, powerfully contends why we must seek out other life forms, and in the process, choose who and what we are within the universe." According to book reviewer Patrick Rapa of The Philadelphia Inquirer, "I think Loeb's brand of data-based speculation is useful. And fun. Why not imagine the possibilities? Nobody knows what Oumuamua, [an interstellar object], was. What's the harm in dreaming?"
References
External links
Official Academic Book WebSite
Official Publishrers WebSite
Official Harvard WebSite
Official Author WebSite
American non-fiction books
Astronomy books
Popular science books
2023 non-fiction books | Interstellar: The Search for Extraterrestrial Life and Our Future in the Stars | [
"Astronomy"
] | 641 | [
"Astronomy books",
"Works about astronomy"
] |
74,663,570 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kling%E2%80%93Gupta%20efficiency | The Kling–Gupta efficiency (KGE) is a goodness-of-fit indicator widely used in the hydrologic sciences for comparing simulations to observations. It was created by hydrologic scientists Harald Kling and Hoshin Vijai Gupta. Its creators intended for it to improve upon widely used metrics such as the coefficient of determination and the Nash–Sutcliffe model efficiency coefficient.
where:
is the Pearson correlation coefficient,
is a term representing the variability of prediction errors,
is a bias term.
The terms and are defined as follows:
where:
is the mean of the simulated time series (e.g.: flows predicted by the model)
is the mean of the observed time series
and
where:
is the variance of the simulated time series, so is estimated by the standard deviation of simulated data.
is the variance of the observed time series
A modified version, KGE', was proposed by Kling et al. in 2012.
References
Hydrology models | Kling–Gupta efficiency | [
"Biology",
"Environmental_science"
] | 195 | [
"Hydrology",
"Biological models",
"Hydrology stubs",
"Hydrology models",
"Environmental modelling"
] |
74,665,113 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20countries%20by%20electronics%20exports | The following is a list of countries by exports of electronics, including parts thereof (Harmonized System code 85). Data is for 2022, in billions of United States dollars, as reported by International Trade Centre. Currently, the top 30 countries are listed.
Top electronics exporters
30 largest exports of electrical machinery and equipment and parts thereof:
Top exporters of different electronics products
The five largest exporters of different electronics goods in 2022:
References
Electronics
Electronics industry | List of countries by electronics exports | [
"Technology"
] | 94 | [
"Information and communications technology",
"Electronics industry"
] |
74,666,357 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space%20Analog%20for%20the%20Moon%20and%20Mars | The Space Analog for the Moon & Mars (SAM) is a hermetically sealed and pressurized terrestrial analog site. This hi-fidelity research vessel is located at the University of Arizona Biosphere 2 research campus at the base of Santa Catalina Mountains near Oracle, Arizona, USA. Following two and a half years in construction led by Director of Research and principal designer Kai Staats, in April 2023 SAM joined the list of over a dozen active analog stations that enable human analog missions, field tests to “validate architecture concepts, demonstrate technologies” and “test robotics, vehicles, habitats, communication systems, in situ resource utilization (ISRU) and human performance as it relates to human space exploration”. Supported by an international team of specialists with the University of Arizona, NASA, the National Geographic Society, and commercial partners, the core foci of SAM are scientific research objectives related to human space exploration, long-duration other-world habitation, and sustainability of Earth systems and human quality of life. In 2025, SAM will participate in The World's Biggest Analog (WBA), “an international collaboration of researchers, scientists, educators and entrepreneurs working to unite the world’s analogs through a unique and historical mission”.
Background
Kai Staats, Director of Research for SAM at the University of Arizona Biosphere 2, developed the concept of SAM around the 1987 prototype for Biosphere 2, i.e. the Test Module. Design and fund raising was initiated in March 2019 with primary construction conducted from January 2021 through April 2023. Staats and his team of volunteers, staff, and consultants renovated the Test Module and then extended that pressure vessel to include an engineering bay, crew quarters with sleeping accommodations, common area, kitchen, and bath; and fully functional airlock. SAM’s first crewed missions were in April and May 2023.
