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65,333,038 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hexa%28tert-butoxy%29ditungsten%28III%29 | Hexa(tert-butoxy)ditungsten(III) is a coordination complex of tungsten(III). It is one of the homoleptic alkoxides of tungsten. A red, air-sensitive solid, the complex has attracted academic attention as the precursor to many organotungsten derivatives. It an example of a charge-neutral complex featuring a W≡W bond, arising from the coupling of a pair of d3 metal centers.
Synthesis
Hexa(tert-butoxy)ditungsten(III) was first discovered by M. H. Chisholm and M. Extine in 1975. They synthesized hexa(tert-butoxy)ditungsten(III) by reacting tungsten(III) dialkylamides with t-BuOH in organic solvents. They also found that W2(O-t-Bu)6 reacts with carbon dioxide in toluene to form green W2(O-t-Bu)4(O2CO-t-Bu)2 under room temperature. In CO2, these compounds can be separated from cooled toluene purely. Without the presence of CO2, W2(O-t-Bu)4(O2CO-t-Bu)2 is regenerated into W2(O-t-Bu)6 reversibly.
W2(O-t-Bu)6 can also be synthesized by using NaW2Cl7(THF)5 as reactant in THF with addition of NaO-t-Bu under ambient temperature for 18 hours. After the reaction, the solvent is removed, and it becomes a red slurry. Further cooling (-35oC) and decantation or vacuum filtration separate red crystalline W2(O-t-Bu)6. The salt metathesis reaction from the THF complex of ditungsten heptachloride is as follows:
NaW2Cl7(THF)5 + 6 NaO-t-Bu → W2(O-t-Bu)6 + 7 NaCl + 5 THF
Characteristics
These needle-like red crystals are highly unstable under oxygen and water and can be dissolved in most organic solvents such as diethyl ether and pentane. They are found in dimers with two tungsten(III) bond with each other to form triple bonds. These two W(III) form pseudotetrahedral center and adopt a staggered, ethane-like conformation, similar to its dimolybdenum analogue. The structure of the compound was investigated by Chisholm and his team using single crystal X-ray diffraction. The investigation was performed in a C-centered monoclinic crystal. In C2/c space group, there is one half inversion center molecule and one whole molecule in general position. There are several orientations for each position which leads to the length of WW ranging from 1.74 to 2.53 Å. The orientation of t-butyl groups in each W are one direct away from WW (distal) and two over WW (proximal). This arrangement had been calculated as the best to minimize the steric repulsing effect.
This compound can be decomposed into WO2, t-BuOH, and isobutylene, with trace amount of water under 200oC. This compound can react easily with alkynes or nitriles to generate RC≡W(O-t-Bu)3 or both RC≡W(O-t-Bu)3 and N≡W(O-t-Bu)3. With excess amount of nitrile, only N≡W(O-t-Bu)3 are formed along with RC≡CR. RC≡W(O-t-Bu)3 is important catalyst for alkyne metathesis while N≡W(O-t-Bu)3 is a catalyst for nitrogen exchange of nitriles. The C≡W bond in RC≡W(O-t-Bu)3 was concluded to behave as polarized C(-)≡W(+). Thus, the metathesis catalytic reaction starts with tungsten as electrophilic attacker to attack acetylene and followed by alkylidyne carbon as nucleophilic attacker to attack acetylenic carbon atom.
Reactivity
Carbon monoxide adds to W2(O-t-Bu)6 to form W2(O-t-Bu)6(CO). The carbonyl group is a bridging ligand. This compound can further react with i-PrOH to generate W4(μ-CO)2(O-i-Pr)12.
Alkynes
C≡C bonds are cleaved by hexa(tert-butoxy)ditungsten(III) giving a pair of tungsten alkylidyne complexes: Although the reaction applies to many alkynes, PhC≡CPh or Me3SiC≡CSiMe3 do not react.
(R = Me, Et, Si(CH3)3)
This reaction includes an alkyne adduct on the μ-perpendicular site to increase both the length of WW bonds and CC (alkyne) bonds. This intermediate can be analogue as a dimetallatetrahedranes and further react into RC≡W(O-t-Bu)3 with internal redox reaction. The resulting RC≡W(O-t-Bu)3 is a catalyst for metathesis reactions. RC≡W(O-t-Bu)3 can react with normal alkynes for metathesis reactions and also with terminal alkynes for both metathesis reactions and polymerizations.
Besides simple metathesis reactions, W2(O-t-Bu)6 also reacts with 3-hexyne in a 1:1 molar ratio to form a triangular tritungsten complex compound [W3(O-t-Bu)5(μ-O)(μ-CEt)O]2. This reaction takes about 3 days under 75-80 oC in toluene. This reaction has a two steps mechanism; first is the C≡C and W≡W metathesis reaction and follow by formal addition of carbyne (W≡C) to alkoxide (W2):
W2(O-t-Bu)6 + RC≡CR → 2[RC≡W(O-t-Bu)3]
W2(O-t-Bu)6 + RC≡W(O-t-Bu)3 → W3(O-t-Bu)5(μ-O)(μ-CEt)O → [W3(O-t-Bu)5(μ-O)(μ-CEt)O]2
W2(O-t-Bu)6 also reacts with EtC≡CC≡CEt to form (t-Bu-O)3W≡CC≡W(O-t-Bu)3:
W2(O-t-Bu)6 + EtC≡CC≡CEt → (t-Bu-O)3W≡CC≡W(O-t-Bu)3 + EtC≡CEt
This compound, however, does not act as a metathesis catalyst.
Nitriles
Similar to the reaction with alkynes, W2(O-t-Bu)6 cleaves nitriles to give the alkyldyne and nitride:
W2(O-t-Bu)6 + RC≡N → RC≡W(O-t-Bu)3 + N≡W(O-t-Bu)3
Although W2(O-t-Bu)6 reacts with nitriles, it doesn’t react with nitrogen (N≡N).
When C≡C and C≡N bond both exist, W2(O-t-Bu)6 reacts more rapidly with C≡N than C≡C bond. Here’s an example of W2(O-t-Bu)6 reacting with EtC≡CCN in the presence of quinuclidine:
W2(O-t-Bu)6 + EtC≡CCN + 12quin → EtC≡CC≡W(O-t-Bu)3(quin) + N≡W(O-t-Bu)3
On the other hand, the metathesis catalyst MeC≡W(O-t-Bu)3 reacts more rapidly with C≡C than C≡N bond. Similar reaction with EtC≡CCN and quinuclidine produce different product:
MeC≡W(O-t-Bu)3 + EtC≡CCN + 12quin → NCC≡W(O-t-Bu)3(quin) + EtC≡CMe
Other reactions
W2(O-t-Bu)6 cleaves nitrosobenzene to give [W(O-t-Bu)2(NPh)]2(μ-O)(μ-O-t-Bu)2.
Allenes
W2(O-t-Bu)6 can also react with allene (H2C=C=CH2) for adduction. In a ratio of 1:1, allene adduct on W2 to form a v-shape bridge structure:
W2(O-t-Bu)6 + H2C=C=CH2 → W2(O-t-Bu)6(C3H4)
This compound is synthesized under 0oC in hexane and crystallized under -72oC. It decomposes easily in solution at 0oC and in crystalline state at ~25oC but very stable at ~20oC. The bridging allene is parallel to the W2 bond. In a ratio of 1:2, the additional allene will bind to single metal center as typical bonding:
W2(O-t-Bu)6(C3H4) + 2H2C=C=CH2 → W2(O-t-Bu)6(C3H4)2
The product of 1:1 adduction can further react with carbon monoxide to form a similar structure to 1:2 adduction but adducted with carbon monoxide instead of allene:
W2(O-t-Bu)6(C3H4) + 2CO → W2(O-t-Bu)6(C3H4)(CO)2
Reaction using methylallene (MeHC=C=CH2) instead of allene is also feasible forming similar structures.
References
Alkoxides
Tungsten(III) compounds | Hexa(tert-butoxy)ditungsten(III) | [
"Chemistry"
] | 2,220 | [
"Bases (chemistry)",
"Alkoxides",
"Functional groups"
] |
65,333,123 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Africa%20Food%20Prize | The Africa Food Prize, originally the Yara Prize, is an annual award for contributions to African agriculture.
Yara Prize
Yara International, a Norwegian chemical company and a large producer of fertilizer, established the Yara Prize for a Green Revolution in Africa in 2005. According to the company, "The Yara Prize aims at celebrating significant achievements related to food and nutrition security and sustainable agriculture with a transformative power."
The first recipient was Meles Zenawi, prime minister of Ethiopia. The choice of recipient received criticism in Norway from human rights organisations and exiled Ethiopians, due to his political history. About 1 000 people demonstrated against the award being given to him. Human Rights Watch stated that
Africa Food Prize
In 2016, the Yara Prize became the Africa Food Prize, a $100,000 annual award. As of 2021, the Africa Food Price Committee is chaired by Olusegun Obasanjo, former president of Nigeria.
The first Africa Food Price winner was Kayano F. Nwanze, president of the International Fund for Agricultural Development. Obasanjo stated that "Dr. Nwanze's accomplishments on behalf of African farmers are a reminder of what's possible when you combine passion, good ideas, commitment, focus, hard work and dedication."
References
External links
Norsk bistand bidrar til drap og tortur i Etiopia, 2016 opinion piece in Dagbladet, with photo of 2005 demonstration
African awards
Agriculture awards | Africa Food Prize | [
"Technology"
] | 302 | [
"Science and technology awards",
"Agriculture awards"
] |
65,333,896 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victimization%20of%20bisexual%20women | Bisexual can most clearly be described as an individual who feels romantic and/or sexual attraction towards more than one gender. Victimization is any damage or harm inflicted by one individual onto another. In the United States, bisexual women are more prone to various types of victimization. They tend to experience rape, stalking, and partner-perpetrated contact sexual violence at significantly higher rates than heterosexual women. Bisexual women of color reported these forms of violence at much higher rates than white bisexual women, lesbians of all races, and heterosexual women in general.
Bisexual women, as a whole, face increased rates of sexual abuse, physical abuse, and emotional abuse in their childhood compared to heterosexual identifying women. Bisexual women of color encounter these forms of victimization at an even higher volume than white bisexuals, lesbians, and heterosexuals. The bisexual community reports a higher rate of physical health problems along with mental health struggles and substance abuse.
This article is not intentioned to claim that bisexual women are the most victimized out of the LGBTQ+ community. It aims to research the levels and types of victimization and touch on statistics regarding the treatment of bisexual women.
Demographics and outcomes
Bisexual people in general
In the United States, an estimated 1.8% of the general population identifies as bisexual, with even higher rates among younger generations (4.9%). The term bisexual describes various attractions, sexual, and relational behaviors directed towards individuals of more than one gender. Individuals who identify as bisexual may also use other additional terms to describe their sexual orientation such as, pansexual or queer. More specialized terms, such as omnisexual, polysexual, ambisexual, heteroflexible, or homoflexible may also be used to describe one's sexual orientation.
Stressors and stereotypes within the broader LGBTQ+ community
Statistically, bisexuals report more negative mental health outcomes when compared to straight, lesbian, and gay individuals. These outcomes include anxiety, depression, life stressors, an unsupportive family, higher reports of childhood trauma, less societal support, and more significant financial stress. The differing issues between bisexual and heterosexual individuals can be attributed to minority stress. Minority stress can be defined as the stress burden that sexual minority individuals experience due to heterosexism. All sexual minorities are at an increased risk for victimization; however, bisexual individuals are at an even higher risk due to bisexual-specific stressors. These stressors include anti-bisexual attitudes within the broader Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender, Queer (LGBTQ+) community.
Anti-bisexual stereotypes within the LGBTQ+ community contribute to more significant identity confusion and negative associations towards bisexual individuals. Bisexuality is commonly associated with stigmatizing stereotypes. These stereotypes include increased promiscuity, untrustworthiness, and the belief that bisexuality is a fake or unstable identity. These stereotypes enforce negative attitudes towards bisexual individuals within the LGBTQ+ community and broader society, ultimately increasing the likelihood of bisexual victimization. Decreased connection to the LGBTQ+ community contributes to the adverse mental health outcomes in this population, which is due to the protective effect that community connection is known to have against minority stress for sexual minority individuals. Another bisexual specific stressor is monosexism, which can be defined as the belief that individuals can only be attracted to one gender. This negativity surrounding bisexuals can contribute to bi-erasure, which is when the existence of bisexuality is denied.
Bisexual women
Out of all sub-groups within the LGBTQ+ community, bisexual women make up the largest demographic of sexual minority individuals in the United States. Overall, 5.5% of women identify as bisexual, with this number reaching 9.8% in female high school students.
Mental health issues and substance abuse
Bisexual adults, when compared to heterosexual adults, face a much higher rate of depression. They struggle with suicidal ideation, suicidal tendencies, and self-injurious behavior at much higher rates than heterosexuals, gay men, and lesbians. Bisexuals report having thoughts of suicide at three times the rate of heterosexuals. Bisexual individuals are at a higher risk of facing substance abuse, drinking and smoking at higher rates than heterosexuals. Bisexual women, in particular, use drugs, abuse alcohol, drink heavily, and face problems involving alcohol at a higher rate than lesbians and heterosexual women.
The increased rates of victimizing circumstances seen among bisexuals as a whole can be heavily viewed among bisexual women. In particular, 58.7% of bisexual-identified women report mood disorders, with 57.8% reporting anxiety disorders. As teenagers, bisexual women are found to have higher rates of emotional stress than heterosexual women. They are two times as likely to develop an eating disorder than lesbian-identifying women. When compared to heterosexual women, closeted bisexual women struggle with suicidal ideation at higher rates. Among the different forms of victimization bisexuals face, sexual victimization is most often linked to poor mental health. This poor mental health can be viewed in the development of PTSD symptomatology and increased suicidality. Higher rates of victimization in combination with the daily load of minority stress (i.e., daily experiences of discrimination) contributes to higher rates of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) among bisexual individuals.
Physical health statistics
Bisexual individuals, as a whole, are more frequently diagnosed with asthma and high cholesterol than heterosexuals. Bisexual women are more often diagnosed as obese, are more likely to have heart disease, and are diagnosed with cancer more often than heterosexual women. They are less likely to have frequent gynecological appointments, meaning that they are less often screened for breast cancer or tested for Human Papilloma Virus (HPV).
Bisexual women report health physical health issues after being physically abused, stalked, or sexually abused. They report frequent headaches, chronic pain, insomnia, hearing problems, and struggle with memory, concentration, and decision making.
Levels of victimization
Physical violence
Several types of victimization are higher among bisexual individuals than gay and lesbian individuals, including threats, physical assault, and physical assault involving a weapon. Similarly, bisexual women experience higher victimization rates within interpersonal relationships, termed interpersonal trauma (IPT), compared to straight and lesbian women. 2.7 million bisexual women reported facing physical abuse from a partner at least once in their lifetime, with 2.3 million experiencing extreme physical abuse. Out of these reports, 53.9% were pushed, slapped, or shoved, and 47.7% reported severe physical abuse. Bisexual women of color face this violence at a much higher rate than white bisexuals. 79.1% Hispanic, 69.4% non-Hispanic Black, and 68.3% non-Hispanic White bisexual women reported contact sexual violence, physical violence, and/or stalking in their lifetimes. Bisexual women reported the youngest age range in which they first experienced this violence, with that age being younger than 18 years old.
Sexual violence
Bisexual individuals experience higher sexual violence rates, including rape and childhood sexual abuse. Bisexual women also experience higher rates of rape (45.2%), contact sexual violence (79.3%), sexual coercion (47.2%), unwanted sexual contact (72.0%), and public sexual harassment (58.1%) compared to both lesbian and heterosexual-identified women. 2 in 4 bisexual women report being raped in their lives. Bisexual women of color report being raped at high percentages. This includes 47.8% of Hispanic women and 51.4% of a combination of unspecified races that reported being raped. In addition to experiencing a higher frequency of sexual violence, bisexual women tend to report more extreme sexual violence forms than lesbian-identified women.
Childhood sexual violence
Bisexual women, in particular, experience childhood sexual abuse at rates 5.3 times higher than heterosexual women. Further, the age of onset for childhood sexual abuse is younger among bisexual women compared to bisexual men. 2.8 million bisexual women experienced their first case of sexual abuse before they were 18 years old, 1.2 million reporting their first attack at age 10 or younger.
Emotional and psychological violence
Bisexual women face higher rates of coercive control (i.e., threats, withholding funds, and isolation) from an intimate partner (69.7%) when compared to lesbians (60.6%) and heterosexuals (45.1%). 44% of bisexual women faced expressive aggression, defined as insults and humiliation, while 36.3% lesbians and 28.8% of heterosexuals did. Bisexual women reported higher rates of stalking than lesbians or heterosexuals. 54.2% of bisexual women reported being stalked at some point in their lives, with 35.0% of lesbian women and 30.2% heterosexual women reporting the same. Overall, the majority of bisexual women reported having majority male stalkers (80%), with few reporting both male and female perpetrators (13.5%).
Crime statistics
According to the Federal Bureau of Investigation's 2019 hate crime statistics report, of the 8,812 single-bias incidents reported,1,429 were targeted based on their sexual orientation. Among the 1,429 targeted, 1.9% incidents were specifically anti-bisexual. 61.8% were reported to be anti-gay and 10% were anti-lesbian, while only 1.3% were anti-heterosexual. A hate crime, which is one of many forms of victimization, intentionally singles out a victim based on real or perceived identities.
See also
Sapphobia
References
Abuse
Biphobia
Harassment and bullying
Hate crime
Misogyny
Bisexual
Female bisexuality
Victimology
Sexual violence against LGBTQ people | Victimization of bisexual women | [
"Biology"
] | 1,978 | [
"Behavior",
"Abuse",
"Harassment and bullying",
"Aggression",
"Human behavior"
] |
65,333,929 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Three-wave%20equation | In nonlinear systems, the three-wave equations, sometimes called the three-wave resonant interaction equations or triad resonances, describe small-amplitude waves in a variety of non-linear media, including electrical circuits and non-linear optics. They are a set of completely integrable nonlinear partial differential equations. Because they provide the simplest, most direct example of a resonant interaction, have broad applicability in the sciences, and are completely integrable, they have been intensively studied since the 1970s.
Informal introduction
The three-wave equation arises by consideration of some of the simplest imaginable non-linear systems. Linear differential systems have the generic form
for some differential operator D. The simplest non-linear extension of this is to write
How can one solve this? Several approaches are available. In a few exceptional cases, there might be known exact solutions to equations of this form. In general, these are found in some ad hoc fashion after applying some ansatz. A second approach is to assume that and use perturbation theory to find "corrections" to the linearized theory. A third approach is to apply techniques from scattering matrix (S-matrix) theory.
In the S-matrix approach, one considers particles or plane waves coming in from infinity, interacting, and then moving out to infinity. Counting from zero, the zero-particle case corresponds to the vacuum, consisting entirely of the background. The one-particle case is a wave that comes in from the distant past and then disappears into thin air; this can happen when the background is absorbing, deadening or dissipative. Alternately, a wave appears out of thin air and moves away. This occurs when the background is unstable and generates waves: one says that the system "radiates". The two-particle case consists of a particle coming in, and then going out. This is appropriate when the background is non-uniform: for example, an acoustic plane wave comes in, scatters from an enemy submarine, and then moves out to infinity; by careful analysis of the outgoing wave, characteristics of the spatial inhomogeneity can be deduced. There are two more possibilities: pair creation and pair annihilation. In this case, a pair of waves is created "out of thin air" (by interacting with some background), or disappear into thin air.
Next on this count is the three-particle interaction. It is unique, in that it does not require any interacting background or vacuum, nor is it "boring" in the sense of a non-interacting plane-wave in a homogeneous background. Writing for these three waves moving from/to infinity, this simplest quadratic interaction takes the form of
and cyclic permutations thereof. This generic form can be called the three-wave equation; a specific form is presented below. A key point is that all quadratic resonant interactions can be written in this form (given appropriate assumptions). For time-varying systems where can be interpreted as energy, one may write
for a time-dependent version.
Review
Formally, the three-wave equation is
where cyclic, is the group velocity for the wave having as the wave-vector and angular frequency, and the gradient, taken in flat Euclidean space in n dimensions. The are the interaction coefficients; by rescaling the wave, they can be taken . By cyclic permutation, there are four classes of solutions. Writing one has . The are all equivalent under permutation. In 1+1 dimensions, there are three distinct solutions: the solutions, termed explosive; the cases, termed stimulated backscatter, and the case, termed soliton exchange. These correspond to very distinct physical processes. One interesting solution is termed the simulton, it consists of three comoving solitons, moving at a velocity v that differs from any of the three group velocities . This solution has a possible relationship to the "three sisters" observed in rogue waves, even though deep water does not have a three-wave resonant interaction.
The lecture notes by Harvey Segur provide an introduction.
The equations have a Lax pair, and are thus completely integrable. The Lax pair is a 3x3 matrix pair, to which the inverse scattering method can be applied, using techniques by Fokas. The class of spatially uniform solutions are known, these are given by Weierstrass elliptic ℘-function. The resonant interaction relations are in this case called the Manley–Rowe relations; the invariants that they describe are easily related to the modular invariants and
That these appear is perhaps not entirely surprising, as there is a simple intuitive argument. Subtracting one wave-vector from the other two, one is left with two vectors that generate a period lattice. All possible relative positions of two vectors are given by Klein's j-invariant, thus one should expect solutions to be characterized by this.
A variety of exact solutions for various boundary conditions are known. A "nearly general solution" to the full non-linear PDE for the three-wave equation has recently been given. It is expressed in terms of five functions that can be freely chosen, and a Laurent series for the sixth parameter.
Applications
Some selected applications of the three-wave equations include:
In non-linear optics, tunable lasers covering a broad frequency spectrum can be created by parametric three-wave mixing in quadratic () nonlinear crystals.
Surface acoustic waves and in electronic parametric amplifiers.
Deep water waves do not in themselves have a three-wave interaction; however, this is evaded in multiple scenarios:
Deep-water capillary waves are described by the three-wave equation.
Acoustic waves couple to deep-water waves in a three-wave interaction,
Vorticity waves couple in a triad.
A uniform current (necessarily spatially inhomogenous by depth) has triad interactions.
These cases are all naturally described by the three-wave equation.
In plasma physics, the three-wave equation describes coupling in plasmas.
References
Nonlinear optics
Nonlinear systems
Differential equations | Three-wave equation | [
"Mathematics"
] | 1,234 | [
"Mathematical objects",
"Differential equations",
"Equations",
"Nonlinear systems",
"Dynamical systems"
] |
75,274,295 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SCQ1 | (S)-SCQ1 is a drug which acts as a potent and selective antagonist for the 5-HT2B and 5-HT2C serotonin receptors, but with only modest affinity for the closely related 5-HT2A receptor and other targets such as 5-HT7. Since most currently available 5-HT2 class ligands have relatively poor selectivity and bind to all three subtypes, the selectivity of (S)-SCQ1 is expected to be useful for studying 5-HT2A receptor mediated responses in the absence of 5-HT2B and 5-HT2C activation.
See also
SB-206553
SB-242,084
Z3517967757
References
5-HT2C antagonists
Benzochromenes
Ketones
Spiro compounds
Quinuclidines | SCQ1 | [
"Chemistry"
] | 183 | [
"Organic compounds",
"Ketones",
"Functional groups",
"Spiro compounds"
] |
75,277,275 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QLever | QLever (pronounced , as in "clever") is an open-source triplestore and graph database developed by a team at the University of Freiburg led by Hannah Bast. QLever performs high-performance queries of semantic Web knowledge bases, including full-text search within text corpuses. A specialized user interface for QLever predictively autocompletes SPARQL queries.
Characteristics
A 2023 study found that, compared to other triplestores, QLever achieved fast execution of successful queries but offered limited support for complex SPARQL constructs.
Contents
The official QLever instance provides API endpoints for querying the following datasets:
Wikidata
Wikimedia Commons
Freebase
OpenStreetMap
OpenHistoricalMap
UniProt
PubChem
DBLP
OpenCitations
IMDb
Integrated Authority File
YAGO
DBpedia
Wallscope Olympics database
For OpenStreetMap and OpenHistoricalMap data, the QLever engine supports a limited subset of GeoSPARQL functions, supplemented by a precomputed subset of GeoSPARQL relationships stored as dedicated triples.
Adoption
Besides the official instance, the QLever engine also powers the official SPARQL endpoint of DBLP. QLever is one of the candidates to replace Blazegraph as the triplestore for the Wikidata Query Service.
See also
List of SPARQL implementations
References
Further reading
External links
Triplestores
Graph databases
University of Freiburg | QLever | [
"Mathematics"
] | 312 | [
"Graph databases",
"Mathematical relations",
"Graph theory"
] |
75,277,937 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retagliptin | Retagliptin is a DPP-4 inhibitor studied for the treatment of type 2 diabetes.
In 2023, it was approved in China by the National Medical Products Administration for blood glucose control for adult patients with type 2 diabetes.
References
Dipeptidyl peptidase-4 inhibitors
Trifluoromethyl compounds
Methyl esters
Fluoroarenes
Imidazopyrazines
Amines | Retagliptin | [
"Chemistry"
] | 83 | [
"Amines",
"Bases (chemistry)",
"Functional groups"
] |
75,278,006 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jaktinib | Jaktinib is a janus kinase inhibitor under development for myelofibrosis. It is a deuterated-drug analog of momelotinib.
References
Janus kinase inhibitors
Deuterated compounds
Morpholines | Jaktinib | [
"Chemistry"
] | 49 | [
"Pharmacology",
"Pharmacology stubs",
"Medicinal chemistry stubs"
] |
75,279,376 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sporisorium%20ellisii | Sporisorium ellisii is a parasitic species of fungus in the family Ustilaginaceae, a family of smut fungi, that infects various members of Andropogon, a widespread genus of perennial bunchgrasses. In plants infected by S. ellisii, the fungus often invades the reproductive structures, rendering them sterile.
List of host plants
Species of Andropogon that are hosts for S. ellisii include:
Andropogon virginicus
References
Fungi described in 1883
Ustilaginomycotina
Fungus species | Sporisorium ellisii | [
"Biology"
] | 111 | [
"Fungi",
"Fungus species"
] |
75,279,549 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antimicrobial%20photodynamic%20therapy | Antimicrobial photodynamic therapy (aPDT), also referred to as photodynamic inactivation (PDI), photodisinfection (PD), or photodynamic antimicrobial chemotherapy (PACT), is a photochemical antimicrobial method that has been studied for over a century. Supported by in vitro, in vivo and clinical studies, aPDT offers a treatment option for broad-spectrum infections, particularly in the context of rising antimicrobial resistance. Its multi-target mode of action allows aPDT to be a viable therapeutic strategy against drug-resistant microorganisms. The procedure involves the application of photosensitizing compounds, also called photoantimicrobials, which, upon activation by light, generate reactive oxygen species (ROS). These ROS lead to the oxidation of cellular components of a wide array of microbes, including pathogenic bacteria, fungi, protozoa, algae, and viruses.
Historical perspective
In the early 20th century, decades before the first chemical antibiotics were developed, Dr. Niels Finsen discovered that blue light could be used to treat skin infections. In the following years, Finsen's phototherapy was used in many European medical institutions as a topical antimicrobial. In 1903, the Nobel Prize committee awarded him for his work in Physiology/Medicine, "in recognition of his contribution to the treatment of diseases, especially lupus vulgaris, with concentrated light radiation, whereby he has opened a new avenue for medical science".
Similarly, in the beginning of the 20th century, Oscar Raab, a German medical student supervised by Professor Herman Von Tappeiner, accidentally made a scientific observation of the antimicrobial effects of light-activated dyes. While conducting experiments on the viability of motile protozoa, Raab noticed that fluorescent dyes, like some acridine and xanthene dyes, could kill stained microbes when sunlight was directed onto the stained samples. These effects were particularly pronounced during the summer, when sunlight is brightest. This chance observation highlighted the ability of certain fluorescent compounds, now termed "photosensitizers" (PS), to artificially induce light sensitivity in microorganisms and enhance the known antimicrobial effects of sunlight. Shortly thereafter, Von Tappeiner and Jodlbauer discovered that oxygen was crucial for light-mediated reactions, leading to the creation of the term "photodynamische wirkung" (photodynamic effect).
However, it wasn't until the 1970s that researchers began to systematically explore the potential of photodynamic therapy for medical applications. Since then, significant progress has been made in understanding the underlying mechanisms and optimizing the efficacy of photodynamic therapy (PDT) for treatment of cancers and age-related macular degeneration. Today, the branch of PDT focused on killing microbial cells is considered as an option to prevent and treat infectious diseases in a manner that avoids the emergence of antimicrobial drug-resistance.
Mechanism of action
The photochemical principle underlying antimicrobial photodynamic therapy involves the activation of a photosensitizer, a light-sensitive compound that can locally generate reactive products, such as radicals and reactive oxygen species (ROS), upon exposure to specific wavelengths of light. An ideal photosensitizer selectively accumulates in the target microbial cells, where it remains inactive and non-toxic until it is activated by irradiation with light of a specific wavelength. This activation promotes the photosensitizer molecules to a short-lived excited state that possesses different chemical reactivity relative to its ground-state counterpart. When the photosensitizer molecule is in an excited triplet state, it can induce local Type 1 photodynamic reactions by direct contact with molecular oxygen, inorganic ions or biological targets. These redox reactions (Type 1) involve charge transfers, by donation of electron (e–) or Hydrogen ion (H+), to form radicals and ROS, such as anion radical superoxide, hydrogen peroxide and hydroxyl radicals. The excited triplet-state photosensitizer can also transfer energy to molecular triplet-state oxygen producing singlet oxygen via Type 2 photodynamic reactions. The photoinduced burst of active reactants affect cellular redox regulations and can cause oxidative damage to vital structures made of proteins, lipids, carbohydrates and nucleic acids, leading to localized cellular death.
Efficacy against drug-resistant pathogens
The efficacy of antimicrobial photodynamic therapy, using various distinct photosensitizers, has been studied since the 1990s. Most studies have yielded positive outcomes, often achieving disinfection levels, as defined by infection control guidelines, exceeding 5 log10 (99.999%) of microbial inactivation. Over the past decade, a collection of novel photoantimicrobials has been developed, exhibiting improved efficiencies in antimicrobial photodynamic action against various bacterial species. These studies have primarily focused on the inactivation of planktonic cultures, which are free-floating bacterial cells. This method serves as a convenient approach for high-throughput antimicrobial screening of multiple compounds, such as evaluating whether minor chemical modifications to a given photosensitizer can enhance antimicrobial efficacy. However, when present in biofilms, microbial populations can exhibit distinct characteristics compared to their planktonic counterparts, including significantly higher tolerance towards antimicrobials (up to 1,000-fold). Among the various factors contributing to this enhanced tolerance is the biofilm matrix composed extracellular polymeric substance (EPS). The EPS can shield constituent bacteria from antimicrobials through dual mechanisms: 1) by impeding the penetration of antimicrobial substances throughout the biofilm due to interactions between positively charged agents and negatively charged EPS residues, and also by 2) redox processes and π-π interactions involving aromatic surfaces generally acting to dismute the incoming active substance. EPS must be considered in the rational design of antimicrobial photosensitizers, because the densely cross linked matrix may also obstruct diffusion of photosensitizer into deeper biofilm layers.
The multi-target mechanisms of aPDT avoid antimicrobial resistance, which continues to be a major global health concern. The likelihood of developing resistance in pathogens is higher for antimicrobial strategies that have a specific target structure, following the key-lock principle, embodied in many antibiotics or antiseptics. In such cases, pathogens can evade the antimicrobial challenge through specific mutations, upregulation of efflux pumps, or production of enzymes that deactivate antimicrobials. In contrast, aPDT acts through a variety of non-specific oxidative mechanisms targeting multiple structures and pathways simultaneously, making the technique far less prone to resistance. The possibility of bacteria developing tolerance to aPDT has therefore been deemed highly unlikely. Several studies have demonstrated the efficacy of aPDT against various drug-resistant pathogens, including the World Health Organization (WHO) priority pathogens, such as Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Acinetobacter baumannii, Enterococcus faecium, Candida auris, Escherichia coli and many others.
Light sources
Light is required to excite the photosensitizer, which leads to the photochemical production of ROS. To efficiently transfer photon energy to the electron structure of the photosensitizer, the wavelength of the light source must be matched to the absorption spectrum of the photosensitizer. Different light sources have been used in aPDT, such as lamps (e.g. tungsten filament, Xenon arc and fluorescent lamps), lasers and light emitting diodes (LEDs). Lamps typically emit white light, but a filter can be used to select the appropriate wavelength to be absorbed by the photosensitizer and to avoid undesired thermal effects. In contrast, lasers are monochromatic light sources that can be easily coupled to optical fibers to access non-surface regions. LEDs are also monochromatic light sources, although their spectral emission bands are wider than those of lasers. However, the coupling of LEDs and optical fibers is not efficient, resulting in significant loss of light. More recently, organic LEDs (OLEDs) have been used in aPDT as wearable light sources because they can be made to be more flexible, thinner, and lighter than conventional LEDs. Sunlight can also serve as a source of light for aPDT; however, exact illumination parameters may be difficult to precisely reproduce.
Light dosimetry
aPDT results depend on the interplay of three physical quantities: irradiance, radiant exposure and exposure time. Irradiance is defined as the optical power of the light source in Watts, divided by the area of tissue illumination conventionally described in square meters or centimeters (W/m2 or W/cm2). The irradiance, as a photodynamic parameter, is limited by the onset of adverse thermal factors in exposed tissue, or by degradative consequences to the sensitizer itself (commonly referred to as "photobleaching"). Radiant exposure is given by the product of irradiance and exposure time in seconds, divided by the illuminated area (J/cm2), and is commonly termed the light dose. This parameter is often limited by acceptable treatment times because lengthy treatment times can be unacceptable in a point-of-care setting. Fluence is a different physical quantity often used by aPDT practitioners, which considers the backscattering flux of light-tissue interaction causing re-entry of photons back into the treated area.
Photosensitizers
Photodynamic action relies on absorption of electromagnetic radiation by the photosensitizing compound and conversion of this energy into redox chemical reactions or transfer to ground-state oxygen, producing the highly oxidizing species, singlet oxygen. Consequently, the photosensitizer can be considered a photocatalyst, but it is also true that the sensitizer directly interacts with target moieties such as microbes to establish, for example, molecular targeting. This explains why not all photosensitizers are useful as photoantimicrobials.
The most effective photosensitizer molecules carry a positive charge (cationic). This promotes electrostatic attraction with negatively charged groups found on microbial cell surfaces (e.g. phosphate, carboxylate, sulfate), thus ensuring that during illumination, production of reactive oxygen species occurs in close contact with the targeted cellular population. Consequently, negatively charged photosensitizers are less effective, particularly against gram-negative bacterial cells that carry a strongly negative zeta potential.
The most widely employed photosensitizer in clinical practice is the phenothiazine derivative, methylene blue, which carries a +1 charge. Methylene blue is also favored due to its long record of safe use in patients, both in surgical staining and the systemic treatment of methemoglobinemia. Many other photosensitizers have been suggested, from various chemical classes, such as porphyrins, phthalocyanines and xanthenes, but the requirement for cationic nature and proven safety for human/animal use represents a high barrier to new chemical entity development.
aPDT Enhancement by inorganic salts and gold nanoparticles
It was discovered in 2015 that the addition of inorganic salts can potentiate aPDT by several orders of magnitude, and may even allow oxygen-independent photoinactivation to take place. Potassium iodide (KI) is the most relevant example. Other inorganic salts such as potassium thiocyanate (KSCN), potassium selenocyanate (KSeCN), potassium bromide (KBr), sodium nitrite (NaNO2) and even sodium azide (NaN3, toxic) have also been shown to increase the killing of a broad range of pathogens by up to one million times.
The addition of KI at concentrations up to 100 mM allows gram-negative bacteria to be killed by photosensitizers, which have no effect on their own, and this was shown to be effective in several animal models of localized infections. KI was shown to be effective in human AIDS patients with oral candidiasis who were treated with methylene blue aPDT. Oral consumption of saturated KI solution (4-6 g KI/day) is a standard treatment for some deep fungal infections of the skin.
The photochemical mechanisms of action are complex. KI can react with singlet oxygen to form free molecular iodine plus hydrogen peroxide, which show synergistic and long-lived antimicrobial effects, as well as forming short-lived, reactive iodine radicals. Type 1 photosensitizers can carry out direct electron transfer to form iodine radicals, even in the absence of oxygen. KSCN reacts with singlet oxygen to form sulfur trioxide radicals, while KSeCN forms semi-stable selenocyanogen. KBr reacts with TiO2 photocatalysis to form hypobromite, while NaNO2 reacts with singlet oxygen to form unstable peroxynitrate. NaN3 quenches singlet oxygen so it can only react by electron transfer to form azide radicals. Relatively high concentrations of salts are necessary to trap the short-lived reactive species produced during aPDT.
The presence of gold nanoparticles is able to enhance the antimicrobial effectiveness of photosensitizers such as toludine blue. Covalently linking nanoparticles to a photosensitizer also results in enhanced antimicrobial activity. The gold nanoparticles have two roles: firstly they enhance the light capture of the dye and secondly they help direct the decay pathway for the dye, encouraging a non-radiative process through the formation of excess bactericidal radical species.
Incorporation of photosensitizers into polymers
Photosensitizers can be incorporated into polymers resulting in materials that can kill microbes on their surfaces when activated by visible light. Such polymers have been shown to be effective in killing bacteria in a clinical environment. These self-disinfecting materials could, therefore, be used to coat surfaces in order to reduce the spread of disease-causing microbes in clinical environments as well as in food-processing and food-handling premises.
Advances in medicine and surgery have led to increasing reliance on a variety of medical devices of which the catheter is the most widely used. Unfortunately, the non-shedding surfaces of catheters can be colonized by microbes resulting in biofilm formation and, consequently, lead to an infection. Such catheter-related infections are a major cause of morbidity and mortality. Photosensitizers such as methylene blue and toluidine blue have been incorporated into silicone, the main polymer used in the manufacture of catheters, and the resulting composites have been shown to exert an antimicrobial effect when exposed to light of a suitable wavelength. Suitable irradiation of such materials has been shown to be able to significantly reduce biofilm accumulation on their surfaces. This approach has potential for reducing the morbidity and mortality associated with catheter-associated infections.
Microbial resistance to aPDT
The generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in neutrophils, macrophages, and eosinophils is one of the primary means by which the human immune system combats infecting microbes. Highly adaptable microbes have evolved some level of protection strategies against these reactive molecules by upregulating antioxidant enzymes when exposed to ROS, suggesting one method by which microbes could develop increased resistance to aPDT. However, these biochemical responses are limited when compared to the magnitude of oxidative stress placed on the microbe by aPDT. Numerous investigations involving the repeated exposure of microorganisms to sublethal doses of antimicrobial photodynamic therapy (aPDT) and the subsequent analysis of the resilience of the cultured cells that survive, consistently reveal no significant indication of the development of resistance in these microorganisms. In fact, a study using methylene blue as a photosensitizer (PS) against MRSA, a series of aPDT exposure followed by re-cultivation tests conducted over multiple years showed that the microorganism's sensitivity to aPDT remained unchanged. In contrast, significant resistance to oxacillin emerged in fewer than twelve cycles.
Virulence inhibition by aPDT
Pathogenic microbes cause harm to their hosts and evade host defense mechanisms through a range of virulence factors, which include elements like exotoxins, endotoxins, capsules, adhesins, invasins, and proteases. While antibiotics can inactivate microbes and thereby prevent further production of host-damaging virulence factors, few have any effect on pre-existing virulence factors or those which are released during the bactericidal process. These factors can continue to produce damaging effects even after the offending microbial cells have been inactivated.
Unlike most antimicrobial drugs, antimicrobial photodynamic therapy (aPDT) is typically capable of neutralizing or diminishing the effectiveness of microbial virulence factors, or it can reduce their expression. The ability to inhibit microbial virulence is of particular interest because it could be related to accelerated infection site healing when compared to standard antimicrobial chemotherapy that only relies on bacteriostatic or bactericidal effects. Secreted virulence factors normally contain peptides, and it is well known that some amino acids (e.g. histidine, cysteine, tyrosine, tryptophan and methionine) are highly vulnerable to oxidation. Photodynamic reactions have demonstrated significant effectiveness in diminishing the harmful activity of lipopolysaccharides (LPS), proteases, and various other microbial toxins. The capability to not only eliminate the microbes causing an infection but also to inhibit expression of various molecules that lead to host tissue damage offers a significant benefit over traditional antimicrobial drugs.
Nasal decolonization
Nasal decolonization is recognized as a primary preventive intervention in the development of hospital-acquired infections (HAIs), especially surgical site infections (SSIs). HAIs represent a serious public health concern worldwide, with approximately 2.5 million HAIs annually in the United States leading to high morbidity and mortality (e.g. 30,000 deaths per year directly attributable to HAIs). HAIs affect one in every 31 hospitalized patients in the USA. Staphylococcus aureus, a gram-positive bacterium, is the most common cause of nosocomial pneumonia and surgical site infections and the second-most common cause of bloodstream, cardiovascular, and eye, ear, nose, and throat infections. S. aureus is by far the leading cause of skin and soft tissue HAIs, which can lead to potentially lethal bacteremia. SSIs are among the most common healthcare-associated infections with substantial morbidity and mortality. An analysis of the 2005 Nationwide Inpatient Sample Database showed that S. aureus infections in inpatients tripled the duration of hospital stay, increasing length of stay by an average of 7.5 days for surgical site infections. The anterior nares have been classified as the most consistent site of S. aureus colonization. Asymptomatic S. aureus nasal carriage in healthy individuals has been reported at 20-55%, causing increased risk of surgical-site infection by almost 4-fold. Critically,a growing proportion of these bacterial populations exhibit antibiotic resistance.
Nasal decolonization of S. aureus to reduce the incidence of SSIs is expanding into current standard of care in both intensive care units (ICU) and presurgical settings. Various decolonization strategies have been used in hospitals in an effort to reduce transmission of bacteria and decrease overall infection rate. Decolonization effects are both directly and indirectly related via reduction of the overall bioburden when broadly administered within an acute care setting. There is the added benefit of effects that go beyond the treated patients extending to healthcare workers and other patients.
Several clinical studies performed using the current standard of care – intranasal mupirocin 2% antibiotic ointment – in surgical patients, concluded that this treatment significantly decreased the rate of hospital-acquired infections. One study found a 44% reduction in bloodstream infection rates when universal decolonization was used (e.g. intranasal mupirocin ointment and chlorhexidine body wash) in a trial involving 73,256 hospital patients. In addition, researchers have demonstrated that eradicating S. aureus from the anterior nares also utilizing intranasal mupirocin ointment reduced surgical site infection rates up to 58% in hospitalized patients who were nasal carriers. However, widespread use of mupirocin is associated with development of mupirocin-resistant strains of MRSA, with one hospital in Canada experiencing an increase from 2.7% to 65% resistant strains in three years. A targeted – as opposed to universal – decolonization approach is sometimes recommended because of increasing levels of mupirocin resistance. Currently, only universal decolonization with mupirocin has been demonstrated to be an effective control measure and therefore selective administration of mupirocin is contraindicated.
Nasal aPDT addresses the issues of antibiotic-induced resistance in multiple ways. As a site-specific therapy, it does not interfere with the overall microbiome because it is not systemically administered. Moreover, phenothiazinium photosensitizers can target negatively charged bacterial cells leaving zwitterionic host tissues unharmed. Treatment of the nose specifically targets the respiratory outlet, which is a key source of microbial colonization and dissemination through touch or normal respiration. Yet, the unspecific mechanisms of action effectively prevent development of resistance.
The first large-scale study involving aPDT for nasal decolonization, initially conducted exclusively on specific surgery types, the study demonstrated a significant 42% reduction in surgical site infections. The most significant reduction in SSI rates were in orthopedic and spinal surgeries. Currently, the use of nasal photodisinfection has been expanded to encompass a wide range of surgeries, resulting in an increased effect size with an approximate efficacy of 80%. The technique has been deployed in multiple Canadian hospitals since that time, and is undergoing clinical trials in the US for the same purpose.
