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75,573,517 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semicircular%20arch | In architecture, a semicircular arch is an arch with an intrados (inner surface) shaped like a semicircle. This type of arch was adopted and very widely used by the Romans, thus becoming permanently associated with Roman architecture.
Terminology
When the arch construction involves the Roman techniques (either wedge-like stone voussoirs or thin Roman bricks), it is known as a Roman arch. The semicircular arch is also known as a round arch.
Description
The rise (height) of a round arch is limited to of its span, so it looks more "grounded" than a parabolic arch or a pointed arch. Whenever a higher semicircular arch was required (for example, for a narrow arch to match the height of a nearby broad one), either stilting or horseshoe shape were used, thus creating a stilted arch and horseshoe arch respectively. These "shifts and dodges" were immediately dropped once the pointed arch with its malleable proportions was adopted. Still, "the Romanesque arch is beautiful as an abstract line. Its type is always before us in that of the apparent vault of heaven, and horizon of the earth" (John Ruskin, "The Seven Lamps of Architecture").
A round arch that sits atop the corbels, with corbels rounded to create a bell-like shape of intrados, is called a bell arch.
When the architecture of the building dictates the rise of he arch to be less than of its span (for example, in Roman residential construction), a segmental arch with a rounded shape that is less than a semicircle can be used.
History and associated styles
The popularity of the semicircular arch is based on simplicity of its layout and construction, not superior structural properties. The sides of this arch swing wider than the perfect funicular curve and therefore experience a bending moment with the force directed outwards. To prevent buckling, heavy surcharge (fill), so called spandrel, needs to be applied outside of the haunches.
In addition to the Imperial Roman construction, round arches are also associated with Byzantine, Romanesque (and Neo-Romanesque), Renaissance and Rundbogenstil styles. While the semicircular arch was known in the Greek architecture, it mostly played there a decorative, not structural, role.
Gallery
References
Sources
Arches and vaults
Ancient Roman architecture
Architectural history | Semicircular arch | [
"Engineering"
] | 490 | [
"Architectural history",
"Architecture"
] |
75,573,949 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tessa%20Lau | Tessa Lau is a computer scientist, roboticist, and entrepreneur who has drawn on her experience with artificial intelligence, machine learning, and robotics knowledge to solve problems in the hospitality and construction industries. She is the founder and CEO of Dusty Robotics, where she focuses on developing robots that optimize construction work through automation. Lau was also the former CTO of Savioke, where she helped develop and deploy robots for the hospitality industry.
Education
Lau obtained a BS in computer science from Cornell University in 1995 and graduated with a PhD in machine learning with an emphasis on Human-Computer Interaction from the University of Washington in 2001.
Career
Lau spent 11 years at IBM Research working in business process automation and knowledge capture. She then became a research scientist at Willow Garage, where she developed simple user interfaces for personal robots. After Willow Garage shut down in 2013, Lau co-founded Savioke, which developed robots for hotels and apartments. As Chief Technology Officer (CTO), she deployed over 75 delivery robots in the hospitality industry.
Lau's drive for faster growth and finding solutions to more pressing problems led her to leave Savioke and establish her own robotics company within a new industry. She first identified problems in the construction industry when she was remodeling her house and noticed the mistakes made by the manual laborers faced with their limited tools. She then began visiting construction sites to learn more about the industry and identify opportunities for artificial intelligence to come into play. As a result of this research, she co-founded Dusty Robotics in 2018 with Philipp Herget, previous robotics hardware lead at Savioke, in Mountain View, California. Lau is the current chief executive officer (CEO) of the company, while Herget is the current CTO. Dusty Robotics has innovated operations in the construction industry with the Field Printer, a digital layout robot. Normally, chalk-line layouts are implemented on construction sites, which leads to large financial and time costs when construction workers attempt to follow the intended blueprint of the architects. As a solution, the robot uses Building Information Modeling (BIM) to print accurate, full-scale, digital plans directly on constructions sites, in turn improving the accuracy of the guiding map. Big contractors like DPR Construction, Turner Construction and Performance Contracting have been using the Field Printer to streamline construction processes. As a testament to its massive success and future potential, Dusty Robotics has raised nearly $70 million from investors as of May 2023.
Besides her accomplishments as CEO of Dusty Robotics, Lau serves as Advisor of Cantos Ventures and Venture Partner at NextGen Venture Partners. She was also a member of the CRA-W board, the Computing Research Association (CRA)'s committee focusing on the status of women in computing research.
Awards and recognition
In 2015, Lau was recognized as one of the most creative people in business by Fast Company. In 2017, she was named a 2017 Woman of Influence by The Silicon Valley Business Journal. In 2018, she was named by Inc. as one of the Top 5 Innovative Women to Watch in Robotics.
References
Living people
Cornell University alumni
University of Washington alumni
Robotics
American computer scientists
American women computer scientists
American businesspeople
American women in business
Year of birth missing (living people) | Tessa Lau | [
"Engineering"
] | 654 | [
"Robotics",
"Automation"
] |
72,733,096 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grozny%20oil%20field | Grozny oil field was one of the largest oil-industrial regions in the territory of the Russian Empire and then the USSR.