Habitat and field environment
Designed to accommodate crews of one to four members, and mission durations from six days to several weeks, SAM’s habitat consists of a functional airlock, crew quarters, engineering bay, greenhouse with hydroponics and small grow beds, and a variable volume pressure regulation chamber ( “lung”) to maintain a constant pressure. SAM is equipped with environmental control and life-support systems (ECLSS) aided by real-time air quality monitoring using SIMOC Live. (SIMOC is a scalable, interactive model of an off-world community, hosted by the National Geographic Society and founded on published data derived from life-support and closed ecosystem research at NASA and universities world-wide.) Hydroponics food cultivars provide partial off-set for mechanical carbon dioxide scrubbers. Fully functional pressurized suits provide for realistic extravehicular activities (EVAs) in a half acre indoor/outdoor Mars yard.
Crewed missions
With the success of the first two 6-day missions, Inclusion I (April 26 – May 2, 2023) and Inclusion II (May 9–15, 2023), SAM proved to be operational with sustained air quality monitoring and pressure regulation, water reuse, and food recycling systems. Highlights of these missions included inclusivity of one blind member in each crew investigating accessibility; installation of 3D printer; CO2 studies; feasibility of vegetarian meals from dehydrated foods; hydroponics and mushroom growth and harvest; and EVAs using pressurized space suits. Linda Leigh (Biosphere 2 member in the first sealed mission 1991-93), Phil Hawes (chief architect for the Biosphere 2), and Bernd Zabel (construction manager for the Biosphere 2 and member of the second sealed mission in 1994) were present for ingress and egress of these first missions.
Research
Current ongoing research being conducted at SAM at Biosphere 2 includes ecosystem modeling for biological life-support systems using SIMOC, the design of a solar-powered swing-bed carbon dioxide scrubber, total water recycling, food cultivar studies, haptics and tool use, and pressure regulation systems. SAM also investigates closed ecological systems (CES) and the transition from physical-chemical to fully-integrated bioregenerative life support systems (BLSS) which will be important to preparing humans for long-duration, other-world habitation.
References
Controlled ecological life support systems
Artificial ecosystems
Buildings and structures in Pinal County, Arizona
Ecological experiments
2023 establishments in Arizona | Space Analog for the Moon and Mars | [
"Biology"
] | 893 | [
"Artificial ecosystems",
"Ecosystems"
] |
74,668,064 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacob%20Hanna | Jacob H. Hanna (Arabic: Yaqub or Yaoub; born 26 August 1979) is a Palestinian Arab-Israeli biologist who is working as a professor in the Department of Molecular Genetics at the Weizmann Institute of Science in Rehovot, Israel. An expert in embryonic stem cell research, he is most recognized for developing the first bona fide synthetic embryo models (also known as "complete embryo models") from stem cells in the petri dish in mice and humans.
To achieve this, he first developed a technique for extended culturing mouse embryos outside the uterus (ex utero) in 2021 capturing development from before gastrulation until late organogenesis outside the uterus, subsequently applying his technique for making the first synthetic complete embryo models of mice in 2022, and then of human in 2023 that can be made solely from embryonic pluripotent stem cells and outside the womb.
Hanna pioneered the extended static and dynamic post-implantation ex utero embryo growth platform that was critical for enabling the synthetic complete embryo model establishment, and also pioneered developing the technology to generate alternative naive-like and naive pluripotent states in humans, that correspond to more early stages in development and retain an enhanced potential to make essential extra-embryonic tissue (placenta and yolk-sac), which proved essential for generating the first complete synthetic embryo models by his team and solely from such naive pluripotent cells.
Education
Hanna has a PhD in microbiology and immunology and an MD in clinical medicine from the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. To train in stem cell research, he worked from 2007 to 2011 as a Helen Hay Whitney - Novartis postdoctoral fellow and a Genzyme postdoctoral fellow at the Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research at MIT, Cambridge, Massachusetts, under Rudolf Jaenisch. In 2011, Hanna joined the Weizmann Institute of Science as an assistant professor in 2011, and has been there ever since. In 2018, Hanna received academic tenure and promotion at the Department of Molecular Genetics in the Weizmann Institute, and in 2023 became a Full Professor of Stem Cell Biology and Synthetic Embryology.