Specialty-specific studies have also been carried out, especially in high-risk surgery of the spine. One large Canadian study found that the spine-surgery SSI rate decreased 5.6% (from 7.2% to 1.6%) because of nasal aPDT combined with chlorhexidine bathing, saving on average $45–55 CAD per treated patient ($4.24 million CAD annually). This study concluded that "CSD/nPDT is both efficacious and cost-effective in preventing surgical site infections". No adverse events were reported.
Skin infections
There are three main types of skin infections in humans that have been treated with aPDT: 1) Fungal infections, 2) Mycobacterial infections and 3) Cutaneous Leishmaniasis. The most clinically used photosensitizers are methylene blue and curcumin, as well as the protoporphyrin IX precursors, aminolevulinic acid (ALA) and methyl-ALA.
Fungal infections treated with aPDT have included both Dermatophytosis and Sporotrichosis. Infections with filamentous fungi such as Trichophyton spp. which express keratinase enzymes usually affect the toenails (onychomycosis), but can also affect the skin (tinea). In onychomycosis (tinea unguium), efforts are often made to increase the penetration of photosensitizers into the toenail matrix before the application of light. Cutaneous tinea infections affecting the foot, scalp or crotch have been treated with ALA-aPDT. Sporotrichosis is a zoonosis caused by the dimorphic fungus Sporothrix spp often transmitted by animal bites or scratches. It has been treated with aPDT mediated by ALA or methylene blue.
Skin infections can be caused by non-tuberculous mycobacteria, including rapidly growing species such as Mycobacterium marinum (swimmers' granuloma) and Mycobacterium avium complex. Some of these infections have been treated with aPDT using ALA in combination with conventional antibiotics.
Leishmaniasis is caused by an intracellular parasitic infection caused by single-celled protozoa of the genus Leishmania. It is transmitted by the bites of infected sand flies found in both the Old World (Southern Europe and Middle East) and the New World (Central and South America). Each year there are up to 2 million new cases and 70,000 deaths worldwide. Leishmaniasis infections can be either cutaneous, mucosal, or visceral, with the latter type being the deadliest. Cutaneous leishmaniasis has been treated with aPDT mediated by either ALA or methylene blue, because the standard treatment using systemic amphotericin B or topical pentavalent antimonial preparations have several drawbacks.
Chronic wounds
Chronic wounds are those that do not heal within months of treatment. They are classified into three main types, i.e. venous, diabetic, and pressure ulcers and are frequently sites of microbial infection that become a major deterrent to for patient recovery. aPDT offers a treatment option for chronic wounds, because of its lethal action against drug-resistant microorganisms.
Diabetic Foot ulcers (DFU) affect 10 to 25% of diabetic patients during their lives, requiring long and intensive hospitalization. The economic impact of DFU to worldwide health care systems is significant. DFU are frequently infected with a combination of fungi and bacteria including the genera Serratia, Morganella, Proteus, Haemophilus, Acinetobacter, Enterococcus, and Staphylococcus. In addition, there is an increased likelihood of contracting resistant strains of these and other microorganisms from hospital settings. DFU patients commonly respond poorly to antibiotic therapy. Consequently, amputation becomes indicated to prevent other complications, such as osteonecrosis, thrombosis and more disseminated types of bacteremia.
aPDT has been successfully used to treat the diabetic foot, reducing the incidence of amputation in DFU patients. DFU patients treated with aPDT were associated with only a 2.9% chance of amputation, compared to 100% in the control group (classical antibiotic therapy, without aPDT). Using an initial cohort study of 62 patients and subsequently of 218 patients, Tardivo and colleagues developed the Tardivo algorithm as a prognostic score to determine the risk of amputation and to predict the ideal therapeutic options for the treatment of DFU by aPDT. The score is based on three factors: Wagner's classification, signs of PAD, and location of foot ulcers. Values for the independent parameters are multiplied together and, for patients with scores below 16, treatment with aPDT is associated with approximately 85% (95% CI) chance of recovery.
Oral infections
In the early 90s, Emeritus Professor Michael Wilson from University College London (UCL), initiated scientific investigations on the potential of aPDT to combat bacteria of interest in dentistry. Since then, aPDT has been explored for various oral conditions, such as periodontal disease (gum disease), dental caries (cavities), endodontic treatment (root canal treatment), oral herpes and oral candidiasis. Research and clinical studies have shown promising results in reducing microbial load and treating infections. However, the efficacy of aPDT can vary based on factors like the type and concentration of photosensitizer used, light parameters, and the specific infection being treated.
While aPDT can be considered as an adjunctive treatment to standard of care, it is not currently intended to replace conventional therapies. This may change in the future, as drug-resistance patterns in the oral microbiome develop over time, making aPDT monotherapy increasingly necessary.
Some advantages of aPDT in oral infections include broad-spectrum action since aPDT can target a wide range of microorganisms (e.g. bacteria, fungi, and virus), including antibiotic-resistant strains, and oral biofilm is composed of wide variety of microorganisms. Another advantage is the localized treatment that can be used to target specific infected areas, minimizing damage to healthy tissues, and maintaining the normal microbiota without significant damage. To date, no significant adverse events associated with intraoral aPDT have been reported.
aPDT offers the dental practitioner an intraoral decontamination therapy that its minimally invasive nature, broad-spectrum action, rapid microbicidal effect, reduced antibiotic use, patient comfort factor, high compliance rate, treatment of resistant strains and minimization of microbial resistance selection.
Disinfection of blood-products
During the 1980s, the realization of the presence of the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) in the global supply of donated blood led to the development of both thorough hemovigilance and of methods for the safe disinfection of microbial species in donated blood and blood products.
Blood is a mixture of cells and proteins and is routinely separated into its constituent parts for use in various therapies, e.g. platelets, red cells and plasma might be used in specific replacement, and proteins (typically clotting factors) derived from the plasma fraction are provided for the treatment of hemophilia, for example. Viruses, such as HIV, might be associated with the cellular components or suspended extracellularly, thus representing a threat of recipient infection whichever of these fractions is used. However, treatments aimed at viral inactivation/destruction must preserve cell/protein function, and this represents a barrier, particularly to cellular disinfection.
In terms of the use of photosensitizers, both methylene blue and riboflavin are employed for the photodisinfection of plasma, using visible or long-wave ultraviolet illumination respectively, while riboflavin is also used for disinfection of platelets. However, neither approach is employed for red blood cell concentrates. Among related approaches, the psoralen derivative Amotosalen, activated by long-wavelength UV light, is used in Europe for disinfection of plasma and platelets. However, this represents a photochemical reaction between the psoralen nucleus and viral nucleic acids, rather than a purely photodynamic effect.
Veterinary applications
In small animal practice, aPDT has been investigated for the treatment of different dermatological diseases with positive results. Although there are limited scientific data in this field, successful applications include otitis externa caused by multidrug-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa, dermatophytosis caused by Microsporum canis, and in association with itraconazole for sporotrichosis.
aPDT can also be used as a non-antibiotic platform for the treatment of infectious diseases in food-producing animals. Indeed, overuse of antimicrobials in these animals may lead to contamination of meat and milk by antibiotic-resistant bacteria or antibiotic residues. In this regard, aPDT has proven effective in the treatment of caseous lymphadenitis and streptococcal abscesses in sheep, and is demonstrably more effective than oxytetracycline (gold standard treatment) for bovine digital dermatitis. Other applications of aPDT include the treatment of mastitis in dairy cattle and sheep, and sole ulcers and surgical wound healing in cattle.
Exotic, zoo, and wildlife medicine is challenging and stands out as another field of possibility for aPDT. In this regard, aPDT has been successfully used to treat penguins suffering from pododermatitis and snakes with infectious stomatitis caused by gram-negative bacteria. Additionally, aPDT has been deployed as an adjuvant endodontic treatment for a traumatic tusk fracture in an elephant.
Food decontamination
The ever-increasing demand for food decontamination technologies has resulted in several studies focusing on the evaluation of the antimicrobial efficacy of aPDT in food and its effect on the organoleptic properties of the food products.
aPDT has shown antimicrobial efficacy against microbes on fruits, vegetables, seafood, and meat. The efficacy of aPDT used in this way is dependent on several factors including wavelength of light, temperature, and food-related factors such as acidity, surface properties and water activity. Endogenous porphyrins that are light-absorbing compounds located within certain bacteria produce photosensitized reactions in the presence of light in the blue region of the spectrum (400-500 nm), showing better antimicrobial efficacy than other wavelengths in the visible spectrum (e.g. green and red, 500-700 nm) in the absence of an exogenous photosensitizer.
Acidity of the food being disinfected plays an important role, as gram-positive bacteria have been found to be more sensitive to aPDT in acidic conditions while gram-negative bacteria are more sensitive to aPDT at alkaline conditions. Since aPDT is a surface decontamination technology, the surface characteristics of the tested material play an important role. The irregular surfaces of products like pet food pellets can lead to a shadowing effect, where microorganisms can hide in food crevices and be shielded from the light treatment. Flat surfaces can show better efficacy of aPDT as compared to the spherical or irregular surfaces. Moreover, high water activity conditions contribute to the success of aPDT compared to low water activity conditions, due to limited penetration of light in more desiccated foods. Other factors like irradiance, treatment time (or dose), microbial strain, and distance of the product from the light source also play a major role in the microbicidal efficacy of food-based aPDT.
A recent study demonstrated that appropriate concentrations of a photosensitizer potentially useful for food-based disinfection combined with appropriate peak absorption wavelength light resulted in upwards of 99.999% (5 log10) reduction in MRSA and complete kill in Salmonella cell counts. In addition to bacteria, aPDT has shown efficacy against fungal species. Optimization of the factors influencing antimicrobial efficacy and scalability of aPDT are required for successful application in the food industry.
References
External links
Academic journals focused on photodynamic science and technology
Journal of Photochemistry and Photobiology A: Chemistry
Journal of Photochemistry and Photobiology B: Biology
Photodiagnosis and Photodynamic Therapy
Photochemistry and Photobiology
Photochemical and Photobiological Sciences
Journal of Biophotonics
Lasers in Surgery and Medicine
Lasers in Medical Science
Professional associations promoting research on photodynamic therapy
International Photodynamic Association (IPA)
European Society for Photobiology (ESP)
American Society for Photobiology (ASP)
International Society for Optics and Photonics (SPIE)
Antimicrobials
Antibiotics | Antimicrobial photodynamic therapy | [
"Biology"
] | 7,386 | [
"Antibiotics",
"Biocides",
"Antimicrobials",
"Biotechnology products"
] |
75,281,541 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anusha%20Shah | Anusha Shah is an Indian-born civil engineer. Elected the 159th President of the Institution of Civil Engineers, she became the third woman and first person of colour to hold the position, taking office in November 2023.
Early life and education
Shah grew up in Kashmir. She studied civil engineering at Jamia Millia Islamia in New Delhi, India. In 1999, after winning a Commonwealth scholarship, she studied for an MSc in water and environmental engineering at the University of Surrey in the UK.
Professional career
Shah specialised in water and environmental engineering from the late 1990s. After completing her first degree, she worked as a project engineer for New Delhi-based Development Alternatives, overseeing production of compressed earth building blocks, and sparking a career interest in sustainable development. She then joined IramConsult, a local partner of Royal HaskoningDHV, to work in Kashmir on rehabilitating a lake. After completing her masters, she was seconded by Black & Veatch to work for Clancy Docwra as a design engineer on United Utilities' Haweswater scheme in the UK's Lake District. In 2008, Shah moved to Jacobs, becoming technical director for sustainable solutions and utilities in 2010, and a director of the firm in 2018. In 2019, she moved to Arcadis, becoming senior director for resilient cities and UK climate adaptation lead. She is currently seconded to the Eiffage, Kier, Ferrovial and BAM Nuttall joint venture on High Speed 2 as senior director of environmental consents.
Institutional and board roles
Shah is a Fellow of the Institution of Civil Engineers. Prior to succeeding Keith Howells and becoming President of the Institution of Civil Engineers in November 2023, she served on the Thomas Telford board, the ICE Executive Board, ICE's Fairness, Inclusion and Respect panel, the ICE research and development panel and the ICE qualifications panel.
Shah is a non-executive director of the Met Office, UK and a Green Alliance trustee. She represents Arcadis at the London Climate Change Partnership and 50L Home Initiative of the World Business Council for Sustainable Development. She is a past chair of the Thames Estuary Partnership Board, which works towards sustainable management of the River Thames. Shah has been a chair and also a judge of the Ofwat Water Breakthrough Challenge for two consecutive terms.
Academia
In 2021, Shah was made an honorary professor by the University of Wolverhampton for knowledge transfer. In the same year, she received an honorary doctorate from the University of East London for her contributions to climate change in engineering. Shah is a visiting professor at the University of Edinburgh and is a Royal Academy of Engineering visiting professor at King's College London.
Awards
Shah won the Civil Engineering Contractors Association Fairness Inclusion and Respect Inspiring Engineers Award 2019, and was honoured in New Civil Engineer's 2019 Recognising Women in Engineering awards for her contributions to gender diversity. In 2020, she was named as one of Climate Reframe's leading BAME voices on climate change in the UK. In 2023, she was selected by the Women's Engineering Society as one the UK's Top 50 Women in Sustainability.
References
Civil engineering
Year of birth missing (living people)
Living people
People from Jammu and Kashmir
Presidents of the Institution of Civil Engineers
21st-century Indian people
Jamia Millia Islamia alumni
Alumni of the University of Surrey | Anusha Shah | [
"Engineering"
] | 681 | [
"Civil engineering",
"Civil engineers"
] |
75,282,243 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balloonfest | Balloonfest is an American 2017 documentary short film by Nathan Truesdell.
Summary
The doc explores United Way's disastrous 1986 Cleveland balloon launch via archival footage.
Credits
Director: Nathan Truesdell
Producers: Charlotte Cook & J. Gonçalves
See also
Guinness Book of World Records
Lake Erie
References
External links
Balloonfest on the filmmaker's official Vimeo channel
The entire film also on Topic's official YouTube channel
Balloonfest on IMDb
American collage films
Films set in Cleveland
Films set in 1986
Films set in the 1980s
2017 short documentary films
American short documentary films
Balloons
Films directed by Nathan Truesdell | Balloonfest | [
"Chemistry"
] | 123 | [
"Balloons",
"Fluid dynamics"
] |
75,282,554 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Remibrutinib | Remibrutinib is a small molecule drug that acts as a Bruton's tyrosine kinase (BTK) inhibitor. It is in development for the treatment of chronic spontaneous urticaria. In November 2023, Novartis announced that the compound "demonstrated clinically meaningful and statistically significant reduction in urticaria activity vs placebo" in a Phase III trial.
References
Tyrosine kinase inhibitors
Acrylamides
Aminopyrimidines
Benzamides
Fluoroarenes
Ethanolamines
Cyclopropyl compounds | Remibrutinib | [
"Chemistry"
] | 114 | [
"Pharmacology",
"Pharmacology stubs",
"Medicinal chemistry stubs"
] |
75,282,838 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deuruxolitinib | Deuruxolitinib, sold under the brand name Leqselvi, is a medication used for the treatment of alopecia areata. It is a Janus kinase inhibitor selective for JAK1 and JAK2. Although the relative effectiveness of deuruxolitinib and another Janus kinase inhibitor—baricitinib—for alopecia areata may vary depending on the population studied, both drugs are more effective than alternative treatments.
Deuruxolitinib was approved for medical use in the United States in July 2024.
Medical uses
Deuruxolitinib is indicated for the treatment of adults with severe alopecia areata.
Side effects
The FDA prescribing label for deuruxolitinib contains a boxed warning for serious infections; malignancies; cardiovascular death, myocardial infarction, and stroke; and thrombosis.
Society and culture
Legal status
Deuruxolitinib was approved for medical use in the United States in July 2024.
Names
Deuruxolitinib is the international nonproprietary name and the United States Adopted Name.
References
Further reading
External links
Janus kinase inhibitors
Pyrrolopyrimidines
Pyrazoles
Nitriles
Cyclopentanes
Deuterated compounds | Deuruxolitinib | [
"Chemistry"
] | 267 | [
"Nitriles",
"Functional groups"
] |
75,282,917 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Batoclimab | Batoclimab (also known as HBM9161 or HL161) is a fully human monoclonal antibody administered by subcutaneous injection. It works by inhibiting the neonatal fragment crystallizable receptor, which leads to a reduction in antibodies of the thyrotropin receptor. It is being developed to treat myasthenia gravis and thyroid eye disease.
References
Monoclonal antibodies | Batoclimab | [
"Chemistry"
] | 89 | [
"Pharmacology",
"Pharmacology stubs",
"Medicinal chemistry stubs"
] |
75,283,796 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basidiobolus%20haptosporus | Basidiobolus haptosporus belongs to the Kingdom Fungi and is a member of a grouping known as the "zygomycetes". This classification comprises two Phyla- the Mucoromycota and the Zoopagomycota, which are characterized by the production of sexual zygospores and suspensor cells. B. haptosporus is a filamentous fungus with distribution concentrated in Tropical and Subtropical regions. This fungus is largely associated with the gastrointestinal tract of amphibians and reptiles but has also been reported on mite bristles. B. haptosporus has caused disease in humans as well, including Gastrointestinal entomophthoromycosis and subcutaneous phycomycosis. Closely related species include Basidiobolus ranarum, B. meristosporus, B. microsporus, and B. magnus.
Taxonomy & phylogeny
The Genus Basidiobolus was first described from frog excrement by Eidam in 1886 with the species Basidiobolus ranarum. The species, Basidiobolus haptosporus, was first described by Charles Drechsler in 1947. The Basidiobolus genus is found in the Zoopagomycota Phylum under the Subphylum Entomophthoromycotina. Morphological and physiological features of Basidiobolus species vary based on environmental conditions, and as such there has been much controversy surrounding the naming and methods of interspecies differentiation within the genus. The naming conventions of the species within Basidiobolus have changed numerous times, from regarding the species Basidiobolus meristosporus and Basidiobolus haptosporus as synonyms, where Basidiobolus ranarum describes all pathogenic species of Basidiobolus, to regarding most species of Basidiobolus including B. haptosporus and B. meristosporus as synonyms for B. ranarum. Another classification of species within Basidiobolus includes results from a 1986 study that used an immunodiffusion technique to evaluate the antigenic relationship between species in Basidiobolus and Conidiobolus, which found that B. haptosporus and B. ranarum are distinct from other Basidiobolus and Conidiobolus species including B. meristosporus and are similar to one another. More recent studies have found that B. ranarum is not the only pathogen-causing species of Basidiobolus, but that B. haptosporus and B. meristosporus have been found to cause disease in humans as well, including subcutaneous and intestinal disease. A 2021 study that has further investigated the morphological and physiological characteristics of species within Basidiobolus has suggested that many of the characteristics that were once considered "defining" for species differentiation in Basidiobolus are proving to be unreliable and highly variable, suggesting that previous species delineations could require further investigation.
Morphology
Basidiobolus haptosporus can generally be identified by large, vegetative hyphae and many spherical, smooth-walled zygospores. Immature and mature zygospores can be differentiated by whether they have the ability to take up the stain Lactophenol Cotton Blue. Immature zygospores easily take up the stain, revealing smooth walls and irregular shapes, whereas mature zygospores (after 10–14 days in culture) do not take up the stain and are characterized by thick, smooth walls and are spherical and 30-45 micrometers in diameter. Cultures of B. haptosporus grown on Sabouraud dextrose agar (SDA) plates have shown a growth habit of creating grey, smooth, flat, and glabrous colonies without the presence of obvious aerial hyphae or the musty Streptomyces-like odor typically associated with other Basidiobolus species. As the B. haptosporus cultures age on the SDA plates (5–6 days post-subculturing), the colony becomes a pale yellow color with radially folded hyphae, reaching a diameter of approximately 1–2 cm. Additionally, there were numerous elliptical adhesive conidia produced at the end of conidiophores and the formation of hyphal bodies and spherical conidia (25-35 micrometers diameter) with thin walls and prominent granular cytoplasm. This tendency of entomophtoraceous fungi to form these 'hyphal bodies' was first described in Callaghan in 1888, and was described as the fungus becoming organized into "separated discrete protoplasts". Conidia were found to be much more abundantly produced from germinating zygospores than from hyphal segments.
Characteristics that were previously regarded as "defining" characteristics are being brought into question, as variation due to age or environmental conditions may change these features in the fungus. Some of these characteristics include the production of smooth zygospores, which used to be crucial for species determination between Basidiobolus haptosporus and Basidiobolus ranarum. It has been found that this feature is not always reliable due to the loss of undulation in old zygospores and young zygospores always having smooth walls The results of this 2021 study suggest that this feature, along with odor formation and the production of whitish-mycelia are highly variable, and as such cannot be relied on for species classifications.
Ecology
Basidiobolus species occur mainly within tropical and subtropical regions and have generally been associated with the gastrointestinal tract of amphibians, but are also found in reptiles, other animals and insects, soil, and plant detritus. Early reports of the genus refer to the fungus as a saprophyte in amphibians and reptiles, dating back to 1886. In addition to the frequent association with amphibians, Basidiobolus has also been found in association with gamasid mite species such as Leptogamasus obesus in Germany and it is theorized that fungal spores can persist on the bristles of these mites and other insects as a saprophyte, and have made their way into reptiles, amphibians, and potentially humans, by means of ingestion of infested mites.
Relevance for humans
Basidiobolus haptosporus has been proven to cause disease in humans, including both gastrointestinal and subcutaneous mycosis, and has even resulted in death in some cases. The first case of human infection caused by B. haptosporus was reported in Indonesia in 1956. While infections in humans and animals are rare, when it does occur, mycosis caused by B. haptosporus is more commonly seen in children. Subcutaneous mycosis tends to present as a well-defined, firm, moveable mass on extremities in subcutaneous tissue. Gastrointestinal mycosis tends to present with typical stomach and colon disease symptoms, including abdominal pain, fever, heavy sweating, and diarrhea. A disease caused by B. haptosporus that is known as Entomophtoromycosis can infect previously healthy individuals and is a chronic, inflammatory, or granulomatous infection. Management of these diseases is typically treated with common antifungal therapies including potassium iodide (KI), amphotericin B, itraconazole, and ketoconazole, and surgery. It is hypothesized that the use of "toilet leaves" is a potential source of infections in humans, as the soil and vegetation could be contaminated by the fecal matter of amphibians and reptiles.
Case reports:
A 40-year-old man in India with Entomophthoromycosis in 2009- presented with an ulcerative wound and serosanguineous discharge after surgery. B. haptosporus was recovered on culture from the surgical wound and subsequent chronic ulcer that grew.
A 2-year-old child in South Africa with Subcutaneous Phycomycosis in 1980- presented with nodules on hands and forearms, which were not painful, but continued to enlarge.
A 4-year-old child in Brazil with Gastrointestinal Entomophthoromycosis in 1979- presented with a month-long history of abdominal pain, fever, heavy sweats, and a mass in the stomach and colon. B. haptosporus was isolated from the tumoral mass.
Samples from colon biopsies from patients with Gastrointestinal Basidiobolomycosis in Saudi Arabia- the DNA sequence from these samples shows a 99.7% similarity with B. haptosporus.
References
Entomophthorales
Fungus species
Fungi described in 1947 | Basidiobolus haptosporus | [
"Biology"
] | 1,890 | [
"Fungi",
"Fungus species"
] |
75,285,165 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PKS%200637-752 | PKS 0637-752 is a quasar located six billion light years in the constellation of Mensa. It is noted for having a bright and largest astrophysical jet at redshift of z = 0.651. Discovered by Einstein Observatory in 1980 through X-rays, PKS 0637-752 was the first celestial object to be observed by Chandra X-ray Observatory upon its commissioning in July 23, 1999.
Characteristics
PKS 0637-752 contains an active galactic nucleus. It is classified a blazar, a type of an active galaxy with a relativistic jet pointing towards Earth's direction. Like other quasars, PKS 0637-752 is considered luminous, powering up 10 trillion times the sun, with a supermassive black hole in its center.
X-ray jet
PKS 0637-752 contains a high γ-ray flux X-ray jet studied by Hubble Space Telescope and Spitzer. The jet extends ≥100 kiloparsecs wide and has a luminosity of ~1044.6 ergs−1. It produces X-ray emission through inverse Compton scattering from the cosmic microwave background.
Further observations from Hubble also found three small knots occurring concurrently with the X-ray emission and peak radio. According to observations made by Australia Telescope Compact Array, these knots are shown to be quasi-periodic with a separation gap of ~1.1 arcsecs. Using two class models, astronomers calculated the jet power of PKS 0637-752 to be Q ~ 1046 erg/s and the jet engine modulation to be 2 x 103 yr < \tau < 3x 105 yr. Such evidence, proves the jet structure in the quasar might result from an unstable accretion disk, causing limit cycle behavior.
References
Quasars
Mensa (constellation)
Principal Galaxies Catalogue objects
Blazars
Astronomical objects discovered in 1980
IRAS catalogue objects | PKS 0637-752 | [
"Astronomy"
] | 402 | [
"Mensa (constellation)",
"Constellations"
] |
75,285,197 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tire%20Assault%20Vehicle | The Tire Assault Vehicle (TAV) was a small remote-controlled vehicle created from a scale model kit of the German World War II-era Tiger II heavy tank, used by NASA to test the tires for the Space Shuttle. The TAV was used to drill into the tires to damage them, something which was too risky to perform manually because of the intensity of an aircraft tire explosion.
The TAV was built from a Tamiya 1/16th scale model of the Tiger II, extensively modified into a radio-controlled, video-equipped machine to drill holes in aircraft test tires that were in imminent danger of exploding because of high air pressure, high temperatures, or cord wear. Only roughly one quarter of the original model kit parts remained in the finished TAV, with most of the vehicle made from third-party hardware and custom-made metal parts.
The TAV was used in conjunction with the Convair 990 Landing System Research Aircraft, which tested Space Shuttle tires. It was imperative to know the extreme conditions the shuttle tires could tolerate at landing without putting the shuttle and its crew at risk. In addition, the CV-990 was able to land repeatedly to test the tires.
The TAV was developed by David Carrott, a portable radio communications (PRC) employee under contract to NASA. It survived its service as a test vehicle, and as of 2017 was on display at the Air Force Flight Test Museum at Edwards Air Force Base.
, Tamiya is still advertising a version of the model kit used to build the TAV.
References
NASA
Scale modeling | Tire Assault Vehicle | [
"Physics"
] | 316 | [
"Scale modeling"
] |
75,285,409 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rica%20H%C3%BCbbe | Edith Ulrica Hübbe (10 October 1885 – 15 August 1967), invariably referred to as Rica Hübbe or Hubbe, was a South Australian medical doctor and teacher.
History
Samuel Grau "Sam" Hübbe (c. 1848 – 12 September 1900) was the first South Australian commissioned officer to be killed in the Boer War. A practising Unitarian, he was a son of Ulrich Hübbe, who was important in the development of the Torrens Title system of land registration.
Edith Agnes Cook (1859 – 2 April 1942), was in 1876 the first female student at the University of Adelaide, and second principal of the Advanced School for Girls.
They were married at the Cook home, Norwood, by John Crawford Woods on 3 January 1885.
Hübbe was born in Norwood, South Australia, the first child of surveyor and explorer Samuel Grau Hübbe and Edith Agnes Hübbe.
Her education culminated in three years at the Advanced School for Girls, where her mother was once Principal, and was a successful student, awarded the Old Scholars' Prize for high achievements in the 1903 Leaving examinations, as well as some successes on the tennis court.
Hübbe, her sister Marjorie Hübbe and, until she married, Ethel Holder, taught at her mother's school at 17 and 23 Statenborough Street, Knightsbridge (later known as Leabrook). She completed, by part-time study, several demanding degrees —
She studied for a BA, and completed her Masters with third class honours in 1908.
She studied medicine 1915–1922 at the University of Adelaide graduating M.B., B.S., then registered as a medical practitioner.
Knightsbridge School closed in 1922, and was taken over by the Misses Jones and Wells. after which Hübbe went into private practice and her sister Marjorie was married to Alfred Beech Caw by George Hale.
From 1927 to 1933 she was an instructor in Physiology and demonstrator in Biochemistry (1929 appointment) at the University of Adelaide.
Other interests
Hübbe was a member of Adelaide's Lyceum Club; she was the club's longstanding secretary, from 1928 to 1950, in which year she appears to have ceased being a member.
Family
Edith Agnes Cook (1859 – 2 April 1942) married Samuel Grau "Sam" Hübbe (c. 1848 – 12 September 1900) on 3 January 1885. A practising Unitarian, he was killed in the Boer War. Edith Hübbe conducted Knightsbridge School, later with assistance from daughters Rica and Marjorie.
Dr Edith Ulrica "Rica" Hübbe (10 October 1885 – 1967), the subject of this article. She never married.
Janet Doris Hübbe (1887–1950) married Alfred Allen Simpson (1875–1939) in 1910. They brought up their influential family at "Undelcarra", Burnside.
Sgt Max Ulrich Hübbe (28 May 1891 – ) fought with 1st AIF, then farmed at Woodenup, near Kojonup, Western Australia.
(Harriet) Marjorie Hübbe (1893–1993) taught at Knightsbridge School, then married Alfred Beech Caw ( – 1966) on 22 February 1922, farmed at Woodenup.
Capt.(Hermann) Fritz Hübbe (1895 – 28 July 1916) enlisted with 1st AIF, was killed in action, France.
References
1885 births
1967 deaths
20th-century Australian women medical doctors
20th-century Australian medical doctors
Medical doctors from Adelaide
Academic staff of the University of Adelaide
University of Adelaide alumni | Rica Hübbe | [
"Chemistry",
"Biology"
] | 705 | [
"Biochemistry",
"Biochemistry educators",
"Biochemists",
"Women biochemists"
] |
75,285,746 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Ralph | John Ralph (born October 10, 1954) is a New Zealand-born, American chemist, wood scientist, and professor at the University of Wisconsin-Madison (Department of Biochemistry). He is an elected fellow (FIAWS) of the International Academy of Wood Science and the American Association for the Advancement of Science (FAAAS).
Ralph received the Anselme Payen Award in 2013 by the American Chemical Society for his research contributions to the science and chemical technology of cellulose and mostly in lignin chemistry. In 2024, Ralph, along with Belgian biochemist Wout Boerjan, received the prestigius Marcus Wallenberg Prize for the yearlong research on lignin chemistry.
Early life and education
Ralph was born in Canterbury, New Zealand, where he grew up. He earned his BSc (Hons) degree in chemistry from the University of Canterbury in 1976. In 1982, he received his PhD by carrying out studies on lignins using NMR, at the University of Wisconsin-Madison under the supervision of Raymond A. Young of the Department of Forestry and Larry Landucci of the Forest Products Laboratory.
Research career
Following his role as a research scientist at the Forest Research Institute in Rotorua between 1974 and 1987, Ralph assumed the position of scientific head at the Research Laboratory for Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy in Chemistry at the University of California, Berkeley.
Between 1988 and 2008, Ralph was a research chemist at the USDA-ARS U.S. Dairy Forage Research Center in Madison, Wisconsin, holding joint appointments in the Departments of Forestry and Biological Systems Engineering at the University of Wisconsin.
In 2008, Ralph was appointed a professor in the Department of Biochemistry at the University of Wisconsin-Madison. Since 2015, he has held the title of distinguished professor at the Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology. Ralph currently sits on the editorial boards of several journals, including BioEnergy Research, Journal of Wood Chemistry and Technology, Holzforschung, and Journal Science of Food and Agriculture.
Recognition
Ralph received the Anselme Payen Award in 2013 from the American Chemical Society for his research contributions in lignin chemistry. In October 2023, a referenced meta-research carried out by John Ioannidis and his team at the Stanford University, included Ralph in Elsevier Data 2022, where he was ranked in the global top 2% of researchers of all time in the area of chemical biology (plant biology – organic chemistry).
His referred review work titled Lignin biosynthesis, which was published in 2003 at the journal Annual Review of Plant Biology, has received until June 2024, more than 5.700 international citations.
Ralph was recipient of the 2023 Lifetime Achievement Award from the International Symposium of Wood, Fiber, and Pulping Chemistry. He is also a distinguished professor at Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology. Up to June 2024, Ralph has received more than 69,000 international citations for his research works in Google Scholar and has an h-index of 134.
Areas of specialisation
Biosynthesis of lignin (including the delineation of pathways), structure of lignin, chemistry of lignin, reactions of lignin.
Analysis of the impacts of disturbing lignin biosynthesis, with extensions aimed at restructuring lignins for enhanced degradability to facilitate improved lignocellulosic bioprocessing.
Formulation of synthetic methods for various biosynthetic products, precursors, intermediates, molecular markers, and cell wall model compounds.
Utilization of solution-state NMR, with a focus on cell wall components, particularly lignins; development of methods; application of NMR to unfractionated cell walls.
Examination of mechanisms involved in cell wall cross-linking.
Implementation of methods for the analysis of wall structure, encompassing chemical/degradative approaches, NMR, GC-MS, etc.
Devising techniques for the production of commodity phenolic chemicals from lignin and plant cell wall aromatics.
References
External links
National Library of Medicine - Prof. Dr. John Ralph
1954 births
Living people
University of Wisconsin–Madison faculty
University of Wisconsin–Madison alumni
American chemists
People from the Canterbury Region
University of Canterbury alumni
Wood scientists
New Zealand chemists
New Zealand emigrants to the United States | John Ralph | [
"Materials_science"
] | 871 | [
"Wood sciences",
"Wood scientists"
] |
75,285,773 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DGSAT%20I | DGSAT I is a quenched, ultra diffuse galaxy (UDG) located on the outskirts of the Pisces-Perseus Supercluster, identified in 2016 during a visual inspection of a full color image of the Andromeda II dwarf galaxy. DGSAT I resides in a low-density environment compared to the densities where UDGs are typically found. Its chemical makeup have led astronomers to propose it was formed during the dawn of the universe when galaxies emerged in a different environment than today.
Discovery and identification
DGSAT I was first identified by the DGSAT project in 2016. The DGSAT (Dwarf Galaxy Survey with Amateur Telescopes) uses the potential of privately owned small-sized telescopes to probe low surface brightness (LSB) features around large galaxies and aims to increase the sample size of the dwarf satellite galaxies in the Local Volume.
At first astronomers thought DGSAT I to be an isolated dwarf galaxy beyond the Local Group due to its structural properties and absence of emission lines. A spectroscopic observation later revealed DGSAT I to be a background system and likely associated with an outer filament of the Pisces-Perseus super-cluster.
Chemical composition
The chemical composition of a galaxy provides record of the ambient conditions during its formation. The mass ratios of alpha-elements such as magnesium to iron ([Mg/Fe]) trace time-scales for star formation, as these elements are produced by stars according to different lifetimes. Younger galaxies tend to have more heavy elements in its chemical makeup compared to ancient galaxies formed during an early age of the universe.
DGSAT I's integral field spectroscopy data shows a remarkably low iron content, suggesting an early galaxy formed from a nearly pristine gas cloud, unpolluted by the supernova death of previous stars, however its magnesium levels are consistent with what astronomers expect to find in younger galaxies. This apparent chemical makeup discrepancy and DGSAT I's isolation from galaxy clusters are helping astronomers to develop new theories concerning the birth and formation of UDGs.
UDGs are hard to observe due to their extremely low luminosity but there are studies being conducted using the Keck Cosmic Web Imager in an attempt to shed light on the precise relation between DGSAT I's metallicity and its possibly exotic origin. A paper published in 2022 proposed DGSAT I to be a “failed galaxy” that formed relatively few stars in proportion to its halo mass, and could be related to cluster UDGs whose size and quiescence pre-date their infall (i.e. when molecular transition shows evidence of gas flowing into the core of the star).
See also
Dragonfly 44
NGC 1052-DF2
Low surface brightness galaxy
Galaxy morphological classification
References
External links
Dwarf Galaxy Survey with Amateur Telescopes - DGSAT project's website
Astronomy
Galaxies | DGSAT I | [
"Astronomy"
] | 582 | [
"Pisces (constellation)",
"Constellations"
] |
75,287,425 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitiperstat | Mitiperstat (AZD4831) is an irreversible inhibitor of myeloperoxidase and experimental drug in development for heart failure with preserved ejection fraction. It is being developed by AstraZeneca.
References
Enzyme inhibitors
Drugs developed by AstraZeneca
Pyrrolopyrimidines
Chloroarenes
Amines
Thioureas | Mitiperstat | [
"Chemistry"
] | 80 | [
"Pharmacology",
"Functional groups",
"Medicinal chemistry stubs",
"Amines",
"Pharmacology stubs",
"Bases (chemistry)"
] |
75,288,841 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruzinurad | Ruzinurad (SHR4640) is a selective urate transporter 1 (URAT1) inhibitor in development for hyperuricaemia and gout. It is developed by Jiangsu Hengrui.
References
Quinolines
Carboxylic acids
Antigout agents
Cyclobutanes
Thioethers
Bromoarenes
Drugs developed by Jiangsu Hengrui | Ruzinurad | [
"Chemistry"
] | 79 | [
"Pharmacology",
"Carboxylic acids",
"Functional groups",
"Medicinal chemistry stubs",
"Pharmacology stubs"
] |
66,571,706 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexual%20consent%20in%20law | Sexual consent plays an important role in laws regarding rape, sexual assault and other forms of sexual violence. In a court of law, whether or not the alleged victim had freely given consent, and whether or not they were deemed to be capable of giving consent, can determine whether the alleged perpetrator is guilty of rape, sexual assault or some other form of sexual misconduct.
Although many jurisdictions do not define what sexual consent is, almost all jurisdictions in the world have determined an age of consent before which children are deemed incapable of consenting to sexual activity; engaging in sex with them thus constitutes statutory rape (see laws regarding child sexual abuse). Many also stipulate conditions under which adults are deemed incapable of consenting, such as being asleep or unconscious, intoxicated by alcohol or another drug, mentally or physically disabled, or deceived as to the nature of the act or the identity of the alleged perpetrator (rape by deception). Most disagreement is on whether rape legislation for otherwise healthy adults capable of consent should be based on them not having given consent to having sex, or based on them being forced through violence or threats to have sex. Some legislation determines that, as long as no coercion is used against them, people capable of consenting always automatically consent to sex (implied consent), whereas other laws stipulate that giving or withholding consent is something which only capable individuals can do on their own volition (freely given or affirmative consent). The 2000s and 2010s have seen a shift in favour of consent-based legislation, which was increasingly considered as providing better guarantees for the legal protection of (potential) victims of sexual violence.
Coercion-based versus consent-based laws
In legal theory, there are two main models in legislation against rape and other forms of sexual violence:
The coercion-based model "requires that the sexual act was done by coercion, violence, physical force or threat of violence or physical force in order for the act to amount to rape";
The consent-based model "requires that for the act to qualify as rape there must be a sexual act that the other one did not consent to".
The primary advantage of the coercion-based model is that it makes it difficult to make a false accusation of rape or assault, and thus provides decent protection to the legal position and social reputation of suspects who are innocent. This line of reasoning stems from a time (dating at least as far back as the 18th century) when sex was regarded as a private matter that the state and society should mostly not interfere with, and concerns about sexual violence were mostly limited to male-on-female rape, which was firstly regarded as an offence to public morality, especially the female victim's family (her father, husband or master). In the decades of the later 20th and early 21st century, the focus of sexual violence has shifted towards individual sexual autonomy, the scope has broadened beyond the act of intercourse, the set of potential victims and perpetrators has been expanded to include all genders, strangers as well as acquaintances and people close to the victims including intimate partners and even spouses, while social and legal attitudes have changed in favour of more active societal and state intervention in sexual violence and the attainment of justice. Individuals and human rights organisations increasingly criticised the coercion-based model for a variety of reasons, such as the requirement for the victim to actively resist an assault (thereby failing to address cases where victims are unconscious, intoxicated, asleep or suffer from involuntary paralysis – also known as "freezing" – due to fear or other state of helplessness, and thus unable to resist an assault) or not wear certain kinds of clothes to not 'provoke' an assault (shifting the responsibility for the crime from the perpetrator unto the victim), or the focus on physical violence (thereby failing to consider that a perpetrator sometimes needs to use little to no physical violence in order to conduct an assault, e.g. when the victim is unconscious, intoxicated, asleep or involuntarily paralysed; and also failing to address mental and psychological harm caused by rape and assault). The consent-based model has been advocated as a better alternative for enhanced legal protection of victims, and to place a larger responsibility on potential perpetrators to actively verify or falsify before initiating sex whether a potential victim actually consents to initiating sex or not, and abstaining from it as long as they do not.
In contrast, legal scholar Jed Rubenfeld argued in a 2013 review that rape laws intend to protect sexual autonomy, yet the only thing that can override somebody's autonomy is coercion, threats, or abusing a state of defenselessness. Strictly speaking, Rubenfeld (invoking Commonwealth of Pennsylvania v. Berkowitz 1994) claimed that any non-consensual situation can be resolved by standing up and leaving the premises, as he deemed rape paralysis to be nonexistent. In civil law, consent is viewed as invalid if it has been obtained by deception. Consent-based rape laws, however, generally do not require either sexual partner to be truthful before obtaining consent. If sexual consent can be obtained by lies or withholding information, the autonomy of the partner is violated.
International standards, definitions and jurisprudence
As of 2018, a consensus is emerging in international law that the consent-based model is to be preferred, stimulated by inter alia the CEDAW Committee, the UN Handbook for Legislation on Violence against Women, the International Criminal Court and the Istanbul Convention. However, there were no internationally agreed upon legal definitions of what constitutes sexual consent; such definitions were absent in human rights instruments.
International law
In international law, one of the earliest definitions of rape based on a lack of consent, accompanied by a description of consent, can be found in Prosecutor v. Kunarac (decided on 22 February 2001 at the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia or ICTY):
In light of the above considerations, the Trial Chamber understands that the actus reus of the crime of rape in international law is constituted by: the sexual penetration, however slight:
(a) of the vagina or anus of the victim by the penis of the perpetrator or any other object used by the perpetrator; or
(b) of the mouth of the victim by the penis of the perpetrator;
where such sexual penetration occurs without the consent of the victim. Consent for this purpose must be consent given voluntarily, as a result of the victim's free will, assessed in the context of the surrounding circumstances.
This description of consent was adopted almost verbatim in Istanbul Convention Article 36: "Consent must be given voluntarily as the result of the person's free will assessed in the context of the surrounding circumstances". The 2021 Model Rape Law featured the same consent description under IV.D.(c) and V.A.17.
Rule 70 of the Rules of Procedure and Evidence (published in 2002) of the International Criminal Court (which rules on military conflicts between states) gives a summary of illegitimate inferrals of consent that defendants might try to use to claim they had consent:
Rule 70: Principles of evidence in cases of sexual violence
In cases of sexual violence, the Court shall be guided by and, where appropriate, apply the following principles:
(a) Consent cannot be inferred by reason of any words or conduct of a victim where force, threat of force, coercion or taking advantage of a coercive environment undermined the victim's ability to give voluntary and genuine consent;
(b) Consent cannot be inferred by reason of any words or conduct of a victim where the victim is incapable of giving genuine consent;
(c) Consent cannot be inferred by reason of the silence of, or lack of resistance by, a victim to the alleged sexual violence;
(d) Credibility, character or predisposition to sexual availability of a victim or witness cannot be inferred by reason of the sexual nature of the prior or subsequent conduct of a victim or witness.
In June 2021, the then United Nations Special Rapporteur on Violence Against Women Dubravka Šimonović published a Model Rape Law, intended as a "harmonisation tool" for "implementing international standards on rape, as established under international human rights law, international humanitarian law and international criminal law, including as interpreted in the jurisprudence of relevant tribunals and soft law produced by expert mechanisms." It stated inter alia: "Rape is an act of sexual nature committed without consent. Definitions of rape should explicitly include lack of consent and place it at its centre, stipulating that rape is any act of sexual penetration of a sexual nature by whatever means committed against a person who has not given consent." Its section "On consent" combined the Istanbul Convention's description of consent with Rule 70's illegitimate inferrals of consent, adding that "consent need not be explicit in all cases". It proposed an international age of consent at 16, not to criminalise "consensual sexual relations between children younger than 16", and a Romeo and Juliet law around the age of consent threshold. The Model Rape Law stated that "[l]ack of consent is presumed where rape was committed by force, or by threat of force or coercion", or whenever a person was "incapable of giving genuine consent" for a wide range of reasons, including but not limited to being younger than age 16, "unconscious, asleep, or seriously intoxicated as a result of drugs or alcohol consumed voluntarily, involuntarily or unknowingly", or abused by the perpetrator's "relationship or position of power or authority over the victim".
African Union
The Protocol to the African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights on the Rights of Women in Africa (Maputo Protocol) was adopted by the African Union (AU) in 2003 (in effect since 2005), which stipulates that "States Parties shall take appropriate and effective measures to enact and enforce laws to prohibit all forms of violence against women including unwanted or forced sex whether the violence takes place in private or public." Thus, 'unwanted sex', separately from 'forced sex', was recognised as a form of violence against women that is to be effectively prohibited by all 55 member states.
ASEAN
ASEAN (Association of Southeast Asian Nations), comprising 10 Asian states, adopted the Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women and Elimination of Violence against Children in ASEAN on 9 October 2013. In its ASEAN Regional Plan of Action on the Elimination of Violence against Women (ASEAN RPA on EVAW), adopted in November 2015, "rape" was described as "engaging in the non-consensual vaginal, anal or oral penetration of a sexual nature of the body of another person with any bodily part or object, including through the use of physical violence and by putting the victim in a situation where she cannot say no or complies because of fear"; "attempted or completed sexual acts with a woman without her consent" and "intimate touching without consent" were also recognised as forms of "sexual violence". The ASEAN RPA on EVAW called on all 10 member states to criminalise marital rape; 4 of them had already done so as of February 2016. De Vido (2018), who likened it to the Istanbul Convention, stated: "The framework extremely promising, although the action plan is a non-binding act and the implementation relies on an intergovernmental body."
Council of Europe
In 2003, the European Court of Human Rights ordered all 47 Member states of the Council of Europe (CoE) to take a consent-based approach to cases of sexual violence on the grounds of Article 3 and Article 8 of the European Convention on Human Rights. This was the result of its ruling in the M.C. v. Bulgaria case, namely: "In accordance with contemporary standards and trends in that area, the Member States' positive obligations under Articles 3 and 8 of the Convention must be seen as requiring the penalisation and effective prosecution of any non-consensual sexual act, including in the absence of physical resistance by the victim."
The Council of Europe's 2011 Convention on preventing and combating violence against women and domestic violence (Istanbul Convention) contains a consent-based definition of sexual violence in Article 36. This mandates all Parties that have ratified the convention to amend their legislation from a coercion-based to a consent-based model. Since the Istanbul Convention entered into force in August 2014, some Parties have fulfilled their obligation for sexual violence legal reform; as of April 2020, 26 Parties had yet to do so, while 12 signatories still needed to ratify the Convention first. Belgium already had a consent-based definition since 1989, the Republic of Ireland already since 1981, with a further amendment passed in February 2017. The United Kingdom's four constituent countries England and Wales (one jurisdiction), Northern Ireland and Scotland separately introduced consent-based legislation in the 2000s despite the UK not having ratified the convention as of 2018. In 2013 and 2016 respectively, Croatia and Austria have introduced separate laws for sexual violence committed by coercion and sexual violence committed by lack of consent, treating the latter as a lesser offence with a lower maximum penalty; this is known as the "two-tiered approach".
European Union
As of January 2024, the European Union (EU) is in the process of drafting a directive on combating violence against women and domestic violence, in effect an EU-wide application of the principles of the Istanbul Convention (already signed by all member states and the Union itself, and ratified by the vast majority). In 2023, the European Parliament approved a concept text for the directive containing a definition of rape based on a lack of consent. Next, a qualified majority of member states within the European Council was required for its adoption; as of early January 2024, 12 states were in favour, 10 were opposed and 5 yet undecided. If passed, the directive could lead to a harmonisation of legislation across the Union following a consent-based approach to sex crimes.
Organization of American States
In the 2006 Miguel Castro-Castro Prison v. Peru case, applying to all 35 Member states of the Organization of American States (OAS), the Inter-American Court of Human Rights stated the following: "The Court, following the line of international jurisprudence and taking into account that stated in the Convention to Prevent, Punish, and Eradicate Violence against Women [Belém do Pará Convention], considers that sexual violence consists of actions with a sexual nature committed with a person without their consent (...)". Similarly, in the Declaration on Violence against Girls, Women, and Adolescents and Their Sexual and Reproductive Rights (19 September 2014), the MESECVI Committee (which monitors compliance to the Belém do Pará Convention) defined "sexual violence" as "actions with a sexual nature committed with a person without their consent, which besides including the physical invasion of the human body, may include acts that do not imply penetration or even any physical contact whatsoever," referring to the Miguel Castro-Castro Prison v. Peru judgement. It listed "display of the body without the victim's consent" as one of several "forms of sexual violence against women [which] are still insufficiently documented and punished throughout the entire region [the Americas]", and invoked the illegitimate inferrals of consent listed in Rule 70 of the ICC's Rules of Procedure and Evidence.
Countries that switched from coercion-based to consent-based laws
Istanbul Convention countries
1981: Republic of Ireland (amendment in February 2017)
4 July 1989: Belgium. Article 375 (introduced on 4 July 1989): "Rape is every act of sexual penetration of any nature and by any means, committed against a person who did not consent to it. Consent is especially absent when the act is forced by means of violence, coercion (threats, surprise) or deception or enabled by an inferiority/infirmity (Dutch text: onvolwaardigheid; French text: infirmité) or a physical or mental deficiency on the part of the victim." A March 2022 reform bill approved by the Chamber of Representatives inter alia clarifies cases in which consent cannot be given.
2000s: United Kingdom's constituent countries:
2003: England and Wales
2008: Northern Ireland
2009: Scotland
16 July 2011: Luxembourg. Article 375 states that "any act of sexual penetration (...) upon a person who does not consent to it, especially through the use of violence or grave threats (...) constitutes rape". Lack of consent thus defines the crime; coercion is not required, but should be taken into account if present.
18 June 2014: Turkey. Article 102 – (Amended on 18 June 2014 – By Article 58 of Law no. 6545) defines sexual assault as "Any person who violates the physical integrity of another person, by means of sexual conduct". According to a 2018 GREVIO report on Turkey, this definition was consent-based, because paragraph 2 stipulates that "the use of force might entail the additional liability for felonious injury. It is not, therefore, a constituent element of the offence of sexual violence." Article 102 also recognises marital rape. GREVIO hailed this as a major improvement over the previous coercion-based law, but noted the need to reform ways to prosecute marital rape via means other than only the victim's complaint.
November 2016: Germany. Prior to the 2016 change to the consent-based model, Article 177 already enabled punishment sexual acts that involve victims "incapable of defence against the offender's influence", or "incapable of making and expressing decisions due to illness or disability".
6 December 2017: Ukraine. As of August 2022, Article 152 of the Criminal Code of Ukraine states: "Note: Consent shall be deemed voluntary if it is the result of a person's free act and deed, with due account of attending circumstances." Article 152(1) stipulates: "Committing sexual acts involving vaginal, anal or oral penetration into the body of another person using the genitals or any other item, without the voluntary consent of the victim (rape) – shall be punishable by imprisonment for a term of three to five years." Article 153(1) stipulates: "Committing any sexual violence, not related to the penetration into another person's body, without the voluntary consent of the victim (sexual violence) – shall be punishable by imprisonment for a term of up to five years." Paragraph 4 of both articles determines that people below the age of 14 are deemed incapable of consenting, and that punishment for the perpetrator in such cases is more severe. These amendments of the Criminal Code, including the introduction of consent (), were adopted on 6 December 2017 "in order to implement the provisions of the Council of Europe Convention on Preventing and Combating Violence against Women and Domestic Violence". The December 2017 amendments came into force on 11 January 2019. According to the Kyiv Post, this made Ukraine the ninth country in Europe to recognise sex without consent as a crime. The previous text of the Criminal Code of Ukraine, as adopted in 2001, had coercion-based definitions of rape and sexual violence, with Article 152(1) stating: "Rape, that is, sexual intercourse with the use physical violence, threat of its use or with taking advantage of the helpless state of the victim – is punishable by imprisonment for a term of three to five years." Article 153 was originally titled "Violent gratification of sexual passion in an unnatural way", and paragraph 1 defined this as: "Satisfaction of sexual passion in an unnatural way with application of physical violence, threat of its application or with the use of helpless condition of the victim – shall be punishable by imprisonment for a term of up to five years."
March 2018: Iceland
May 2018: Sweden
by October 2018: Montenegro
30 October 2020: Cyprus (amended/expanded). Article 144 of the Cypriot Penal Code, in force since independence in 1960, only criminalised vaginal sex with a woman without her consent, by violence or coercion, or by pretending to be a married woman's husband. This formulation did not comply with the Istanbul Convention's standards to also protect men and LGBT people, and include other forms (attempted) nonconsensual sexual acts. Therefore, the Parliament of Cyprus amended the Penal Code on 30 October 2020 by expanding the definition of rape and attempted rape, criminalising it in six different circumstances (article 146), and increasing the standard or maximum penalty for most of these sexual offences to life imprisonment.
1 January 2021: Denmark. In April 2017, the Parliament of Denmark rejected a consent-based bill, citing lack of evidence that a consent-based definition was needed. Another attempt failed in November 2018, but a new bill similar to the Swedish example passed in May 2018 gained support in March 2019, and the new Danish government confirmed its intention to introduce such legislation in July 2019. Finally on 17 December 2020, paragraphs 216 and 228 of the Danish Penal Code were amended with a consent-based rape provision, which made having intercourse with a person who did not consent punishable by up to 8 years imprisonment. The amendment, which does not apply to Greenland and the Faroe Islands, went into effect on 1 January 2021.
4 June 2021: Slovenia. Criminal Code Article 170 on rape was amended to make the crime based on a lack of consent of the victim rather than use of coercion by the perpetrator. It was the result of a controversial 2015 rape case (of which most criminal proceedings including several appeals were conducted in 2017), in which the suspect had initiated sex with a woman who was drunk and unconscious and therefore could neither consent nor resist. Since the suspect had no need for force or threat when he initiated the sexual act as the complainant was asleep, the High Court of Koper ruled in January 2019 that he had not committed "rape" (Article 170, punished with 1 to 10 years imprisonment), but merely "criminal coercion" (Article 132, for which the suspect was punished with 10 months imprisonment), because when the woman woke up after he had already begun, she started resisting and he used force to complete the deed, but not to initiate it. This ruling caused outrage in Slovenian society, and a coalition of over 20 NGOs spearheaded by the women's rights group Institute 8 March launched a campaign to amend Article 170 with a consent-based definition of rape, with Amnesty International reminding politicians that the country had already ratified the Istanbul Convention in 2015. After the Institute gathered thousands of signatures for a petition, the government tabled its own proposal, which was approved by parliament on 4 June 2021.
7 October 2022: Spain. The 2016–2019 La Manada rape case caused widespread outrage in Spanish society, and led to calls for legal reform. Since 2018, the Spanish government stated its intention to introduce a consent-based definition of sexual violence. A bill was approved by the Spanish government in March 2020, the parliamentary debates on the exact wording were expected to take several months. On 26 May 2022, the Spanish Parliament approved the revised bill on sexual consent and sent it to the Senate. The Senate approved the bill on 25 August 2022. After receiving royal assent and being published in the Official State Bulletin on 7 September 2022, the Law for the Comprehensive Guarantee of Sexual Freedom (), better known as the "only yes is yes law" (), would enter into force on 7 October 2022. The law would later be amended in April 2023 to close controversial sentencing loopholes.
1 January 2023: Finland. In December 2018, citizens' initiative Consent2018 launched a petition to the government to adopt consent-based legislation in accordance with its commitment to the Istanbul Convention. The petition quickly gathered the required 50,000 signatures and was handed to Parliament in June 2019; the same month, the government stated its intention to introduce such legislation. The Finnish Ministry of Justice then established a working group to recommend required reforms by the end of May 2020. The working group's recommendations report was eventually presented to Justice Minister Anna-Maja Henriksson, who praised it, on 7 July 2020. The proposals would go through the first commenting round, return to the ministry in autumn to draft a bill, and then face a second commenting round before being considered by Parliament around spring 2021. The bill was eventually approved, and Finland's new consent-based legislation on sexual offences went into force on 1 January 2023.
Other countries
Consent-based provisions in some criminal codes of some former British colonies have descended from Section 375 of the British Colonial Penal Code of 1860.
1978: Hong Kong: Section 118 of the Hong Kong Crimes Ordinance stipulates in subsection 3: 'A man commits rape if— (a) he has unlawful sexual intercourse with a woman who at the time of the intercourse does not consent to it; and (b) at that time he knows that she does not consent to the intercourse or he is reckless as to whether she consents to it. (Added 25 of 1978 s. 3)'. Subsection 4 adds that the jury has to take into account a man's expressed belief 'that a woman was consenting to sexual intercourse', depending on 'the presence or absence of reasonable grounds for such a belief', and 'in conjunction with any other relevant matters'.
1998: Tanzania. Section 5 of the 1998 Sexual Offences (Special Provisions) Act criminalises a male person having sex with a woman or girl without her consent, unless she is his wife (but if he and his wife are separated, it is criminal again).
20 May 2005: New Zealand. The Crimes Act 1961 was amended in 2005, with section 128 defining 'rape' as penetration by penis of someone's genitalia without their consent, and 'unlawful sexual connection' as any other sexual act without consent. Section 128A further stipulates in which scenarios a person is not capable of giving (genuine) consent.
21 July 2006: Kenya. The Sexual Offences Act, 2006 states that "a person consents if he or she agrees by choice, and has the freedom and capacity to make that choice." Section 3 stipulates that sexual penetration without consent, or with consent "obtained by force or by means of threats or intimidation of any kind", constitutes rape.
14 December 2007: South Africa. The Criminal Law (Sexual Offences and Related Matters) Amendment Act, 2007 repealed the common law offences of rape and indecent assault and replaced them with the new expanded statutory offences of rape and sexual assault, applicable to all forms of sexual penetration or violation without consent, irrespective of gender. "Consent" is defined as "voluntary or uncoerced agreement".
Australia: all six states, the Northern Territory and the Australian Capital Territory have consent-based laws against what they variously define as 'rape', 'sexual assault', or 'sexual intercourse/penetration without consent'.
Bangladesh: Section 375 of the Bangladeshi Penal Code is almost identical to the Pakistan Penal Code, which in turn is derived from the same Section 375 in the Indian Penal Code. It states that "a man is said to commit rape who has sexual intercourse with a woman (...) against her will" (1), "without her consent" (2), when consent was obtained by coercion (3), when consent was obtained by identity deception (4), or when she was incapable of consenting due to her age being younger than 16 (5). However, unlike the Pakistan Penal Code, but similar to Indian Penal Code, marital rape of wives from age 13 is not criminalised (since sex within marriage is considered consensual by definition).
Botswana. Although marital rape is not criminalised, since sex within marriage is considered consensual by definition, non-marital rape is defined as sexual penetration "without the consent of such other person, or with such person's consent if the consent is obtained by force or means of threats or intimidation of any kind".
Canada. 'Assault' is defined in Section 265(1)(a): "A person commits an assault when, without the consent of another person, he applies force intentionally to that other person, directly or indirectly"; Section 265(2) stipulates that this also applies to sexual assaults. Consent is defined in Section 273.1(1) – as well as Section 153.1(2) – as "the voluntary agreement of the complainant to engage in the sexual activity in question. Consent must be present at the time the sexual activity in question takes place." Sections 271, 272 and 273 criminalise 'Sexual assault', 'Sexual assault with a weapon' and 'Aggravated sexual assault', all three of which spouses may be charged with according to Section 278, thus explicitly criminalising spousal rape. See Sexual assault § Canada for details.
Egypt. Although a court ruled in 1928 that marital rape is legal, Article 267 of the Egyptian Penal Code (last amended by Law No. 11 of 2011) states that "whoever has sex with a female without her consent" (بغير رضاها يعا bighayr raddaha yaea) has committed rape.
India. Although marital rape of wives from age 14 is not criminalised (since sex within marriage is considered consensual by definition), Section 375 of the Indian Penal Code stipulates that any man who has sexual intercourse with any woman he is not married to 'against her will' (1), 'without her consent' (2), when consent was obtained by coercion (3), when consent was obtained by identity deception (4), when she was incapable of consenting due to intoxication with a substance (5), when she was incapable of consenting due to her age being younger than 16 (6), has committed rape. Furthermore, Section 377 of the Indian Penal Code provides that any other form of penetrative carnal intercourse with a man, woman or animal is also a crime, although on 6 September 2018, the Supreme Court of India ruled unanimously in Navtej Singh Johar v. Union of India that Section 377 was unconstitutional "in so far as it criminalises consensual sexual conduct between adults".
Iraq: Article 393 of the Penal Code (as amended in 2010) states: "Any person who has sexual intercourse with a female without her consent or commits buggery with any person without their consent is punishable by a term of imprisonment not exceeding 15 years". However, other forms of sexual assault are only criminalised in Article 396 if they are committed "without his or her consent and with the use of force, menaces, deception or other means", implying that some kind of coercion needs to be demonstrated in order to be considered a crime, and that lack of consent alone is not sufficient. It is not clear whether marital rape is criminalised by Article 393, although the next Article 394 goes on to criminalise sexual intercourse with underage women and buggery of any person "outside of marriage" without their consent if they are below 18 (age of consent) or 15 years of age, implying that Article 393 either concerned people within marriage, aged 18+ years, or both. Article 398 (previously Article 427) is a marry-your-rapist law.
Myanmar: Section 375 of the Myanmar Penal Code is derived from the same in the Indian Penal Code and states that "a man is said to commit rape who (...) has sexual intercourse with a woman against her will" (1), "without her consent" (2), when consent was obtained by coercion (3), when consent was obtained by identity deception (4), or when she was incapable of consenting due to her age being younger than 14 (5). Just like in the Indian Penal Code, marital rape is not criminalised.
Nigeria: Although marital rape is explicitly excluded from the definition of rape in the Northern Nigeria Penal Code provided the spouse has reached puberty (Section 282(2)), and likewise excluded from Section 357 of the Nigerian Criminal Code (applying to the southern states), Section 357 of the Nigerian Criminal Code stipulates that any man who has sexual intercourse with any woman he is not married to "without her consent" (1), when consent was obtained by coercion (2), when consent was obtained by "false and fraudulent representation as to the nature of the act" (3), or when consent was obtained by identity deception (4), has committed rape.
Pakistan: Section 375 of the Pakistan Penal Code is derived from the same in the Indian Penal Code and states that "a man is said to commit rape who has sexual intercourse with a woman (...) against her will" (1), "without her consent" (2), when consent was obtained by coercion (3), when consent was obtained by identity deception (4), or when she was incapable of consenting due to her age being younger than 16 (5). Unlike the Indian Penal Code, no reference is made to marriage, therefore marital rape is presumed to be criminalised as well.
Uganda: Section 123 of the Penal Code states: "Any person who has unlawful carnal knowledge of a woman or girl, without her consent, or with her consent, if the consent is obtained by force or by means of threats or intimidation of any kind or by fear of bodily harm, or by means of false representations as to the nature of the act, or in the case of a married woman, by personating her husband, commits the felony termed rape." Although the Penal Code does not exempt marital rape, there is no clear criminalisation of it either. In customary law, there is a presupposition that a woman implicitly consents to sexual intercourse with her spouse during marriage.
Zimbabwe: Criminal Law (Codification and Reform) Act (2007) Section 65 states: "If a male person knowingly has sexual intercourse or anal sexual intercourse with a female person and, at the time of the intercourse – the female person has not consented to it; and he knows that she has not consented to it or realises that there is a real risk or possibility that she may not have consented to it, he shall be guilty of rape." A 2007 Center for Reproductive Rights report commissioned by the New York City Bar Association's African Affairs Committee argued that the requirement "that the assailant knew that the complainant had not consented" was "overly restrictive".
Countries with mixed legislation
In this situation, called the "Two-Tiered Approach" by the May 2020 UN Women EGM report, countries have two separate laws against sexual violence: one for sexual violence committed with coercion, one of sexual violence committed without coercion but also without consent; the latter counts as a lesser crime, and is punished less severely. Both the EGM report and Amnesty 2018 report cited Austrian legislation as an example of this two-tiered approach, and have criticised it, because they argued survivors ought to be given the same level of legal protection. This is different from countries that cover all sexual violence within a single law based on a lack of consent, but may add extra penalties if the nonconsensual sexual act was accompanied by some form of coercion.
2013: Croatia
Sexual intercourse without consent accompanied by force constitutes rape, carrying a maximum penalty of 10 years imprisonment (art. 153 Croatian Criminal Code)
Sexual intercourse without consent, and without force (e.g. when a victim is unconscious, intoxicated or asleep), constitutes a lesser offence, carrying a maximum penalty of 5 years imprisonment (art. 152(1) Croatian Criminal Code)
January 2016: Austria
Sexual intercourse committed by force, threat or deprivation of liberty constitutes rape, carrying a maximum of 10 years imprisonment (art. 201 Austrian Criminal Code)
Sexual intercourse against a person's will constitutes a lesser offence, carrying a maximum penalty of 2 years imprisonment (art. 205a Austrian Criminal Code)
1 July 2019: Greece. The bill, Article 336, was modified to include a consent-based definition of sexual violence, and included in the new Greek penal code on 6 June 2019. Article 336 went into effect on 1 July 2019.
Sexual acts committed by force of coercion shall be punished by imprisonment of at least ten years (τουλάχιστον δέκα ετών) (art. 336.1 Greek Penal Code).
Sexual acts committed without consent, and without force or coercion, shall be punished by imprisonment of up to ten years (έως δέκα έτη) (art. 336.4 Greek Penal Code).
Countries with coercion-based legislation
Africa
All 55 sovereign states of Africa are members of the African Union; except Botswana, Egypt, and Morocco, all have signed the Maputo Protocol, which requires member states to effectively prohibit "all forms of violence against women including unwanted or forced sex". The following states have not yet introduced consent-based legislation:
Algeria: There is no clear definition of rape in Algerian law; Article 333 of its Penal Code only criminalises "anyone who has committed a public outrage against decency", and in similar words "public outrage against decency consisting of an unnatural act with an individual of the same sex". This gives no indication or distinction whether the people involved in the acts are consenting to it or not, merely that the public is supposedly outraged by such acts. Article 334 prohibits "(attempted) assault against decency without violence against a person of either sex younger than 16" (the Algerian age of consent), but against adults only "(attempted) assault against decency with violence" (Article 335) is banned. The lack of unambiguous definitions and explicit criminalisation of marital rape in either the Penal Code or other laws such as Law no.15-19 against domestic violence (2015) has been criticised by the CEDAW Committee and human rights organisations, which urged Algeria to adopt clear, consent-based legislation.
Democratic Republic of the Congo: Although the Law Amending the Penal Code (2006) criminalised "any act contrary to morals intentionally and directly carried out on a person without the valid consent of that person" as "indecent assault" (Article 167), Article 170 states: "Rape is committed by the use or threat of violence or serious harm or force against a person, directly or through an intermediary or through a third party, either by surprise, by psychological pressure or in the context of a coercive environment or by abusing a person who, because of an illness, the impairment of his or her faculties or any other accidental reason has lost the use of his or her faculties or has been deprived of them by tricks". Moreover, the legal definition of rape does not include spousal rape; customary law holds that sex within marriage is consensual by definition.
Ethiopia: Criminal Code Article 620 states that rape is committed by "whoever compels a woman to submit to sexual intercourse outside wedlock, whether by the use of violence or grave intimidation, or after having rendered her unconscious or incapable of resistance", thus placing responsibility on the victim to resist her attacker until she is overcome by coercion, and exempting marital rape from prosecution.
Morocco: Article 485 of Morocco's Penal Code (15 September 2011 revision) describes "assault on decency" as a crime that is "committed or attempted with violence against persons of either sex." According to Article 486, "Rape is the act by which a man has sexual relations with a woman against her will." A number of persons deemed to be vulnerable are afforded extra protection by double punishment of the perpetrator (10 to 20 years in prison instead of 5 to 10).
The current status of marital rape in Morocco is unclear. Although it is frequently challenged, most authorities appear to state that is legal. In March 2013, the Moroccan Minister of Justice stated that marital rape could not be criminalised: "you can't deprive a man of what is rightfully his." According to the USDOS in 2017, spousal rape was not a crime. The "Hakkaoui Law" (named after Minister for Family Affairs and Women's Issues, Bassima Hakkaoui) criminalised violence against women in September 2018, but failed to address marital rape. However, a May 2022 ruling by the Family Court of Rabat rejected a man's request to compel his wife to have intercourse with him. The court stated that per Article 51 of Morocco's Family Code, sexual intercourse "is a right and duty of both the husband and the wife" and argued that the wife's refusal is a practice of the said right. It further "considered that the aim of sexual intercourse within marriage was not only to satisfy instinctive desires but also to share the etiquette of cohabitation, which must be adhered to by the spouses and followed only by mutual consent."
Sudan: Some attempts had been made under al-Bashir's rule (1989–2019) to reform legislation on issues such as extramarital rape victim blaming via 'adultery', and impunity for marital rape, by amending the definition of rape in Article 149.1 of the Criminal Code in February 2015. However, several commentators such as the African Centre for Justice and Peace Studies argued that this amendment had a number of flaws. Even though the amendment made it possible to prosecute marital rape by removing the reference to adultery, there is still no specific prohibition of marital rape, and oral rape is not criminalised. Moreover, Article 149.2 still defined adultery and sodomy as forms of 'rape', so complainants still risked being prosecuted for adultery or sodomy if they failed to prove they were subjected to sexual acts without their consent. Finally, the importance of consent was diminished in favour of coercion, going against the trend in international law to define sexual violence by lack of consent. On 22 April 2020, during the Sudanese transition to democracy, the sodomy law was amended: male participants in anal sex (sodomy, whether between two men or between a man and a woman, with or without consent) were no longer punishable by death or flogging, but still punishable by imprisonment.
Americas
All 35 sovereign states in the Americas (Cuba's status being unclear) are members of the Organization of American States. Excluding Canada, Cuba and the United States, 32 of them have signed and ratified the Belém do Pará Convention, which the Inter-American Court of Human Rights in 2006 ruled to be consent-based, with its follow-up mechanism MESECVI in 2014 declaring the same. The following states have not yet introduced consent-based legislation:
Argentina: Two laws criminalise rape, including spousal rape; both are coercion-based. Article 2 of Law 25.087 (1999) describes various "crimes against sexual integrity" as "Anyone who sexually abuses a person of either sex when the person is under the age of thirteen or when there is violence, threat, coercive or intimidating abuse of a dependency relationship"; this includes "carnal access by any means". Article 5 of Law 26.485 (Law of Integral Protection of Women, 2009) defines sexual violence as "Any action that implies the violation in all its forms, with or without genital access, of a woman's right to voluntarily decide about her sexual or reproductive life through threats, coercion, use of force or intimidation, including rape within marriage or other related or kinship relationships, whether or not there is coexistence, as well as forced prostitution, exploitation, slavery, harassment, sexual abuse and trafficking in women."
Bolivia: In 2013 the Bolivian government passed the Law Guaranteeing Women a Life Free from Violence (). Its provisions included the repeal of the marital rape exemption in the Penal Code, and making rape by a spouse an aggravating factor when sentencing, extending imprisonment by 5 years. Despite the introduction of words such as 'consent' and 'non-consensual', Bolivian criminal law remained coercion-based. "Rape" (violación) could, according to Article 308, be committed in two ways: "by means of intimidation, physical or psychological violence, [performing] non-consensual sexual acts involving carnal access with a person of either sex, by means of penetration..." ('intimidation/violence' thus being a constituent element of 'non-consensual sexual acts'), or "under the same circumstances, even if there is no physical violence or intimidation, taking advantage of the victim's serious mental illness or lack of intelligence, or who is otherwise incapable of resisting" (resistance or capacity to resist thus being required or expected in all other cases). Article 312 bis "Abusive sexual acts" is a notable provision stating that "the person who, during consensual sexual intercourse, forces his partner or spouse to endure acts of physical violence and humiliation", can be punished with imprisonment for 4 to 6 years.
Brazil: In the Penal Code of Brazil, Article 213 (2009 revision) defines "rape" (estrupo) as "compelling someone, through violence or serious threat, to having carnal conjunction or to practicing or allowing another libidinous act". In the 2001 case Prosecutor v. Kunarac, the ICTY cited Article 213 as an example of a law "requiring violence, force or a threat of force" to meet the definition of 'rape'. In the context of domestic and family violence against women, Article 7(III) of the Lei Maria da Penha (Law 11.340 of 2006) defines "sexual violence" (violência sexual) as "any conduct that forces her to witness, maintain or participate in unwanted sexual intercourse, through intimidation, threat, coercion or force (...)." Article 215 (2009 revision) of the Code criminalises 'carnal conjunction' (conjunção carnal) by "fraud or other means that prevent or hinder the victim's free expression of will", and thus defines scenarios in which the law deems people incapable of consenting. However, there is no stipulation that a lack of freely given consent during 'carnal conjunction' constitutes rape. On the other hand, Article 215A (introduced by Law 13.718 in 2018) does criminalise sexual harassment (assédio sexual) on the basis of a lack of consent (sem a sua anuência). Similarly, selling or distributing "scenes of sex, nudity or pornography without the consent of the victim" (sem o consentimento da vítima, cena de sexo, nudez ou pornografia) is criminalised by Article 218C (also introduced by Law 13.718 in 2018). Since 2005, the law criminalises rape of men or women, including spousal rape (Articles 213 & 226).
Chile: In the Chilean Penal Code (24 August 2022 revision), Articles 361–372 address sexual violence from a coercion perspective. "Rape" (violación) is defined as "A person [having] carnal access, vaginally, anally or buccally, to a person over fourteen years of age, in any of the following cases: (1) When force or intimidation is used, (2) When the victim is deprived of consciousness, or when their incapacity to oppose is taken advantage of, or (3) When the alienation or mental disorder of the victim is abused." The only mention of 'consent' (consentimiento) is in Article 366, which mentions "the use of surprise" as an example of an "[abusive] manoeuvre that does not imply the consent of the victim", and by which the perpetrator can "abusively [perform] a sexual action other than carnal access with a person over fourteen years of age". In short, unless the perpetrator uses force or intimidation, or an abusive manoeuvre to undermine the other person's opposition, or takes advantage of the other person's pre-existing incapacity to oppose the sexual violence, the consent of every person aged at least 14 is presumed. Marital rape is criminalised in Article 369.
Colombia: Articles 205 to 212A criminalise various sexual acts (including spousal rape, 211(5)) on the basis of violence. 210A and 212A do mention consent, but only in the context of the incapacity to consent to sexual acts due to being overpowered by "superiority or authority" (210A) or "fear of violence, intimidation; illegal detention; psychological oppression; the abuse of power; the use of environments of coercion and similar circumstances that prevent the victim from giving their free consent" (212A).
Ecuador: The 2014 Penal Code states in Article 175(5): "In sexual crimes, the consent given by the victim under eighteen years of age is irrelevant." However, 'consent' is not mentioned in any of the provisions in Articles 166–175 related to sexual crimes against victims aged 18 and older either. Only Article 170 "Sexual abuse" (which is done "against the will of another") and Article 171 "Rape" (Violación) can be committed against people aged 18 or older. Rape is committed in three scenarios: (1) "When the victim is deprived of reason or sense, or [unable to] resist", (2) "When violence, threat or intimidation is used.", (3) "When the victim is under fourteen years of age." Curiously, the crime described in Article 172, namely "[using someone] to force them to display their body totally or partially for purposes of a sexual nature", can only be committed against "girls, boys or adolescents, people over sixty-five years of age or people with disabilities", but doing so against able-bodied adults aged 18 to 64 is presumably not punishable.
Greenland and Faroe Islands: As an autonomous country within the Kingdom of Denmark, Greenland originally had the same Criminal Code as Denmark itself, but since 1954, Greenlandic legislation and jurisprudence have developed autonomously from Denmark. The two most important provisions on rape in Greenland's Criminal Code are Article 77 and Article 216, both of which establish coercion (either by "violence or threat of violence", "unlawful coercion" or inability to resist) as a constituent element of "rape". On 1 January 2021, paragraphs 216 and 228 of the Danish Penal Code were amended with a consent-based rape provision, but these amendments did not apply to Greenland and the Faroe Islands.
Peru: Freely given consent plays a minor role in Peruvian law about sexual violence. In lesser crimes it plays a central role, such as Article 176 "Touching, acts of sexual connotation or libidinous acts without consent" ("Whoever, without the purpose of having carnal access regulated by article 170, performs on a person, without their free consent, touching, acts of sexual connotation or libidinous acts, in their intimate parts or in any part of their body...") and Article 176-B "Sexual harassment" ("Whoever, in any way, monitors, persecutes, harasses, besieges or seeks to establish contact or closeness with a person, without the consent of the latter, to carry out acts of sexual connotation..."). However, the most severe sex crimes in the Peruvian Penal Code are based on the perpetrator's use of coercion, the victim's inability resist, or the victim's incapacity to consent. Sexual violation (Article 170) is described as "The one that with violence, physical or psychological, serious threat or taking advantage of an environment of coercion or any other environment that prevents the person from giving their free consent, forces the person to have carnal access vaginally, anally or buccally or performs any another analogous act with the introduction of an object or part of the body by any of the first two ways...". Article 171 deals with "Rape of a person in a state of unconsciousness or unable to resist", Article 172 with "Violation of a person incapable of giving their free consent", Article 173 with "Sexual violation of a minor", Article 174 with "Violation of a person under authority or surveillance", and Article 175 with "Sexual violation through deceit".
Uruguay: Consent plays no role in the Articles 272–277 about "carnal violence" (violencia carnal) in the Penal Code of Uruguay (2000 revision). Article 272 "Rape" (Violación) states: "A person commits rape who compels a person of the same or of the opposite sex, with violence or threats, to suffer carnal union, even if the act is not consummated." This wording implicitly criminalises marital rape. The article goes on to list four types of scenarios in which "violence is presumed" to have taken place. Article 273 states that "Violent indecent assault is committed (...) through the means established in the previous article, or taking advantage of the circumstances set forth therein, [by performing] obscene acts (...) other than carnal union". Article 275 Estupro essentially describes rape by deception through a false promise of marriage to "a female maiden/virgin (mujer doncella) under the age of twenty years and over the age of fifteen years".
Venezuela: The Penal Code of Venezuela (2005 revision) is almost entirely coercion-based. Article 374 sets out the conditions for rape: "Whoever by means of violence or threats has constrained any person, of one or the other sex, to a carnal act by vaginal, anal or oral route, or introduction of objects by any of the first two routes, or by oral an object that simulates sexual objects is introduced, the person responsible will be punished, as accused of rape, with a prison sentence of ten to fifteen years." It adds four types of scenarios in which "violence or threats" are not necessary, but by definition constitute rape: (1) anyone with someone below the age of 13, (2) a relative abusing their familial ties with someone below the age of 16, (3) a prison guard with a detainee/prisoner, or (4) anyone with someone who is unable to resist due to physical or mental illness, or deception or narcotic/exciting substances used by the perpetrator. The Penal Code only invokes consent in very specific rape by deception cases under Article 378: "The carnal act performed on a woman over sixteen years of age and under twenty-one with her consent, is punishable when there is seduction with a marriage promise and the woman is known to be honest; in such a case, the penalty will be from six months to one year in prison." This provision is similar to another in Article 384 on abduction of "a minor or a married woman" who "has given her consent" (that is, elopement), which is punished with "imprisonment for a term of six months to two years."
Asia
Asia does not have a continent-wide legal system. ASEAN, comprising 10 Asian states, signed the 2013 Declaration on Violence against Women and Children. The 2016 ASEAN RPA on EVAW recognised several forms of sexual violence based on a lack of consent, and called on all 10 member states to criminalise marital rape; 4 of them had already done so as of February 2016. The following states have coercion-based legislation:
Afghanistan: The Afghan Penal Code was amended in 2017, containing Article 636 which states: "A person who commits sexual intercourse or inserts body parts or other objects into the victim's vagina or anus by using force, means of threat, or using a victim's physical or mental inability to express consent or lack of consent (Male or Female), or giving anesthetic substances or other mental affecting drugs, is considered as a perpetrator of rape." This appears to criminalise marital rape as well. However, the Shia Personal Status Law, applying to the Shia Muslim minority of approximately 6 million Afghans, exempts spousal rape in Article 132 (2): "It is the duty of the wife to defer to her husband's inclination for sexual enjoyment".
China (People's Republic of China): "Article 236. Whoever, by violence, coercion or other means, rapes a woman is to be sentenced to not less than three years and not more than 10 years of fixed-term imprisonment." Chinese law also does not safeguard same-sex couples or victims of marital rape.
Macau: In the Penal Code of Macau, the entire "Chapter V: Crimes against sexual freedom and self-determination" (Articles 157 to 173) is based on the presumption that all victims will resist sexual assault: crimes against sexual freedom can thus only be committed or attempted when a suspect uses violence or coercion in order render the victim incapable of resisting, or when the victim is for some reason already incapable of resisting.
Indonesia: Article 285 of the Indonesian Criminal Code requires "force or threat of force" for sexual intercourse with a woman out of marriage to constitute rape. Similarly, Article 289 criminalises "obscene acts" forced upon any person by any person "using force or threat of force". Although Article 285 includes "out of marriage" in the definition of rape, marital rape is considered a form of domestic violence under Articles 5, 8, 46, 47 and 53 of the Law Regarding the Elimination of Violence in the Household, 2004. A sexual violence bill that was put on hold in the Indonesian Parliament in 2016, was revisited in 2021 when Muslim organisations managed to convince lawmakers to drop the consent-based definition of sexual violence in the bill, as well as key provisions for victims' rights; the watered-down bill was then blocked by Islamist parties who insisted on banning sex outside of marriage, including LGBTQ relations.
Iran: Penal Code Article 221 considers sex within marriage consensual by definition, and all sex outside marriage to be zina (a type of crime) by definition. Article 224 (d) is understood to refer to rape outside marriage, which is defined as "zina committed by coercion or force".
Kazakhstan: Articles 120–123 of the 2014 Criminal Code of Kazakhstan, as amended on 19 April 2019, are all coercion-based. Rape (Article 120) is defined as "sexual connection using violence or with threat of its application to the victim or to other persons or with use of helpless condition of the victim", other sexual acts (Article 121) have the same force-based conditions, Article 123 adds "blackmail, threat of destruction, damage or withdrawal of property or with use of material or other dependence of the victim", and Article 122 adds being below the age of 16.
Philippines: Both the Anti-Rape Law of 1997 and the Anti-Violence Against Women and Their Children Act of 2004 criminalise rape, including marital rape, on the basis of coercion.
Russia: Criminal Code of Russia Article 131 states: "Rape, that is, sexual intercourse with the use of violence or with the threat of its use against the victim or other persons, or with the use of the helpless state of the victim."
Taiwan (Republic of China): Taiwanese law on sexual offences is generally coercion-based, with Article 221 of the Criminal Code stipulating: 'A person who by threats, violence, intimidation, inducing hypnosis, or other means against the will of a male or female and who has sexual intercourse with such person (...).' Consent does play a role in defining offences against privacy, namely in the production and distribution of sexual images in Article 319-1 ('A person who takes photos, videos, electromagnetic records, or use other technological means to record sexual images of the victims without consent (...)') and Article 319-3 ('A person who reproduces, distributes, broadcasts, delivers, displays publicly, or uses other means to allow others to view sexual images without the consent of victims (...)') These consent-based provisions stand in contrast to the coercion-based Article 319-2 in between: 'A person who records sexual images by means of violence, coercion, intimidation or other means against the will of the victims by taking photos, videos, electromagnetic records or other technological methods or make the victims record such images by themselves (...).'
Thailand: Penal Code Amendment Act (No. 19) 2007 criminalised spousal rape in Section 3 (276), which describes rape as "Anyone who forcibly performs sexual intercourse with another by threatening the latter in whatever manner, by exercising forcible violence, by taking advantage of the latter being in a state of irresistibility, or by causing the latter to mistake him for a different person".
Japan
The Penal Code of Japan was revised in June 2023 to define many scenarios and circumstances in Article 176 (including nut not limited to coercion used by the suspect) that may render a person incapable of consenting to various sexual acts described in Article 177 ("Nonconsensual sexual intercourse etc."). There is no freely given or affirmative consent. Before June 2023, Article 177 described "forcible sexual intercourse" as "A person who, through assault or intimidation forcibly engages in vaginal intercourse, anal intercourse or oral intercourse (...) with another person". Article 178 further implied that victims of sexual assault were required to resist their attackers.
However, even if the composition requirements have changed and have been broadened than before, it does not change that it's not guilty without evidence. So there are voices calling for the expansion of victim support is required, such as strengthening the evidence preservation system of test kits to leave objective evidence, medical institutions that can collect evidence 24 hours a day, and one-stop support centres.
In addition, since the burden of proof is not different from that of the prosecution. So there are voices calling for a polite and careful investigation to visualise the crackdown to prevent false accusations, the right to join lawyers, and shorten the arrest period.
Japanese lawyers expressed concern that the eight newly prepared articles are a mixture of clear requirements and ambiguous requirements, adding that "the subject of punishment has virtually widened and could be framed".
South Korea
Article 297 (Rape) of South Korea's Penal Code states: "A person who, through violence or intimidation, has sexual intercourse with a female". Article 298 (Indecent Act by Compulsion) states: "A person who, through violence or intimidation, commits an indecent act on another". Article 299 (Quasi-Rape, Quasi-Indecent Act by Compulsion) states: "A person who has sexual intercourse with a female or commits an indecent act on another by taking advantage of the other's condition of unconsciousness or inability to resist", implying that in other circumstances a victim should resist a sexual assault until overcome by the perpetrator's superior force. For this reason, criticism has been raised that it's difficult to punish forced sexual activity without consent. Although Supreme Court of Korea has moved closer to consent-based with the precedent that looks more broadly at the definition of "assault or intimidation", some lower court judges continue to rule against that precedent.
The Supreme Court of Korea ruled that marital rape (described as "forced sex with a spouse") was illegal in 2013.
Arguments
Actually, several attempts have been made to revise the criteria for rape from the presence or absence of "assault or intimidation" to "consent", because of the criticism about the current Penal Code of South Korea, but they have failed.
The opponents of the law's amendment have raised concerns that the number of people affected by False accusation of rape will increase. In fact, criticism has been raised that the principle of presumption of innocence is not properly observed in South Korea, and the damage caused by the false accusation of sexual violence actually exists. In addition, false accusation of sexual violence has increased rapidly in South Korea. The opponents of the revision of the law argue that false accusation of sexual violence will be easier if the law is revised.
Europe
Most sovereign states in Europe are members of the Council of Europe (except for Belarus; the disputed Vatican City; and the transcontinental states of Russia and Kazakhstan, see Asia) and have signed the Istanbul Convention (except Azerbaijan), and, once ratified, have the legal obligation to adopt consent-based legislation. The following states have yet to do so:
Albania: Section 6 of the Criminal Code of the Republic of Albania is devoted to sexual crimes. Of all Articles 100 to 108a, only 102 mentions consent in passing: "Engagement in sexual activity by use of force with adult females or between spouses or cohabitants, without the consent of either of them, shall be punishable by three to ten years imprisonment." GREVIO's November 2017 report interpreted this to mean: "The use of force is a constituent element of the crime of rape with an adult women defined in Article 102, except in cases of rape between spouses or cohabitants where the offence is based on the absence of consent. The possibility of freely given consent is precluded, without the requirement of the use of force, only in cases of exploitation of physically or mentally disabled persons, intimidation with the use of a weapon or abuse of a position of authority or trust. (...) Albania's provision on rape is thus a force-based definition and falls short of the [Istanbul] Convention's requirements."