Hanna was listed in 2014 among top 40 under 40 leading international scientists by Cell journal and elected to the European Molecular Biology Organization in 2018. In 2021, he was announced as the top thinker of the year 2021 by Prospect magazine for his works on embryology. His extended ex utero embryo culture was selected among Science Magazine Breakthrough of the year 2021, and his mouse complete synthetic embryo models were selected by Nature magazine among seven technologies to watch in 2023. Human complete synthetic embryo model generated by Hanna was selected by the Time as invention breakthrough of the year 2023, and the generation of synthetic embryo models of development through using stem cells was selected as the method of the year 2023 by Nature Methods.
Early life
Hanna was born in Rameh, an Arab village in the Galilee region of Israel to a Christian Palestinian family. His father was a pediatrician and his mother was a high-school biology teacher. His grandfather was also a doctor in this village. He studied medical science at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, obtaining a B.Sc. degree summa cum laude in 2001, and then continued to do an M.D.-Ph.D. degree at the same institute. He indicated in his interviews that his decision to undertake a career in research was heavily influenced and inspired by the success of his uncle, Nabil Hanna, who invented the first FDA-approved antibody therapy in humans (Rituxan, a blockbuster anti-CD20 mAb drug for treatment of non-Hodgkin lymphoma) while serving as chief scientific office of IDEC Pharmaceuticals. His Ph.D. research was supervised by and was on the roles of natural killer cells. In 2007, the Hebrew University awarded him both Ph.D. in microbiology and immunology and M.D. in clinical medicine summa cum laude. Hanna's three sisters also study medicine in the Hebrew University.
Hanna decided not to go into practicing medicine but focus only on developing his research career in Academia. In 2007, he received the Helen Hay Whitney Foundation, and later a Genzyme-Whitehead Fellowship for outstanding postdoctoral fellows in 2009, by which he worked at the Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research in Cambridge, Massachusetts. His research there till early 2011 under Rudolf Jaenisch helped him specialize in pluripotent stem cell research and induced pluripotent stem cell reprogramming.
Research and discoveries
Induced pluripotent stem cell reprogramming
During his postdoctoral research at the Whitehead Institute, Hanna focused on studying embryonic stem cells (ESCs) and epigenetic reprogramming of somatic cells into ESC-like cells, called induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs). He developed transgenic mouse models to address problems in stem cell research. In 2007, he provided the first evidence that iPSCs could be used for a blood genetic disease, sickle cell anemia, by combined gene and cell therapy approach in mice. His supervisor, Jaenisch was awarded the Masri Prize and the Wolf Prize in 2011 for this research innovation, as the award citation read: "For demonstration that iPS cells can be used to cure genetic disease in a mammal, thus establishing their therapeutic potential".
Hanna made scientific contributions to understanding the iPSC phenomenon in its early days. He developed a novel inducible "reprogrammable mouse" transgenic models with drug controlled over expression of the Yamanaka reprogramming factors. This technique allowed him to create reprogrammed B lymphocytes carrying endogenous genetic rearrangements of the B-cell receptor (BCR) into iPSCs, thus providing definitive proof for the feasibility of reprogramming terminally differentiated cells to iPSCs that carried the original genetic rearrangement mark of the BCR.
Epigenetic reprogramming and naive pluripotency
Initially, his independent group identified a number of key epigenetic regulators influencing iPSC derivation efficiency such as the role of H3K27 demethylase Utx in iPS formation, and first demonstrated the deterministic reprogramming efficiencies (up to 100% within 8 days) via optimized depletion of Gatad2a/Mbd3 core member-axis of the NuRD co-repressor complex. The latter work set the stage for others to show alternative methods to obtain deterministic reprogramming. For example, Thomas Graf group showed that transient activation of C/EBPα, previously highlighted by Hanna and Jaenisch as a booster for B cell reprogramming, can yield up to 100% deterministic iPSC reprogramming from B cells within 8 days. Hanna also identified SUMOylation of linker H1 histone as a major determinant for transition between totipotency and naïve pluripotency states.