Andorra: The 2005 Penal Code of Andorra only employs the term "consent" () only once in relation to sexual offences in Articles 144–146 ("Sexual aggression" against adults) and Articles 147–149 ("Sexual abuse" against people deemed incapable of consenting) is in title of Article 147: "Sexual abuse without consent". According to GREVIO's November 2020 report, this means three categories of people are deemed incapable of consenting: "(1) persons who are unconscious, deprived of their senses or incapable of resisting, (2) people who are incapacitated and taken advantage of by the perpetrator, and (3) people below the age of 14". Article 144 describes "sexual aggression" as follows: "The one who, by means of violence or intimidation, determines a person to take part in a sexual behavior or relationship shall be punished by imprisonment of three months to three years in prison. The attempt is punishable." This meant that Andorrese law did not recognise freely given consent, and assumed that anyone who cannot demonstrate to have been incapacitated or subordinated in any of the stipulated conditions, had the capacity to resist, was required to resist, and must demonstrate to have resisted the (attempted) sexual aggression in order to prove that a crime took place. Andorra thus did not comply to the Istanbul Convention. GREVIO therefore "strongly encourage[d] the Andorran authorities to amend the Criminal Code to guarantee the existence of an offence of sexual violence which is firmly anchored in the absence of consent, regardless of whether the victim is a sane, adult person neither incapacitated nor in a subordinated situation".
Armenia: Article 138 of the Criminal Code of Armenia defines "rape" as "sexual intercourse of a man with a woman against her will, using violence against the latter or some other person, with threat thereof, or taking advantage of the woman's helpless situation". Article 139 defines "violent acts of sexual nature" as "Homosexual, lesbian or other sexual actions against the aggrieved, by using force against the latter or other persons, or threat of using force, or by taking advantage of the aggrieved person's helplessness".
Azerbaijan: Article 149 of the Criminal Code of Azerbaijan defines "rape" as "the sexual relations with application of violence or with threat of its application to the victim either to other persons, or with use of a helpless condition of the victim".
Belarus: Chapter 20 of the Criminal Code of Belarus (13 May 2022 revision), covering Articles 166–171, criminalises various sexual acts in combination with coercion ("against the will of the victim with the use of violence or the threat of its use, or using the helpless state of the victim", or "by means of blackmail, threat of destruction, damage or seizure of property, or using official, material or other dependence of the victim"), or in combination with the other person's age being below 16. Under Article 115 of the 1994 criminal code, rape was defined as "sexual intercourse with the use of physical violence, threat or the use of a helpless state of the sufferer".
Bosnia and Herzegovina: The 2010 Criminal Code of Bosnia and Herzegovina only mentions rape and sexual violence in the context of armed conflicts, namely in Article 172 "Crimes against Humanity", being "a widespread or systematic attack directed against any civilian population" (Article 172(1)g: "Coercing another by force or by threat of immediate attack upon his life or limb, or the life or limb of a person close to him, to sexual intercourse or an equivalent sexual act (rape), sexual slavery, enforced prostitution, forced pregnancy, enforced sterilisation or any other form of sexual violence of comparable gravity") and Article 173 "War Crimes against Civilians" (Article 173(1)e: "Coercing another by force or by threat of immediate attack upon his life or limb, or the life or limb of a person close to him, to sexual intercourse or an equivalent sexual act (rape) or forcible prostitution...").
Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina: In the August 2003 Criminal Code of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Article 203 "Rape" states: "Whoever coerces another by force or by threat of immediate attack upon his life or limb, or the life or limb of someone close to that person, to sexual intercourse or an equivalent sexual act, shall be punished by imprisonment for a term between one and ten years." Article 204 "Sexual Intercourse with a Helpless Person" is defined by "taking advantage of that person's mental illness, temporary mental disorder, infirmity or any other state of that person which makes him incapable of resisting", Article 205 adds "sexual intercourse by abuse of position", and Article 206 adds "forced sexual intercourse by serious threat of serious harm".
Republika Srpska: Article 165 "Rape": "Whoever coerces another person into a sexual intercourse or any other equivalent sexual act by force or threat of immediate attack upon life or limb, or the life or limb of someone close to that person, shall be punished by imprisonment for a term between three and ten years." Articles 166–168 add blackmail, helpless state and abuse of position as other means of sexual coercion.
Czech Republic: In December 2023, the Czech government published a bill proposing to reform legislation towards a "no means no" coercion-based approach, with expanded provisions of scenarios in which the other person is automatically considered legally incapable of consenting, and recognising additional means of indicating non-consent or resistance, but not freely given or affirmative consent. Parliament still had to take the government's proposal in consideration, and possibly submit amendments. Klára Kocmanová, MP for the Czech Pirate Party which originally advocated an "only yes means yes" approach, commented: 'A definition based on lack of consent would be a simpler solution because we would not have to list situations in the definition of defencelessness. However, the proposal approved by the government today, a definition based on lack of consent with a well-defined defencelessness, is an acceptable compromise that has cross-party support and, above all, will improve the situation for victims.'
France: On 15 April 2021, the National Assembly adopted a statutory rape law that set the legal age of consent at 15, below which all persons are deemed incapable of consenting to sex. However, in the case of adult victims (15 years and older), violence, coercion, threat or surprise still needs to be proven for a rape conviction.
Georgia (country): Articles 137–141 of the Criminal Code of Georgia, as amended on 22 December 2016, are all coercion-based. "Rape" (Article 137) is defined as "a sexual intercourse by use of violence, threat of violence or abusing the victim's helpless condition", other sexual acts (Article 138) have the same force-based conditions, Article 139 adds "threatening to spread the defamatory information or to damage property, or by using material, official or other kind of dependence", and Articles 140 and 141 add being below the age of 16.
Liechtenstein: Article 200 "Rape" of the Liechtenstein Criminal Code (1 January 2021 revision) states: "Whoever coerces a person by force, by deprivation of personal liberty or by threatening imminent danger to life or limb (section 89) to perform or tolerate intercourse or a sexual act equivalent to intercourse shall be punished with imprisonment from one to ten years."
Moldova: Until 9 January 2023, Article 171 of the Moldovan Criminal Code, titled "rape", criminalised 'sexual intercourse committed by physical or mental coercion of the person or taking advantage of the person's inability to defend herself/himself or express her/his will'. On 17 November 2022, amendments were introduced (enacted on 9 January 2023) which retitled Article 171 to "non-consensual sexual acts", and added a definition in new Article 132 stipulating that a 'sexual act or action of a sexual nature that is accompanied by physical or mental coercion, applied to the victim or another person, or in which the person's inability to defend themselves or to express their will is taken advantage of, is considered non-consensual.' GREVIO commented in November 2023: 'While GREVIO welcomes the introduction of the concept of consent into the Moldovan Criminal Code via the recent legislative changes, it regrets to note that the law still defines non-consent on the basis of the use of physical or mental coercion by the perpetrator. The offences of rape and sexual actions without consent, as provided for by Articles 171 and 172 of the Criminal Code, are therefore not based on the notion of lack of freely given consent, as required by Article 36 of the [Istanbul] convention.'
Monaco: The Criminal Code of Monaco explicitly criminalises marital rape, but not raping one's former spouse, nor other forms of sexual violence regardless of present or past relationship between victim and perpetrator. Monegasque law does not recognise freely given consent. It characterises "rape" "by the use of violence, coercion, intimidation or surprise, while indecent assault perpetrated or attempted against an adult requires use of violence".
North Macedonia: The Criminal Code of [North] Macedonia of 16 November 2017, Article 186 "Rape", states: "Whosoever, by the use of force or threat to directly attack upon the life or body of another or upon the life or body of someone close to that person, forces him to intercourse, shall be sentenced to imprisonment of three to ten years." Articles 187–189 define "sexual assault" by abusing someone's helplessness, abusing one's own position, or the other person being under 14 years of age, as other means of sexual coercion.
San Marino: Articles 171–173 of the San Marinese Criminal Code describe sexual violence in terms of "forcing or deceiving a person into committing sexual acts by using violence, threats or suggestion, including hypnotic suggestion". Penetration, the existence of marriage, cohabitation or an emotional relationship between victim and perpetrator, the victim having disabilities, or the perpetrator abusing their position over the victim, all count as aggravating circumstances. People below the age of 14 are deemed incapable of consenting, but a lack of freely given consent for adult people deemed capable of consenting plays no role in San Marinese law.
Serbia: "Rape (Raping) is defined in Article 178 by the use of force or threat of direct attack against the body of another person and punished with imprisonment from two to ten years."
(statehood disputed) Vatican City / Holy See: Canon 1395 §3. provides a coercion-based definition of sexual violence, see below.
European countries with consent-based amendments pending
These European countries currently have coercion-based legislation, but have ratified the Istanbul Convention, which obligates them to introduce a consent-based definition of sexual violence. Therefore, both the legislative and executive branches of government in these countries have been making efforts to draft legislation that complies with the Convention.
Norway (opposition proposals since March 2018)
Portugal (government intention since 2018). The January 2019 GREVIO report judged the 2015 amendment of Article 163 and 164 of the Portuguese Criminal Code to be insufficient to comply to the Istanbul Convention.
Netherlands (government intention since May 2019). The government's proposal to introduce a new separate offence named "sex against one's will" was heavily criticised by Parliament, lawyers, human rights groups such as Amnesty and experts as ambiguous, insufficient to comply with human rights treaties, and affording victims too little protection. In November 2020, Justice Minister Ferdinand Grapperhaus announced to change the draft law to define all forms of nonconsensual sex as sexual violence or rape; under the new proposal, the use of force or coercion could still result in extra penalties. A new draft opened up for consultation in March 2021 proposed the introduction of the new criminal offences of negligent sexual assault and negligent rape (schuldaanranding and schuldverkrachting, literally "guilt assault" and "guilt rape"). This meant that the perpetrator is guilty of negligence if he "performs sexual acts with a person whenever he has serious reason to suspect that the desire of that person to [perform said sexual acts] is lacking" (any such sexual acts are considered aanranding, unless they "constitute or partially constitute sexual penetration of the body", in which case they are verkrachting). Furthermore, there would be two other offences of deliberate rape and deliberate sexual assault (opzetverkrachtig and opzetaanranding) whenever the perpetrator "knows that the desire of that person to [perform said sexual acts] is lacking". "Force, violence or threat" would no longer be necessary to commit the crime, but could result in additional penalties if used. Minister Dilan Yeşilgöz-Zegerius of Justice and Security finally sent the sexual offences bill to the House of Representatives in October 2022, aiming to introduce the law in 2024. Amnesty spoke of "a breakthrough for human rights" because sexual consent was central to the proposal, but called on the House of Representatives and Minister to move forward with implementation and not wait until 2024. On 19 March 2024, the Senate approved the Sexual Offences Act, which would take effect from 1 July 2024.
Switzerland. As of 2022, the Swiss Criminal Code does not recognise a lack of freely given consent as relevant; it only provides for scenarios in which a person is coerced into having sex (Articles 189, 190), incapable of judgement or resistance to sex (Articles 189–191), or in a dependent relationship to the perpetrator (Articles 192, 193). The Istanbul Convention went into effect in Switzerland in 2018, but despite some reforms, rape is still defined by coercion, threats and exerting psychological pressure as of January 2021. It carries a prison sentence of one to ten years. Abusing a state of defenselessness, for example intoxication, is subsumed under defilement, which carries a prison sentence of up to ten years. Due to pressure from NGOs such as Amnesty, feminist and women's rights groups, the Federal Department of Justice and Police has been examining the need for further reform.
Legislation in the United States
The United States do not have a uniform legal definition of sexual violence, as states may define this differently, but on the federal level the FBI's Uniform Crime Report (UCR) amended its definition of rape on 1 January 2013 from the coercion-based "carnal knowledge of a female forcibly and against her will" to the consent-based "Penetration, no matter how slight, of the vagina or anus with any body part or object, or oral penetration by a sex organ of another person, without the consent of the victim", removing the requirements of force, the victim to be female, and the penetration to be vaginal. Some U.S. states (or other jurisdictions such as American Samoa) recognise penetrative sex without consent by the victim and without the use of force by the perpetrator as a crime (usually called 'rape'). Other states do not recognise this as a crime; their laws stipulate that the perpetrator must have used some kind of force (physical violence (that results in demonstrable physical injury), threats against the victim or a third party, or some other form of coercion) in order for such nonconsensual penetrative sex to amount to a crime. Similarly, some states (or other jurisdictions such as the Military) recognise non-penetrative sex acts (contact such as fondling or touching a person's intimate parts, or exposure of a body or sexual activity) without consent by the victim and without the use of force by the perpetrator as a crime, while other states do not. In 2024, the United States federal Department of Health and Human Services banned hospitals from performing non-consensual breast, pelvic, prostate, and rectal exams for "educational and training purposes" by medical students, nurse practitioners, or physician assistants.
U.S. states
State laws have given various definitions of what constitutes sexual consent, and which role it plays in determining whether or not an offence has been committed.
Arizona: The Arizona Revised Statutes state in §13-1406: "A person commits sexual assault by intentionally or knowingly engaging in sexual intercourse or oral sexual contact with any person without consent of such person." However, §13-1401 limits the definition of the phrase "without consent" to scenarios in which the victim is "coerced by the immediate use or threatened use of force" (a), incapable of consenting for various reasons (b), or "intentionally deceived" about the act or the perpetrator's identity (c, d). Therefore, there is no freely given or affirmative consent under Arizonan law.
California: Since January 1, 2019, Section 261.6 of the California Penal Code defines "consent" as "positive cooperation in act or attitude pursuant to an exercise of free will. The person must act freely and voluntarily and have knowledge of the nature of the act or transaction involved." Sections 261.6 and 261.7 stipulate that, wherever "consent is at issue" under Section 261, 262, 286, 287, or 289, or former Section 288a, "a current or previous dating or marital relationship shall not be sufficient to constitute consent", neither is "evidence that the victim suggested, requested, or otherwise communicated to the defendant that the defendant use a condom or other birth control device". Although this definition requires "freely given consent" or "affirmative consent", this requirement is either not mentioned or has only limited application in Sections 261, 262, 265, 266a, and 266b.
Florida: Section 794.011 of the Florida Statutes defines "consent" as "intelligent, knowing, and voluntary consent and does not include coerced submission. 'Consent' shall not be deemed or construed to mean the failure by the alleged victim to offer physical resistance to the offender." Any sexual act performed on a person without their freely given or affirmative consent is punishable as 'sexual battery' to various degrees (depending on the perpetrator's and victim's ages, and whether no, some, or potentially deadly physical force or coercion was used).
Georgia: The Georgia Code does not define consent, but under '§ 16-6-22.1. Sexual Battery', "[a] person commits the offense of sexual battery when he or she intentionally makes physical contact with the intimate parts of the body of another person without the consent of that person." The act of intentionally putting "intimate parts" in contact with another person's mouth without that person's consent is indirectly criminalised by '§ 16-6-2.a Sodomy', which prohibits "any sexual act involving the sex organs of one person and the mouth or anus of another"; Powell v. State (1998) and Lawrence v. Texas (2003) determined that these acts were only illegal if one of the participants did not consent. Under '§ 16-6-1. Rape', "rape" is treated as a separate crime, namely "any penetration of the female sex organ by the male sex organ" (also called "carnal knowledge") against "a female forcibly and against her will; or a female who is less than ten years of age". The punishment for this coercion-based crime is more severe than for 'sexual battery', and consent does not play a role under § 16-6-1.
Illinois: According to the 2012 Criminal Code of the Illinois Compiled Statutes, Section 720 ILCS 5/11-1.70, "consent" is "a freely given agreement to the act of sexual penetration or sexual conduct in question. Lack of verbal or physical resistance or submission by the victim resulting from the use of force or threat of force by the accused shall not constitute consent. The manner of dress of the victim at the time of the offense shall not constitute consent. A person who initially consents to sexual penetration or sexual conduct is not deemed to have consented to any sexual penetration or sexual conduct that occurs after he or she withdraws consent during the course of that sexual penetration or sexual conduct." However, the lack of consent is not sufficient to prosecute anyone for a sex crime (except in very specific cases in which the victim is deemed incapable of consenting, namely Section 11–1.20 (a)(2), Section 11–1.50.(a)(2), Section 11–9.2.(e), and Section 11–9.5.(c)), making Illinois' rape legislation coercion-based (Section 11–1.20 (a)(1)).
Indiana: The Indiana Code does not define consent (§35-31.5-2). Consent only comes up in situations where the other person is deemed incapable of consenting (§35-42-4-1 to 14); there is no freely given or affirmative consent.
Massachusetts: The General Laws of Massachusetts do not specifically define consent, and there is no freely given or affirmative consent. Rape can only be committed by having "(unnatural) sexual intercourse with a person" through "compulsion" plus "force and against his will", "threat of bodily injury", "resulting in serious bodily injury", etc.
Michigan: The Michigan Penal Code does not define consent (§ 750.520a). Consent only comes up in situations where the other person is deemed incapable of consenting (§ 750.520b–e.); there is no freely given or affirmative consent. 'Sodomy' (also called "the abominable and detestable crime against nature") without the other person's consent is indirectly criminalised by § 750.158; Lawrence v. Texas (2003) determined that such an act was only illegal if one of the participants did not consent.
New Jersey: The New Jersey Code of Criminal Justice only gives a general description of consent, and cases in which a person is incapable of (effectively) consenting in § 2C:2-10. However, State v. Cuni (1999) determined that a defendant must demonstrate the presence of "affirmative and freely-given permission..." on the part of a putative victim of sexual assault. Under '§ 2C:14-2 Sexual assault', 'sexual assault' or 'aggravated sexual assault' occurs (depending on whether "severe personal injury is sustained by the victim") whenever "[t]he actor commits the act [of sexual penetration of another person] using coercion or without the victim's affirmative and freely-given permission" (a.(6) and c.(1)). The same applies to (aggravated) criminal sexual contact (§ 2C:14-3).
New York: In the New York Penal Law, sexual offenses are defined as "sexual [acts] committed without consent of the victim". Lack of consent results from 4 possible causes: forcible compulsion, incapacity to consent, the victim not expressly or impliedly acquiesceing (in sexual abuse and forcible touching cases), or expression of lack of consent (in sexual intercourse and sexual oral or anal conduct cases). Consent itself is not defined; Section 130.5 only stipulates that a person who does not want to have sex needs to be clear enough in their words and acts, so that "a reasonable person in the actor's situation would have understood such person's words and acts as an expression of lack of consent to such act under all the circumstances". This description does not make clear whether affirmative consent is required to have sex (or conversely, whether a lack of affirmative consent can result in a sexual offense), but both 'Section 130.25 Rape in the third degree (3)' and 'Section 130.40 Criminal sexual act in the third degree (3)' do provide this possibility in the form of catch-all clauses by stating that, whenever there is a "lack of consent (...) by reason of some factor other than incapacity to consent", this is sufficient for the sexual act to amount to a crime.
North Carolina: The North Carolina General Statutes do not define consent; § 14-27.20 only states that the phrase "against the will of the other person" means either "without consent of the other person" or "after consent is revoked by the other person, in a manner that would cause a reasonable person to believe consent is revoked". The phrase "against the will of the other person" is however always used in conjunction with "by force" ("by force and against the will of the other person"), and otherwise consent only comes up in situations where the other person is deemed incapable of consenting. Thus, there is no situation in which freely given or affirmative consent matters (§ 14-27.21–36).
Ohio: The Ohio Revised Code does not define consent (§ 2907.01). Consent only comes up in situations where the other person is deemed incapable of consenting (§ 2907.02–41); there is no freely given or affirmative consent.
Pennsylvania: In the Pennsylvania Consolidated Statutes, 'Section 3107. Resistance not required' stipulates that "the alleged victim need not resist the actor in prosecutions under this chapter". The Statutes do not define consent, but if an actor engages in sexual intercourse or deviate sexual intercourse, or aggravated indecent assault, with a complainant without the latter's consent, this makes the actor punishable under 'Section 3124.1. Sexual assault', or 'Section 3125. Aggravated indecent assault', respectively. Furthermore, mental disability can render a person incapable of consenting to sexual intercourse, deviate sexual intercourse, or aggravated indecent assault, thus making an actor who engages in these acts with a mentally disabled complainant punishable under 'Section 3121. Rape', 'Section 3123. Involuntary deviate sexual intercourse', or 'Section 3125. Aggravated indecent assault', respectively.
Tennessee: The Tennessee Code does not provide a definition for consent, but a lack of consent is sufficient to commit 'rape' (also called "unlawful sexual penetration") under §39-13-501 or 'sexual battery' (also called "unlawful sexual contact") under §39-13-505, which in identical wording state: "The sexual penetration/contact is accomplished without the consent of the victim and the defendant knows or has reason to know at the time of the contact that the victim did not consent."
Texas: Consent itself is not defined; the Texas Penal Code only specifies 12 circumstances in which consent is absent, and sexual assault can occur. There is no freely given consent or affirmative consent; Section 22.011 (b) implies that a person's consent is always present, except in the 12 specified circumstances that render a person incapable of consenting, such as being forced or coerced with violence or threats by the actor (possibly because of the unequal power balance between the actor and the other person), unconscious or "physically unable to resist", or having a "mental disease or defect". Texas sexual assault law is therefore coercion-based: the actor requires no freely given consent or affirmative consent from the other person, and the other person cannot freely revoke their implied permanent consent, unless they satisfy one of the 12 specified circumstances. In other words: if the other person claims not to have wanted to have sex with the actor, but cannot be demonstrated to have been incapable of consenting, and the actor cannot be demonstrated to have used some kind of force or coercion, it is not sexual assault under Texas state law.
Vermont: Act 68, effective since July 1, 2021, redefined sexual consent in 13 V.S.A. § 3251 as "the affirmative, unambiguous, and voluntary agreement to engage in a sexual act, which can be revoked at any time." Reference to compulsion was removed from the definition of sexual assault 13 V.S.A. § 3252, which henceforth stated: "No person shall engage in a sexual act with another person: (1) without the consent of the other person;..." A person is deemed unable to consent if they are unable to understand the nature of the conduct, physically incapable of resisting, declining participation in, or communicating unwillingness to engage in the conduct (e.g. when they are sleeping or unconscious), or lack the mental ability to communicate a decision about whether to engage in the conduct.
Washington: The Washington Criminal Code §9A.44.010(7) states: "Consent' means that at the time of the act of sexual intercourse or sexual contact there are actual words or conduct indicating freely given agreement to have sexual intercourse or sexual contact." Under §9A.44.060, "[a] person is guilty of rape in the third degree when, under circumstances not constituting rape in the first or second degrees, such person engages in sexual intercourse with another person (...) [w]here the victim did not consent as defined in *RCW 9A.44.010(7), to sexual intercourse with the perpetrator...". This is a class C felony, whereas rape in the first and second degree (both of which involve 'forcible compulsion') are class A felonies. However, freely given consent plays no role in non-penetrative sexual acts; under §9A.44.100, "indecent liberties" can only be committed "by forcible compulsion" or against people deemed incapable of consenting.
U.S. military
The Uniform Code of Military Justice (UCMJ) of the United States Armed Forces provides a definition of consent and examples of illegitimate inferrals of consent in § 920. Art. 120. "Rape and sexual assault generally" (g) 7 and 8:
(7) Consent.—
(A) The term "consent" means a freely given agreement to the conduct at issue by a competent person. An expression of lack of consent through words or conduct means there is no consent. Lack of verbal or physical resistance does not constitute consent. Submission resulting from the use of force, threat of force, or placing another person in fear also does not constitute consent. A current or previous dating or social or sexual relationship by itself or the manner of dress of the person involved with the accused in the conduct at issue does not constitute consent.
(B) A sleeping, unconscious, or incompetent person cannot consent. A person cannot consent to force causing or likely to cause death or grievous bodily harm or to being rendered unconscious. A person cannot consent while under threat or in fear or under the circumstances described in subparagraph (B) or (C) of subsection (b)(1).
(C) All the surrounding circumstances are to be considered in determining whether a person gave consent.
(8) Incapable of consenting. —The term "incapable of consenting" means the person is—
(A) incapable of appraising the nature of the conduct at issue; or
(B) physically incapable of declining participation in, or communicating unwillingess to engage in, the sexual act at issue.
Canon law of the Catholic Church
The Catholic Church, governed by the Holy See in Vatican City, updated Book VI of its 1983 Code of Canon Law in June 2021 (taking effect on 8 December 2021) for clearer rules on numerous offences, including sexual ones. The revision was the result of a long process commenced in 2009 to better prevent and address Catholic Church sexual abuse cases, mostly committed by clerics against underage children entrusted in their care, but also against vulnerable adults, or other sexual offences the Church regards as sinful due to breaching the clerical celibacy in the Catholic Church. Pope Francis, archbishop Filippo Iannone, and other officials stated that bishops had been too lenient in penalising offenders in the past, in part because of the vagueness of canon law, and formally introduced laicization as a penalty for certain sexual offences.
In Catholic theology, the Ten Commandments are numbered so that the sixth commandment is "Thou shalt not commit adultery". The Catholic Church's interpretation of the sixth commandment is much broader than just adultery (extramarital sex), and concerns a set of so-called "offences against chastity". The revised provisions on sexual offences are derived from this broad interpretation of the sixth commandment. The provisions in Canon 1395 §3. are coercion-based, as they require evidence of the use of "force, threats or abuse of his authority", while Canon 1398 §1. describes sexual offences in which the victim was deemed incapable of consenting (because of "habitually [having] an imperfect use of reason"). There is no freely given sexual consent for people deemed capable of consenting.
Canon 1395 §3. states:
A cleric who by force, threats or abuse of his authority commits an offence against the sixth commandment of the Decalogue or forces someone to perform or submit to sexual acts is to be punished with the same penalty as in § 2 [i.e. punished with just penalties, not excluding dismissal from the clerical state if the case so warrants].
Canon 1398 §1. states:
A cleric is to be punished with deprivation of office and with other just penalties, not excluding, where the case calls for it, dismissal from the clerical state, if he:
commits an offence against the sixth commandment of the Decalogue with a minor or with a person who habitually has an imperfect use of reason or with one to whom the law recognises equal protection;
grooms or induces a minor or a person who habitually has an imperfect use of reason or one to whom the law recognises equal protection to expose himself or herself pornographically or to take part in pornographic exhibitions, whether real or simulated;
immorally acquires, retains, exhibits or distributes, in whatever manner and by whatever technology, pornographic images of minors or of persons who habitually have an imperfect use of reason.
Effect on conviction rates
In June 2020, the Swedish National Council for Crime Prevention (Bra) reported that the number of rape convictions had increased from 190 in 2017 to 333 in 2019, a rise of 75% after Sweden adopted a consent-based definition of rape in May 2018; reports of rape rose by 21% in the same period. Furthermore, the introduction of the new offence of 'negligent rape' – for cases where courts found consent had not been established, but that the perpetrator had not intended to commit rape – led to the conviction of 12 people. Bra was positively surprised by this greater-than-expected impact, saying "this has led to greater justice for victims of rape," and hoping it would improve social attitudes towards sex. Amnesty International regarded the results as evidence that other countries should also adopt consent-based legislation in order to protect (potential) victims of sexual violence better.
Contrary to what some opponents of consent-based legislation have argued, "recent research in countries such as Britain where sex without consent is considered rape, shows that false accusations have not gone up dramatically." Oxford legal professor Jonathan Herring stated in January 2021 that the main remaining problems in the UK are proving "beyond all reasonable doubt" the victim did not consent, and that many juries "still believe in 'rape myths', eg. that the victim who is drunk or in a club is consenting to sex."
Historical laws
Most pre-modern laws were concerned with sexual offences as disturbances of the social order, especially of what a man might do to/with a woman he was not married to, regardless of whether she consented to it or not. In some rare cases, however, pre-modern laws did consider the (lack of) consent of a person (particularly a woman) involved a relevant factor in determining whether or not a sexual offence had occurred. Examples include §190 and §191 of the Hittite laws (also known as the 'Code of the Nesilim'; developed , in effect until ), and §12 of the Middle Assyrian Laws (developed ; this one involves a combination of lack of consent on the one hand, and force on the other).
Hittite laws §190. "If a man and a woman come willingly, as men and women, and have intercourse, there shall be no punishment. (...)"
Hittite laws §191. "If a free man picks up now this woman, now that one, now in this country, then in that country, there shall be no punishment if they came together sexually willingly."
Middle Assyrian Laws §12. "If, as a seignior's wife passed along the street, a(nother) seignior has seized her, saying to her, 'Let me lie with you', since she would not consent (and) kept defending herself, but he has taken her by force (and) lain with her, whether they found him on the seignior's wife or witnesses have charged him that he lay with the woman, they shall put the seignior to death, with no blame attaching to the woman".
Enforcement challenges
While progressive rape legislation is favoured by most legal experts and human rights instruments, as it offers higher protections to rape survivors than coercion-based legislation, there are numerous enforcement challenges related to consent-based rape legislation.
Defining consent
There are currently consent-based jurisdictions which do not define consent at all within their legislation, which has led to issues such as clothing worn being interpreted as 'consent'. Furthermore, in some legal systems, consent is not solely based on a person's clear agreement but also on the "contribution of the victim", i.e. how their actions, behavior or perceived level of participation or engagement are considered as contributing factors to determining whether consent was given. This approach blurs the distinction between a purely consent-driven system and one that factors in other influences, like coercion. Additionally, some jurisdictions allow for the consideration of the 'reasonable belief' of the offender of consent by the victim, which limits the effectiveness of such legislation.
Furthermore, there is the issue of which concept of 'consent' should be implemented. For example, scientific studies have been strong proponents for a holistically viewed definition which includes contextual cues and interpersonal dynamics. However, this may be too broad for effective enforcement of consent-based legislation due to challenges with legal certainty, a principle which holds that the law must provide those subject to it with the ability to regulate their conduct with certainty. On the other hand, the interpretation of consent in certain legal jurisdictions is too narrow, as it encompasses solely verbal consent.
Pervasiveness of rape myths
Rape myths are a heavily discussed barrier to effective enforcement of rape legislation in general. However, consent-based legislation is particularly vulnerable to the potential negative consequences that such myths may have on its enforcement.
The prevalence of such myths in society poses a challenge for the enforcement of consent-based rape legislation. Firstly, they are a large problem in jury trials; as misperceptions of victim behaviour often lead to assumptions of 'false allegations'. Secondly, such myths and false stereotypes are present in law enforcement as well as in other actors within the criminal justice system. This has numerous negative effects including prejudiced filtering out of rape complaints, deeming 'simple rape' cases as 'unfounded' and promoting the lack of credibility of victims through skewing false allegation statistics. This prejudice within the criminal justice system against the "word of a woman" creates a great barrier to the effective enforcement of rape legislation, but particularly consent-based, as the latter often results in "he-said, she-said" type scenarios.
Difficulties with procedural justice for rape survivors
Another primary barrier to the effective enforcement of consent-based rape legislation concerns issues with the criminal justice system itself. Rape survivors are often wary of filing a complaint and participating in a trial. Contrary to the stereotype of rape survivors mainly wishing for retributive justice, several surveys have found a desire to protect others as the primary reason for reporting their offenders. Furthermore, many rape survivors face great personal obstacles within a trial setting: often being berated in aggressive cross-examinations, humiliated with inappropriate and irrelevant questions and intimidated by the assailant's friends and families in the courtroom. This dissuades victims from coming forward and filing complaints. Thus, in recent years, there have been attempts to shift more towards focusing on preventative means of reducing rape such as college bystander trainings.
See also
Circumcision and law
Female genital mutilation laws by country
Marital rape laws by country
Marry-your-rapist law
Non-consensual condom removal § Legal status (also known as 'stealthing')
Sodomy law
Notes
References
Bibliography
(eBook)
Relevant legislation
Laws regarding rape
Human sexuality
Articles containing video clips | Sexual consent in law | [
"Biology"
] | 22,199 | [
"Human sexuality",
"Behavior",
"Human behavior",
"Sexuality"
] |
66,572,881 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dihydropteridine%20reductase%20deficiency | Dihydropteridine reductase deficiency (DHPRD) is a genetic disorder affecting the tetrahydrobiopterin (BH4) synthesis pathway, inherited in the autosomal recessive pattern. It is one of the six known disorders causing tetrahydrobiopterin deficiency, and occurs in patients with mutations of the QDPR gene.
Presentation
The disease presents with such symptoms as elevated levels of phenylalanine (hyperphenylalaninemia), microcephaly, hypotonus, mental retardation and epileptic seizures.
Cause
Diagnostics
Besides the traditional analysis of symptoms and investigation of phenylalanine concentrations, patients suspected for DHPRD undergo the assessment of enzymatic activity using the dried blood spot method - this permits to distinguish DHPR deficiency from the other forms of BH4 deficiency.
Treatment
Patients are prescribed a phenylalanine-reduced diet, with regular monitoring of phenylalanine levels in the blood. Besides the diet, a patient may be prescribed sapropterin, a synthetic analogue of tetrahydrobiopterin.
In order to restore dopamine levels in the central nervous system, patients are given L-dopa in conjunction with an inhibitor of aromatic amino acid decarboxylase that acts outside the nervous system, so as to promote the transformation of L-dopa into dopamine inside the central nervous system, and thus to improve the efficiency of the treatment.
Since the insufficient levels of BH4 inhibit the transformation of tryptophan into 5-hydroxytryptophan in a reaction in which BH4 serves as a cofactor of the enzyme tryptophane hydroxylase 2, patients suffer from a lack of serotonin in their CNS. In order to correct this deficiency, they are given 5-hydroxytryptophan.
In patients with DHPR deficiency, a pronounced lack of 5-methyltetrahydrofolate (5-MTHF) is observed in the central nervous system. This condition, termed cerebral folate deficiency, (CFD) is more severe in DHPRD patients than in patients with other forms of BH4 deficiency. CFD is corrected by treating patients with folinic acid, a form of folate that efficiently passes the hematoencephalic barrier. The use of folic acid, the synthetic form of folate employed in food fortification, should be avoided because folic acid tightly binds to the folate receptor alpha and may inhibit the transport of folate into the central nervous system.
References
Metabolic disorders | Dihydropteridine reductase deficiency | [
"Chemistry"
] | 540 | [
"Metabolic disorders",
"Metabolism"
] |
66,572,904 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TOI-561 | TOI-561 is an old, metal-poor, Sun-like star, known to have multiple small planets.
It is an orange dwarf, estimated to be 10.5 billion years old, and about 79% the mass and 85% the radius of Sol, Earth's sun. It is located in the constellation Sextans, near the border with Leo.
In January 2021, a team led by Lauren Weiss of the University of Hawaii at Manoa announced that, using data from NASA's Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite, they had found a Super-Earth in a very close orbit, as well as two outer Sub-Neptunes. The innermost planet, TOI-561 b, orbits in under one Earth day. Another team led by Gaia Lacedelli of the University of Padua independently announced the discovery in a paper published in December 2020. However, the two papers disagree on the structure of the system. While the innermost two planets were confirmed from data by both papers, Weiss proposes only a single third planet in a 16.3-day orbit, while Lacedelli argues that the system instead contains two further planets, in wider orbits of 25.6 and 77 days.
Discovery and nomenclature
TOI-561 is also designated 2MASS J09524454+0612589 in the 2MASS catalog and TIC 377064495 in the TESS Input Catalog. When its planets were first identified, it was renamed TOI-561, with TOI standing for "TESS Object of Interest".
The planetary system was independently confirmed and characterized by Lacedelli et al. 2020 and Weiss et al. 2021. Lacedelli et al. found evidence for four exoplanets: the Ultra-Short-Period (USP) Super-Earth TOI-561 b, and three Sub-Neptunes designated TOI-561 c, d, and e. The two planets TOI-561 d and TOI-561 e were originally listed as a single planet with a period of 16 days on ExoFOP, but Lacedelli could not detect a planet in that orbit using radial velocity data from HARPS, and instead interpreted it as two separate transits coming from planets correlating with periods of 25.6 and 77.2 days found by HARPS.
In January 2021, Lauren Weiss and her team's study on TOI-561 was published. Unlike Lacedelli, they kept the 16-day signal and designated it TOI-561 d; it is referred to as TOI-561 f on NASA's Exoplanet Archive to avoid confusion with the TOI-561 d from Lacedelli's paper.
Characteristics
TOI-561 is a yellow or orange star approximately 80% the size of the Sun. According to Lacedelli, it is 85% the radius and 79% the mass of the Sun, with a temperature of 5455 K. Weiss found the star to be 83.2% the radius and 80.5% the mass of the Sun, with a temperature of 5326 K and a luminosity just over half that of the Sun. Both teams found that TOI-561 has an extremely low abundance of metals, or any element heavier than hydrogen or helium, and is very old; Weiss calculates an age of roughly 10 billion years. It is also a part of the Galactic Thick-Disk and is the first of those stars to have confirmed transiting exoplanets.
Planetary system
Depending on the study, TOI-561 has either 3 (Weiss) or 4 (Lacedelli) planets. The discrepancy comes from different interpretations of the two transit events associated with TOI-561 d in Weiss 2020. Only two transits were observed by TESS, and a third transit for a 16-day period would have occurred in the middle of a data gap. Weiss attributes the two transits to that of a single Sub-Neptune sized planet. However, in the radial velocity analysis by Lacedelli 2020, the 16-day signal is not recovered, but there are two additional signals of 26 and 77 days that they attribute to one of the two transits each. The follow-up study in 2022 has confirmed the architecture of four-planet system. Additional, fifth planet on the 473 days orbit is suspected. The orbital parameters were refined with additional observations from CHEOPS and TESS in 2024, further confirming four transiting planets and a fifth non-transiting candidate.
TOI-561 b
TOI-561 b is an USP Super-Earth with a radius of roughly 1.4 Earths. It has an extremely short orbital period of under 11 hours, less than half of an Earth day, resulting in an equilibrium temperature of . The planet is believed to be far too small and irradiated to hold onto its primordial Hydrogen and Helium envelope. However, the composition of the planet varies greatly between the two studies. Weiss 2020 found a mass of around 3.2 Earths and a density of 5.5 grams per cubic centimetre, around the same as Earth and implying a rocky but iron-poor composition. Lacedelli 2020, on the other hand, found a mass of only 1.59 Earths and a density of 3.0 grams per cubic centimetre, abnormally low for a planet of its size and suggesting a composition made of 50% or more of water. Even their higher mass estimate of 1.83 Earths is still consistent with a water-world. With an insolation 5,100 times greater than Earth, TOI-561 b should have lost its gaseous layer and have little volatiles, so the authors believe if the planet has a significant amount of water, it has been evaporated into a puffy steam atmosphere that makes the planet seem larger, less dense, and more water-rich. If it is an extremely water-rich world, TOI-561 b would prove formation scenarios about Super-Earths forming beyond the "Snow Line" and migrating inwards.
TOI-561 c
TOI-561 c is a Mini-Neptune orbiting every 10.7 days with an equilibrium temperature of . With a radius of 2.9 Earths and a mass of 5.4 to 7.0 Earths, the planet has a Neptune-like density of 1.3 to 1.6 grams per cubic centimetre, implying that it is a small gas planet with a similar composition, albeit far hotter and closer to its star than our system's ice giants.
TOI-561 d/e/f
Two additional transit events were observed by TESS. The original planet candidate from the SPOC pipeline included both transits with a period of 16 days. Lacedelli et al. failed to find a significant radial velocity signal at that period, but found two others with periods of 25.6 and 77.2 days, and also noticed differences in the shape, duration, and depth of the two individual transits. They concluded that the 16-day signal was instead two separate single transit events from similarly sized but different planets, which corresponded with the additional signals found in their radial velocity analysis. They designated these planets TOI-561 d (25.6 days) and TOI-561 e (77.2 days). According to their analysis, both planets are slightly smaller than TOI-561 c at 2.5 and 2.7 Earths, but are both significantly more massive, at 12 and 16 times the mass of Earth. TOI-561 d and TOI-561 e are much denser at 4.1 and 4.6 grams per cubic centimetre, respectively. These are compatible with water-world compositions of >50% water by mass, or a thin H/He envelope on top of a water mantle and rocky core. Weiss et al. interprets the two transits as a single planet, and also interprets an extremely faint radial velocity signal corresponding to about 3 Earth masses; however, it is too imprecise to gain an accurate density estimate, and this scenario could be incorrect. To distinguish this from the previous reported TOI-561 e, the 16-day planet from Weiss et al. has been designated TOI-561 f on the Exoplanet Archive.
References
G-type main-sequence stars
Sextans
0561
Planetary systems with four confirmed planets
J09524454+0612589 | TOI-561 | [
"Astronomy"
] | 1,749 | [
"Sextans",
"Constellations"
] |
66,572,936 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laestadites | Laestadites is an extinct genus of fungi with unknown classification.
References
Enigmatic fungus taxa
Fungus genera
Prehistoric fungi
Fossil taxa described in 1892 | Laestadites | [
"Biology"
] | 30 | [
"Fungus stubs",
"Fungi",
"Prehistoric fungi"
] |
66,573,106 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaussian%20distribution%20on%20a%20locally%20compact%20Abelian%20group | Gaussian distribution on a locally compact Abelian group is a distribution on a second
countable locally compact Abelian group which satisfies the
conditions:
(i) is an infinitely divisible distribution;
(ii) if , where is the generalized
Poisson distribution, associated with a finite measure , and
is an infinitely divisible distribution, then the measure
is degenerated at zero.
This definition of the Gaussian distribution for the group
coincides with the classical one. The support of
a Gaussian distribution is a coset of a connected subgroup of .
Let be the character group of the group . A distribution
on is Gaussian () if and only if its
characteristic function can be represented in the form
,
where is the
value of a character at an element , and
is a continuous nonnegative function on satisfying
the equation .
A Gaussian distribution is called symmetric if . Denote by
the set of Gaussian distributions on the group , and by the set of symmetric Gaussian distribution on
. If , then is a continuous
homomorphic image of a Gaussian distribution in a real linear space.
This space is either finite dimensional or infinite dimensional
(the space of all sequences of real numbers in the product
topology) ().
If a distribution can be embedded in a continuous
one-parameter semigroup , of distributions on
, then if and only if
for any neighbourhood of zero
in the group ().
Let be a connected group, and
. If is not a locally connected, then
is singular (with respect of a Haar distribution on )
(). If is a locally connected and has a finite
dimension, then is either absolutely continuous or
singular. The question of the validity of a similar statement on
locally connected groups of infinite dimension is open, although on
such groups it is possible to construct both absolutely continuous
and singular Gaussian distributions.
It is well known that two Gaussian distributions in a linear space
are either mutually absolutely continuous or mutually singular. This
alternative is true for Gaussian distributions on connected groups
of finite dimension ().
The following theorem is valid (), which can be considered
as an analogue of Cramer's theorem on the decomposition of the normal distribution for locally compact Abelian groups.
Cramer's theorem on the decomposition of the Gaussian distribution for locally compact Abelian groups
Let be a random variable with values in a locally compact
Abelian group with a Gaussian distribution, and let
, where and are independent random variables
with values in . The random variables and are Gaussian if
and only if the group contains no subgroup topologically
isomorphic to the circle group, i.e. the multiplicative group of
complex numbers whose modulus is equal to 1.
References
Probability distributions | Gaussian distribution on a locally compact Abelian group | [
"Mathematics"
] | 556 | [
"Functions and mappings",
"Mathematical relations",
"Mathematical objects",
"Probability distributions"
] |
66,574,331 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bellman%20filter | The Bellman filter is an algorithm that estimates the value sequence of hidden states in a state-space model. It is a generalization of the Kalman filter, allowing for nonlinearity in both the state and observation equations. The principle behind the Bellman filter is an approximation of the maximum a posteriori estimator, which makes it robust to heavy-tailed noise. It is in general a very fast method, since at each iteration only the very last state value is estimated. The algorithm owes its name to the Bellman equation, which plays a central role in the derivation of the algorithm.
References
Control theory
Nonlinear filters
Signal estimation | Bellman filter | [
"Mathematics"
] | 129 | [
"Applied mathematics",
"Control theory",
"Dynamical systems"
] |
66,579,401 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Living%20technology | Living technology is the field of technology that derives its functionality and usefulness from the properties that make natural organisms alive (see life). It may be seen as a technological subfield of both artificial life and complex systems and is relevant beyond biotechnology to nanotechnology, information technology, artificial intelligence, environmental technology and socioeconomic technology for managing human society.
Overview
Living technology is broadly defined as technology that derives its usefulness primarily from its life-like properties.
Living technologies are "characterized by robustness, autonomy, energy efficiency, sustainability, local intelligence, self-repair, adaptation, self-replication and evolution, all properties current technology lack, but living systems possess." Thus, the potential usefulness of technologies that are engineered to become more life-like stem from the properties of life itself.
The word “technology,” from the Greek techne, usually evokes physical technologies like artificial intelligence, smartphones or genetically engineered organisms. But there is an older meaning. By Jacob Bigelow’s 1829 definition, technology can describe a process that benefits society. In that sense, social institutions, like governments and healthcare systems, can be seen, and studied as technologies. Physical technologies may be defined as tools for transforming matter, energy or information in pursuit of our goals while social technologies are tools for organizing people in pursuit of our goals. Under this definition, our social institutions, economy, and laws are technologies that, like physical technologies, can be studied and improved. In the broadest sense living technology are technologies that possess properties that characterize living processes.
History
The term "living technology" was coined by Mark Bedau, John McCaskill, Norman Packard and Steen Rasmussen in 2001, in a pitch to form a center for living technology. The ideas mainly grew out of the conceptual foundations of Artificial Life and Complex Systems, but with an engineering focus where engineering aims at developing technologies with life-like properties mainly using bottom up design approaches.
Based on the living technology ideas a number of projects were initiated, including the European Commission sponsored project, Programmable Artificial Cell Evolution (PACE), that in part co-sponsored the European Centre for Living Technology (ECLT) in Venice, Italy in 2004. Also the Protocell Assembly project at Los Alamos National Laboratory, USA, was based on these ideas and also sponsored in 2004. A number of successive EC sponsored projects followed including a EC call for proposals on Living Technology in 2009. In 2007 the Center for Fundamental Living Technology (FLinT)
was established at the University of Southern Denmark co-sponsored by the Danish National Science Foundation (Grundforskningsfonden).
An EC Flagship project based on further developing living technologies, Sustainable Programmable Living Technologies (SPLiT) was submitted in 2010 and ranked within the top 15 proposals, but did not obtain funding.
It is obvious that technology in particular over recent years has become both more life-like and more intelligent. This is enabling technology to both become more powerful and to meet societal challenges of being less disruptive to the environment, more sustainable, less subject to failure and more akin to human needs and accepted modes of interaction. This development is only expected to continue.
Research and range of living technology
The research perspectives and methods for living technologies are usually bottom up in opposition to top down. Thus, there is focus on engineering design without an explicit blueprint, which means the desired system properties emerge from the subsystem interactions. It is an ambition for engineering living technologies to create systems that are adaptive and can develop in an openended way over time as seen in ecological systems. The development of living technologies pose a number of ethical issues that in part has to be addressed in the engineering design process and in part through legislation.
As with biotechnology, there is a range of technology that might be considered as versions of living technology. Below is a list, beginning with rather trivial versions, and ending with more modern, sophisticated versions. Generally the term is widely understood to apply to technology that does not merely have living properties or involve life, but rather technology that derives is principal functionality from its living properties.
Use of living organisms for functionality unrelated to life-like properties (e.g., guiding growth of a tree to become a bridge).
Use of living organisms without modification for functionality that intrinsically uses life-like properties (e.g., brewing).
Modification of living organisms for new functionality (biotechnology, bioengineering, genetic engineering, synthetic biology)
Creation of new technology independent of existing living organisms, whose functionality depends on life-like properties.
Protocells, spanning a range of realizations:
Assembly of nonliving matter to form a living cell (still an unachieved research vision).
Construction of vesicles with intrinsic life-like properties such as metabolism and motility.
Construction of vesicles filled with components harvested from living cells.
Modifying existing cells with a complete programmable genome.
Synergetic combinations of electronic, chemical, and biological components
Social and socio-technical systems
Organizations and institutions with focus on their life-like properties
Non-biochemical instantiations of technology with life-like properties, e.g. the World Wide Web
Open problems
Ethical issues with living technology
Ethical issues in living technology are of several kinds:
(i) issues related to the creation of life-like or living entities like artificial cells
(ii) safety issues related to the release of entities potentially capable of proliferation into the environment
(iii) ecological issues related to preservation of biodiversity, natural wilderness and privacy
(iv) issues of ownership and responsibility for actions involving ongoing processes rather than material objects
The first issue was given careful consideration during the PACE project, resulting in a guideline document
Engineering living technology
bottom up vs. top down
design with no blueprint
engineering open endedness
References
Artificial life
Complex dynamics
Emergence | Living technology | [
"Mathematics"
] | 1,174 | [
"Complex dynamics",
"Dynamical systems"
] |
66,580,704 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perfect%20month | A perfect month or a rectangular month designates a month whose number of days is divisible by the number of days in a week and whose first day corresponds to the first day of the week. This causes the arrangement of the days of the month to resemble a rectangle. In the Gregorian calendar, this arrangement can only occur for the month of February.
Constraints
To satisfy such an arrangement in the Gregorian calendar, the number of days in the month must be divisible by seven. Only the month of February of a common year can meet this constraint as the month has 28 days, a multiple of 7.
For a February to be a perfect month, the month must start on the first day of the week (usually considered to be Sunday or Monday). For Sunday-first calendars, this means that the year must start on a Thursday, and for Monday-first calendars, the year must start on a Friday. It must also occur in a common year, as the phenomenon does not occur when February has 29 days.
Occurrence
In the Gregorian calendar, the phenomenon occurs every six years or eleven years following a 6-11-11, 11-6-11, or an 11-11-6 sequence until the end of the 21st century. The most recent perfect months were February 2015 (Sunday-first) and February 2021 (Monday-first). Due to calculation rules, the years 1700, 1800, and 1900 are not leap years, causing a shift in the sequence with a spacing of twelve years between 1698 and 1710, 1795 and 1807, and 1897 and 1909 respectively; however 2094, 2100 and 2106 will all feature perfect months with spacings of six years on Monday-first calendars.
The next perfect months will be February 2026 (Sunday-first) and February 2027 (Monday-first).
Attributes
The calendar arrangement brings together notions of harmony and organization.
See also
Palindrome#Dates
Perfectionism (psychology)
Perfectionism (philosophy)
References
Calendars
February
Months | Perfect month | [
"Physics"
] | 411 | [
"Spacetime",
"Calendars",
"Physical quantities",
"Time"
] |
66,580,770 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pechini%20process | A process related to the sol-gel route is the Pechini, or liquid mix, process (named after its American inventor, Maggio Pechini). An aqueous solution of suitable oxides or salts is mixed with an alpha hydroxycarboxylic acid such as citric acid. Chelation, or the formation of complex ring-shaped compounds around the metal cations, takes place in the solution. A polyhydroxy alcohol is then added, and the liquid is heated to 150–250 °C (300–480 °F) to allow the chelates to polymerize, or form large, cross-linked networks. As excess water is removed by heating, a solid polymeric resin results. Eventually, at still higher temperatures of 500–900 °C (930–1,650 °F), the resin is decomposed or charred, and ultimately a mixed oxide is obtained. Particle size is extremely small, typically 20 to 50 nanometres (although there is agglomeration of these particles into larger clusters), with intimate mixing taking place on the atomic scale.
The Pechini method was proposed in 1967 as a technique of depositing dielectric films of titanates and niobates of lead and alkaline-earth elements in the production of capacitors. Later, the process was customised for the in-lab synthesis of multicomponent finely dispersed oxide materials.
Pechini process
This method has been used for synthesizing over 100 mixed metal oxides including lanthanum manganite for solid oxide fuel cells and BaTiO3 (Lessing 1989). Unlike the sol–gel process in which the metal alkoxide participates in the gel-forming reactions this process is based on a gelation reaction between the alcohol and acid used as solvents. A polymeric resin containing a good distribution of cations is obtained which yields the oxide upon calcination. The use of polyacrylic acid with higher functionality results in highly cross-linked resins containing a more uniform distribution of the reacting cations. The gel structures can be varied depending on the acid-to-alcohol ratio. A low organic content is preferred to decrease the calcination time and temperature in order to obtain fine-grained materials with low carbon contents.
References
Chemical processes
Thin film deposition | Pechini process | [
"Chemistry",
"Materials_science",
"Mathematics"
] | 473 | [
"Thin film deposition",
"Coatings",
"Thin films",
"Chemical processes",
"nan",
"Chemical process engineering",
"Planes (geometry)",
"Solid state engineering"
] |
66,581,545 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jermain%20G.%20Porter | Jermain Gildersleeve Porter (January 8, 1852 - April 14, 1933) was an American astronomer and opponent of the theory of relativity.
Porter was born at Buffalo, New York. He studied at Hamilton College, was employed by the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey in 1878, and from 1884 to 1930 was director of the Cincinnati Observatory and professor at the University of Cincinnati. He observed comets and nebulae, but gained a name mainly through his three star catalogs (1895–1905) and through his studies of the stars motion, collected in the Catalog of Proper Motion Stars , I – IV (1915–18), Publications of the Cincinnati Observatory No. 18.
He also authored Variation of Latitude 1899–1906 (1908) and The Stars in Song and Legend (1901). Together with Elliott Smith, he published the Catalog of 4683 Stars of the Epoch 1900, Publications of the Cincinnati Observatory, No. 193, in which he also stated his own movements. He also made a name for himself as an opponent of the theory of relativity.
Selected publications
Historical Sketch of the Cincinnati Observatory 1843-1893 (1893)
The Stars in Song and Legend (1901)
The Overthrow of Newton's Theory of Gravitation (1920)
The Relativity Deflection of Light: Facts versus Theory (1929)
Recent Textbooks and Relativity (1927)
References
1852 births
1933 deaths
American astronomers
Hamilton College (New York) alumni
Relativity critics
University of Cincinnati faculty | Jermain G. Porter | [
"Physics"
] | 296 | [
"Relativity critics",
"Theory of relativity"
] |
66,581,655 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laboratory-acquired%20infection | A laboratory-acquired infection or LAI is an infection that is acquired in a laboratory, usually as part of a medical research facility or hospital.
Causes
There are various microbes, viruses, fungi, and parasites that can infect a host via several routes of transmission.
Prevention
Laboratory facilities handling microbes, viruses and/or parasites adhere to various biosecurity measures in order to prevent biosecurity accidents and incidents.
OECD Best Practice Guidelines for Biological Resource Centres
In 2001, experts from OECD countries created a consensus report called, calling upon "national governments to undertake actions to bring the BRC concept into being in concert with the international scientific community". The report details "Biological Resource Centres" (BRCs) as "repositories and providers of high-quality biological materials and information".
History
The first laboratory-acquired infection was reported at the time of Pasteur and Koch in 1890.
Prior to 1950, few reports were made on laboratory-acquired infections, due to the lower level of awareness concerning the problem. In 1951, a paper from Sulkin and Pike presented data on viral infections contracted in laboratories, which advised caution on handling viruses in laboratory environments and brought public awareness to the issue. Soon after, the American Public Health Association formed a standing committee on Laboratory Infections and Accidents and created a file to document cases of laboratory-acquired infections reported by the public and through private communications.
See also
Dora Lush
Biotechnology risk
Biosafety level
List of accidents and incidents involving laboratory biosecurity
Reference section
Virology
Microbiology
Infectious diseases | Laboratory-acquired infection | [
"Chemistry",
"Biology"
] | 317 | [
"Microbiology",
"Microscopy"
] |
66,581,810 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limosilactobacillus | Limosilactobacillus is a thermophilic and heterofermentative genus of lactic acid bacteria created in 2020 by splitting from Lactobacillus. The name is derived from the Latin "slimy", referring to the property of most strains in the genus to produce exopolysaccharides from sucrose. The genus currently includes 31 species or subspecies, most of these were isolated from the intestinal tract of humans or animals. Limosilactobacillus reuteri has been used as a model organism to evaluate the host-adaptation of lactobacilli to the human and animal intestine and for the recruitment of intestinal lactobacilli for food fermentations. Limosilactobacillus fermentum is an exception as this species is not considered host adapted but nomadic Lm. reuteri, Limosilactobacillus pontis and other limosilactobacilli occur frequently in back-slopped cereal fermentations while Lm. fermentum reliably occurs in spontaneous cereal fermentations. Lm. reuteri and Lm. fermentum also have been successfully applied as probiotics
Limosilactobacilli are heterofermentative and produce lactate, CO2, and acetate or ethanol from glucose; several limosilactobacilli, particularly strains of Lm. reuteri convert glycerol or 1,2-propanediol to 1,3 propanediol or propanol, respectively. Most strains do not grow in presence of oxygen, or in de Man, Rogosa Sharpe (MRS) medium, the standard medium for cultivation of lactobacilli. Addition of maltose, cysteine and fructose to MRS is usually sufficient for cultivation of limosilactobacilli although some species, e.g. Limosilactobacillus secaliphilus, require special cultivation media.
Species
The genus Limosilactobacillus comprises the following species:
Limosilactobacillus agrestis Li et al. 2021
Limosilactobacillus albertensis Li et al. 2021
Limosilactobacillus alvi Zheng et al. 2020
Limosilactobacillus antri (Roos et al. 2005) Zheng et al. 2020
Limosilactobacillus balticus Li et al. 2021
Limosilactobacillus caviae (Killer et al. 2017) Zheng et al. 2020
Limosilactobacillus coleohominis (Nikolaitchouk et al. 2001) Zheng et al. 2020
Limosilactobacillus equigenerosi (Endo et al. 2008) Zheng et al. 2020
Limosilactobacillus fastidiosus Li et al. 2021
Limosilactobacillus fermentum (Beijerinck 1901) Zheng et al. 2020
Limosilactobacillus frumenti (Müller et al. 2000) Zheng et al. 2020
Limosilactobacillus gastricus (Roos et al. 2005) Zheng et al. 2020
Limosilactobacillus gorillae (Tsuchida et al. 2014) Zheng et al. 2020
Limosilactobacillus ingluviei (Baele et al. 2003) Zheng et al. 2020
Limosilactobacillus mucosae (Roos et al. 2000) Zheng et al. 2020
Limosilactobacillus oris (Farrow and Collins 1988) Zheng et al. 2020
Limosilactobacillus panis (Wiese et al. 1996) Zheng et al. 2020
Limosilactobacillus pontis (Vogel et al. 1994) Zheng et al. 2020
Limosilactobacillus portuensis Ksiezarek et al. 2021
Limosilactobacillus reuteri (Kandler et al. 1982) Zheng et al. 2020
Limosilactobacillus rudii Li et al. 2021
Limosilactobacillus secaliphilus (Ehrmann et al. 2007) Zheng et al. 2020
Limosilactobacillus urinaemulieris Ksiezarek et al. 2021
Limosilactobacillus vaginalis (Embley et al. 1989) Zheng et al. 2020
The following species are effectively but not validly described:Limosilactobacillus walteri (Sahora et al. 2023)
Limosilactobacillus allomucosae (Chen et al.. 2024)
Phylogeny
The currently accepted taxonomy is based on the List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature and the phylogeny is based on whole-genome sequences.
References
Lactobacillaceae
Food science
Gut flora bacteria
Garde manger
Gram-positive bacteria
Bacteria genera | Limosilactobacillus | [
"Biology"
] | 1,041 | [
"Gut flora bacteria",
"Bacteria"
] |
66,583,095 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Griesbaum%20coozonolysis | The Griesbaum coozonolysis is a name reaction in organic chemistry that allows for the preparation of tetrasubstituted ozonides (1,2,4-trioxolanes) by the reaction of O-methyl oximes with a carbonyl compound in the presence of ozone. Contrary to their usual roles as intermediates in ozonolysis and other oxidative alkene cleavage reactions, 1,2,4-trioxolanes are relatively stable compounds and are isolable.
Mechanism
The oxime first reacts with the ozone to form the corresponding carbonyl oxide, undergoes 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition with the carbonyl reactant to form the cyclic ozonide, as usual for the Criegee intermediate in the ozonolysis of alkenes.
If no carbonyl compound is used, the carbonyl oxide may dimerize and form 1,2,4,5-tetraoxanes.
References
Name reactions | Griesbaum coozonolysis | [
"Chemistry"
] | 202 | [
"Name reactions",
"Chemical reaction stubs",
"Organic redox reactions",
"Organic reactions"
] |
66,583,710 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rubidium%20acetate | Rubidium acetate is a rubidium salt that is the result of reacting rubidium metal, rubidium carbonate, or rubidium hydroxide with acetic acid. It is soluble in water like other acetates.
Uses
Rubidium acetate is used as a catalyst for the polymerization of silanol terminated siloxane oligomers.
References
Rubidium compounds
Acetates
Catalysts | Rubidium acetate | [
"Chemistry"
] | 82 | [
"Catalysis",
"Catalysts",
"Inorganic compounds",
"Inorganic compound stubs",
"Chemical reaction stubs",
"Chemical kinetics",
"Chemical process stubs"
] |
66,583,867 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niwar%20%28cotton%20tape%29 | Niwar (also known as newar, niwar, nivar, navār, or nuwār) is a coarse, narrow, thick tape that was initially made of cotton only. Niwar is a textile product produced on tape looms and classified as a narrow-width fabric. Baden Henry Powell referred to it as "broad coarse tape", a product of the jail industry. In his book Handbook of the Manufactures and Arts of the Punjab, Powell classified niwar under the category of "tape, string, and miscellaneous cotton products". A weaver of this tape is called a .
Significance
In Guru Granth Sahib, the central holy text of Sikhism, the 15th-century saint Kabir lists "silks and satins and a niwar bed" as examples of luxury items. Only the rich could afford to have their beds bound with niwar, while the poor would use grass rope. Baden Henry Powell, writing in the 19th century, also mentions the high price of niwar.
Cotton niwar weaving was a source of employment for many female artisans, rural cottage industries, and work for inmates in jail industries.
Production
Though Powell mentioned it in the Punjab, the manufacture of Niwar was not limited to the state of Punjab. Gazetters from various states indicate the prevalence of niwar weaving in different parts of India.
Niwar is also produced in Nasarpur, Matiari, Hala and Gambat in Sindh, and the person who makes such tapes are called Nawarbaf.
Small-scale and rural cottage industry
Towards the close of the 17th century, rural weavers in various regions of India produced an extensive assortment of cotton products, encompassing coverlets, rugs, ropes, bed tapes such as niwar, packing carpets, and furnishings, among others. The findings of a study titled "Durrie Weaving as Income Generation" showed that women in rural regions wove articles for survival, including "aasan," "foot mats," "bags," and "niwar," in addition to durries.
Niwar was a widely used type of hand-spun fabric produced in rural communities during the 20th century. Both plain and dyed varieties of niwar were produced and sold in urban centers. It made use of coarser yarns, providing support to hand-spun yarn manufacturers.According to the 20th century "Cottage and Small-Scale Industries" report, cotton was a crucial resource in daily life, used for everything from clothing to other types of coverings. It was a fiber that could be used in all seasons, even winter, and was used to stuff beds and quilts. Coarse yarn was utilized to weave niwar, carpets, and durries, both at home and in small-scale and rural cottage industries.
According to Uttar Pradesh district gazetteers, there were 53 units making niwar in Mathura until 1950. In 1956, 215 cottage industries in Bareilly employed 400 individuals and invested Rs 48,400. The industry was primarily conducted by women artisans in their homes. 780 maund]s of yarn valued at Rs 85,000 were consumed, and 760 maunds of niwar valued at Rs 110,600 were produced. Sales of niwar reached Rs 93,500 in the local market. Additionally, prisoners at the Bareilly Central Jail were utilized in various enterprises, including spinning, weaving, tailoring, and the production of durries, carpets, niwar, hemp and ban twisting and weaving.
Gazetteers for Rajasthan and Jodhpur also mention niwar's production in the late 20th century. The region was well-known for its traditional industries, among which were tie-and-dye saris. The textiles sector includes cloth, tents, niwar, ropes, namda, and ready-to-wear clothes.
As per Haryana state gazetteers, in 1990, the town of Sonipat was engaged in the weaving of niwar and tape.
Adequate market access shortage hampered the enthusiasm of artisans who needed support in product design, understanding consumer preference, and staying updated with current product styles. Despite global recognition of some handloom products like Indian durries, the financial well-being of artisans and craftspeople didn't improve. Over time, niwar weaving grew and adapted to industrial developments.
Applications
Niwar is a highly versatile material that can be used in a variety of applications due to its adaptability. It can be utilized for various purposes, ranging from household and decorative items to industrial and commercial applications. These are summarized as follows:
Furniture material and in tents
Niwar is a bed base material for bed frame webbing. It is a kind of coarse cotton tape used to form the web of a charpai (a kind of rope bed) and stools also called "" or "" in Punjabi language.
Niwar helps in sewing canvas or cloth tents. During the Mughal Period, military camps and tents were constructed utilizing ropes, and cotton niwar, and cotton niwar was used for bedsteads during the princely reign.
Belts
Niwar was also used in the production of belts and employed to carry the zinc water bottle, commonly referred to as "badla." Niwar is also used in school belts.
Miscellaneous
Niwar products were used as a part of vocational training for skill development and entrepreneurship development. The prisoners in Udaipur jail were trained to produce a wide range of products, including bags, belts, mats (), and magazine holders.
Niwar was utilized in the care of cattle, serving as a component in the application of bandages and cotton padding, with the aim of mitigating further harm to bones and soft tissues.
Niwar has its applications in military use. The Central Reserve Police Force has deemed niwar, with specific specifications of 65mm width, grey undyed shade, and conforming to the IS: 1995-1982 standard, as suitable for use. The Indian army frequently includes niwar in their tenders as a necessary item, along with other sports equipment and materials such as jute rope, footballs, volleyballs, table tennis balls, nets, cricket equipment, and reflector tape.
Present
Indian government institutions provide educational programs in the arts of weaving, including hand weaving of niwar tape, durries, and carpets, as well as weaving of silk and woolen fabrics. Additionally, they offer courses in the techniques of bleaching, dyeing, and calico printing.
In the 21st century niwar is produced by machines and is made from both cotton and synthetic materials such as polyester and nylon. Due to its durability and versatility, this material finds extensive application in the manufacturing of furniture such as beds with frames made of either wood or metal, as well as folding beds. It is also utilized in the binding of the edges of floor coverings such as durries, and in the fabrication of sporting goods like nets. It is commonly used in the creation of hanging materials and displays in exhibitions.
Trade
India is the world's biggest exporter of cotton niwar, exporting the majority of niwar to the United States, United Arab Emirates, and Nepal. Currently, niwar is also being made from materials such as nylon, polypropylene, and polyester. Nylon niwar, in particular, is known for its strength and ability to withstand various weather conditions.
Niwar is a Harmonized System coded commodity. Cotton niwar narrow-woven fabrics are assigned HS Code 58063120.
See also
Charpai
References
Beds
Culture of India
Culture of Pakistan
History of furniture
Punjabi words and phrases
Desi culture
Indian furniture
Portable furniture | Niwar (cotton tape) | [
"Biology"
] | 1,537 | [
"Beds",
"Behavior",
"Sleep"
] |
66,584,109 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castor%20Temple | Castor is a summit located in the Grand Canyon, in Coconino County of northern Arizona, United States. It is situated 11 miles west-northwest of Grand Canyon Village, and less than one mile north of Piute Point. Pollux Temple is one mile southeast, and Geikie Peak is three miles to the east. Topographic relief is significant as Castor Temple rises over above the Colorado River in two miles.
Castor Temple is named for Castor, the twin half-brother of Pollux according to Greek mythology. In ancient Rome, the Temple of Castor and Pollux was in close proximity to the Temple of Vesta, and in the Grand Canyon, Vesta Temple is situated less than four miles to the southeast. Clarence Dutton began the tradition of naming geographical features in the Grand Canyon after mythological deities. This geographical feature's name was officially adopted in 1964 by the U.S. Board on Geographic Names.
According to the Köppen climate classification system, Castor Temple is located in a Cold semi-arid climate zone. Access to this feature is via the Tonto Trail, and the first ascent of the summit was made April 19, 1971, by Donald Davis and Alan Doty.
Geology
Castor Temple is capped by a thin ledge with trees, the Brady Canyon Member of the Permian Toroweap Formation, which overlies the Seligman Member, also Toroweap. Below is conspicuous, cream-colored, cliff-former Coconino Sandstone, which is the third-youngest of the strata in the Grand Canyon, and was deposited 265 million years ago as sand dunes. The Coconino overlays Permian Hermit Formation (reddish slope), Esplanade Sandstone (red ledges), and Wescogame and Manakacha Formations of the Pennsylvanian-Permian Supai Group. Further down are strata of the cliff-forming Mississippian Redwall Limestone, and finally the Cambrian Tonto Group. Precipitation runoff from Castor Temple drains northeast to the Colorado River via Turquoise and Sapphire Canyons.
See also
Geology of the Grand Canyon area
Scorpion Ridge
References
External links
Weather forecast: National Weather Service
Castor Temple photo from Piute Point
Grand Canyon
Landforms of Coconino County, Arizona
Buttes of Arizona
Mountains of Coconino County, Arizona
Colorado Plateau
Grand Canyon National Park
One-thousanders of the United States
Sandstone formations of the United States
Castor and Pollux | Castor Temple | [
"Astronomy"
] | 491 | [
"Castor and Pollux",
"Astronomical myths"
] |
66,584,181 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diroximel%20fumarate | Diroximel fumarate, sold under the brand name Vumerity, is a medication used for the treatment of relapsing forms of multiple sclerosis (MS). It acts as an immunosuppressant and anti-inflammatory drug. Its most common adverse effects are flushing and gastrointestinal problems.
Diroximel fumarate was approved for medical use in the United States in October 2019, and in the European Union in November 2021.
Medical uses
Diroximel fumarate is used for the treatment of relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis. In the US, it is additionally approved for other relapsing forms of MS such as clinically isolated syndrome and active secondary progressive disease.
Available forms
The drug is available as a white delayed-release capsule that is resistant to gastric acid and only dissolves in the intestine.
Contraindications
Under the European Union's label, the drug is contraindicated in people with progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy (PML), a disease of the brain caused by a virus. In the US, combination with the closely related drug dimethyl fumarate is contraindicated.
Side effects
No systematic studies of adverse effects under diroximel fumarate are available. The most common side effects in studies with dimethyl fumarate were flushing (in 34% of patients treated with the drug, versus 5% in the placebo group) and gastrointestinal effects such as diarrhoea (14% versus 10%), nausea (12% versus 9%), abdominal pain (9% versus 4%), vomiting (8% versus 5%), and indigestion (5% versus 3%). Three percent of patients stopped the treatment because of flushing, 4% because of gastrointestinal side effects. A rare but potentially fatal adverse effect may be PML, which has been observed under treatment with dimethyl fumarate.
Overdose
No specific antidote is known. Adverse effects caused by overdosing diroximel fumarate are treated symptomatically.
Interactions
Diroximel fumarate does not interact with cytochrome P450 enzymes or P-glycoprotein. Its active metabolite, monomethyl fumarate, has a relatively low plasma protein binding of 27 to 45%. Therefore, its potential for pharmacokinetic interactions is considered to be low.
Inactivated vaccines can be given under diroximel fumarate therapy, based on experience with other immunosuppressant drugs, such as studies with tetanus, pneumococcal and meningococcal vaccines. No studies regarding the effectiveness of these vaccines under diroximel fumarate have been conducted. No data are available regarding combination with live vaccines, chemotherapy or immunosuppressants. Nephrotoxicity could be increased when the drug is combined with aminoglycoside antibiotics, diuretics, NSAIDs or lithium.
Pharmacology
Mechanism of action
The drug's mechanism of action is not well understood. In preclinical studies it activated nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (NRF2), a transcription factor that is up-regulated under oxidative stress.
Pharmacokinetics
The pharmacokinetics of diroximel fumarate has been found to be practically identical to that of dimethyl fumarate. Both are prodrugs of monomethyl fumarate.
Taking the drug with a high-calorie, high-fat meal slows down absorption, but has no relevant effect on overall absorption. The US label recommends not taking the drug together with high-calorie and high-fat meals.
After ingestion, the substance is cleaved by esterase enzymes before reaching the systemic circulation, resulting in monomethyl fumarate (MMF), the active metabolite, and hydroxyethyl succinimide (HES), which is inactive. Diroximel fumarate itself is not present in the bloodstream. MMF reaches highest concentrations in the blood plasma 2.5 to 3 hours after ingestion. When in the bloodstream, 27 to 45% are bound to plasma proteins.
MMF is further metabolized to fumarate, citrate and glucose, ultimately entering the citric acid cycle and being broken down to carbon dioxide (CO2). About 60% of the substance leave the body as CO2 via the lungs, 15.5% are eliminated with the urine (according to another source, less than 0.3%), and 0.9% are eliminated with the faeces. The terminal half-life is one hour.
HES is eliminated mainly with the urine (58 to 63%).
Chemistry
The substance is a white to off-white powder. It is slightly soluble in water; that is, its solubility is between 1:100 and 1:1000. The molecule is achiral. The double bond of the fumarate moiety has E configuration.
History
This drug was formulated by Alkermes in collaboration with Biogen.
Society and culture
Legal status
Diroximel fumarate was approved for medical use in the United States in October 2019.
In September 2021, the Committee for Medicinal Products for Human Use (CHMP) of the European Medicines Agency (EMA) adopted a positive opinion, recommending the granting of a marketing authorization for the medicinal product Vumerity, intended for the treatment of adults with relapsing remitting multiple sclerosis. The applicant for this medicinal product is Biogen Netherlands B.V. Diroximel fumarate was approved for medical use in the European Union in November 2021.
References
Multiple sclerosis
Imides
Esters
Methyl esters
Fumarate esters | Diroximel fumarate | [
"Chemistry"
] | 1,233 | [
"Organic compounds",
"Esters",
"Imides",
"Functional groups"
] |
72,484,166 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HR%201217 | HR 1217 is a variable star in the constellation Eridanus. It has the variable star designation DO Eridani, but this seldom appears in the astronomical literature; it is usually called either HR 1217 or HD 24712. At its brightest, HR 1217 has an apparent magnitude of 5.97, making it very faintly visible to the naked eye for an observer with excellent dark-sky conditions.
HR 1217 is one of the best-studied rapidly oscillating Ap (roAp) stars. Inspired by the 1978 discovery of the rapid (12 minute period) brightness variability of Przybylski's Star (an Ap star), in 1980 D. W. Kurtz observed the Ap star HR 1217, and found clear 6.15 minute oscillations, the amplitude of which slowly changed over the course of several days. The next year, high-speed photometric observations of the star revealed six nearly equally spaced pulsation periods ranging from 6.126 minutes (strongest) to 5.966 minutes (weakest). In 1989 it was found that the amplitudes of these pulsations are modulated over a period equal to the star's rotation period. By 2019, ten pulsation frequencies had been found in the TESS data.
HR 1217 is a chemically peculiar star, with particular over-abundances of copper, europium, and chromium in its spectrum. At the same time, lines of other metals such as iron are less strong than expected for an A9 star, which is typical of an Ap star. In 2009, Shulyak et al. computed a model atmosphere for the star which showed how the elemental abundances varied as a function of atmospheric height. In 2015, doppler imaging was used to produce maps of both the star's magnetic field and the distribution of several chemical elements across the star's surface. It was the first roAp star to be mapped in this way.
References
Eridanus (constellation)
Eridani, DO
024712
1217
018339
Rapidly oscillating Ap stars
-12 752 | HR 1217 | [
"Astronomy"
] | 437 | [
"Eridanus (constellation)",
"Constellations"
] |
72,484,242 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Van%20den%20Berg%E2%80%93Kesten%20inequality | In probability theory, the van den Berg–Kesten (BK) inequality or van den Berg–Kesten–Reimer (BKR) inequality states that the probability for two random events to both happen, and at the same time one can find "disjoint certificates" to show that they both happen, is at most the product of their individual probabilities. The special case for two monotone events (the notion as used in the FKG inequality) was first proved by van den Berg and Kesten in 1985, who also conjectured that the inequality holds in general, not requiring monotonicity. later proved this conjecture. The inequality is applied to probability spaces with a product structure, such as in percolation problems.
Statement
Let be probability spaces, each of finitely many elements. The inequality applies to spaces of the form , equipped with the product measure, so that each element is given the probability
For two events , their disjoint occurrence is defined as the event consisting of configurations whose memberships in and in can be verified on disjoint subsets of indices. Formally, if there exist subsets such that:
for all that agrees with on (in other words, ), is also in and
similarly every that agrees with on is in
The inequality asserts that:
for every pair of events and
Examples
Coin tosses
If corresponds to tossing a fair coin times, then each consists of the two possible outcomes, heads or tails, with equal probability. Consider the event that there exists 3 consecutive heads, and the event that there are at least 5 heads in total. Then would be the following event: there are 3 consecutive heads, and discarding those there are another 5 heads remaining. This event has probability at most which is to say the probability of getting in 10 tosses, and getting in another 10 tosses, independent of each other.
Numerically, and their disjoint occurrence would imply at least 8 heads, so
Percolation
In (Bernoulli) bond percolation of a graph, the 's are indexed by edges. Each edge is kept (or "open") with some probability or otherwise removed (or "closed"), independent of other edges, and one studies questions about the connectivity of the remaining graph, for example the event that there is a path between two vertices and using only open edges. For events of such form, the disjoint occurrence is the event where there exist two open paths not sharing any edges (corresponding to the subsets and in the definition), such that the first one providing the connection required by and the second for
The inequality can be used to prove a version of the exponential decay phenomenon in the subcritical regime, namely that on the integer lattice graph for a suitably defined critical probability, the radius of the connected component containing the origin obeys a distribution with exponentially small tails:
for some constant depending on Here consists of vertices that satisfies
Extensions
Multiple events
When there are three or more events, the operator may not be associative, because given a subset of indices on which can be verified, it might not be possible to split a disjoint union such that witnesses and witnesses . For example, there exists an event such that
Nonetheless, one can define the -ary BKR operation of events as the set of configurations where there are pairwise disjoint subset of indices such that witnesses the membership of in This operation satisfies:
whence
by repeated use of the original BK inequality. This inequality was one factor used to analyse the winner statistics from the Florida Lottery and identify what Mathematics Magazine referred to as "implausibly lucky" individuals, confirmed later by enforcement investigation that law violations were involved.
Spaces of larger cardinality
When is allowed to be infinite, measure theoretic issues arise. For and the Lebesgue measure, there are measurable subsets such that is non-measurable (so in the inequality is not defined), but the following theorem still holds:
If are Lebesgue measurable, then there is some Borel set such that:
and
References
Percolation theory
Probabilistic inequalities | Van den Berg–Kesten inequality | [
"Physics",
"Chemistry",
"Mathematics"
] | 848 | [
"Physical phenomena",
"Phase transitions",
"Percolation theory",
"Combinatorics",
"Theorems in probability theory",
"Probabilistic inequalities",
"Inequalities (mathematics)",
"Statistical mechanics"
] |
72,484,313 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Texas%20Chain%20Saw%20Massacre%20%282023%20video%20game%29 | The Texas Chain Saw Massacre is a 2023 asymmetrical survival horror game originally developed by Sumo Nottingham and published by Gun Interactive. It is based on the 1974 film of the same name.
The game's main mode features four victims attempting to escape the family of cannibals before they catch and kill them. The game's cast stars Kane Hodder as Leatherface (who also played the character as a stunt double in 1990's Leatherface: The Texas Chainsaw Massacre III) and Edwin Neal as the voice of The Hitchhiker (reprising the role from the original film).
The Texas Chain Saw Massacre was released for PlayStation 4, PlayStation 5, Windows, Xbox One and Xbox Series X/S on August 18, 2023, also releasing on Xbox Game Pass on the same day. The game received generally positive reviews upon release, with praise directed to its faithfulness to the 1974 film and its unique four versus three gameplay, though criticism towards its matchmaking and technical issues.
Plot
The main mode of the game take place in April 1973, five months before the event of the 1974 film. The plot revolves around Ana Flores and her college friends, who go searching for her missing sister, Maria, near the fictional town of Newt, Texas. The group is ultimately captured by the Slaughter family, a group of cannibal maniacs.
The events of the game are considered canon by the developers, however, although each match may end with one or more of the victims escaping and surviving, they have confirmed that in the official timeline of the franchise, it is considered that none of them survived the family, they are all dead by the time of the events of the 1974 film.
The Rush Week mode takes place in 1978, after the event of the main mode. The plot revolves around Johnny who enters a Sorority House in Granger Hill, Texas, with the intention of killing the girls living in it. The plot of this mode is also considered canon and was validated by Kim Henkel.
Modes
Main mode
Gameplay
Players begin a match by taking on the role of either a family member or a victim, with a total of three family members and four victims being playable for a total of seven players per match. A match is set on one of five maps: the Slaughter family house, a gas station, a slaughterhouse, a mill, and Nancy's house. The family house and gas station are locations featured in the film whereas the slaughterhouse, the mill, and Nancy's house are new locales. Each map has a day and a night variation, altering the lighting and atmosphere. A feature on each map is the basement where all the victims and Leatherface begin the match.
After escaping their restraints, the victims must first escape the basement to reach various methods of escape. Victims can escape via one of the four exits which are always present in every map. Family members meanwhile must track and kill the victims; if enough damage is dealt to a victim, they are immediately killed and are removed from the match. Family members must also feed Grandpa, a stationary character who feeds on the blood of victims and blood buckets around the map. After he is awoken by enough noise being made by victims, he will occasionally shriek, revealing the outlines of any victim who is moving to all family members. A match is completed when all victims either escape or are killed.
Players gain experience from each round and can spend earned skill points into each character's specific skill tree. Perks and attributes are unlocked via the skill tree, allowing each character to be customized and fit a certain play style.
Characters
† This symbol denotes characters available through DLCs.
There are eight family members to play as, each with unique play styles and abilities.
Leatherface is a chainsaw-wielding maniac who is unique in that he starts the game in the basement with the victims. His chainsaw allows him to destroy obstacles and deal great damage to victims.
The Cook is an old man who is able to listen for victims who make noise, granting him the ability to see them across the map.
The Hitchhiker has access to traps which can be placed to temporarily immobilize victims who step on them. The Hitchhiker also excels at chasing victims with his high stamina and being able to squeeze through tight spaces.
Johnny, the fourth member of the family excels at tracking and is able to see the footprints of victims for a short time after they walk through an area.
Sissy, a former resident of Spahn Ranch, is able to lace objects or blow poison onto victims, providing obstacles to their path.
Nancy †, the mother of Johnny, can see where the victims are and can place barbed wire traps in gaps and crawl spaces.
Hands †, a 7-foot tall hammer-wielding distant cousin of the Slaughter family, has the ability to barge victims, dismantle valves and fuses, quickly restart battery and generator, and rig electrified booby traps on barricades, crawlspaces, and other metal objects.
Bones † is the mortician of Muerto County's cemetery. He uses this to his advantage in order to cover up the crimes of the Family.
There are nine victims who each possess their own abilities and are new characters created for the game.
Ana Flores can takes less damage from attacks. She is leader of the group and is the one who decided to go looking for Maria after her disappearance.
Connie Taylor can unlock doors near-instantly at a reduction in stamina.
Julie Crawford can temporarily run for longer and be undetectable to family members' tracking abilities.
Leland McKinney can knock down family members, temporarily stunning them.
Sonny Williams is able to detect nearby movement made by family members and victims.
Danny Gaines † is Maria's boyfriend and is able to tamper with exits, making them un-closable to family members. He was found by the family before the group because he was searching for Maria directly after her disappearance, as he refused to wait for the others.
Virginia † is a victim with the ability to create medicinal powders and blinding powders to aid the victim's escape. Before the event of the game, she was looking for her missing son Jesse. Her search leads her to the family's house where she discovers Maria. While they try to escape, they are kidnapped by the family.
Maria Flores † is Ana's sister and has a sweet-talk ability that can cause Grandpa's sonar ability to highlight family members. She was kidnapped by the family before the events of the game.
Wyatt Dunn † is a bull rider from Austin. He was kidnapped by Bones during a visit to his brother's grave in an old cemetery.
Rush Week mode
Gameplay
In September 2024, a second mode, titled Rush Week, was released. In this mode, a character is randomly assigned to each player. One takes the role of Johnny, while six other players take the role of Sorority Girls for a total of seven players per match.
In this mode, the Sorority Girls need to find key items around the map to help them escape. A pair of car keys can be found to unlock a car where they can radio to the police to get help. They can also complete a fuse objective to use a phone in the house to call the police. If the police have been called successfully, players will have a limited amount of time to survive in the Sorority House with Johnny. An Attic Pole can be used to make an escape via an attic hatch, but only two Sorority Girls can escape through this exit. Johnny players can break the ladder to prevent this escape.
The Sorority Girls players can find various weapons and distractions like a wrench, a knife, and pepper spray, as well as perfume that can be thrown at Johnny to reveal his location. The Sorority Girls players are under a fear system where if one of them has a high level of fear, Johnny can smell that fear and find them easier. The Sorority Girls players need to complete objectives in order to lower their amount of fear.
Johnny’s objective is to hunt and kill the Sorority Girls. With each execution, he gets stronger, making him more lethal the longer a match goes.
Development
Gun Interactive previously created the 2017 asymmetrical horror game Friday the 13th: The Game. Following the loss of the video game rights, Gun Interactive began developing The Texas Chain Saw Massacre after gaining the rights from original film co-writer Kim Henkel. Henkel only holds the interactive rights to the 1974 film of the same name and thus Gun Interactive cannot legally include elements from other films in the series.
The developers utilized motion capture to portray each characters' animations in the game.
Remains: The Companion Album to The Texas Chain Saw Massacre Game is a soundtrack developed in addition alongside the game's official game soundtrack, and was composed by Jim Bonney and Wes Keltner.
Before the game's full release, a technical test ran from May 25–29, 2023 where players could play an early access version of the game.
In February 2024, it was announced that Black Tower Studios were new developers for the game.
Casting
The story of the game is given in an intro narration scene, reminiscent of the original film and is voiced by Aaron LaPlante.
Leatherface is portrayed by Kane Hodder with Lex Lang providing the voice after being played by Gunnar Hansen in the original film, having died in 2015. Troy Burgess takes over the role of the Cook from Jim Siedow (who died in 2003) who portrayed him in the first and second films. Edwin Neal reprises his role as the Hitchhiker from the original film, with Sean Whalen performing the motion capture for the character. Johnny is portrayed by Dove Meir and voice provided by Damian Maffei. Sissy is portrayed by Kristina Klebe. Johnny and Sissy are new to the Texas Chainsaw Massacre franchise and were created with input by original film screenwriter Kim Henkel. The voice and motion capture for Hands is provided by Robert Mukes.
Female victims motion capture was performed by Scout Taylor-Compton, in addition to her voicing Julie Crawford. And the male victims mo-cap was performed by Hunter C. Smith. Ana was voiced by Jeannie Tirado, Connie by Bryarly Bishop, Leland by Matt Lowe, Sonny by Zeno Robinson, Virginia by Barbara Crampton, and Danny by Michael Johnston.
In December 2024, it was announced that Skeet Ulrich and Bill Moseley had joined the cast of the game, with Ulrich voicing Wyatt Dunn and Moseley voicing and performing the motion capture for Bones.
Marketing
The game was announced during The Game Awards 2021 and was accompanied by a short teaser trailer.
In May 2023, a YouTube channel was launched with the name, "LoFi Leatherface". The channel used animation and artwork created by Matt Hubel alongside audio of lo-fi music.