From 2013, Hanna worked as the Robertson Stem Cell Investigator of The New York Stem Cell Foundation. His first major achievement under the NYSCF research was the demonstration that human naïve-like ES/iPS cell state tin NHSM naive-like conditions that he discovered (and later also in HENSM naive conditions), has additional unique functional properties compared to conventional primed iPS cells, which is the creation of sperm and egg stem cells from human skin cell derived naive-like iPSCs, which has not been possible thus far with conventional human iPSCs. The experiment, done in collaboration with Azim Surani's team at the University of Cambridge, was published in the journal Cell in 2015. David Cyranoski reported in Nature as "A feat achieved for the first time in humans".
In 2014, Hanna criticized Jaenisch, his former postdoctoral mentor at the Whitehead Institute - MIT, accusing his team of publishing unreliable "false" negative experimental results on inability to generate any cross-species mouse-human chimerism in a paper published by Jaenisch on the pluripotency of human embryonic stem cells in the journal Cell Stem Cell. Surprisingly, in 2016, Jaenisch and his team reported positive results on the same topic in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS) and reporting the ability to create chimeric embryo from a mixture of mouse and human cells. In light of the latter, Hanna again raised the same critical comments in PubMed, suggesting retraction of a section of the previous 2014 Jaenisch paper in Cell Stem Cell that reported negative results, in contrast to the newly reported 2016 PNAS positive results by the same team led by Jaenisch. Jaenisch published a correction in the same journal. Later findings independently reported by Jun Wu group and others supported mouse-human cross-species chimerism with human pluripotent cells as originally reported by Hanna in 2013 and expanded further by his group in 2021. Human PSCs expanded in Hanna lab naive-like RSeT media were also independently shown to contribute to dopamine neurons in postnatal mouse-human cross species chimeras, thus solidifying the earlier claims by Hanna and refuting those published by Jaenisch in 2014.
The Hanna team has also tackled pathways that resolve naive pluripotency programs and delineated a critical function for m6A RNA methylation in stem cell transitions in peri-implantation mouse development. Their study published in Science in 2015 provided the first evidence for the absolute essentiality of m6A mRNA epigenetic layer for mammalian embryo viability in vivo and uncovered opposing tolerance of epigenetic repressor depletion in naive and primed cells from the same species, that Hanna later used to optimize naive conditions in humans since only naive cells can tolerate genetic ablation or RNA and DNA methylation (deposited and maintained by METTL3 and DNMT1 enzymes, respectively). Hanna used the latter property to screen for conditions that allow survival of human pluripotent cells without these enzymes and termed the conditions human enhanced naive stem cell media (HENSM).
Hanna's lab also focused on deciphering the principles regulating naive pluripotency in different species and in 2013 his team was the first to derive human genetically unmodified MEK/ERK independent naïve-like pluripotent cells (termed NHSM conditions that were commercialized as RSeT by Stemcell Technologies). Hanna next developed engineered systems to screen for enhanced NHSM conditions that maintain human pluripotent ES cells that can tolerate removal of RNA or DNA methylation enzymes (by ablating METTL3 or DNMT1 genes, respectively), and identified enhanced NHSM conditions (termed HENSM), that can yield ESCs/iPSCs with more compelling characteristics of human pre-implantation blastocyst-morula stages.
From Naive Stem cells to synthetic complete embryo models developed ex utero - in mouse and human
Hanna is most recognized for developing a method, combining static and revamped "roller culture" conditions, for extended culturing of advanced mouse embryos outside the uterus (ex utero) in 2021 (from pre-gastrulation to late organogenesis for the first time), subsequently allowing him to make the first synthetic complete and bona fide mouse embryo models derived only from naïve pluripotent stem cells in 2022. In September 2023, Nature accepted Hanna's, previously preprinted article on bioRxiv on 14 June 2023, on the generation of complete and structured day-14 synthetic human embryos derived from human naïve ES/iPS cells grown in his HENSM conditions. Hanna's complete human stem cell-derived embryo model (SEM) can generate extra-embryonic trophoblast stem cells, mesoderm cells and primitive endoderm cells without genetic modification, transgene or transcription factor over-expression, and has structural and morphological uncanny similarity to day 14 human embryo inside the womb. Conventional human (and mouse) primed ESCs/iPSCs fail to achieve this feat, highlighting the essentiality of capturing alternative naive pluripotent states in humans to be able to derive up to day 14 human SEMs.