Release
The game was released on August 18, 2023 on PlayStation 4, PlayStation 5, Windows, Xbox One and Xbox Series X/S. The game was also available on Xbox Game Pass at launch, which Gun Interactive CEO Wes Keltner described as "paramount" to bring in strong player numbers and keep match lobbies full.
The game reached 1 million players in the first 24 hours of its release.
Reception
The Texas Chain Saw Massacre received "generally favorable" reviews, according to review aggregator Metacritic for the Xbox Series X version, but the Windows and PlayStation 5 versions received "mixed or average" reviews.
In his review of the pre-release version of the game, PC Gamers Luke Winkle praised the game's horror elements and 1970s setting, stating it "mirrors the claustrophobia and creeping dread of the 1974 horror classic."
Mark Delaney of GameSpot gave the game a 9/10, stating "the adaptation of one of the scariest movies ever made becomes one of the scariest games I've ever played". He praised the game's maps, music, and overall atmosphere, stating the game was "driven by chaos and dread just like its source material", but criticized the unlockable character cosmetics as "lacking", and the "4v3 setup limits some groups in matchmaking".
Writing for GamesRadar+, Jordan Gerblick praised the visual design and atmosphere but criticized the tutorials, lack of objective markers, and technical issues. He wrote, "Leatherface brings with him an iconic presence that puts Dead by Daylights take on the chainsaw-wielding psychopath to shame, as well as truly ingenious refinements to the genre, but he's accompanied by a matchmaking system that frequently makes you wait five minutes or more for a game, a host of bugs and server issues [...], and an utterly sorry excuse for a tutorial."
Travis Northup of IGN gave the game a 6/10, criticizing the pressing technical issues and lack of ways to help newcomers learning how to play the game. He stated that "The Texas Chainsaw Massacre's less asymmetrical take on the asymmetrical horror genre offers a few entertaining, technically challenged hours of fun."
Writing for Slant Magazine, Ryan Aston praised the victim's tense gameplay and its faithfulness to the original film. He also found the three versus four dynamic of the game to be a "compelling direction for the genre" and makes it feel "closer to a survival horror game than your average asymmetrical title."
William Cennamo of Screen Rant gave the game a 3/5 rating and declared the game to be a "must-play" for fans of asymmetrical horror games but noted "a fair number of issues" relating to replayability and a general lack of depth. These included an unsatisfying and limiting progression system combined with repetitive gameplay due to the similarity of maps and escape methods.
Kotakus Ashley Bardhan found that the gameplay and horror elements were ultimately "underwhelming." Bardhan found the game's story to be "an admirable living shrine" to the 1974 film, but does not fully "embrac[e] its own unsettling narrative" with horror elements being undercut by short match times and repetitive gameplay.
Notes
References
External links
2020s horror video games
2023 video games
Asymmetrical multiplayer video games
Black Tower Studios games
Cooperative video games
Gun Interactive games
PlayStation 4 games
PlayStation 5 games
Sumo Digital games
The Texas Chainsaw Massacre (franchise) mass media
Unreal Engine 4 games
Video games based on films
Video games developed in the United Kingdom
Video games set in Texas
Windows games
Xbox One games
Xbox Series X and Series S games | The Texas Chain Saw Massacre (2023 video game) | [
"Physics"
] | 2,979 | [
"Asymmetrical multiplayer video games",
"Symmetry",
"Asymmetry"
] |
72,484,350 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coleosporium%20asterum | is a species of rust fungus in the family Coleosporiaceae. It infects species in the Asteraceae family, such as those in genus Aster and Solidago, as well as the needle pines Pinus contorta and P. banksiana. It has been recorded on aster family species Canadanthus modestus, Eurybia conspicua, Solidago missouriensis, Symphyotrichum ciliolatum, S. laeve, and numerous others.
The basionym of Coleosporium asterum is Stichopsora asterum, and the fungus originally was found in 1898 on leaves of the Asteraceae species Callistephus chinensis, Aster scaber (now Doellingeria scabra), and Aster tataricus on the island of Honshu, Japan.
Citations
References
Fungal plant pathogens and diseases
Pucciniales
Fungi described in 1900
Fungus species | Coleosporium asterum | [
"Biology"
] | 194 | [
"Fungi",
"Fungus species"
] |
72,485,601 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nancy%20Blachman | Nancy Blachman (born 1956 in Palo Alto, CA) is an American educator, supporter of recreational mathematics and mathematical outreach, software book author, and supporter of indie documentary films. In 2007, she founded the Julia Robinson Mathematics Festival (JRMF), which has grown into a successful math enrichment enterprise for teenagers in the USA and beyond. She is a long time supporter of the educational foundation Gathering 4 Gardner. She is a former Chair and remains on the Advisory Board of Berkeley’s Industrial Engineering and Operations Research Department (IEOR).
Early life and Education
Nancy Blachman was born in 1956 in Palo Alto, California, her father Nelson being an electrical engineer. The family spent some time living in Spain in the 1960s, and Nancy's interest in mathematics began during high school back in Palo Alto when she took a course based on George Polya's
Mathematics and Plausible Reasoning. She was also inspired by the mathematics contest produced by Saint Mary's College of California then popular with secondary schools throughout the San Francisco Bay Area.
She did undergraduate work at University of California, San Diego (1974 to 1976), got honours B.Sc. in applied mathematics from the University of Birmingham in the UK (1978), an M.S. in operations research from University of California, Berkeley (1979) and an M.S. in computer science at Stanford University (1988).
Mathematics in education
Blachman taught a course in problem solving with Mathematica at Stanford from 1990 to 1997.
In 2004 she created Google Guide, an online interactive tutorial and reference about the capabilities of Google.
In 2005 while attending an education forum that promoted STEM [Science, Technology, Engineering, and Math] she remembered how the Saint Mary's College Mathematics Contest had inspired her as a student. Working with Joshua Zucker and Jim Sotiros she decided to revive the structure and spirit of this long defunct competition. This led to the founding of the Julia Robinson Mathematics Festival in 2007. JRMF events now occur throughout the United States and have reached more than 100,000 students worldwide.
Blachman has been a board member of Gathering 4 Gardner since 2008, served as its chair from 2012 to 2020, and is currently board president.
She is the president and founder of Variable Symbols, a company that provides training, books, and tools to make complex software easier to use.
Indie documentary films
Blachman has been working since 2015 with filmmakers to shine a light on people in difficult situations, to uplift marginalized voices, humanize them, and make their stories accessible—with the aim of encouraging viewers to take action. Documentaries she has supported include Aftershock, Art Spiegelman: Disaster is My Muse, Ailey, Athlete A, Counted Out, Crip Camp, Dark Money, Free for All, Patrice: The Movie, The Fight, and The Social Dilemma.
Personal life
On January 1, 1999, she married David desJardins. They have two children, Sarah and Louis.
Books
The Mathematica Graphics Guidebook, by Cameron Smith and Nancy Blachman, Addison Wesley (1995),
Mathematica: A Practical Approach, by Nancy Blachman and Colin Williams, Prentice-Hall (1993)
Mathematica quick reference, version 2, by Nancy Blachman, Addison-wesley (1992),
Maple V Quick Reference, by N. Blachman and M. Mossinghoff, Brooks/Cole Pub. Co (1992)
References
External links
An Interview with Nancy Blachman by Gord! Hamilton - YouTube
Recreational mathematicians
Mathematics educators
American women educators
American documentary film producers
University of California, Berkeley alumni
Alumni of the University of Birmingham
University of California, San Diego alumni
Oberlin College faculty
Living people
1956 births
Stanford University School of Engineering alumni
Stanford University Department of Computer Science faculty | Nancy Blachman | [
"Mathematics"
] | 771 | [
"Recreational mathematics",
"Recreational mathematicians"
] |
72,485,870 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenimadala | Kenimadala is an architectural term utilised in medieval Sinhalese timber structures. It is used to describe the circular roof plate or structural member where the rafters, śalākā, connect at the apex of a domed or conical roof. The roof of a dageba or cetiya, above the stupa were generally domical in shape and were constructed of timber rafters which were held together on the top by means of a circular boss or kenimandala.
It is also known as Kannikā in Pali, which means 'sun-gate', as it represents the doorway where the worthy or arhat leave the world.
See also
Madol Kurupawa
Pekada
References
External links
Further reading
Timber framing
Buddhist architecture
Vernacular architecture
Indigenous architecture
Architecture in Sri Lanka | Kenimadala | [
"Technology"
] | 160 | [
"Structural system",
"Timber framing"
] |
72,486,451 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amanita%20sculpta | Amanita sculpta is a species of Amanita. It is distinctive because of its large size, with caps in diameter. The cap's appearance, beige and dark brown with pileal warts, has been compared to that of a chocolate chip cookie.
The species was first collected in the Bukit Timah Nature Reserve in 1939, and was described as new to science in 1962 by botanist E. J. H. Corner. It is found in Singapore, China, Japan, Malaysia, Thailand and Laos. It is a rare mushroom that has been put up for assessment for the IUCN Red List, and there were no sightings of it in Singapore until it was rediscovered there in 2020.
References
External links
sculpta
Fungi of Asia
Fungi described in 1962
Fungus species | Amanita sculpta | [
"Biology"
] | 158 | [
"Fungus stubs",
"Fungi",
"Fungus species"
] |
72,486,551 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amanita%20betulae | Amanita betulae is a species of Amanita found in growing in birch and mixed hardwood in Europe
References
External links
betulae
Fungi of Europe
Fungi described in 2009
Fungus species | Amanita betulae | [
"Biology"
] | 40 | [
"Fungus stubs",
"Fungi",
"Fungus species"
] |
72,486,569 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amanita%20gioiosa | Amanita gioiosa is a species of Amanita found in Italy growing among Arbutus, chestnut, oaks, and pines.
References
External links
gioiosa
Fungi of Europe
Fungi described in 1991
Fungus species | Amanita gioiosa | [
"Biology"
] | 46 | [
"Fungi",
"Fungus species"
] |
72,486,609 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amanita%20neo-ovoidea | Amanita neo-ovoidea is a species of fungus in the family Amanitaceae. It is found in China and Japan.
Toxicity
Consumption of Amanita neo-ovoidea has caused acute renal failure.
References
External links
neoovoidea
Fungi of Asia
Poisonous fungi
Fungi described in 1976
Fungus species | Amanita neo-ovoidea | [
"Biology",
"Environmental_science"
] | 68 | [
"Poisonous fungi",
"Fungi",
"Toxicology",
"Fungus species"
] |
72,486,629 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amanita%20protecta | Amanita protecta is a species of Amanita found in California growing solitary among Quercus agrifolia and Monterey pine.
References
External links
protecta
Fungi of California
Fungi described in 1989
Fungus species | Amanita protecta | [
"Biology"
] | 43 | [
"Fungi",
"Fungus species"
] |
72,486,715 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amanita%20olivaceogrisea | Amanita olivaceogrisea is a species of Amanita found in England, Estonia, France, Latvia, and Sweden.
References
External links
olivaceogrisea
Fungi of Europe
Fungi described in 1986
Fungus species | Amanita olivaceogrisea | [
"Biology"
] | 49 | [
"Fungus stubs",
"Fungi",
"Fungus species"
] |
72,488,465 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time%20in%20Haiti | Haiti observes Eastern Standard Time Zone (UTC−5) as standard time, and Eastern Daylight Time (UTC−4) as daylight saving time (DST). DST is observed annually from the second Sunday in March to the first Sunday in November.
IANA time zone database
In the IANA time zone database, Haiti is given one zone in the file zone.tab—America/Port-au-Prince. "HT" refers to the country's ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 country code. Data for Haiti directly from zone.tab of the IANA time zone database; columns marked with * are the columns from zone.tab itself:
References
External links
Current time in Haiti at Time.is
Time in Haiti at TimeAndDate
Time by country
Geography of Haiti | Time in Haiti | [
"Physics"
] | 160 | [
"Spacetime",
"Physical quantities",
"Time",
"Time by country"
] |
72,489,376 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beta-tungsten | Beta-tungsten (β-W) is a metastable phase of tungsten widely observed in tungsten thin films. While the commonly existing stable alpha-tungsten (α-W) has a body-centered cubic (A2) structure, β-W adopts the topologically close-packed A15 structure containing eight atoms per unit cell, and it irreversibly transforms to the stable α phase through thermal annealing of up to 650 °C. It has been found that β-W possesses the giant spin Hall effect, wherein the applied charge current generates a transverse spin current, and this leads to potential applications in magnetoresistive random access memory devices.
History
β-W was first observed by Hartmann et al. in 1931 as part of the dendritic metallic deposit formed on the cathode after electrolysis of phosphate melts below 650°C. In the beginning stages of research into β-W, oxygen was commonly found to promote the formation of the β-W structure, thus discussions of whether the β-W structure is a phase of single-element tungsten or a tungsten suboxide were long-standing, but ever since the 1950s there has been a lot of experimental proof showing that the oxygen in β-W thin films is in a zero valence state, and thus the structure is a true allotrope of tungsten.
While the initial interest in β-W thin films was driven by its superconducting properties at low temperatures, the discovery of giant spin Hall effect in β-W thin films by Burhman et al. in 2012 has generated new interest in the material for potential applications in spintronic magnetic random access memories and spin-logic devices.
Structure
β-W has a cubic A15 structure with space group , which belongs to the Frank–Kasper phases family. Each unit cell contains eight tungsten atoms. The structure can be seen as a cubic lattice with one atom at each corner, one atom in the center, and two atoms on each face. There are two inequivalent tungsten sites corresponding to Wyckoff positions and , respectively. On the first site, Wyckoff position , each tungsten atom is bonded to twelve equivalent W atoms to form a mixture of edge- and face-sharing WW12 cuboctahedratungsten. On the second site, with Wyckoff position , each tungsten atom is bonded to fourteen neighboring tungsten atoms, and there is a spread of W–W bond lengths ranging from 2.54 to 3.12 Å. The experimentally measured lattice parameter of β-W is 5.036 Å, while the DFT calculated value is 5.09 Å.
Properties
Two key properties of β-W have been well-established: the high electrical resistivity and the giant spin Hall effect.
Although the exact value depends on the preparation conditions, β-W has an electrical resistivity of at least five to ten times higher than that of α-W (5.3 μΩ.cm), and this high conductivity will remain almost unchanged in a temperature range of 5 to 380 K, making β-W a potential thin film resistor while α-W is a thin film conductor.
Thin films of β-W display a giant spin Hall effect with a spin Hall angle of 0.30 ± 0.02 and a spin-diffusion length of around 3.5 nm. In contrast, α-W exhibits a much smaller spin Hall angle of less than 0.07 and a comparable spin-diffusion length. In the spin Hall effect, the application of a longitudinal electric current through a nonmagnetic material generates a transverse spin current due to the spin–orbit interaction, and the spin Hall angle is defined as the ratio of the transverse spin current density and the longitudinal electric current density. The spin Hall angle of β-W is large enough to generate spin torques capable of flipping or setting the magnetization of adjacent magnetic layers into precession by means of the spin Hall effect.
Preparation
While there have been some reports about preparing β-W with chemical methods such as hydrogen reduction reaction, almost all the reported β-W in the recent thirty years are prepared through sputter deposition, an atom-by-atom physical vapor deposition (PVD) technique. In the sputter deposition, a tungsten target is bombarded with ionized gas molecules (usually Ar), causing the tungsten atoms to be “sputtered” off into the plasma. These vaporized atoms are then deposited when they condense as a thin film on the substrate to be coated. The formation of β-W through sputter deposition depends on the base pressure, Ar pressure, substrate temperature, impurity gas, deposition rate, film thickness, substrate type, etc. It has been widely observed that oxygen or nitrogen gas flow can assist and is necessary for the formation of β-W, but recently there have also been reports on preparing β-W without putting into any impurity gas during deposition.
References
Tungsten
Allotropes | Beta-tungsten | [
"Physics",
"Chemistry"
] | 1,025 | [
"Periodic table",
"Properties of chemical elements",
"Allotropes",
"Materials",
"Matter"
] |
72,490,447 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metabolic%20regulation%20of%20hematopoiesis | Hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) have high regenerative potentials and are capable of differentiating into all blood and immune system cells. Despite this impressive potential, HSCs have limited potential to produce more multipotent stem cells. This limited self-renewal potential is protected through maintenance of a quiescent state in HSCs. Stem cells maintained in this quiescent state are known as long term HSCs (LT-HSCs). During quiescence, HSCs maintain a low level of metabolic activity and do not divide. LT-HSCs can be signaled to proliferate, producing either myeloid or lymphoid progenitors. Production of these progenitors does not come without a cost: When grown under laboratory conditions that induce proliferation, HSCs lose their ability to divide and produce new progenitors. Therefore, understanding the pathways that maintain proliferative or quiescent states in HSCs could reveal novel pathways to improve existing therapeutics involving HSCs.
Background
All adult stem cells can undergo two types of division: symmetric and asymmetric. When a cell undergoes symmetric division, it can either produce two differentiated cells or two new stem cells. When a cell undergoes asymmetric division, it produces one stem and one differentiated cell. Production of new stem cells is necessary to maintain this population within the body. Like all cells, hematopoietic stem cells undergo metabolic shifts to meet their bioenergetic needs throughout development. These metabolic shifts play an important role in signaling, generating biomass, and protecting the cell from damage. Metabolic shifts also guide development in HSCs and are one key factor in determining if an HSC will remain quiescent, symmetrically divide, or asymmetrically divide. As mentioned above, quiescent cells maintain a low level of oxidative phosphorylation and primarily rely on glycolysis to generate energy. Fatty acid beta-oxidation has been shown to influence fate decisions in HSCs. In contrast, proliferative HSCs primarily depend on oxidative phosphorylation. This switch is accompanied by an increase in intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels and increased anabolic activity in cells
Maintenance of quiescence
Glycolysis and Hif signaling
It is well understood that quiescent HSCs have very low levels of metabolic activity. LT-HSCs primarily rely on anaerobic glycolysis to generate energy. Unlike other types of HSCs, little energy is produced from mitochondrial oxidative respiration. The reason from this is likely two-fold: LT-HSCs reside within the hypoxic niche of the bone marrow, and low levels of mitochondrial respiration protect quiescent cells from damage induced ROS. When excessive levels of ROS are present, LT-HSCs undergo differentiation or apoptosis, losing their ability to self-renew. This suggests that dependence on glycolysis is not only an environmental adaptation, but also a necessity for LT-HSCs to preserve their stemness.
LT-HSC preference for glycolysis is encoded by the transcription factor MEIS1 and, to a lesser extent, the protein CBP/p300-interacting transactivator 2 (CITED2). Both enzymes up regulate hypoxia-inducible factor 1α (HIF1α). Under hypoxic conditions, HIF1α dimerizes with HIF1ß to increase expression of several glycolytic enzymes to lead to an enhanced rate of glycolysis. HIF1α also activates pyruvate dehydrogenase kinases (PDK) 2 and 4. These enzymes inhibit pyruvate dehydrogenase (PDH). PDH converts pyruvate into acetyl-CoA, a crucial first step for metabolite entry into the TCA cycle and oxidative phosphorylation. Because this system inhibits mitochondrial metabolism and activates glycolysis, it is thought that the metabolic reprogramming by HIF1α is a main driver of LT-HSC quiescence.
Metabolic reprogramming by HIF1α does not always happen through action on PDKs. HIF1α can also promote expression of the cytosolic protein CRIPTO. CRIPTO then interacts with its cell surface receptor GRP78 to activate glycolytic enzymes. Extracellular cytokines and chemokines may also contribute to HIF1α activity, but further work is required to elucidate the exact contribution of these signaling molecules.
In addition to HIF1α, MEIS1 induces transcription of HIF2α. Though this enzyme is structurally similar to HIF1α, HIF2α has distinct functions. HIF2α is thought to protect HSCs from mitochondrial ROS production. An accumulation of ROS in HSCs causes stress at the endoplasmic reticulum, eventually inducing the unfolded protein response and apoptosis. HIF2α protects the cell from ROS accumulation by up regulating several genes involved in ROS quenching, including catalase, glutathione peroxidase type I, and superoxide dismutases. Activation of HIF2α is therefore necessary to maintain cellular health during quiescence.
Mitochondrial metabolism
Despite low levels of mitochondrial respiration, emerging evidence shows that LT-HSCs with the highest regenerative potential also have a high number of mitochondria. Despite this, quiescent HSC mitochondria have a low membrane potential and low rates of oxidative phosphorylation. This again highlights the dependence of LT-HSCs on glycolysis to generate energy. Despite their inactivity, possessing many mitochondria may indicate that the quiescent HSCs are prepared for proliferation once an appropriate signal is received
Cell fate decisions
Recently, it has been discovered that fatty acid oxidation (FAO) is a major determinant in whether a stem cell will symmetrically or asymmetrically divide. Transport of fatty acids into the mitochondria and their subsequent metabolism must be efficient in order for cells to maintain the ability to self-renew. In HSCs, transcriptional activation of nuclear genes involved in fatty acid transport and β-oxidation through a promyelocytic leukemia protein (PML)/peroxisome proliferation-activated receptor-gamma coactivator 1α (PGC-1α)/peroxisome proliferator-activating receptor type δ (PPARδ) mediates efficiency of these processes. This pathway is also essential for HSC self-renewal because it promotes maintenance of the stem cell population. FAO promotes asymmetric HSC division to produce one progenitor and one stem cell. Inhibition of FAO has been shown to expand the population of progenitor cells, thus decreasing the stem cell population. Despite correlations between FAO and asymmetrical HSC divisions, the exact mechanism by which FAO governs stem cell fate decisions is still unclear.
Metabolism during proliferation
Hif1 and the switch to mitochondrial metabolism
Though maintenance of quiescence is important to HSCs to preserve their self-renewal capacity, proliferation is necessary to regenerate blood cells and immune cells for the body. During divisions, HSCs leave the hypoxic niche and begin circulating. Under these normoxic conditions, HIF1α is hydroxylated by prolyl hydroxylases PHD1, 2 and 3. This hydroxylation triggers the cell to degrade HIF1α through the von Hippel-Lindau (VHL) ubiquitin ligases. Degradation of HIF1α prevents dimerization with HIF1ß, impeding the transcription of glycolytic genes. Degrading HIF1α also prevents activation of PDK2 and 4, thus resuming function of PDH in the mitochondria. Because the cell is now able to catalyze the production of acetyl-CoA, mitochondrial metabolism is able to resume. Restoration of this mitochondrial metabolism is coordinated by reentry into the cell cycle. Concurrent with reinitiation of mitochondrial metabolism is an upregulation in transcription of cell cycle genes and genes involved in anabolic activities. As expected, HSCs with a high mitochondrial membrane potential have higher rates of expression for genes related to the cell cycle and metabolism. The accompanying increase in ROS levels in these proliferating HSCs may in part drive differentiation of HSCs, but more work is needed to fully elucidate the role of ROS in this process
Accompanying the processes driven by HIF1α is an activation of mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation through inactivation of the protein tyrosine phosphatase mitochondrial 1 (PTPMT1) enzyme. PTPMT-1 is essential for differentiation of HSCs into progenitors, and loss of this enzyme results in failure to produce blood cells in mice. Targets of PTPMT-1 include phosphatidylinositol phosphates (PIPs). When PIPs are acted upon by PTPMT-1, the mitochondrial membrane potential decreases. This decrease inhibits glucose entry into the TCA cycle and subsequent ATP generation through the electron transport chain. Thus, PTPMT-1 activity is crucial for HSCs to differentiate.
MTCH2 signaling
Another important suppressor of mitochondrial metabolism during quiescence is mitochondrial carrier homolog 2 (MTCH2). Loss of MTCH2 increases oxidative phosphorylation and triggers HSC differentiation. As expected, this increase in oxidative phosphorylation increases ROS levels, ATP levels, and mitochondrial size. These phenotypes highlight the importance of MTCH2 in directing HSC fate.
The pentose phosphate pathway
Upregulation of glycolysis in proliferative HSCs may drive the pentose phosphate pathway (PPP) to maintain redox balance upon mitochondrial activation. The PPP generates nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH), which is a powerful cellular reducing agent. Production of NADPH may protect cells against accumulation of ROS because it is a key component in the glutathione-reductase system. Additionally, NADPH is required for synthesis of nucleic acids and lipids. Thus, high intracellular NADPH may be essential to generate biomass for HSCs as they reenter the cell cycle. Work in ex-vivo HSC expansion systems supports this idea, but further work is needed to characterize the role of the PPP in vivo
Other signaling pathways
Several signaling pathways also have roles in mediating the metabolic shift from quiescent to proliferative HSCs. For example, purine metabolism is upregulated and thus promotes entry into the cell cycle through signaling in the p38MAPK pathway. ERK and mTOR, other major signaling pathways, are also activated during cell cycle entry. Among other functions, these pathways promote protein, nucleotide, and lipid synthesis. Active ERK and mTOR pathways also lead to increased nutrient uptake in HSCs. In addition to this biosynthetic role, mTOR can also increase the rate of ATP production in cells.
See also
Hematopoietic stem cell
Hematopoietic stem cell transplantation
Metabolism
TCA cycle
Glycolysis
References
Hematopoiesis
Metabolism | Metabolic regulation of hematopoiesis | [
"Chemistry",
"Biology"
] | 2,369 | [
"Biochemistry",
"Metabolism",
"Cellular processes"
] |
72,491,585 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellmut%20Fischmeister | Hellmut Friedrich Fischmeister (14 May 1927 – 6 November 2019) was an Austrian metallurgist who was a pioneer in powder metallurgy.
Education and career
Fischmeister studied physics, mathematics, and chemistry at the University of Graz from 1945 to 1951 and received his doctorate in physical chemistry with Otto Kratky in 1951. From 1953, he was a research assistant at the Institute of Inorganic Chemistry at Uppsala University. In 1956, he became head of the Physics and Materials groups at the Development Laboratory of LM Ericsson in Stockholm. From 1958, he led the Laboratory of Powder Metallurgy at the Swedish Institute for Metals Research (Institutet för Metallforskning) in Stockholm. In 1961, he qualified as a university lecturer at Uppsala University in the field of general and inorganic chemistry. From 1961, he headed the research department for cemented carbides at the stainless steel works of Stora Kopparbergs Bergslags AB in Söderfors, subsequently leading the entire research, development, and quality assurance of the stainless steel works in Söderfors (today Erasteel Kloster AB and Alleima Söderfors).
In 1965, Fischmeister accepted a call to the chair and head of the Institute of Metallic Materials at Chalmers University of Technology in Gothenburg. In 1975, he was appointed chair and head of the Institute of Metallurgy and Materials Testing at the University of Leoben. In 1981, he became a scientific member of the Max Planck Society and director of the Institute of Materials Sciences at the Max Planck Institute for Metals Research in Stuttgart (now the Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems). In addition to his leadership role at the Max Planck Institute for Metals Research, he was also the founding director of the Max Planck Institute of Microstructure Physics in Halle (Saale) from 1991 to 1993. In 1995, he retired from the Max Planck Institute for Metals Research.
Fischmeister was a member of the Austrian Universities' Board of Trustees (Universitätenkuratorium) from 1993 till 2003 and was a member of the Austrian Science Council (Wissenschaftsrat) from 2004 to 2009.
Honors and awards
Hellmut Fischmeister was elected as a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Engineering Sciences in 1975. In 1981, he was elected as a corresponding member of the Austrian Academy of Sciences and was a member of the Academia Europaea since 1989. In 1995, he became a full member of the mathematical-natural sciences class of the Austrian Academy of Sciences.
1969: Knight of the Royal Order of the North Star
1991: Honorary doctorate from KTH Royal Institute of Technology in Stockholm
1992: Honorary doctorate from Graz University of Technology
1997: Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany, Cross of Merit 1st Class
2007: Honorary doctorate from the University of Leoben
2010: Austrian Cross of Honour for Science and Art, 1st class
2010: Honorary member of the German Materials Society (Deutsche Gesellschaft für Materialkunde)
References
External links
Vem är vem? (Who is who?), Appendix 1968, p. 630 (Project Runeberg, Swedish).
Ehrungen DGM-Tag Darmstadt August 2010 Archived from the original on 4 February 2016. (PDF; 1,5 MB), German. German Materials Society (Deutsche Gesellschaft für Materialkunde, DGM), August 2010, p. 7–8.
2019 deaths
1927 births
University of Graz alumni
Knights of the Order of the Polar Star
Recipients of the Austrian Cross of Honour for Science and Art, 1st class
Officers Crosses of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany
Members of the Royal Swedish Academy of Engineering Sciences
Members of Academia Europaea
Members of the Austrian Academy of Sciences
Max Planck Society people
Academic staff of the University of Stuttgart
Academic staff of the Graz University of Technology
Academic staff of the University of Leoben
Academic staff of the Chalmers University of Technology
Metallurgists
Max Planck Institute directors
Ericsson people | Hellmut Fischmeister | [
"Chemistry",
"Materials_science"
] | 802 | [
"Metallurgists",
"Metallurgy"
] |
72,492,288 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amanita%20rhacopus | Amanita rhacopus is a species of Amanita found in east coast of the United States
References
External links
rhacopus
Fungi of North America
Fungi described in 2018
Fungus species | Amanita rhacopus | [
"Biology"
] | 41 | [
"Fungi",
"Fungus species"
] |
72,492,328 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amanita%20flavescens | Amanita flavescens is a species of Amanita found in Sweden and Norway.
References
External links
flavescens
Fungi of Europe
Fungus species | Amanita flavescens | [
"Biology"
] | 32 | [
"Fungi",
"Fungus species"
] |
72,492,345 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amanita%20fuligineodisca | Amanita fuligineodisca is a species of Amanita found in Honduras to Andean Colombia.
References
External links
flavescens
Fungi of South America
Fungus species | Amanita fuligineodisca | [
"Biology"
] | 38 | [
"Fungi",
"Fungus species"
] |
72,492,384 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amanita%20westii | Amanita westii is a species of Amanita found in Florida, Mississippi, and Texas, United States
References
External links
westii
Fungi of North America
Fungus species | Amanita westii | [
"Biology"
] | 36 | [
"Fungi",
"Fungus species"
] |
72,492,385 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amanita%20arctica | Amanita arctica is a species of Amanita found in Greenland and Norway.
References
External links
arctica
Fungi of Europe
Fungi described in 1987
Fungus species | Amanita arctica | [
"Biology"
] | 34 | [
"Fungi",
"Fungus species"
] |
72,493,019 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pandoravirus%20tropicalis | Pandoravirus tropicalis is a virus belonging to the genus Pandoravirus. It was isolated from water samples taken from the artificial lake Lake Pampulha in Brazil.
References
DNA viruses
Unaccepted virus taxa | Pandoravirus tropicalis | [
"Biology"
] | 44 | [
"Viruses",
"Controversial taxa",
"Virus stubs",
"Unaccepted virus taxa",
"Biological hypotheses",
"DNA viruses"
] |
72,494,625 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuphophyllus%20lepidopus | Cuphophyllus lepidopus is a species of agaric (gilled mushroom) in the family Hygrophoraceae. It has been given the recommended English name of scalyfoot waxcap. The species has a European distribution, occurring mainly in agriculturally unimproved grassland. Threats to its habitat have resulted in the species being assessed as globally "vulnerable" on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.
Taxonomy
The species was first described from England in 1927 by mycologist Carleton Rea as Hygrophorus lepidopus. It was known only by an illustration of Rea's collection until rediscovered in England in 2004. It was then considered a variety of Hygrocybe fornicata, but subsequent molecular research, based on cladistic analysis of DNA sequences, has indicated that Cuphophyllus lepidopus is a distinct species.
Description
Basidiocarps are agaricoid, up to 100mm (4 in) tall, the cap broadly conical at first, becoming broadly convex when expanded, up to 75mm (3 in) across. The cap surface is slightly greasy when damp, cream with pale buff to greyish centre, wholly or partly speckled with fine brownish scales. The lamellae (gills) are waxy, thick, adnexed, white to cream. The stipe (stem) is whitish, speckled with fine brownish scales, lacking a ring. The spore print is white, the spores (under a microscope) smooth, inamyloid, broadly ellipsoid, c. 5.5 to 7.5 by 4 to 5 μm.
Similar species
The earthy waxcap Cuphophyllus fornicatus is very similar, but lacks scales on cap or stipe. The two species have been confused in the past and further research is required to distinguish them morphologically.
Distribution and habitat
The scalyfoot waxcap is only known with certainty from England, but is presumed to be more widespread in Europe. Like most other European waxcaps, Cuphophyllus lepidopus occurs in old, agriculturally unimproved, short-sward grassland (pastures and lawns).
Recent research suggests waxcaps are neither mycorrhizal nor saprotrophic but may be associated with mosses.
Conservation
Cuphophyllus lepidopus is typical of waxcap grasslands, a declining habitat due to changing agricultural practices. As a result, the species is of global conservation concern and is listed as "vulnerable" on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.
See also
List of fungi by conservation status
References
Fungi of Europe
Hygrophoraceae
Fungi described in 1927
Fungus species | Cuphophyllus lepidopus | [
"Biology"
] | 551 | [
"Fungi",
"Fungus species"
] |
72,496,093 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Marine%20Pollution%20Bulletin | The Marine Pollution Bulletin is an open access scientific journal that focuses on the study of marine pollution and its effects on the environment and human health. The journal was first published in 1971 and is currently published by Elsevier on behalf of the International Maritime Organization.
The journal covers a wide range of topics related to marine pollution, including the sources and types of pollutants, their impacts on marine ecosystems and organisms, and technologies used to mitigate marine pollution. The journal publishes research articles, review articles, and case studies that provide new insights and advances in the field of marine pollution science.
In addition to its regular articles, the Marine Pollution Bulletin also publishes special issues and supplements on specific topics related to marine pollution. These special issues often include contributions from leading researchers and experts in the field, and provide in-depth coverage of important topics in marine pollution science. The editorial board of the journal is composed of experts in the field of marine pollution, who review and select articles for publication based on their scientific merit and relevance to the journal's scope.
According to the Journal Citation Reports, the journal has a 2021 impact factor of 7.001.
Abstracting and indexing
The journal is indexed in several major databases, including the Science Citation Index, Scopus, and the Web of Science. Its articles are also available through Elsevier's ScienceDirect platform.
References
External links
English-language journals
Elsevier academic journals | The Marine Pollution Bulletin | [
"Environmental_science"
] | 285 | [
"Environmental science journals",
"Environmental social science stubs",
"Environmental social science",
"Environmental science journal stubs"
] |
72,497,031 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jon%20Agee | Jon Agee (born 1960) is a children's book writer and illustrator whose work centers around wordplay. Since 1981, he has published more than 31 books.
Early life and education
Agee was born in Nyack, New York in 1960. He attended Cooper Union School of Art and graduated with a BFA degree.
Career
Agee's art style is known for its "trademark blocky ink-and-watercolor illustrations," according to The New York Times.
In the 1990s, he wrote two musicals for children for the Tada! theater company, one of which was titled B.O.T.C.H, short for Bureau of Turmoil, Chaos and Headaches, a fictional New York City agency in charge of disrupting city functioning.
He has written cartoons for The New Yorker.
Agee has published several books of palindromes and word play such as anagrams and oxymorons. He became interested in them after a friend started writing them. "I liked the way absurdity and logic were intertwined," Agee said. In its review of Agee's book of 60 illustrated oxymorons called Who Ordered the Jumbo Shrimp? The New York Times wrote that "it would be a near miss, if not a minor catastrophe, not to take the calculated risk of treating the whole family to this instant classic."
His books include the 1996 picture book Dmitri the Astronaut, Smart Feller Fart Smeller, and many more.
At the first annual Symmys palindrome awards, he won in the short palindrome category for "An igloo costs a lot, Ed! Amen. One made to last! So cool, Gina!". He also won in 2021.
Personal life
Agee lives in San Francisco with his wife, Audrey. He enjoys crossword puzzles. In 2003, New York Times puzzle editor Will Shortz wrote that Agee had thanked him for including his name in a Friday crossword and joked that "he would not be satisfied until his name appeared in a Monday puzzle, the easiest of the week, where every answer is supposed to be familiar to most solvers. Only then would he know that he had truly arrived."
List of works
Picture books
If Snow Falls (1982)
Ellsworth (1983)
Ludlow Laughs (1985)
The Incredible Painting of Felix Clousseau (1988)
The Return of Freddy LeGrand (1992)
Flapstick (1993)
Dmitri the Astronaut (1996)
The Return of Freddy Legrand (1999)
Milo's Hat Trick (2001)
When Z Goes Home (2003)
Terrific (2005)
Why Did the Chicken Cross the Road? (2006)
Nothing (2007)
The Retired Kid (2008)
My Rhinoceros (2011)
The Other Side of Town (2012)
Little Santa (2013)
It's Only Stanley (2015)
Lion Lessons (2016)
Life on Mars (2017)
The Wall in the Middle of the Book (2018)
I Want a Dog (2019)
My Dad Is a Tree (2023)
Collections of word play
Go Hang a Salami! I'm a Lasagna Hog!: And Other Palindromes (1991)
So Many Dynamos!: And Other Palindromes (1994)
Who Ordered the Jumbo Shrimp?: And Other Oxymorons (1998)
Sit on a Potato Pan, Otis!: More Palindromes (1999)
Elvis Lives!: And Other Anagrams (2000)
Palindromania! (2002)
Smart Feller Fart Smeller: And Other Spoonerisms (2006)
Orangutan Tongs: Poems to Tangle Your Tongue (2009)
Mr. Putney's Quacking Dog (2010)
Otto: A Palindrama (2021)
As illustrator
Natalie Babbitt and others, The Big Book for Peace (1990)
Dee Lillegard, Sitting in My Box (1989)
Tor Seidler, Mean Margaret (1997)
Erica Silverman, The Halloween House (1998)
William Steig, Potch & Polly (2002)
References
American children's book illustrators
American children's writers
Writers who illustrated their own writing
20th-century American illustrators
21st-century American illustrators
American cartoonists
The New Yorker cartoonists
American humorists
Anagrammatists
Palindromists
Writers from San Francisco
Cooper Union alumni
21st-century American male writers
20th-century American male writers
1960 births
Living people | Jon Agee | [
"Physics"
] | 910 | [
"Palindromists",
"Symmetry",
"Palindromes"
] |
72,497,510 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pteroma%20pendula | Pteroma pendula, the oil palm bagworm or simply bagworm, is a species of bagworm moth found in East and Southeast Asia that infests oil palm plantations.
Pteroma pendula is among most economically damaging pest of oil palm plantations in Malaysia and Indonesia, along with Metisa plana. The caterpillars also feed on other trees and shrubs, including Acacia mangium, Delonix regia, Cassia fistula, and Callerya atropurpurea. 31 different species have been identified as host plants for P. pendula. Insecticides are the favoured method of controlling the moth in most commercial plantations. Natural enemies such as predators, parasitoids, and fungi kill up to 4.85% of the population.
Life cycle
Survival rate of P. pendula eggs differs based on chosen host plant. The species has six larval instars. Pupae are typically found in middle and lower fronds, while caterpillars go higher in search fresh ones. Dimorphism has been reported in the pupal and imago stages. Males generally live longer than females.
Damage symptoms
P. pendula infestations can be detected by a number of symptoms. Holes in leaves and sometimes defoliation are some signs, and discolouration may also result.
References
Psychidae
Pests (organism)
Pests of oil palm
Fauna of Southeast Asia
Moths described in 1929 | Pteroma pendula | [
"Biology"
] | 298 | [
"Pests (organism)"
] |
72,497,805 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aperiodic%20crystal | Aperiodic crystals are crystals that lack three-dimensional translational symmetry, but still exhibit three-dimensional long-range order. In other words, they are periodic crystals in higher dimensions. They are classified into three different categories: incommensurate modulated structures, incommensurate composite structures, and quasicrystals.
In X-ray crystallography
The X-ray diffraction patterns of aperiodic crystals contain two sets of peaks, which include "main reflections" and "satellite reflections". Main reflections are usually stronger in intensity and span a lattice defined by three-dimensional reciprocal lattice vectors. Satellite reflections are weaker in intensity and are known as "lattice ghosts". These reflections do not correspond to any lattice points in physical space and cannot be indexed with the original three vectors.
History
The history of aperiodic crystals can be traced back to the early 20th century, when the science of X-ray crystallography was in its infancy. At that time, it was generally accepted that the ground state of matter was always an ideal crystal with three-dimensional space group symmetry, or lattice periodicity. However, in the late 1900s, a number of developments in the field of crystallography challenged this belief. Researchers began to focus on the scattering of X-rays and other particles beyond just the Bragg peaks, which allowed them to better understand the effects of defects and finite size on the structure of crystals, as well as the presence of additional spots in diffraction patterns due to periodic variations in the crystal structure. These findings showed that the ground state of matter was not always an ideal crystal, and that other, more complex structures could also exist. These structures were later classified as aperiodic crystals, and their study has continued to be an active area of research in the field of crystallography.
Mathematics of the superspace approach
To understand aperiodic crystal structures, one must use the superspace approach. In materials science, "superspace" or higher-dimensional space refers to the concept of describing the structures and properties of materials in terms of dimensions beyond the three dimensions of physical space. This may involve using mathematical models to describe the behavior of atoms or molecules in a materials in four, five, or even higher dimensions.
Aperiodic crystals can be understood as a three-dimensional physical space wherein atoms are positioned, plus the additional dimensions of the second subspace.
Superspace
Dimensionalities of aperiodic crystals:
,
,
.
The "" represents the dimensions of the first subspace, which is also called the "external space" () or "parallel space" ().
The "" represents the additional dimension of the second subspace, which is also called "internal space" ('') or "perpendicular space" (). It is perpendicular to the first subspace.
In summary, superspace is the direct sum of two subspaces. With the superspace approach, we can now describe a three-dimensional aperiodic structure as a higher dimensional periodic structure.
Peak indexing
To index all Bragg peaks, both main and satellite reflections, additional lattice vectors must be introduced:
,
,
.
With respect to the three reciprocal lattice vectors spanned by the main reflection, the fourth vector can be expressed by
.
is modulation wave vector, which represents the direction and wavelength of the modulation wave through the crystal structure.
If at least one of the values is an irrational number, then the structure is considered to be "incommensurately modulated".
With the superspace approach, we can project the diffraction pattern from a higher-dimensional space to three-dimensional space.
Example
Biphenyl
The biphenyl molecule is a simple organic molecular compound consisting of two phenyl rings bonded by a central C-C single bond, which exhibits a modulated molecular crystal structure. Two competing factors are important for the molecule's conformation. One is steric hindrance of ortho-hydrogen, which leads to the repulsion between electrons and causes torsion of the molecule. As a result, the conformation of the molecule is non-planar, which often occurs when biphenyl is in the gas phase. The other factor is the -electron effect which favors coplanarity of the two planes. This is often the case when biphenyl is at room temperature.
References
Crystal structure types
Tessellation | Aperiodic crystal | [
"Physics",
"Chemistry",
"Materials_science",
"Mathematics"
] | 890 | [
"Tessellation",
"Euclidean plane geometry",
"Crystal structure types",
"Crystallography",
"Planes (geometry)",
"Symmetry"
] |
72,498,249 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norwegian%20Astronomical%20Society | The Norwegian Astronomical Society () is a Norwegian organization active in astronomy research, education and outreach.
The society was founded on 25 February 1938 in Oslo and initiated by Svein Rosseland, who also founded the Institute of Theoretical Astrophysics at the University of Oslo. Hans Severin Jelstrup was elected as the first chairman, with Gunnar Randers being deputy chairman and Helmut Ormestad secretary. In 1943, the society launched its periodical, Norsk populær-astronomisk tidsskrift. The first issue had contributions from Svein Rosseland, Hans Severin Jelstrup and Eberhart Jensen among others.
Its members are both professional and amateur astronomers. The organization has almost two thousand members. During the 2004 transit of Venus, NAS organized the Norwegian public show. It organizes national conferences and the Norwegian Astronomy Olympiad.
The society has several observation groups for meteors, comets, variable stars, supernovae, occultations, the sun, and aurorae. A shift towards a more professional orientation was formalized in 1968 when the journal Astronomisk Tidskrift (Astronomical Journal) was started as a joint venture of the Danish, Norwegian and Swedish societies. Since 1990, the journal Astronomi has been the official magazine for members.