Prof Alfonso Martinez Arias, from the department of experimental and health sciences at Pompeu Fabra University, said it was "a most important piece of research". "The work has, for the first time, achieved a faithful construction of the complete structure [of a human embryo] from stem cells" in the lab, "thus opening the door for studies of the events that lead to the formation of the human body plan," Martinez-Arias said. It was reported by Philip Ball that Dr. Bailey Weatherbee from the University of Cambridge who tried to generate human embryo models "is impressed by the embryo-like structures reported by Hanna's team, and agrees that their own don't have these structures." Prof Robin Lovell Badge, who researches embryo development at the Francis Crick Institute, told the BBC that Hanna's human embryo models "do look pretty good" and "do look pretty normal". He also said "I think it's good, I thinks it's done very well, it's all making sense and I'm pretty impressed with it".
Synthetic stem-cell-derived embryo model research related ethical discussions
In 2022, when Hanna published the first bona fide mouse synthetic embryo, he reported to the MIT Technology Review that he was already using the same method to make human embryo models (which indeed he was the first to report in 2023). The funder company, NFX, stated that the aim is "renewing humanity—making all of us young and healthy." When Hanna announced the creation of the first human synthetic embryo models in a preprinted manuscript on bioRxiv and shortly after in Nature, it was received as a "breakthrough" and "groundbreaking advance" in science. But Hanna's scientific feat raised further the discussions surrounding ethical and legal controversies. The International Society for Stem Cell Research (ISSCR) has instituted guidelines for maintaining human embryos that are followed in most countries. However, the guidelines or any other legislations do not cover synthetic embryo models, as the embryo models are made from ordinary cells. Hanna commented on Stat: "You don't ban nuclear physics because somebody can make a nuclear bomb."
Rivron, Martinez Arias and others, writing on the ethical issues in Cell in 2023, expressed a possible need to open discussions about revising the definition of an embryo since certain embryo models can theoretically become functional embryos and produce babies. Robin Lovell-Badge, at the Francis Crick Institute and member of the ISSCR guidelines preparation, also agreed that both natural and synthetic human embryo models should be regulated equally, saying, "These models do challenge the need to stick to the 14-day rule", referring the ISSCR's relaxation in 2021 the limit of growing human embryos up to 14 days. The scientific and ethical complexity were remarked by J. Benjamin Hurlbut, bioethicist at the Arizona State University: "The big question is how the boundary between a tissue culture and a human organism is going to be drawn and on what criteria." Pompeu Fabra University Professor Alfonso Martinez Arias, Ph.D., whose own lab is working on building human embryo models, noted that such conversations and debates are nothing new and should be welcomed. The International Society for Stem Cell Research publicly announced support for the research and highlighted to the public that such complete embryo models are only models of embryogenesis and should not be considered as embryos. British science writer, Philip Ball, alleviated concern related to this line of research by emphasizing that "None [of the embryo models] has the potential to grow into a human being, nor is there any reason why scientists would want them to." Upon publication of Hanna's ground breaking paper on human complete stem cell-derived embryo models (termed SEMs) in Nature in 2023 Philip Ball tweeted "This is work at the absolute forefront of this extraordinary and exciting field".
Awards and honors
Named on the 2024 STATUS List by STAT news, a prestigious list with most influential individuals in healthcare, medicine, & life sciences
Human complete synthetic embryo model generated by Hanna was selected by the Time as invention breakthrough of the year 2023 ,
The generation of synthetic embryo models was selected as the method of the year 2023 by Nature Methods journal on behalf of Nature publishing group.
Mouse and human complete synthetic embryo models were selected by Nature magazine among seven technologies to watch in 2023.
The IVI Foundation Award for Basic Research in Reproductive Medicine (2023)
Manuscript describing mouse synthetic stem cell-derived embryo models among the 10 selected "Best of Cell 2022” publications by Cell journal editors (2023)
The 2022 paper on stem cell-derived (synthetic) embryogenesis listed among top scientific breakthroughs of the year 2022 by The Atlantic magazine and The Week Magazine (2023)
A Paul Harris Fellow by the Rotary International Foundation in recognition for scientific achievements (2022)
Selected as top thinker for the year 2021 by Prospect magazine, UK for his work on stem cells and synthetic embryology (2021)
Paper on ex utero embryogenesis listed among top scientific breakthroughs of the year by Science journal (2021)
Robert Edwards honorary lecture and lifetime achievement award by the COGI meeting in Berlin (2021)
Research on ex utero embryogenesis was covered in a dedicated Nature Outlook article (2021)
Elected a member of the European Molecular Biology Organization (EMBO) (2018)
Research Professorship Award by the Israel Cancer Research Fund (ICRF) (2017)
The Segal Family Award for Excellence in Stem Cell Biology, University of Michigan, USA (2016)
The Kimmel Prize for outstanding scientist at the Weizmann Institute of Science (2015)
Selected among "40 under 40" most innovative young scientists by Cell journal (2014)
Elected member of the Israeli Young Academy of Science (2014)
Robertson Innovator Award in Stem Cell Research by the New York Stem Cell Foundation (NYSCF) (2013)
Krill Prize for outstanding early career scientists by the Wolf Foundation (2013)
The Rappaport Prize for a Young Researcher in Biomedicine by the Bruce and Ruth Rappaport Foundation (2013)
Elected member of the European Molecular Biology Organization Young Investigator Program (EMBO-YIP) (2012)
Inaugural Award for Excellence in Biomedical Research by the Palestinian Society for Biomedical Research (2011)
Alon Foundation Scholar for distinguished junior faculty in Israeli academia (2011)
The Clore Prize for an outstanding new scientist at the Weizmann Institute of Science (2011)
TR35 Young Innovator Award for international innovators under the age of 35 by MIT Technology Review magazine (2010)
Genzyme Postdoctoral Prize and Fellowship for Outstanding Postdoc at the Whitehead Institute (2010)
Novartis Postdoctoral Fellowship by the Helen Hay Whitney Foundation – Novartis Fellow (2007)
Hebrew University Medical School Excellence Award for graduating M.D.-Ph.D. students, Hebrew University of Jerusalem (2007)
Max Schlomiuk Award for Ph.D. students graduating with distinction (summa cum laude), Hebrew University of Jerusalem (2007)
Gertrude Kohn Award for outstanding scientific work in human genetics, Hebrew University of Jerusalem (2005)
Foulkes Foundation Award and Scholarship for M.D.- Ph.D. students (2004)
Wolf Foundation Award and Fellowship for Outstanding Ph.D. students (2003)
References
1979 births
Academic staff of Weizmann Institute of Science
Arab citizens of Israel
Stem cell researchers
Hebrew University of Jerusalem alumni
People from Rameh
Living people | Jacob Hanna | [
"Biology"
] | 4,035 | [
"Stem cell researchers",
"Stem cell research"
] |
74,668,094 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20capsaicinoids | This is a list of capsaicinoids, a class of compound found in members of the capsicum family. They are the chemical responsible for making chili peppers hot. The heat intensity of capsaicinoids is measured in Scoville heat units (SCU) by the Scoville heat scale.
List of capsaicinoids
Footnotes
References
Capsaicinoids | List of capsaicinoids | [
"Chemistry"
] | 77 | [
"Lists of chemical compounds"
] |
74,668,264 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul%20W.%20Sherman | Paul W. Sherman (born July 6, 1949) is a professor Emeritus at Cornell University in animal behaviour best known for his work on the social behavior of rodents (ground squirrels and naked mole rats), eusociality, and evolutionary medicine.