See also
List of astronomical societies
References
External links
Official website (in Norwegian)
Astronomy organizations
Astronomy in Norway
Organizations established in 1938
1938 establishments in Norway
Scientific organisations based in Norway
Education in Norway | Norwegian Astronomical Society | [
"Astronomy"
] | 300 | [
"Astronomy stubs",
"Astronomy organizations",
"Astronomy organization stubs"
] |
72,498,333 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time%20in%20Saint%20Vincent%20and%20the%20Grenadines | Saint Vincent and the Grenadines observes Atlantic Standard Time (UTC−4) year-round.
IANA time zone database
In the IANA time zone database, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines is given one zone in the file zone.tab—America/Port_of_Spain, which is synonymous with the zone for time in Trinidad and Tobago. Saint Kitts and Nevis and Saint Lucia also share America/Port_of_Spain. Data for America/Port_of_Spain directly from zone.tab of the IANA time zone database; columns marked with * are the columns from zone.tab itself:
References
External links
Current time in Saint Vincent and the Grenadines at Time.is
Time in Saint Vincent and the Grenadines at TimeAndDate
Time by country
Geography of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines | Time in Saint Vincent and the Grenadines | [
"Physics"
] | 175 | [
"Spacetime",
"Physical quantities",
"Time",
"Time by country"
] |
72,498,361 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time%20in%20Saint%20Kitts%20and%20Nevis | Saint Kitts and Nevis observes Atlantic Standard Time (UTC−4) year-round.
IANA time zone database
In the IANA time zone database, Saint Kitts and Nevis is given one zone in the file zone.tab—America/Port_of_Spain, which is synonymous with the zone for time in Trinidad and Tobago. Saint Lucia and Saint Vincent and the Grenadines also share America/Port_of_Spain. Data for America/Port_of_Spain directly from zone.tab of the IANA time zone database; columns marked with * are the columns from zone.tab itself:
References
External links
Current time in Saint Kitts and Nevis at Time.is
Time in Saint Kitts and Nevis at TimeAndDate
Time by country
Geography of Saint Kitts and Nevis | Time in Saint Kitts and Nevis | [
"Physics"
] | 167 | [
"Spacetime",
"Physical quantities",
"Time",
"Time by country"
] |
72,498,377 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time%20in%20Saint%20Lucia | Saint Lucia observes Atlantic Standard Time (UTC−4) year-round.
IANA time zone database
In the IANA time zone database, Saint Lucia is given one zone in the file zone.tab—America/Port_of_Spain, which is synonymous with the zone for time in Trinidad and Tobago. Kitts and Nevis and Saint Vincent and the Grenadines also share America/Port_of_Spain. Data for America/Port_of_Spain directly from zone.tab of the IANA time zone database; columns marked with * are the columns from zone.tab itself:
References
External links
Current time in Saint Lucia at Time.is
Time in Saint Lucia at TimeAndDate
Time by country
Geography of Saint Lucia | Time in Saint Lucia | [
"Physics"
] | 150 | [
"Spacetime",
"Physical quantities",
"Time",
"Time by country"
] |
72,498,504 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HD%2026755 | HD 26755, also known as HR 1313, is a spectroscopic binary located in the northern circumpolar constellation Camelopardalis, the giraffe. It has an apparent magnitude of 5.72, making it faintly visible to the naked eye under ideal conditions. Gaia DR3 parallax measurements place the system at a distance of 271 light years and is currently drifitng closer with a heliocentric radial velocity of . At its current distance, HD 26755's brightness is diminished by 0.19 magnitudes due to interstellar dust.
The visible component is an evolved red giant with a stellar classification of K1 III. It is estimated to be 2.13 billion years old, enough time for the star to exhaust its core hydrogen and evolve to become a red giant. It has cooled and expanded to 9.4 times the Sun's radius. It has 1.68 times the mass of the Sun and radiates 42.5 times the luminosity of the Sun from its enlarged photosphere at an effective temperature of , giving it an orange hue when viewed in the night sky. HD 26755 is a metal enriched star with an iron abundance 48% greater than the Sun. It spins slowly with a projected rotational velocity of , which is poorly constrained.
References
K-type giants
Spectroscopic binaries
Camelopardalis
BD+57 00787
026755
019983
1313 | HD 26755 | [
"Astronomy"
] | 300 | [
"Camelopardalis",
"Constellations"
] |
73,912,953 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horse%20cloning | Horse cloning is the process of obtaining a horse with genes identical to that of another horse, using an artificial fertilization technique. Interest in this technique began in the 1980s. The Haflinger foal Prometea, the first living cloned horse, was obtained in 2003 in an Italian laboratory. Over the years, the technique has improved. It is mainly used on high-performance but castrated or infertile animals, for reproductive cloning. These horses are then used as breeding stock. Horse cloning is only mastered by a handful of laboratories worldwide, notably in France, Argentina, North America and China. The technique is limited by the fact that some differences remain between the original and its clone, due to the influence of mitochondrial DNA.
Reproductive cloning of the Pieraz and Quidam de Revel horses began in 2005. The International Federation for Equestrian Sports (FEI by its acronym in French) decided to ban clones from competition in 2007, before authorizing them in 2012. A few clones are used in equestrian sports, winning major titles such as the Argentine polo championship in 2013. Nevertheless, the number of cloned horses is growing every year. The practice is highly controversial, particularly for bioethical reasons, since it involves a high failure rate on embryos. It also raises questions about the management of horses' genetic diversity, the future of the horse breeding profession, and the outbreak of new genetic disorders or fraud.
The horse is the seventh species to be cloned yet.
History
Horse cloning has undergone a rapid qualitative and quantitative evolution. While Italian professor Cesare Galli believes that horse cloning has aroused less interest than that of other large mammals, other scientists believe that the high commercial value attained by some horses has created immediate interest, unlike in the case of less valuable agricultural animal species. Equine cloning owes much of its development to the Belgian stud farm of Zangersheide, one of the pioneers of artificial insemination and embryo transfer. According to Éric Palmer, a French biologist specializing in horse reproduction (who introduced ultrasound to mares and produced the first foal by in vitro fertilization), the way for the use of cloning was initiated in the 1980s by veterinarian surgeon Dr. Leo de Backer. He was in contact with some of the world's leading sports stables. According to Palmer, the ones that are interested are Alwin Schockemöhle, Jan Tops, Thomas Fruhman, John and Michael Whitaker, Willi Melliger, Jean-Claude Van Geensbergen and La Silla (in Mexico), among many others. The value of cloning high lineage horses was recognized as early as 1998, with the Westhusin study. Research to this end was publicly announced in 2001. That same year, with the support of Genopole, Éric Palmer founded Cryozootech, a company dedicated to preserving the genes of horses with exceptional performance, with a view to future cloning. The horse is not the first large mammal to be cloned, as Dolly the sheep and other animals precede it, making it the seventh mammal to be cloned.
Birth of Prometea and Pieraz
The birth of three cloned mules in the United States on May 4, 2003, came just before that of the first horse. The first successful attempt to produce a viable clone was made by the Italian laboratory LTR-CIZ, which gave birth to Prometea on May 28, 2003, a Haflinger foal carried to term by her mother, whose genetic copy she is. Her birth was announced publicly on August 6, 2003. Born 36 kilogram after a natural delivery and a full-term pregnancy in Laboratory of Reproductive Technology, Cremona, Italy, At 2 months old, Prometea weighed The name "Prometea" is the feminine form of Prometeo ("Prometheus" in Greek). These scientists worked under the guidance of Professor Cesare Galli.
Dr. Cesare Galli and others at the lab experimented with 841 reconstructed embryos; of the 14 viable embryos, four were implanted in surrogate mothers - only that of Prometea succeeded in being born. Prometea was born to her twin mother who her cloning cells originated from. Texas A&M University was also undertaking a horse-cloning project when the Italian team first succeeded.
In 2002, LTR-CIZ merged with Cryozootech. In Italy, they produced the world's second cloned horse, Pieraz-Cryozootech-Stallion. This is a purely commercial clone, aimed at obtaining a fertile genetic copy of a successful but castrated horse. According to Bernard Debré, the birth of Pieraz-étalon heralded the commercial direction that equine cloning would later take. Prometea and Pieraz were obtained using the same method, that of Professor Galli.
Entering the commercial phase
Shortly afterwards, on 13 March 2005, Dr Katrin Hinrichs gave birth to Paris-Texas, a clone of Quidam de Revel, in a laboratory at Texas A&M University in Texas (USA). The clone foal is also produced commercially for breeding purposes, at the request of Quidam's owner. The technique used is slightly different from that of the Italians. As a result, the number of clones produced has increased over the years. In 2009, the E.T. FRH clone became the first cloned show jumping horse authorized for breeding by a studbook (the Zangersheide studbook), while endurance champion Pieraz's clone entered its third breeding season. In Argentina, polo player Adolfo Cambiaso uses Crestview Genetics to clone his polo ponies. At the end of 2010, a clone of his polo mare Cuartetera was sold at auction for a record $800,000. In May 2013, a non-clone foal was born for the first time from two parents cloned by embryo transfer. On 7 December 2013, a cloned polo pony won a major sporting competition for the first time. It was the Argentine polo championship. In 2018, equine cloning was widely used in Argentina's polo scene. The Argentine polo horse has become the most cloned animal in the world.
Technique
Cloning research is often carried out in secret, due to poor public acceptance. Commercial cloning companies sometimes reveal the births of these horses, but the techniques employed remain mostly secret. According to the French national stud farm, the cloning technique used, known as "somatic" cloning, involves taking cells by biopsy, usually from the breast of an adult animal. Fibroblasts are extracted and cultured in vitro until a sufficient number is obtained, then stored in liquid nitrogen. Oocytes are harvested from a mare, either living or dead. The DNA is removed by enucleation, then in vitro culture makes it suitable for receiving fibroblast DNA from the animal to be cloned. Due to the high demand for mare oocytes, these are usually obtained from slaughterhouses.
After a week or so of in vitro culture, the resulting embryo is implanted into the uterus of a carrier mare, using the embryo transfer technique. After eleven months' gestation, the mare gives birth to the cloned foal. However, this type of gestation is much riskier than a conventional one.
Success rate
According to a Belgian researcher interviewed by Le Vif, the failure rate is the main reason for opposition to cloning, for bioethical reasons due to the mortality of embryos, fetuses and newborn foals. This rate is high, but is gradually decreasing thanks to better-controlled techniques. Professor Galli obtained 15% viable embryos for his second clone, Pieraz, compared with only 3% for Prometea, the first horse, which required 328 attempts. The first mule trials, in 2003, involved 118 embryos, 13 of which produced a gestation, resulting in 3 live mules. To clone Calvaro V in 2006, Cryozootech used over 2,000 oocytes, which produced 22 embryos, only one of which was carried to term.
Estimates of this rate vary from source to source. In 2012, according to a Belgian researcher, the average success rate for animal cloning was around 5%. Argentine researchers estimate that 6 or 7 embryos are needed out of 20 trials (in 2013). In 2010, according to a French source, around 2,500 mare oocytes had to be used to obtain a single viable foal. There are many abortions as well. Despite increased susceptibility to neonatal disease, a clone has the same life expectancy and robustness as a conventional horse. There is nothing to differentiate a clone from a conventionally bred horse.
Usage
The cost of equine cloning varies between €200,000 and €300,000, depending on the source. In 2010, clones intended for sporting competitions represented just 22% of operations. Cloning is therefore mainly carried out in Europe for the purpose of breeding high-performance horses. A gelding can be copied to ensure its progeny. The same applies to a stallion that has become too old to reproduce, or to a mare whose number of foals is naturally limited. The use of cloning relies heavily on the belief that DNA is the most important factor in competition performance. Anne Ricard's study estimates that, in equestrian disciplines (show jumping, dressage and endurance) where geldings represent around 40% of competitors, the use of reproductive clones will enable a genetic improvement of 4% per generation. Once their fertility has been established, their semen is frozen as for any other stallion.
Effective cloning remains very marginal due to its cost. In the US and Argentina, requests for equine cloning come mainly from polo players (who allow their mares to play all the seasons) and Arabian horse breeders. Cloning can also be used to preserve rare breeds threatened with extinction, but customers' motivations are essentially commercial. Nevertheless, the discovery of a perfectly preserved prehistoric foal in Siberia (in 2018) augurs well for cloning trials by Russian and Korean researchers, to resurrect extinct equine breeds or species.
Limits
If the foal is the genetic copy of its donor, the question of the influence of the mitochondria that remain present in the recipient oocyte is still open. Mitochondria represent only 1 or 2% of the genome, but could influence the clone's sporting performance. They are more important in the case of a mare than a stallion, since the mare transmits her mitochondria during reproduction, unlike the stallion. Similarly, the cloned horse is not necessarily a perfect copy of the donor in terms of phenotype and character. The horse markings may vary, and the character, depending less on genetics than on the influence of the mother and upbringing, may also turn out to be very different. The technique also has its limits when it comes to breeding, as the pattern sought in horses evolves over time. There is therefore little point in cloning a horse clone. It also takes a long time to implement, and the number of specialized laboratories and companies is limited. The Kheiron company in Argentina, for example, estimates its waiting time at eighteen years, with demand far outstripping supply. The ban on clones in a large number of stud books and in certain competitions also limits interest.
Specialized companies
A few companies are known for their specialization in commercial equine cloning: ViaGen, Replica Farms, Crestview Genetics, Kheiron and Cryozootech. Competition between these laboratories is fierce. French company Cryozootech is a pioneer in the field, having produced the first commercial clone in 2005. It has made the production of famous horse clones its specialty. ViaGen was originally based in Texas in the United States, but the laboratory moved to Canada after the last American slaughterhouses closed in 2007, to source mare oocytes. Kheiron was set up in Argentina in 2009 with a team of eight people. Equine cloning has developed strongly in this country, thanks in particular to demand from polo players, the profusion of mare oocytes available for research (the country exports a lot of horse meat, and has numerous slaughterhouses supplying oocytes) and the easy breeding conditions in the Pampas. In 2012, Argentina was estimated to be the country producing the most horse clones in the world. In Texas, more than 900 clones were born between the creation of the first laboratory and 2014. In 2019, equine cloning companies are expected to open in China.
Reception in competitions and breeding registers
The use of clones for the genetic improvement of horses' sporting performance is recognized, including by veterinarians, although skepticism remains high among some professionals. According to Éric Palmer, acceptance of horse cloning is growing, and attitudes are changing, in the same way as the gradual acceptance of in vitro fertilization and artificial insemination techniques in horses. Fears of the birth of malformed or monstrous animals diminished when clone owners realized that their animals were in good health.
Competitions
In 2007, the International Federation for Equestrian Sports ruled that cloned horses should be banned from the official competitions it organizes, believing that opening up participation to clones would be unjust and unfair to the competition. It revised its opinion in July 2012. Horse clones are now allowed in all FEI competitions. This reversal is seen as an important sign of recognition of the usefulness of clones in sport horse breeding.
In the United States, the National Cutting Horse Association and the National Barrel Horse Association allow clones in cutting and barrel racing competitions. The American Quarter Horse Association was taken to court by owners and riders of cloned horses in 2012, for refusing to allow these horses to take part in official breed competitions. The initial ruling ordered the association to amend its bylaws to allow clones to compete.
Sporting training of the Levisto Alpha Z clone makes it possible, even probable, for a clone horse to win an Olympic title in the future.
Studbook entries
Clones are generally not entered in the stud books of their respective breeds. The American Jockey Club refuses to allow cloned horses to race. In France, clones are also banned from trotting and galloping races. Several European sport horse and warmblood studbooks accept clones: Zangersheide; Anglo-European (AES); Irish Sport Horse (ISH); Dutch Warmblood (KWPN); Belgian Warmblood (BWP); and Holsteiner. France's national stud farms advise against banning clones from the various studbooks, arguing that this will ultimately drive the best gene pool abroad.
Cloned horses
The existence of clones is not always made public, due to the poor reception they receive. Although in Belgium, Isabelle Donnay believes that commercial cloning of horses has not been very successful, on a global scale, their numbers have clearly increased over time. Equidia Life's 2013 survey describes the practice as "booming". In winter 2010, 56 clones were counted worldwide, produced by laboratories in Europe, the United States and South America. Americans clone more mares than Europeans. Between 2006 and 2011, at least 20 American Quarter Horses were cloned. In 2014, there were an estimated 900 clones in the state of Texas. In Europe, the Belgian Zangersheide stable regularly uses this technique, with four horses cloned between 2006 and 2013. The stallion Salute, one of Smart Little Lena's clones, was exported to Australia in 2010 for breeding.
Opposition
According to various surveys, including one carried out by Cheval Savoir in 2009, horse cloning is generally poorly accepted by riders and horse professionals. They believe it introduces unfair competition to "normal" horse breeders, while constituting a highly lucrative and ethically unacceptable activity. For French scientist Éric Palmer, the technique is demonized due to misunderstandings. The American Quarter Horse Association has stated that "[...] clones have no parents, cloning is not breeding. It's just photocopies of the same horse", pointing to its low success rate and the risk of as yet unknown genetic disorder developing. The Jockey Club was also strongly opposed. Dr. Thomas Reed, who owns the private stud Morningside in Ireland, is also publicly opposed to cloning after the accidental death of his stallion Hickstead in competition at the end of 2011.
In 2015, the European Union voted to ban the cloning of farm animals (cattle, pigs, sheep, goats, and horses), and the sale of cloned livestock, their offspring, and products derived from them, such as meat and milk. The ban excluded cloning for research, and for the conservation of rare breeds and endangered species. However, no law was passed after the vote. As of 2024, horse cloning continues to be legal in the EU, with the Zangersheide registry in Belgium offering three cloned stallions for breeding.
Bioethics
Horse cloning, like that of other animal species, raises bioethical issues, since it involves a high mortality rate of embryos, fetuses and young foals. The Swiss National Stud's ethics study reports "massive loss during gestation", with less than 1% of oocytes obtained resulting in a live foal. Furthermore, foals born from cloning suffer from frequent health problems. An American study looked at 14 clones born between 2004 and 2008. Six (43%) were normal, while the other eight suffered from neonatal disorders, umbilical problems and limb deformities. There are a large number of stillborn foals, deaths in the first few days after birth, immune deficiencies, and muscle and bone deformities. Problems at foaling are common for both carrier mare and foal, with cesarean section being a common option. If foals survive their postnatal period, they do not appear to be more susceptible to disease thereafter. The question of their longevity remains unknown, as the first clones are still too young to draw any statistics.
In the UK, researcher William (Twink) Allen was refused permission to continue his cloning trials in 2004 for these ethical reasons, as the cloned animals could present malformations, anomalies and diseases, according to the British authorities. Dr. Natasha Lane, of the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (SPCA by its acronym in French), said it was not acceptable to clone animals by sacrificing embryos "just to get a gold medal". Allen spoke out against the decision, saying that the British government had "caved in to the animal protection lobby".
Loss of genetic diversity and confiscation of living matter
Although horses are not threatened with extinction or other major problem now, cloning may create less genetic diversity among horses by using these horses to breed. This increases the life time of one breeding set of genetics resulting in less variability in a population. In conservation biology, there are concerns related to the lack of genetic diversity that allows for continuation of the species through genetic variation.
On 8 June 2005, a number of French farmers belonging to the Confédération Paysanne demonstrated in front of the Genopole d'Évry, Cryozootech's headquarters, to denounce the "seizure of living matter" and a future loss of genetic diversity, arguing that the development of cloning will eventually lead to the disappearance of the breeding profession. A number of specialists warn against the widespread use of cloning, believing that it will seriously damage the equine breeding industry, particularly in equestrian sport, by reducing demand for naturally-born foals. Cloning would also drastically reduce genetic diversity, as the same genes "could be reproduced over and over again".
Fraud
One fear that has arisen with cloning is that of new forms of fraud. In studbooks that refuse to accept clones, particularly the Thoroughbred studbook, it would be possible to pass off a horse cloned from a champion as another animal by falsifying its identification documents.
See also
Horse welfare
Horse Protection Act of 1970
World Horse Welfare
Castration
Livestock branding
Equine Ethics
Quidam de Revel
Pieraz
References
Bibliography
Extract.
Further reading
World's first cloned horse is born New Scientist. Referenced March 6, 2011.
Cloning Horseplay Science Now. Referenced March 6, 2011.
photo
Cloning
In vitro fertilisation
Bioethics | Horse cloning | [
"Technology",
"Engineering",
"Biology"
] | 4,212 | [
"Bioethics",
"Cloning",
"Genetic engineering",
"Ethics of science and technology"
] |
73,913,712 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chappe%20telegraph | The Chappe telegraph was a French semaphore telegraph system invented by Claude Chappe in the early 1790s.
The system was composed of towers placed every 5 to 15 kilometers. Coded messages were sent from tower to tower, with transmission being handled by tower operators using specially designed telescopes. The messages were decoded once they reached their destination city. By the mid 19th century, the network spanned several hundred kilometres and covered most major French cities as well as Venice, Mainz and Amsterdam.
The system was dismantled after the introduction of the electric telegraph. Today, about twenty Chappe towers remain, in varying states of repair.
Design
The Chappe telegraph system embodied varying designs, with the variation partly due to technological improvements made as the system was used.
Physical layout of the towers
The typical tower's signaling mechanism was visible through specially designed telescopes from a neighboring tower, 5 to 15 km away. The mechanism consisted of:
a 7-meter sky blue mast, incorporating a ladder to access the moving parts and to carry out maintenance;
the "regulator": a black main beam, 4.60 m long by 0.35 m wide;
"indicators": two rotating black wings, 2 m by 0.30 m;
"ranges": gray counterweights for each indicator
the "manipulator": a system of cables and return pulleys at the foot of the mast in the work room, which the operator used to produce the signal. The manipulator reproduced the state of the signaling mechanism in miniature so that the operators could see what they were doing;
The regulators and indicators had fixed louvres to reduce wind resistance.
Telescopes
Two telescopes were used in each tower to see the signals up- and downstream from that tower. They had magnifications between 30× and 65×, depending on the arrangement of the towers. Each telescope was mounted in a wooden housing that kept it fixed and focused on one of the neighbouring towers. This avoided the need to adjust the telescope for each message.
Coding and deciphering
The code was based on different configurations of the moving parts of the telegraph. The regulator could take two positions (horizontal and vertical) and each of the indicators could take seven positions. Thus, the total number of possible signals was . Six of these signals were reserved for service purposes, for example to signal "end of message" or to indicate an error or the absence of an operator. This left 92 possible signals, each associated with a number, used to communicate the message itself. The telegraph configurations corresponding to each number (1-92) are shown in the image on the left.
The message was coded at the tower of origin using a code book and decoded at the destination tower using an identical book. The code book contained 92 pages, each of which contained 92 entries, each with a word, a series of related words, or an expression. Messages were composed of words and expressions from the 8464 () possible choices. For each word or expression, two symbols were transmitted; the first indicated the page number for the word or expression, and the second indicated the word's position on the code book's page. For example, as shown in the photo on the right, the code for "ignorance" would be (50, 87) since the word is on page 50 in position 87.
History
Communication over long distances is a recurrent problem in history. This problem was particularly pressing in France at the height of the French Revolution, as the country was surrounded by the hostile forces of Britain, Austria, Prussia and the Netherlands. In this context, France would obtain strategic advantage if, unlike its enemies, it had a rapid system of reliable communication.
The telegraph Chappe provided just such a system of rapid and reliable communication. For example, sending a message carried by horses from Strasbourg to Paris took 4 days. With the Chappe telegraph, it took 2 hours.
Construction of the system began in the early 1790s and proceeded rapidly after that. It continued to be used for decades, but its decline began when the first electric telegraph line, based on International Morse code, was set up in 1845. The last signal from a Chappe telegraph was sent in 1854.
Invention
In 1791, Chappe conceived a project that was to put "the government in a position to transmit its orders over a great distance in the least possible time". Having experimented with several solutions involving both sight and sound, he finally opted for the transmission of optical signs via a semaphore system with transmission effected by observation through a telescope. Chappe found experimentally that the angle of the moving pieces of the telegraph was easier to discern accurately at a distance than other characteristics of the towers or other sources of signal.
On 2 and 3 March 1791, Chappe tested an optical telegraph with a system of synchronized pendulums and a white and black optical panel between the cities of Brûlon and Parcé in the Loire region. He then transmitted the following message: "The National Assembly will reward experiences that are useful to the public."
In June 1791, Chappe moved to Paris and carried out new experiments in Ménilmontant, on a site near what is now the rue du Télégraphe in the 20th arrondissement of Paris (this is the highest point in the city). Chappe and his associates then sought political support in order to install the system throughout France. On 22 March 1792 Chappe submitted a petition to the Legislative Assembly, in which he described his invention as "a reliable means of establishing a correspondence such that the legislative body can send its orders to our frontiers and receive the answer during the duration of the same session." On 1 April a report vaunting the military use of the telegraph was presented to the National Convention on behalf of the Committees for Public Instruction and War.
On 12 July 1793 a successful first test was carried out over a distance of 26 km, between Ménilmontant, Écouen and Saint-Martin-du-Tertre (in the Val-d'Oise, near Paris). On 25 July Chappe was appointed telegraph engineer by decree. After a convincing presentation by Joseph Lakanal in support of the project, the National Convention approved the construction of the Paris-Lille telegraph line on 4 August 1793. In a letter sent the following day, Chappe described the benefits of the system for the political unification of France as follows:The establishment of the telegraph is, in fact, the best response to authors who think that France is too large to form a Republic. The telegraph shortens distances and somehow unites an immense population at a single point.
Construction
The first Chappe telegraph line was a series of towers linking Paris and Lille, a distance of 230 kilometres. The Paris-Lille line was operational for military purposes only. Its fifteen towers made it possible to transmit a short message between these two cities within 9 minutes. Later developments added the major French cities, with Paris being the central node of the system. Between Paris and Brest in Brittany, 58 stations dotted the route. In addition to Paris-Lille in 1794, other cities initially served were: Strasbourg in 1798 and Brest in 1799. By 1844, 534 towers criss-crossed French territory, linking the 29 most important cities and covering more than 5,000 km.
The network was also extended in Europe as far as Amsterdam, Mainz and Venice, and in North Africa, where it covered Algeria (Algiers-Oran and Algiers-Constantine in 1853) and Tunisia (Tunis-La Goulette and Tunis-Mohamedia in 1848–1849).
Originally, the mechanisms were built by the workshops of the central administration in the premises of the administration of the telegraph. From 1833 onwards, they were built in Paris in a workshop. This workshop specialised in the manufacture of telegraphs and other machines and was located at 882, passage du Désir, faubourg Saint-Denis in what is now the 10th arrondissement of Paris.
The telescopes used in the system were originally produced in England, but were very expensive. The government encouraged the development of French production capabilities, which eventually replaced English sources.
Management and personnel
Originally, the system was managed by Claude Chappe and his brothers. This family-based system lasted until the July Monarchy in 1830, after which it was replaced by an administrative system that was both hierarchical and military in style. Under it, three top administrators managed four departments (messaging, personnel, plant and equipment, and accounting). The headquarters were located in the 7th arrondissement of Paris.
At the operational level, directors were responsible for coding, decoding, distributing and entering telegraph dispatches. Below them, inspectors were tasked with overseeing groups of about ten towers, including keeping the plant and equipment in good working order, supervising the tower operators, identifying the source of transmission errors and sanctioning operators for poor performance. The inspectors used military telescopes to observe and evaluate the performance of individual towers.
The tower operators accounted for more than 90 percent of the system's personnel. Originally, each tower had two operators, one for reading the signals and the other for manipulating the transmission mechanism. The operators did not have the code book needed to decipher the signals. Operators also had to verify that the next tower down the line did not make a mistake when retransmitting the message. The operators worked 365 days per year, were sanctioned for mistakes and were paid the same wages as a construction day-worker. Later, because of funding problems, often only one operator was assigned to each tower.
Use and misuse
The towers were effective in allowing news to travel quickly around France. The first military use of the system was made to report the recapture from Austrian forces of the cities of Le Quesnoy on 15 August 1794 and the town of Condé-sur-l'Escaut on 30 August 1794. The news of these victories was known by the National Convention in Paris within a few minutes.
Private parties also took steps to profit from the rapid communications offered by the Chappe telegraph. Between 1834 and 1836, the telegraph was used by two Bordeaux businessmen, the brothers François and Joseph Blanc, to receive information on Paris Stock Exchange annuity prices before anyone else. The use was discovered in 1836 and the two brothers spent time in jail awaiting trial but were ultimately found not guilty because there was no law against this behaviour, although they did have to pay a fine for bribing some of the telegraph operators.
Reception by French society
The first phases of construction of the system aroused the suspicions of the population. In several instances, the local telegraphs were destroyed during popular uprisings, possibly due to suspicions of witchcraft, but more probably in order to hinder government communications.
Many French writers of the time featured the telegraph in their writings (Hugo, Dumas, Chateaubriand, Stendhal, Flaubert). Alexandre Dumas incorporated it into his novel, The Count of Montecristo, with the Count pirating the system (through bribery) in order to undermine the financial position of one of his enemies. Victor Hugo described his horror at discovering, while traveling in Normandy in 1836, that the statue of the Archangel on the pinnacle of the steeple of the abbatial church of Mont Saint Michel had been replaced by a Chappe telegraph.
See also
Optical communication
References
History of telecommunications
Optical communications
Telegraphy | Chappe telegraph | [
"Engineering"
] | 2,287 | [
"Optical communications",
"Telecommunications engineering"
] |
73,914,275 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetta%20nyakitongwer | Genetta nyakitongwer is a species of extinct genet known from Koobi Fora in Kenya. It is known only from a single specimen, a left lower jaw with five preserved teeth. It probably dates to between 1.87 and 1.56 million years ago. The species was named in 2013 by paleontologists Lars Werdelin and Margaret E. Lewis. The specific name, nyakitongwer, is the word for "genet" in the local Daasanach language.
The only known specimen preserves the alveolus of the first lower premolar (p1), the broken second premolar (p2), the complete third premolar through first molar (p3, p4, and m1), and the broken second molar (m2). Its status as a separate species rests on its large size: it is far larger than any other genet except the giant forest genet (Genetta victoriae), the largest living genet, and it has more robust teeth than even the giant forest genet. In addition, the front part of the m1 (the trigonid) is narrower than the back part (the talonid).
References
Genets (animals)
Pleistocene carnivorans
Pleistocene mammals of Africa
Fossils of Kenya
Fossil taxa described in 2013
Species known from a single specimen | Genetta nyakitongwer | [
"Biology"
] | 278 | [
"Individual organisms",
"Species known from a single specimen"
] |
73,914,505 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aileron%20%28architecture%29 | An aileron in architecture is a half-gable, typically found in pairs flanking a central mass over subsidiary elements. In churches they are typically found at side aisles or wings (French aile). In baroque architecture, ailerons are often altered or disguised with scrolled or curved elements of the facade.
References
Architectural elements | Aileron (architecture) | [
"Technology",
"Engineering"
] | 68 | [
"Building engineering",
"Architectural elements",
"Components",
"Architecture"
] |
73,914,611 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petrobactin | Petrobactin is a bis-catechol siderophore found in M. hydrocarbonoclasticus, A. macleodii, and the anthrax-producing B. anthracis. Like other siderophores petrobactin is a highly specific iron(III) transport ligand, contributing to the marine microbial uptake of environmental iron.
The iron-chelated petrobactin complex readily undergoes a photolytic oxidative decarboxylation due to its α-hydroxy carboxylate group, converting iron(III) to the more biologically useful iron(II).
Biological function
Like other siderophores, petrobactin is secreted by an animal pathogenic bacterium. B. anthracis uses petrobactin to acquire iron from its host. Interestingly, while the 3,4-catecholate ends of petrobactin do not improve iron(III) affinity relative to hydroxamate ends, they speed up iron removal from human diferric transferrin. Petrobactin in its ferric and iron-free forms is bound selectively by YclQ (an isogenic disruption mutant in the transporter encoded by the yclNOPQ operon in Bacillus subtilis), as is petrobactin's precursor protocatechuic acid and the ferric petrobactin photoproduct. The yclNOPQ operon is required for the utlization of petrobactin and yclNOPQ orthologs likely contribute to the pathogenicity of Bacilli.
Biosynthesis
In B. anthracis, petrobactin is produced by a nonribosomal peptide synthetase independent siderophore (NIS) synthetase pathway. The enzyme sequences used are anthrax siderophore biosynthesis (Asb) A through F, in alphabetical order. These gene clusters are identical to those used in M. hydrocarbonclasticus biosynthesis of petrobactin. In A. macleodii only the first three gene clusters, AsbA through AsbC, are identical to B. anthracis; then a longer AsbD and AsbF is next, followed by two hypothetical protein domains and a PepSY domain-containing gene. A. macleodii ends its sequence with AsbE.
The biosynthesis of petrobactin in B. anthracis can progress in order AsbA-AsbB-AsbE-AsbE or AsbA-AsbE-AsbB-AsbE.
If the enzymation reactions in this pathway proceed generally, in domains AsbA and AsbB the phosphorylation of a carboxylic acid forms an acylphosphate intermediate, which is then dephosphorylated by a primary amine in spermidine. In domain AsbE the lone pair of electrons on a primary amine allows for a nucleophilic attack on the electrophilic hydroxyl carbon. The sulfur on AsbE is protonated to form a thiol and the amide nitrogen is deprotonated.
The dehydration of 3-dehydroshikimic acid might proceed as a modified, enzyme-catalyzed dienol benzene rearrangement and reduction, leading to aromatization of the ring.
References
Biomolecules
Iron metabolism
Catechols
Carboxamides
Polyols
Secondary amino acids | Petrobactin | [
"Chemistry",
"Biology"
] | 736 | [
"Natural products",
"Organic compounds",
"Biomolecules",
"Structural biology",
"Biochemistry",
"Molecular biology"
] |
73,914,935 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saproamanita%20inopinata | Saproamanita inopinata, commonly called unexpected anamita, is a basidomycete fungus in the subgenus Saproamanita. This species was previously called Anamita inopinata, before being briefly renamed to Aspidella inopinata until it received its current name. The native range is currently unknown, with it currently being considered introduced into both New Zealand and England.
Taxonomy
This species was first described in 1987 by Reid and Bass. The name "inopinata" translates into "unexpected". This was then renamed into Aspidella inopinata in 2012 based on morphological, ecological and molecular data by Vizzini and Contu. Finally this was moved to Saproamanita in 2016 by Redhead, Vizzini, Dehmel and Contu. The Amanita genus was split into the saprophytic Saproamanita and ectomycorrhizal Amanita in 2016.
Description
The pileus are in diameter, convex or applanate, finally shallowly concave with a downward curved margin, entirely covered by a thick cottony pale grey-brown felt which disrupts into very prominent darker pyramidal warts to high. The stipe is tall, wide, cylindric to slightly enlarged below before tapering to a rooting base, apex seemingly sheathed by a closely adpressed, pale grey annulus which becomes darker downward to the narrow, black, free margin. With age the portion above this black band disrupts into pale grey zig-zag bands of scales on a pale pinkish salmon-coloured background. Below the black annulus the stem of young fruitbodies is at first densely spotted with very dark grey to almost black floccose scales, which soon disappear leaving the lower part of the stem densely flecked with delicate, dark blackish brown, hair-like fibrils with recurved tips on a dirty salmon to bright tawny background, finally passing into blackish grey-brown on the rooting base. Volva not visible.
The lamellae are broad, rounded at the margin, salmon coloured. Flesh white in pileus with a slight to prominent pale grey region beneath cuticle; white in upper part of stipe passing into cream or pale salmon below.
The spores very variable in shape and size, typically broadly elliptic to ovate, thin walled, hyaline, strongly amyloid, 8–9 x 6–1 pm (in fruitbodies with 4-spored basidia) on some specimens varying from subglobose to ovate, broadly elliptic, elliptic or pip-shaped, and when there is a mixture of 2- and 4-spored basidia on the same gill the range is 8–12 x 6–8^m. Basidia clavate or lanceolate, 43–56 x 6–8/mi, thin-walled, hyaline, either 2- or 4-spored, often on the same gill, and with a basal clamp-connection. Cheilocystidia not recovered.
Structure of warts on pileus comprising chains of basically erect, thin-walled, hyaline, cylindric or barrel-shaped elements with pale brown sap and clamp-connections at the septa, reaching to 255/mi in length, and to 43/mi in width, in the lower portion of the warts the elements are often more fusiform, in the apical portion they are shorter and less regularly arranged. In some fruit-bodies the structure of the warts is modified by presence of numerous branched, highly refractive oleiferous elements. Structure of annulus similar to warts on pileus, consisting of chains of barrel-shaped, thin-walled, hyaline, clamp-bearing segments to 120/mi long and to 23pm wide.
Distribution and habitat
S. inopinata was first found in Europe in 1916, and 1986 in Britain. However this is thought to be introduced because of the human intervention in the sites as well as many avid mushroom hunters whom would have found the mushroom if it had been present previously. It is also reported as an introduced species to New Zealand. S. inopinata's native range is unclear. The mushroom is also found in the Netherlands, Germany and France, however sightings since 2012 have decreased.
S. inopinata was previously thought to be mycorrhizal, forming associations with New Zealand plants (both native and introduced), including kōwhai, broadleaves, pine, Lawson Cypress and yew. It is now known to be saprotrophic.
References
Amanitaceae
Fungi of Europe
Fungi of New Zealand
Taxa named by Derek Reid
Fungi described in 1987
Fungus species | Saproamanita inopinata | [
"Biology"
] | 973 | [
"Fungi",
"Fungus species"
] |
73,915,200 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum%20robotics | Quantum robotics is an interdisciplinary field that investigates the intersection of robotics and quantum mechanics. This field, in particular, explores the applications of quantum phenomena such as quantum entanglement within the realm of robotics. Examples of its applications include quantum communication in multi-agent cooperative robotic scenarios, the use of quantum algorithms in performing robotics tasks, and the integration of quantum devices (e.g., quantum detectors) in robotic systems.
Introduction
The free-space quantum communication between mobile platforms was proposed for reconfigurable Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) applications using drones in 2017. This technology was later advanced in various aspects in mobile drone and vehicle platforms in several configurations such as drone-to-drone, drone-to-moving vehicle, and vehicle-to-vehicle systems .Communication system technology for demonstration of BB84 quantum key distribution in optical aircraft downlinks. Airborne demonstration of a quantum key distribution receiver payload.
Communication system technology for demonstration of BB84 quantum key distribution in optical aircraft downlinks.
Other researchers contributed to low size, weight and power quantum key distribution system for small form unmanned aerial vehicles ., characterization of a polarization-based receiver for mobile free space optical QKD ., and optical-relayed entanglement distribution using drones as mobile nodes. The topic of free-space quantum communication between mobile platforms, which was initially implemented to fulfill the need for free-space QKD and entanglement distribution using mobile nodes, was brought into robotics domain as an emerging interdisciplinary mechatronics topic to investigate and explore the interface between the quantum technologies and robotic systems domain. The main advantage of such integrated technology being the guaranteed security in communication between multiagent and cooperative autonomous systems. Although as a newfound emerging area, other benefits are anticipated in the future research by accessing the fast-growing and forthcoming quantum advantages. However, such progress can only be made after a foundation is laid out in what is referred to as “quantum robotics” and “quantum mechatronics”. The paper contributes to providing the complementary background needed for the research in integrating free-space quantum communication into the robotics field. Other contributions include modernizing the mechatronics discipline with quantum engineering for educational purposes which was initially proposed in. This paper further introduces quantum engineering topics needed in training and preparing the future engineering workforce to succeed in the rapid-paced ever-changing industry. In particular, the topics on the quantum mechanics fundamentals such as quantum entanglement, cryptography, teleportation, as well and the Bell test, are proposed which are suitable for engineering curriculum and University projects.
Alice and Bob Robots
In the realm of quantum mechanics, the names Alice and Bob are frequently employed to illustrate various phenomena, protocols, and applications. These include their roles in quantum cryptography, quantum key distribution, quantum entanglement, and quantum teleportation. The terms "Alice Robot" and "Bob Robot" serve as analogous expressions that merge the concepts of Alice and Bob from quantum mechanics with mechatronic mobile platforms (such as robots, drones, and autonomous vehicles). For example, the Alice Robot functions as a transmitter platform that communicates with the Bob Robot, housing the receiving detectors.
The schematic representation of the experimental setup for achieving quantum entanglement through the spontaneous parametric down-conversion process is shown in the figure.
The experimental setup that includes the laser source, and Alice and Bob is shown in the figure below.
The Alice and Bob and the corresponding components.
The schematic representation of the Alice and Bob robots when sharing entangled photons in a quantum communication or quantum key distribution experimental setup between moving robotic platforms is shown in the figure.
The nomenclature used in the figure:
AL: Alignment Laser
DMSP: Shortpass dichroic mirror
FSM: Fast steering mirror
FFC: Fixed focus collimator
HWP: Half-wave plate
M: Mirror
MTC: Motion tracking camera
MTC & M: Motion tracking camera and mirror
NBF: Narrowband filter
NPBS: Non-Polarizing beamsplitter cube (50:50)
PABBO: Paired Barium borate (BBO) Crystal (Type I SPDC crystals)
PBS: Polarizing beamsplitter cube
PSD: Position sensing detector
QP: Quartz plate
QRC: QR code
SL: Source Laser
SPCM: Single photon counter module
References
Robotics | Quantum robotics | [
"Engineering"
] | 893 | [
"Robotics",
"Automation"
] |
73,915,996 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eko%20Health%20Inc. | Eko Health Inc. (Eko) is an American healthcare technology company that develops medical devices, software, and clinical support AI to detect cardiovascular and pulmonary disease.
History
Eko was founded in 2013 by Connor Landgraf, Jason Bellet, and Tyler Crouch. Landgraf was inspired to create Eko after seeing the limitations of traditional stethoscopes during his studies in biomedical engineering at the University of California, Berkeley and recruited his classmates Bellet and Crouch to join him.
In 2015, Eko received FDA clearance for its first product, CORE, a digital attachment for traditional stethoscopes with a compatible smartphone application. In 2017, Eko received FDA clearance for the DUO, a combined digital stethoscope ECG that could be used without a traditional stethoscope. In 2018, Eko's low ejection fraction screening algorithm, developed with the Mayo Clinic, received a ‘Breakthrough Device’ designation from the FDA.
In 2020, Eko announced $65 million in funding, and a collaboration with 3M. Eko raised an additional $30M in funding in 2022, and received FDA clearance for its murmur analysis software.
In 2023, Eko received FDA-clearance for the CORE500 digital stethoscope, which combines artificial intelligence (AI) software, high-fidelity audio, full-color display and 3-lead electrocardiogram (ECG). CORE500 offers compatibility with Eko’s Sensora platform, which uses artificial intelligence (AI) in cardiac disease detection.
References
2014 establishments in California
American companies established in 2014
Companies based in Oakland, California
Medical device manufacturers
Medical technology companies of the United States
Medical technology companies | Eko Health Inc. | [
"Biology"
] | 345 | [
"Medical technology companies",
"Life sciences industry"
] |
73,916,236 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frankenia%20serpyllifolia | Frankenia serpyllifolia, commonly known as bristly sea-heath is a flowering plant in the family Frankeniaceae and grows in New South Wales, South Australia, Queensland and the Northern Territory. It is a small, spreading shrub with pink flowers.
Description
Frankenia serpyllifolia is a small, spreading herb to high and in diameter covered with short spreading hairs. The leaves are arranged opposite, long, wide, flat, exude salt, oval to oblong-shaped, flat or margins curved downward. The flowers are pink, mostly 5 petalled, petals long, borne singly at leaf axils or clusters of 2-70 flowers at the base of leaves or at the end of stems and the calyx long. Flowering occurs mostly in spring.
Taxonomy and naming
Frankenia serpyllifolia was first formally described in 1848 by John Lindley and the description was published in Journal of an Expedition into the Interior of Tropical Australia. The specific epithet (serpyllifolia) means "wild thyme-leaved".
Distribution and habitat
Bristly sea-heath grows on heavy soils or flood plains in South Australia, Queensland, New South Wales and the Northern Territory.
References
serpyllifolia
Halophytes
Caryophyllales of Australia
Flora of South Australia
Flora of the Northern Territory
Flora of Queensland
Flora of New South Wales | Frankenia serpyllifolia | [
"Chemistry"
] | 276 | [
"Halophytes",
"Salts"
] |
73,916,998 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arash%20Ghorbani-Choghamarani | Arash Ghorbani-Choghamarani (born 23 September 1979) is an Iranian chemist and Professor of Chemistry at Bu-Ali Sina University. He is also Deputy of Research and Technology at this university since November 2021.
Ghorbani-Choghamarani is among the most-cited Iranian researchers and is known for his works on organic chemistry, nanochemistry, heterogeneous catalysis, heterocyclic compounds and organic synthesis.
Previously He was professor and Deputy of Education at Ilam University.
Ghorbani-Choghamarani is a winner of Ilam Province Book of the Year for his book Drug Delivery Systems and Their Effectiveness Through Nanotechnology.
Books
New Discussions on Nanocatalysts in Organic Chemistry, Ilam: Ilam University Press 2018, ISBN 9786006184395
Drug Delivery Systems and Their Effectiveness Through Nanotechnology, Ilam: Havar 2019, ISBN 9786008473855
References
Living people
1979 births
Iranian nanotechnologists
Iranian organic chemists
Academic staff of Bu-Ali Sina University
Academic staff of Ilam University
Bu-Ali Sina University alumni | Arash Ghorbani-Choghamarani | [
"Chemistry"
] | 238 | [
"Organic chemists",
"Iranian organic chemists"
] |
73,917,167 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Costas%20Kounnas | Costas Christou Kounnas (Κώστας Χρήστου Κουννάς, 23 January 1952 – 21 January 2022) was a Cypriot theoretical physicist, known for his research on string theory, supersymmetry, supergravity, GUTs, and quantum chromodynamics.
Biography
Kounnas born in Famagusta. After graduating in 1969 from Famagusta's Greek High School for Boys, he graduated with honors from the School of Physics and Mathematics of the University of Athens. With a scholarship from the French government, he became in 1975 a graduate student at the ENS Paris, where he received his doctorate in 1981. While studying in Paris he married the Famagusta-native Kakia Alexandrou. The couple's son is Christian Kounnas.
Costas Kounnas then worked at CERN (1982 to 1984) and the University of California, Berkeley (1984 to 1987) before returning to the ENS in 1987 as Research Director of the CNRS. From 1992 to 1999 he was a staff member in the Theory Division of CERN.
He was a visiting professor at Stanford University, the University of California at Los Angeles (UCLA), and Harvard University.
In 1987, with Ignatios Antoniadis and Constantin Bachas, he developed superstring models in four dimensions. Their research initiated much further research in string theory. He was involved in elucidating the properties of supergravity and their influence on and relationship to string theory. He also worked on string cosmology.
Kounnas received in 1995 the Paul Langevin Prize and in 2013 the Gay-Lussac-Humboldt Prize. He received a Humboldt Research Award for the academic year 2014–2015, during which he collaborated with Dieter Lüst at the Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich.
Over many years, Kounnas made important contributions to establishing and developing the scientific meetings at EISA's Corfu Summer Institute.
Selected publications
with E. G. Floratos, R. Lacaze: Higher order QCD effects in inclusive annihilation and deep inelastic scattering, Nucl. Phys. B, vol. 192, 1981, pp. 417–462 (over 400 citations)
with Eugène Cremmer, Sergio Ferrara, Dimitri Nanopoulos: Naturally vanishing cosmological constant in N= 1 supergravity, Phys. Lett. B, vol. 133, 1983, pp. 61–66 (over 1000 citations)
with John Ellis, D. V. Nanopoulos: No-scale supersymmetric GUTs, Nucl. Phys. B, vol. 247, 1984, pp. 373–395 (over 650 citations)
with J. Ellis, D. V. Nanopoulos: Phenomenological SU (1, 1) supergravity, Nucl. Phys. B, vol. 241, 1984, pp. 406–428 (over 500 citations)
with A. B. Lahanas, D. V. Nanopoulos, M. Quirós: Low-energy behaviour of realistic locally-supersymmetric grand unified theories, Nucl. Phys. B, vol. 236, 1984, pp. 438–466 (over 450 citations)
with E. Cremmer, A. Van Proeyen, J. P. Derendinger, S. Ferrara: B. de Wit, L. Girardello: Vector multiplets coupled to N= 2 supergravity: super-Higgs effect, flat potentials and geometric structure, Nucl. Phys. B, vol. 250, 1985, pp. 385–426 (over 400 citations)
with S. Ferrara, M. Porrati: General dimensional reduction of ten-dimensional supergravity and superstring, Phys. Lett. B, vol. 181, 1986, pp. 263–268
with I. Antoniadis, C. Bachas: Four-dimensional Superstrings. In: Nucl. Phys. B, vol. 289, 1987, pp. 87–108 (over 1000 citations)
mit M. Porrati: Spontaneous supersymmetry breaking in string theory, Nucl. Phys. B, vol. 310, 1988, pp. 355–370 (over 300 citations)
with S. Ferrara, M. Porrati, F. Zwirner: Superstrings with spontaneously broken supersymmetry and their effective theories, Nucl. Phys. B, vol. 318, 1989, pp. 75–105 (over 350 citations)
with J. P. Derendinger, S. Ferrara, F. Zwirner: On loop corrections to string effective field theories: field-dependent gauge couplings and σ-model anomalies, Nucl. Phys. B, vol. 372, 1992, pp. 145–188 (over 400 citations)
with S. Ferrara, F. Zwirner: Mass formulae and natural hierarchy in string effective supergravities, Nucl. Phys. B, vol. 429, 1994, pp. 589–625
with Nicolaos Toumbas: Aspects of String Cosmology, Corfu Summer Institute 2012, arxiv.org preprint
References
1952 births
2022 deaths
20th-century physicists
21st-century physicists
String theorists
Theoretical physicists
Cosmologists
École Normale Supérieure alumni
French National Centre for Scientific Research scientists
People associated with CERN
Greek Cypriots
People from Famagusta | Costas Kounnas | [
"Physics"
] | 1,144 | [
"Theoretical physics",
"Theoretical physicists"
] |
73,917,950 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statement%20on%20AI%20risk%20of%20extinction | On May 30, 2023, hundreds of artificial intelligence experts and other notable figures signed the following short Statement on AI Risk:Mitigating the risk of extinction from AI should be a global priority alongside other societal-scale risks such as pandemics and nuclear war.At release time, the signatories included over 100 professors of AI including the two most-cited computer scientists and Turing laureates Geoffrey Hinton and Yoshua Bengio, as well as the scientific and executive leaders of several major AI companies, and experts in pandemics, climate, nuclear disarmament, philosophy, social sciences, and other fields. Media coverage has emphasized the signatures from several tech leaders; this was followed by concerns in other newspapers that the statement could be motivated by public relations or regulatory capture. The statement was released shortly after an open letter calling for a pause on AI experiments.
The statement is hosted on the website of the AI research and advocacy non-profit Center for AI Safety. It was released with an accompanying text which states that it is still difficult to speak up about extreme risks of AI and that the statement aims to overcome this obstacle. The center's CEO Dan Hendrycks stated that "systemic bias, misinformation, malicious use, cyberattacks, and weaponization" are all examples of "important and urgent risks from AI... not just the risk of extinction" and added, "[s]ocieties can manage multiple risks at once; it's not 'either/or' but 'yes/and.
Among the well-known signatories are: Sam Altman, Bill Gates, Peter Singer, Daniel Dennett, Sam Harris, Grimes, Stuart J. Russell, Jaan Tallinn, Vitalik Buterin, David Chalmers, Ray Kurzweil, Max Tegmark, Lex Fridman, Martin Rees, Demis Hassabis, Dawn Song, Ted Lieu, Ilya Sutskever, Martin Hellman, Bill McKibben, Angela Kane, Audrey Tang, David Silver, Andrew Barto, Mira Murati, Pattie Maes, Eric Horvitz, Peter Norvig, Joseph Sifakis, Erik Brynjolfsson, Ian Goodfellow, Baburam Bhattarai, Kersti Kaljulaid, Rusty Schweickart, Nicholas Fairfax, David Haussler, Peter Railton, Bart Selman, Dustin Moskovitz, Scott Aaronson, Bruce Schneier, Martha Minow, Andrew Revkin, Rob Pike, Jacob Tsimerman, Ramy Youssef, James Pennebaker and Ronald C. Arkin.
Reception
The Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, Rishi Sunak, retweeted the statement and wrote, "The government is looking very carefully at this." When asked about the statement, the White House Press Secretary, Karine Jean-Pierre, commented that AI "is one of the most powerful technologies that we see currently in our time. But in order to seize the opportunities it presents, we must first mitigate its risks."
Skeptics of the letter point out that AI has failed to reach certain milestones, such as predictions around self-driving cars. Skeptics also argue that signatories of the letter were continuing funding of AI research. Companies would benefit from public perception that AI algorithms were far more advanced than currently possible. Skeptics, including from Human Rights Watch, have argued that scientists should focus on the known risks of AI instead of distracting with speculative future risks. Timnit Gebru has criticized elevating the risk of AI agency, especially by the "same people who have poured billions of dollars into these companies." Émile P. Torres and Gebru both argue against the statement, suggesting it may be motivated by TESCREAL ideologies.
See also
AI alignment
Existential risk from artificial general intelligence
Pause Giant AI Experiments: An Open Letter
References
Existential risk from artificial general intelligence | Statement on AI risk of extinction | [
"Technology"
] | 817 | [
"Existential risk from artificial general intelligence"
] |
73,919,334 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chakr%20Innovation | Chakr Innovation is a cleantech startup based in India specializing in material science technology. The company was founded by graduates from IIT Delhi and works in the fields of air and environmental protection. Chakr Innovation is the first company in India to receive type approval certification for their retrofit emission control device (RECD) from labs approved by the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB). They have over 15 patents filed, and their work has been recognized across the globe by reputed organizations like the United Nations, WWF, Forbes, and the like.
History
Chakr Innovation was founded in 2016 by Kushagra Srivastava, Arpit Dhupar and Bharti Singhla - graduates from IIT Delhi, to reduce pollution with the help of innovation and technology. The idea began with a group of friends having sugarcane juice at a shop with a wall turned black because of soot particles coming out of the diesel generator exhaust used for crushing sugarcane.
Chakr Innovation launched Chakr Shield in 2017, one year after its incorporation. The device could reduce the particulate matter 2.5 (PM 2.5) emission from a diesel generator by up to 90%. In 2022, the company introduced a dual fuel kit that would allow a diesel generator to run on fossil fuel and natural gas simultaneously in a 30 to 70 ratio.
Products
Chakr Shield is a patented Retrofit Emission Control Device (RECD) by Chakr Innovation. It was also the first in India to get a Type Approval Certification from CPCB-certified labs like ICAT and ARAI for its capability to reduce the pollution from diesel generators by up to 90%.
The Chakr Dual Fuel Kit uses technology to allow a diesel generator set to operate on a mixture of gas and diesel as a fuel, with 70% natural gas and 30% fossil fuel. This can be a perfect conversion kit for industries with access to gas pipeline networks. With the launch of this product, Chakr Innovation reportedly became the only turnkey solution provider in India to control the emissions from diesel generators.
In 2020, Chakr Innovation launched a decontamination cabinet for N95 masks with the help of ozone gas. Ozone is a strong oxidizing agent that destroys viruses and bacteria by diffusing through their protein coats. Chakr DeCoV reportedly inactivated SARS-CoV-2 and reduced the bacterial load by 99.9999%, allowing N95 masks to be reused up to 10 times.
Awards
2016: Winner of Urban Labs Innovation Challenge – University of Chicago
2017: Climate solver award – World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF)
2017: Echoing Green Fellowship
2017: Champions of Change – NITI Aayog
2017: Recipient of "Start-up in Oil & Gas Sector" award – Federation of Indian Petroleum Industry(FIPI)
2018: Winner of Young Champions of the Earth – United Nations Environment Programme (Asia Pacific)
2018: 30 Under 30 Social Entrepreneurs – Forbes
2019: Winner of Maharashtra Startup Week Award – Maharashtra State Innovation Society
References
Pollution
Pollution control technologies
Technology companies established in 2016
Indian companies established in 2016
Manufacturing companies based in Delhi
Manufacturing companies established in 2016
Diesel engine components | Chakr Innovation | [
"Chemistry",
"Engineering"
] | 638 | [
"Pollution control technologies",
"Environmental engineering"
] |
73,919,410 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BC-007 | BC-007, whose international nonproprietary name is Rovunaptabin, is an oligonucleotide aptamer, a synthetic DNA compound designed to bind other chemicals. BC-007 is in early-stage clinical trials as a lead compound intended for the potential treatment of heart failure or long COVID.
History
Since the 1990s, the binding of G protein coupled receptors to autoantibodies (GPCR-AABs) was investigated as a possible factor in the pathology of several diseases, including heart disease. In parallel, treatment strategies to remove GPCR-AABs were investigated, initially using proteins or peptides to bind the antibodies.
In 2012, scientists from the Max Delbrück Center and the Charité Heart Center obtained a patent in the United States for using aptamers as a therapy or diagnosis of autoimmune diseases. Beginning in 2013, the research group focused on the treatment of dilated cardiomyopathy in people positive for beta-1 adrenergic receptor autoantibodies. In 2015–16, scientists reported that two aptamers might bind and inhibit GPCR-AABs.
The biotechnology company Berlin Cures pursued the development of the aptamer with the nucleotide sequence GGT TGG TGT GGT TGG under the codename BC-007 for the inhibition of autoantibodies in cardiomyopathy.
Properties
BC-007 is a 15-nucleotide single-stranded DNA molecule consisting of nine unmodified deoxy-guanosines and six corresponding deoxythymidines with the sequence 5'-GGT TGG TGT GGT TGG-3'. Its three-dimensional structure allows it to wrap around the target structure of G-protein-coupled receptor autoantibodies and neutralize their activity.
BC-007 is synthetic, enabling it to be produced in high volumes quickly. It is stable and suited for long-term storage. It has shown no side effects in early clinical studies, and does not trigger immunological responses. As it is water soluble, it can be formulated as inhalation or as nasal spray. In some human studies, it was given by intravenous infusion, displaying an in vivo half-life in blood of about 4 minutes.
References
External links
BC 007 Pipeline
Experimental drugs
Long COVID
Nucleic acids | BC-007 | [
"Chemistry"
] | 490 | [
"Biomolecules by chemical classification",
"Nucleic acids"
] |
73,921,178 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subway%20shirt | A subway shirt, or outfit dampener, is an oversized outfit worn by women to protect themselves while they commute on hot days. This dress style is meant to protect women from unpleasant looks, sexist remarks, and hostile or violent confrontations. This strategy is used by women in the U.S., U.K., and France.
Background
The trend of wearing oversized shirts to avoid unwanted male attention on public transportation began in New York City. The movement has gained traction, with videos with the hashtag #SubwayShirt attracting millions of views.
In the UK, 71% of women have encountered some type of sexual harassment in public places, according to a poll conducted on with the assistance of UN Women UK.
Although the term "subway shirt" is new, choosing outfits to avoid harassment is not. A 2016 study in France, by the National Federation of Transport User Organizations ociations (Fnaut), found that 48% of women respondents acknowledged modifying their clothes in order to move about, such as wearing pants instead of skirt, or covering their cleavage with a scarf or a large sweater.
Comments
According to certain TikTok users, the cover-up is intended to redirect attention away from the body. According to Leora Tanenbaum, the TikToks suggesting subway T-shirts are promoting awareness of the harm that results from assault and sexual harassment in public places. While wearing one may make women feel less exposed, Tanenbaum states that it isn't a requirement.
This wearing style has been described by certain TikTok users as "Fashion safety layer" and "sad but necessary". Others stated they follow the style while utilizing ride-hailing services like Uber or Lyft.
References
Women's rights
Harassment and bullying
Social movements
TikTok | Subway shirt | [
"Biology"
] | 365 | [
"Harassment and bullying",
"Behavior",
"Aggression"
] |
73,921,557 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MBR%20Explorer | The MBR Explorer is a planned UAESA space probe designed to journey to seven different main belt asteroids. Proposed under the Emirates Mission to the Asteroid Belt, it is named in recognition of the foundational role driving the creation and growth of the UAE Space Program played by Sheikh Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum, the vice president and the prime minister of the United Arab Emirates.
The mission to explore the asteroid belt was announced by the United Arab Emirates Space Agency in May 2023, and the launch is planned for March 2028. Similarly to their previous Mars mission, the MBR Explorer will launch from Tanegashima Space Center, this time on an H3.
The spacecraft will weigh around 2.8 tonnes and will travel at an average speed of 33,000 km/h.
The MBR Explorer will visit asteroids 10253 Westerwald, 623 Chimaera, 13294 Rockox, (88055) 2000 VA28, (23871) 1998 RC76, and (59980) 1999 SG6, in a 5-billion-kilometre total journey, and will attempt to land on its seventh and final asteroid, 269 Justitia in 2034.
The spacecraft will also drop off a small lander to set down on Justitia's surface.
See also
Lucy, an ongoing NASA mission that will similarly fly by various Jupiter trojans.
DESTINY+, a planned JAXA mission that will fly past multiple asteroids.
References
2028 in spaceflight
Space program of the United Arab Emirates | MBR Explorer | [
"Astronomy"
] | 307 | [
"Astronomy stubs",
"Spacecraft stubs"
] |
73,922,479 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramicolous%20lichen | A ramicolous lichen is one that lives on branches.
References
Sources
Lichenology | Ramicolous lichen | [
"Biology"
] | 20 | [
"Lichenology"
] |
73,922,601 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HD%20178322 | HD 178322, also known as HR 7257 or rarely 45 G. Coronae Australis, is a double-lined spectroscopic binary located in the southern constellation Corona Australis. It has a combined apparent magnitude of 5.86, making it faintly visible to the naked eye under ideal conditions. The system is located relatively far at a distance of roughly 1,550 light-years based on Gaia DR3 parallax measurements, and it is currently receding with a heliocentric radial velocity of . At its current distance, HD 178322's brightness is diminished by an extinction of 0.28 magnitudes and it has an absolute magnitude of −2.31. The system has a high peculiar velocity of , indicating that it may be a runaway star system; it is said to be part of the Scorpius-Centaurus Association.
The components of HD 178322 are both B-type main-sequence stars with stellar classifications of B5 V and B6 V respectively. Both stars have roughly 4.4 times the mass of the Sun and they spin moderately with projected rotational velocities of . The primary has 3.26 times the radius of the Sun and it radiates 11,749 times the luminosity of the Sun from its photosphere at an effective temperature of . The companion has 3.07 times the Sun's girth and it radiates 513 times the luminosity of the Sun from its photosphere at an effective temperature of . Both stars take roughly 12 days to complete a relatively circular orbit at a separation of . The system is estimated to be 50 million years old.
References
B-type main-sequence stars
Spectroscopic binaries
Corona Australis
Coronae Australis, 45
CD-42 13933
178322
094157
7257 | HD 178322 | [
"Astronomy"
] | 375 | [
"Corona Australis",
"Constellations"
] |
73,922,728 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Singerocybe%20clitocyboides | Singerocybe clitoboides is a species of fungus in the genus Singerocybe. It is endemic to Australia and New Zealand.
Taxonomy
The species was described in 1887 by Cooke and Massee as Agaricus clitocyboides. The holotype specimen was collected from Gippsland, Victoria Australia. In 2014, A. clitocyboides was moved to the genus Singerocybe by Zhu, Yang and Gates as Singerocybe clitocyboides (Cooke & Massee) Zhu L. Yang, J. Qin & G.M. Gates, comb. nov.
Description
The pileus ranges from in diameter, that is convex depressed in shape.The pileus is a pale yellow to orange colour that is glabrous and smooth, that occasionally is tinged with red.
The stipe is in length and in width, it is centrally attached. It is curved and subclavate in shape, with a pale whitish colour. The stipe has a solid structure with no chambers located within it.
The lamellae are crowded and thin, that are structured in a collarium that are a broad white colour. The spores of Singerocybe clitocyboides are elliptic/ellipsoid in shape and have a size of 5 x 2u.
Habitat & distribution
Singerocybe clitocyboides occurs in forest and has been identified in the North Island of New Zealand and the territories of Victoria, New South Wales and Southern Australia, Australia. It has been identified on rotting woods such as old fern logs and on the ground of lowland podocarp, broad-leaved forests.
References
Agaricales
Fungus species | Singerocybe clitocyboides | [
"Biology"
] | 345 | [
"Fungi",
"Fungus species"
] |
73,923,536 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peucemycin | Peucemycin is a polyketide produced by Streptomyces peucetius, a Gram-positive filamentous bacteria that also produces the anticancer compounds daunorubicin and doxorubicin. This compound was elucidated from a cryptic biosynthetic gene cluster and is produced under temperature-specific conditions for bacterial growth (metabolite is present at 18 °C but not 28 °C). Peucemycin has demonstrated bioactivity against growth of S. aureus, P. hauseri, and S. enterica and also is weakly active against cancer cell lines. Peucemycin is biosynthesized through a Type 1 PKS system.
Biosynthesis
Peucemycin is synthesized through a type 1 polyketide synthase with 8 proposed modules from 5 PKS-related genes (peuA-peuE). The type 1 PKS pathway used for biosynthesis is shown in Figure 1. The first gene, peuA, encodes for an initiation module and two elongation modules. The structure of the ketosynthase enzyme in the initiation module has a mutation of a cysteine residue to a glutamine residue that allows for decarboxylation of the starting material without condensation. The next gene, peuB, encodes for modules 3 and 4. Sequencing data of Module 4 indicates presence of a dehydratase enzyme, but amino acid mutations leave this enzyme inactivated, meaning a singular hydroxyl group at carbon 9 is generated. Module 5 is encoded by peuC, and an additional gene, peuI, is proposed to introduce the butyl malonyl-CoA in this module. Modules 6 and 7 are encoded by peuD and peuE respectively. The forming polyketide chain is hydroxylated with cytochrome P450 enzymes, peuH and peuG, and the terminal thioesterase domain in Module 7 catalyzes the product release and macrocycle formation to form peucemycin.
References
Polyketides
Lactones
Heterocyclic compounds with 2 rings
Twelve-membered rings
Diols | Peucemycin | [
"Chemistry",
"Biology"
] | 450 | [
"Biomolecules by chemical classification",
"Bacteria stubs",
"Natural products",
"Polyketides",
"Bacteria"
] |
73,926,913 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South%20Imaramagambo%20Central%20Forest%20Reserve | South Imaramagambo Central Forest Reserve is a protected area in Rukungiri District in the Western Region of Uganda. It covers an area of .
Setting and structure
South Imaramagambo Central Forest Reserve is a semi-evergreen forest reserve known for providing herbal medicine to the local communities to treat various illnesses. It also provides vital habitat for a variety of plants, crabs, flies and animal species and supporting biodiversity conservation.
Location and management
South Imaramagambo Central Forest Reserve borders Kigezi Wildlife Reserve. It stretches from southwest of Lake Edward; south from the Kigezi Wildlife Reserve toward the Bwindi Impenetrable Forest and Kashoya-Kitomi Central Forest Reserve; and east of Lake George.
It is managed by both the National Forestry Authority (NFA) and the Uganda Wildlife Authority (UWA).
Challenges
This forest reserve was encroached on in 2020 during the COVID-19 pandemic. Trees were cut for timber, fencing poles, firewood, handwalking sticks and charcoal. Part of this forest reserve has been cleared to make way for agricultural crops and pasture.
Inadequate funding for operations and development has weakened the proper implementation of the Uganda's forest policy.
References
Rukungiri District
Forest reserves of Uganda
Deforestation by region
Degradation reactions | South Imaramagambo Central Forest Reserve | [
"Chemistry"
] | 267 | [
"Degradation reactions",
"Organic reactions"
] |
73,927,840 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terbium%28III%29%20perchlorate | Terbium perchlorate refers to an inorganic compound having chemical formula Tb(ClO4)3(H2O)x. Usually this salt is encountered as its hexahydrate. This terbium(III) compound can be obtained by treating terbium(III,IV) oxide with perchloric acid. The perchlorates are non-coordinating anions, so this substance can be used as a starting material for forming Tb(III) complexes. For example, reaction with alanine forms a complex in which the carboxylate portion of four alanine units bridge between two terbium atoms. It can be used to synthesize terbium-containing metal-organic framework materials.
References
Terbium compounds
Perchlorates | Terbium(III) perchlorate | [
"Chemistry"
] | 158 | [
"Perchlorates",
"Salts"
] |
70,952,899 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ou%205 | Ou 5, also known as IPHASXJ211420.0+434136, is a planetary nebula in the constellation of Cygnus. It was discovered by the IPHAS project in data taken on August 1, 2010, and independently by the French amateur astronomer Nicolas Outters in September 2012. Located two degrees east of the North American Nebula, it is an unusual planetary nebula because its central star is a short period eclipsing binary.
Ou 5 showed signs of variability during the three occasions when IPHAS observed it. Because of that, members of the IPHAS team made follow-up photometric observations of the nebula during October and November 2013, using the 80 cm IAC80 telescope at the Teide Observatory. The derived light curve showed that the central star was an eclipsing binary, and the short orbital period (8.7 hours) implies that during the red giant phase which preceded the formation of the planetary nebula, the stars must have formed a common envelope binary. Passing through a common envelope stage is often invoked as an explanation for the bipolar shape seen in many planetary nebulae, and Ou 5 does have bipolar features. The structure of the barrel-shaped nebula suggests that there may have been multiple mass ejection events during the common envelope phase.
The eclipses of the compact primary star in Ou 5 allow spectra of the fainter secondary star to be obtained. They indicate that the secondary star is a late K or early M-type star. The masses of the hot primary and cool secondary stars are estimated to be , and respectively.
References
External links
Image of Ou 5 (object on the left)
Planetary nebulae
Cygnus (constellation) | Ou 5 | [
"Astronomy"
] | 340 | [
"Cygnus (constellation)",
"Constellations"
] |
70,954,294 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean%20Rouxel | Jean Marcel Rouxel (February 24, 1935 in Malestroit – March 19, 1998 in Nantes) was a French synthetic chemist known for his work in solid state synthesis of low-dimensional materials. He pioneered the use of solid precursors in soft chemistry.
Education and career
Rouxel studied at the University of Rennes and the University of Bordeaux, where he received his PhD in 1961 under Paul Hagenmuller on two classes of aluminum compounds. After that he was an assistant in Bordeaux and after military service in Algeria between 1962 and 1963, he went to the newly founded laboratory for solid state chemistry (today named after him) at the University of Nantes. There he became an assistant professor in 1964 and a professor in 1968. From 1986 to 1998 he was scientific advisor at Rhône-Poulenc. In 1988 he became director of the Institute for Materials (Institut des Matériaux, which arose from the Institute for Solid State Chemistry) in Nantes, which he remained until his death in 1998. From 1991 to 1996, he was a professor at the Institut Universitaire de France. From 1994 to 1995, he was a professor at the École normale supérieure de Lyon and from 1997 until his death he was a professor of solid state chemistry at the Collège de France.
He synthesized and characterized numerous solids in low dimensions (that is, one or two dimensions) and explored the properties of one-dimensional inorganic chains, such as the phase transition to charge density waves. Another area of research was incommensurable structures in solids and the connection between chemistry and electronic band structure in solids. He studied the mechanisms of anionic polymerization in solids and the competition of anions and cations in redox reactions in solids. He is also working on a type of synthesis based on biological processes, which is called soft chemistry (chimie douce in French), after a word coined by the French chemist Jacques Livage in 1977.
Honors and awards
In 1974 he received the CNRS Silver Medal and in 1997 the CNRS Gold Medal and the Prix Paul Pascal from the French Academy of Sciences. In 1992 he was awarded the Gay-Lussac Humboldt Prize. Rouxel received the Alexander von Humboldt Research Award (1993) and gave the Debye Lecture of the Cornell University section of the American Chemical Society. He was Knight of the Legion of Honor (1988, officer from 1997) and officer of the Ordre national du Mérite and commander of the Palmes académiques. In 1988 he became a member of the Académie des sciences and he was a member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (1992), the Academia Europaea, the German National Academy of Sciences Leopoldina (1997) and the Indian Academy of Sciences.
Personal life
Rouxel had two sons and three daughters with his wife Yannick. He died from ruptured aneurysm.
Bibliography
References
1935 births
1998 deaths
Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
Members of Academia Europaea
Members of the French Academy of Sciences
Officers of the Legion of Honour
Commandeurs of the Ordre des Palmes Académiques
Officers of the Ordre national du Mérite
20th-century French chemists
Inorganic chemists
University of Rennes alumni
University of Bordeaux alumni
Academic staff of the University of Nantes
Members of the German National Academy of Sciences Leopoldina
Academic staff of the École Normale Supérieure
Academic staff of the University of Bordeaux
Solid state chemists
French materials scientists | Jean Rouxel | [
"Chemistry"
] | 701 | [
"Solid state chemists",
"Inorganic chemists"
] |
70,954,603 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyethism | Polyethism is the term used for functional specialization of non-reproductive individuals in a colony of social organisms, particularly insects. Division of labour is considered a key aspect of eusociality and can be seen in a variety of forms. In some insects, there are distinct morphological differences among the individuals that decide their function in the colony, and this is termed as caste or morphological polyethism and is associated with polymorphism. Functions of individuals within the colony that are identical in morphology may however vary in the tasks taken up with the age of the individuals. In some species riskier activities are taken up by older individuals. This is termed as age polyethism. Time- and season-related specialization may also be termed more generically as temporal polyethism. The mechanisms involved in the control of polyethism has been an area of intense research in the field of sociobiology.
Control of polyethism
Experiments have been used to examine how polyethism is controlled under different circumstances in the colony. In honey bees younger workers work within the hive and it is only the older workers which are involved in outdoor tasks such as foraging. The application of juvenile hormone to worker honey bees has been shown to alter the tasks that they undertake indicating the involvement of hormonal control. The flow of information from the nest environment related to the tasks that need to be undertaken, shortages, recruitment and the control of production of polymorphs by the reproductives has been an area of ongoing research.
See also
Task allocation and partitioning in social insects
References
Sociobiology | Polyethism | [
"Biology"
] | 314 | [
"Behavioural sciences",
"Behavior",
"Sociobiology"
] |
70,955,202 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AST%20SpaceMobile | AST SpaceMobile is a publicly traded satellite designer and manufacturer based in Midland, Texas, United States. The company is building the SpaceMobile satellite constellation, a space-based cellular broadband network that will allow existing, unmodified smartphones to connect to satellites in areas with coverage gaps. Its BlueWalker 3 prototype and BlueBird commercial satellites are among the largest commercial communications arrays in low Earth orbit after their respective launches in 2022 and 2024.
History
AST SpaceMobile was founded in May 2017 by Abel Avellan as AST & Science LLC. Avellan remains the chairman and chief executive officer of the company. Originally from Venezuela, Avellan is a United States citizen who previously worked for Swedish telecommunications conglomerate Ericsson. In 1999, Avellan founded Emerging Markets Communications, a satellite-based communications services provider to maritime and other mobility markets, which was acquired in 2016 for US$550 million.
AST & Science purchased a controlling interest in NanoAvionics, a Lithuanian satellite manufacturing company, on March 6, 2018.
In March 2020, AST & Science LLC announced a Series B investment round, led by Vodafone and Rakuten, that raised $110 million for the company. Samsung Next, American Tower, and Cisneros also participated.
New Providence's first special-purpose acquisition company (SPAC) announced in April 2021 that its shareholders had approved a proposal to form AST SpaceMobile in a business combination with AST & Science LLC. AST SpaceMobile began to trade on the Nasdaq in the week after that announcement. New Providence had raised $462 million through an initial public offering (IPO) and a private investment in public equity (PIPE) to fully fund the development and first phase of its satellite constellation.
AST SpaceMobile started generating revenue through a U.S. Government contract in 2024. However, the company does not expect to begin generating substantial revenue through mobile network operators like AT&T and Verizon until the company's BlueBird 1-5 satellites are fully operational. The mobile network operators with whom the company has agreements and understandings collectively serve over 2.8 billion existing subscribers.
In July 2022, Nokia announced that it had won a five-year 4G and 5G deal from AST SpaceMobile.
AST SpaceMobile sold its majority ownership stake in NanoAvionics to Kongsberg Defence & Aerospace in September 2022.
In January 2024, AST SpaceMobile announced a new partnership with Google and AT&T to collaborate on product development, testing, and implementation plans for bringing satellite connectivity to Android smartphones.
In May 2024, the company announced a $100 million partnership with Verizon to expand coverage to more remote parts of the United States, beyond the reach of a land-based network.
On August 21, 2024, after the company confirmed its first commercial satellite launch in early September, AST SpaceMobile stock price jumped to $38.60 per share, or around 1,800% compared to record lows of $1.97 per share on April 2, 2024. As a result, the company's market cap exceeded $8 billion in August 2024.
Deployment
BlueWalker 1, the first satellite of AST & Science LLC, was launched on April 1, 2019, from the Satish Dhawan Space Centre in India on the 47th mission of the Indian Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV-C45). Lithuanian smallsat company NanoAvionics built BlueWalker 1. The satellite decayed from orbit on 29 November 2023.
In July 2021, AST SpaceMobile announced an agreement with SpaceX to launch its second satellite, BlueWalker 3. It successfully launched on September 10, 2022, on a SpaceX Falcon 9 Block 5 rocket from Kennedy Space Center Launch Complex 39A. The 693-square-foot (64 m2) antenna array of BlueWalker 3 was successfully unfolded to full deployment on November 10, 2022. AST SpaceMobile expects BlueWalker 3 to have a field of view of over 300,000 square miles on Earth. , BlueWalker 3 maintains low Earth orbit at an altitude between approximately . On April 25, 2023, AST SpaceMobile made the world's first space-based two-way telephone call with unmodified smartphones (a Samsung Galaxy S22 and an Apple iPhone) using the satellite. This initial call was made from Midland, Texas to Japan using an AT&T 2G cellular frequency spectrum. The company also made the first 4G and 5G connectivity from a satellite in space directly to unmodified smartphones using BlueWalker 3, achieving download rates as high as 21 Mbit/s.
In March 2022, AST SpaceMobile announced a multi-launch contract with SpaceX to launch its first BlueBird operational satellite. AST SpaceMobile has stated that it plans to produce up to six BlueBird satellites per month at two manufacturing sites in Midland, Texas. The company attributed delays in the deployment schedule of its first operational Block 1 BlueBird satellites to supply chain issues and price increases.
On September 12, 2024, the company launched all five satellites with its BlueBird 1-5 mission aboard a SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket. Hundreds of AST SpaceMobile's retail investors attended the mission's launch from Cape Canaveral, Florida. On October 4, 2024, Avellan announced the first of the mission's Block 1 satellites had unfolded “ahead of schedule.” By October 25, the company stated all five satellites had completely unfolded.
Licenses
In April 2020, AST & Science LLC petitioned the Federal Communications Commission for permission to operate a constellation of 243 communications satellites in 16 orbital planes at altitudes between .
In October 2020, NASA filed a letter with the FCC during the public-comment period related to this petition to express concerns about the risk of collisions between the SpaceMobile satellite constellation and the A-train satellite constellation, due to the proposed orbital altitude for SpaceMobile as well as the size and scale of the SpaceMobile project. In November 2020, NASA submitted a second letter to the FCC to revise its original stance as a result of AST SpaceMobile's demonstrated interest in collaborating with NASA to mitigate risks. In its second letter, NASA stated that technical concerns "need not preclude the issuance of the requested license" and that NASA had no concern with the license being granted. Three United States Senators and one United States Congressman also filed letters with the FCC in support of SpaceMobile.
United States wireless provider AT&T has partnered with AST SpaceMobile in a joint effort to provide satellite-based wireless service to remote areas of its coverage area. AT&T filed a letter with the FCC in support of the petition for a license to operate in the United States, while AT&T's major competitors T-Mobile and Verizon initially asked the FCC to deny such a license. In May 2024, it was announced that Verizon had become an investor and strategic partner of AST SpaceMobile. AST SpaceMobile later revealed it would use “a segment” of both AT&T and Verizon's 850 MHz spectrum to support 100% geographic coverage within the United States.
In May 2022, the FCC granted AST SpaceMobile an experimental license to connect to the BlueWalker 3 satellite. In August 2024, the FCC authorized the company to launch and operate the frequencies required to support the initial BlueBird 1-5 satellite mission, including gateway, feeder link, and telemetry, tracking, and control operations. As of November 2024, the FCC has not yet decided if AST SpaceMobile can operate in terrestrial cellular frequencies and enable the company to provide commercial satellite-to-cell services.
Impact on astronomy
The SpaceMobile constellation has drawn criticism for its potential contribution to light pollution in the night sky, as well as radio-frequency interference with certain telescopes that operate outside of the visible light spectrum.
Observations of BlueWalker 3 were obtained after it unfolded into a large flat-panel shape in November 2022. The measurements indicate that the fully deployed satellite is very bright and usually approaches first magnitude when it is near the zenith.
Follow-up observations revealed three deep but temporary periods of reduced brightness. The dimming was attributed to a change in the orientation of the flat-panel needed in order to boost solar power generation. This finding indicated that the satellite operator can reduce the luminosity of their constellation and mitigate its adverse impact on astronomy by making a small adjustment to the spacecraft orientation.
Additional criticism was focused on the proliferation of similar satellites being developed by AST SpaceMobile which - as a group - could have a deleterious impact to the science of astronomy. Notes the New York Times, "they create bright trails and an ambient glow in the sky that can destroy astronomical images and obscure fainter celestial objects that would otherwise be visible to the naked eye."
See also
Phased array
Beamforming
Satellite internet constellation
References
Communications satellite operators
Companies listed on the Nasdaq
Space technology
Aerospace companies of the United States
American companies established in 2017 | AST SpaceMobile | [
"Astronomy"
] | 1,848 | [
"Space technology",
"Outer space"
] |
70,955,261 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeremy%20Burdett | Jeremy Keith Burdett (July 1, 1947 – June 23, 1997), or Jeremy K. Burdett, was a British-American chemist known for his work on bridging the gap between molecular science and solid state chemistry from an electron orbital viewpoint.
Education and career
Burdett was a native of London, UK. He studied at the Magdalene College, University of Cambridge, receiving his bachelor's degree in 1968 in natural sciences with a specialization in chemistry. He obtained a master's degree from the University of Michigan in 1970 and worked as a Power Foundation Fellow with Jerry Current. He returned to the University of Cambridge and received a Ph.D. in 1972 under the supervision of Jim J. Turner. Subsequently, Burdett moved to Newcastle University along with Jim J. Turner's group and was appointed senior research officer. In 1977, Burdett spent a sabbatical at Cornell University with Roald Hoffmann, who greatly influenced Burdett's research direction. In 1978, Burdett joined the faculty at the University of Chicago, where he spent the rest of his career.
Honors and awards
Burdett received the following accolades during his career,
Meldola Medals of the Royal Society of Chemistry (1977) along with Martyn Poliakoff
Alfred P. Sloan Foundation Fellow (1979)
Camille and Henry Dreyfus Foundation Teacher Scholar
Fellow of the John Simon Guggenheim Memorial Foundation (1990)
Wilsmore Fellow of the University of Melbourne (1985)
CNRS Visiting professor at the Universite de Paris-Sud, Orsay (1987) and at University of Rennes 1 (1994)
Tilden Medal and Prize of the Royal Society of Chemistry (1995).
Personal life
Burdett's first wife was Wendy Greenwood, with whom he had two sons, Rufus and Harry. Burdett passed away at his summer home in Kalamazoo, Michigan after attending a conference in Ann Arbor, Michigan.
Bibliography
Reviews
Books
References
1947 births
1997 deaths
Alumni of the University of Cambridge
University of Michigan alumni
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People from London | Jeremy Burdett | [
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70,956,038 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyakov%20loop | In quantum field theory, the Polyakov loop is the thermal analogue of the Wilson loop, acting as an order parameter for confinement in pure gauge theories at nonzero temperatures. In particular, it is a Wilson loop that winds around the compactified Euclidean temporal direction of a thermal quantum field theory. It indicates confinement because its vacuum expectation value must vanish in the confined phase due to its non-invariance under center gauge transformations. This also follows from the fact that the expectation value is related to the free energy of individual quarks, which diverges in this phase. Introduced by Alexander M. Polyakov in 1975, they can also be used to study the potential between pairs of quarks at nonzero temperatures.
Definition
Thermal quantum field theory is formulated in Euclidean spacetime with a compactified imaginary temporal direction of length . This length corresponds to the inverse temperature of the field . Compactification leads to a special class of topologically nontrivial Wilson loops that wind around the compact direction known as Polyakov loops. In theories a straight Polyakov loop on a spatial coordinate is given by
where is the path-ordering operator and is the Euclidean temporal component of the gauge field. In lattice field theory this operator is reformulated in terms of temporal link fields at a spatial position as
The continuum limit of the lattice must be taken carefully to ensure that the compact direction has fixed extent. This is done by ensuring that the finite number of temporal lattice points is such that is constant as the lattice spacing goes to zero.
Order parameter
Gauge fields need to satisfy the periodicity condition in the compactified direction. Meanwhile, gauge transformations only need to satisfy this up to a group center term as . A change of basis can always diagonalize this so that for a complex number . The Polyakov loop is topologically nontrivial in the temporal direction so unlike other Wilson loops it transforms as under these transformations. Since this makes the loop gauge dependent for , by Elitzur's theorem non-zero expectation values of imply that the center group must be spontaneously broken, implying confinement in pure gauge theory. This makes the Polyakov loop an order parameter for confinement in thermal pure gauge theory, with a confining phase occurring when and deconfining phase when . For example, lattice calculations of quantum chromodynamics with infinitely heavy quarks that decouple from the theory shows that the deconfinement phase transition occurs at around a temperature of MeV. Meanwhile, in a gauge theory with quarks, these break the center group and so confinement must instead be deduced from the spectrum of asymptotic states, the color neutral hadrons.
For gauge theories that lack a nontrivial group center that could be broken in the confining phase, the Polyakov loop expectation values are nonzero even in this phase. They are however still a good indicator of confinement since they generally experience a sharp jump at the phase transition. This is the case for example in the Higgs model with the exceptional gauge group .
The Nambu–Jona-Lasinio model lacks local color symmetry and thus cannot capture the effects of confinement. However, Polyakov loops can be used to construct the Polyakov-loop-extended Nambu–Jona-Lasinio model which treats both the chiral condensate and the Polyakov loops as classical homogeneous fields that couple to quarks according to the symmetries and symmetry breaking patters of quantum chromodynamics.
Quark free energy
The free energy of quarks and antiquarks, subtracting out the vacuum energy, is given in terms of the correlation functions of Polyakov loops
This free energy is another way to see that the Polyakov loop acts as an order parameter for confinement since the free energy of a single quark is given by . Confinement of quarks means that it would take an infinite amount of energy to create a configuration with a single free quark, therefore its free energy must be infinite and so the Polyakov loop expectation value must vanish in this phase, in agreement with the center symmetry breaking argument.
The formula for the free energy can also be used to calculate the potential between a pair of infinitely massive quarks spatially separated by . Here the potential is the first term in the free energy, so that the correlation function of two Polyakov loops is
where is the energy difference between the potential and the first excited state. In the confining phase the potential is linear , where the constant of proportionality is known as the string tension. The string tension acquired from the Polyakov loop is always bounded from above by the string tension acquired from the Wilson loop.
See also
Quark–gluon plasma
't Hooft loop
References
Gauge theories
Quantum chromodynamics
Lattice field theory
Phase transitions | Polyakov loop | [
"Physics",
"Chemistry"
] | 987 | [
"Physical phenomena",
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