Biography
Sherman received his B.A. from Stanford in 1971, an M.S. in zoology from University of Michigan in 1974 and in 1976, his Ph.D. He was a Miller Postdoctoral Fellow at Berkeley from 1976 to 78, and taught there from 1978 to 1981. He joined Cornell faculty in 1981. In 1984 he was awarded a Guggenheim Fellowship in 1984, and in 1985 he received tenure. He was awarded full professorship at Cornell in 1991. He was an Elected Fellow of the Animal Behavior Society, and served as a Sigma Xi Distinguished National Lecturer. During his career he published or edited 7 books and 195 papers and book chapters, and sponsored or co-sponsored 23 doctoral students and 7 postdoctoral students. In 2005 he was awarded the Stephen H. Weiss Presidential Fellowship for “effective, inspiring, and distinguished teaching of undergraduate students.” In 1977 he published evidence that alarm calls by female Belding's ground squirrels function to warn descendant and collateral kin of approaching terrestrial predators (coyotes, badgers, and weasels). In 1996 he published work demonstrating how kin selection in the eusocial naked mole rats affects food allocation. In 1999 he showed that spices have anti-microbial properties and proposed that the spices used in traditional meat-based cuisines world-wide originally (before refrigeration) served to stave off food-borne pathogens and preserve the food; as a result, people who cooked with spices and liked their tastes were best protected, especially in hot climates. In 2000 he published support for the hypothesis that morning sickness is an adaptation that protects pregnant mothers and their developing fetuses from foodborne illnesses, some of which can cause miscarriage or birth defects, such as listeriosis and toxoplasmosis. In 2008 he published work supporting the hypothesis that allergies function as cancer protection mechanisms. In 2010 he published evidence that bdelloid rotfiers, which present a major evolutionary puzzle because they alone have reproduced asexually for millions of years, can escape parasites and pathogens not via genetic recombination (like other organisms) but rather by completely drying up (anhydrobiosis) and dispersing on the wind.
Bibliography
Books
Papers
References
Ethologists
21st-century American biologists
Cornell University faculty
Year of birth missing (living people)
Living people | Paul W. Sherman | [
"Biology"
] | 521 | [
"Ethology",
"Behavior",
"Ethologists"
] |
74,671,424 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learned%20sparse%20retrieval | Learned sparse retrieval or sparse neural search is an approach to Information Retrieval which uses a sparse vector representation of queries and documents. It borrows techniques both from lexical bag-of-words and vector embedding algorithms, and is claimed to perform better than either alone. The best-known sparse neural search systems are SPLADE and its successor SPLADE v2. Others include DeepCT, uniCOIL, EPIC, DeepImpact, TILDE and TILDEv2, Sparta, SPLADE-max, and DistilSPLADE-max.
There are also extensions of sparse retrieval approaches to the vision-language domain, where these methods are applied to multimodal data, such as combining text with images. This expansion enables the retrieval of relevant content across different modalities, such as finding images based on text queries or vice versa.
Some implementations of SPLADE have similar latency to Okapi BM25 lexical search while giving as good results as state-of-the-art neural rankers on in-domain data.
The Official SPLADE model weights and training code is released under a Creative Commons NonCommercial license. But there are other independent implementations of SPLADE++ (a variant of SPLADE models) that are released under permissive licenses.
SPRINT is a toolkit for evaluating neural sparse retrieval systems.
External links
SPLADE code base at github
Notes
Information retrieval techniques | Learned sparse retrieval | [
"Technology"
] | 298 | [
"Computing stubs",
"Computer science",
"Computer science stubs"
] |
74,671,923 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaunis%20Koti | Kaunis Koti () was the first interior design magazine in Finland which existed between 1948 and 1971.
History and profile
Kaunis Koti was established in 1948 as the first professional Finnish magazine on interior design. Its first issue featured homes of Rut Bryk and Tapio Wirkkala. Later issues also published articles on homes of leading figures, including that of architect Jorma Järvi. The magazine came out 4 to 8 times a year. It adopted a rational modernist approach towards home decoration.
Eila Jokela was among the editors-in-chief of the magazine. Cover pages of Kaunis Koti mostly featured scenes from everyday life, nature and people. The magazine published informative advertisements, and the first commercials for home pools appeared in the magazine in 1966. It folded in 1971 when it merged with another interior design magazine Avotakka.
References
1948 establishments in Finland
1971 disestablishments in Finland
Defunct magazines published in Finland
Design magazines
Finnish-language magazines
Magazines established in 1948
Magazines disestablished in 1971 | Kaunis Koti | [
"Engineering"
] | 211 | [
"Design magazines",
"Design"
] |
74,673,774 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20immune%20cells | This is a list of immune cells, also known as white blood cells, white cells, leukocytes, or leucocytes. They are cells involved in protecting the body against both infectious disease and foreign invaders.
References
Immune system
Immune
Immunology
Human cells | List of immune cells | [
"Biology"
] | 54 | [
"Organ systems",
"Immunology",
"Immune system"
] |
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