Oil seeps to the surface of the earth in the North Caucasus were noticed long before the beginning of the industrial development of oil fields on the slopes of the relatively low Tersky and Sunzhensky ridges. Since ancient times, local residents have collected oil here, which was used for household needs, medical and military purposes. They lubricated the axes of the supply with oil, treated people and animals, burned it in lamps, etc. In the 19th century, a whole group of deposits was found on the Grozny Range. Oil was extracted from wells no deeper than two arshins, from which it was simply scooped out with a bucket. Since 1811, oil wells have been farmed out. Such a farmer was originally the Mozdok Regiment, and since 1838, all oil sources have become the property of the Caucasian line troops. This army rented oil wells to merchant farmers, wealthy Cossacks, and other entrepreneurs. From 1833 to 1860, about 140 thousand pounds of oil were mastered in this way.
Oil production, which at that time was carried out by artisanal methods, peaked in 1885 at 77,000 poods (1 pood = 16.3 kg). Scientists have undertaken a serious study of Grozny oil. Among them was the outstanding Russian chemist, D. I. Mendeleev. The industrial development of the Grozny oil region began. In 1892, 450,000 barrels of oil were produced. Grozny fisheries occupied second place in terms of productivity in the country.
Description
The Grozny region of oil and gas fields is part of the North Caucasian oil and gas region of Russia. Oil-bearing areas are concentrated in the areas of the Sunzha and Tersky ridges and the Black Mountains. The Grozny region, along with the Baku region, was one of the first oil-producing regions of the USSR. The beginning of industrial oil production was laid back in 1893, when the first fountain of oil gushed from a depth of more than 130 meters in the Starogroznensky district. Over the century-long history of the industry, 420 million tons of oil have been extracted from the bowels of the earth.
The largest deposits are: Novogroznenskoye (Oktyabrskoye) and Starogroznenskoye (with the oil-bearing areas of Tashkala and Salt Balka). Oil fields approach anticlinal folds, usually overturned and complicated by ruptures. The main oil deposits belong to the sandstones of the productive strata of the Karagan and Chokrak horizons of the Middle Miocene. Oil is paraffinic, with a high content of light fractions (in particular, gasoline). Geological exploration of the Grozny oil-bearing region began in the second half of the 19th century, and industrial production began in the 1890s. At the end of the 19th century, 7 English companies with a capital of 11 million rubles established themselves in the Grozny oil-industrial region, relegating the French Rothschilds, who had previously occupied a leading position among foreign firms, to the background. In 1913, the Novogroznenskoye field was discovered. The main owners of the Grozny oil fields were the world's largest oil companies and concerns: Nobel, Shell, Oil, Tweedy-Andreis, etc. By 1914, in the oil industry on the territory of the Grozny oil-bearing region, in percentage terms: English 36%, Russian 27%, French 18%, Belgian 10%, Dutch 9%. During the years of Soviet power, the largest fields were put into operation: in 1934, Malgobekneft; in 1937, Goragorskoye; in 1941, Oysungur; and in 1945, Tashkala. Checheno-Ingushetia was the second oil center of the USSR after Azerbaijan (the average oil production by the beginning of the Second World War was from 3 to 4 million tons annually, and its explored reserves amounted to 1.5 billion).
Gallery
See also
Chechnya
References
Further reading
Притула А. Ф. Направление грозненского трубопровода и проекты его осуществления// Нефтяной бюллетень. — 1924. — No. 20.
«Народоубийство в СССР: Убийство чеченского народа» — Мюнхен: Свободный Кавказ, 1952. — 69 c. — LCCN 68-040208
Переиздание: «Убийство чечено-ингушского народа : Народоубийство в СССР» / Авторханов, Абдурахман Геназович-Александр Уралов (псевд.). — М: СП «Вся Москва», 1991. — 79, [2] с.; 20 см — ISBN 5-7110-0131-0.
Добыча, переработка и исследование грозненской нефти в течение XIX — начало XX веков: монография / Х. Х. Ахмадова, М. А. Мусаева, А. М. Сыркин, Л. Ш. Махмудова, М. А. Такаева. — М.: Издательский дом Академии Естествознания, 2018. — 146 с. — 500 экз. — ISBN 978-5-91327-519-6.
Григорьев А. А. Грозненский нефтяной район. Библиотека по географии.. краткая географическая энциклопедия, Том 1/Гл.ред. Григорьев А. А. М.:Советская энциклопедия — 1960, с. 564.
Terek Oblast
History of Grozny
Petroleum
Petroleum production
Oil fields of Russia
Petroleum in Russia | Grozny oil field | [
"Chemistry"
] | 1,559 | [
"Petroleum",
"Chemical mixtures"
] |
72,733,198 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limonium%20platyphyllum | Limonium platyphyllum, the broad-leaved statice, or florist's sea lavender, is a species of flowering plant in the family Plumbaginaceae. It is native to the Black Sea region; Bulgaria, Romania, Ukraine, Crimea, south and east European Russia, and the Caucasus, and it has been introduced to Great Britain. A perennial halophyte tall, it is widely available from commercial suppliers. There are a number of cultivars, including the well-known 'Violetta' which has darker petals.
References
platyphyllum
Halophytes
Garden plants
Flora of Bulgaria
Flora of Romania
Flora of Ukraine
Flora of the Crimean Peninsula
Flora of South European Russia
Flora of East European Russia
Flora of the Caucasus
Plants described in 1964 | Limonium platyphyllum | [
"Chemistry"
] | 156 | [
"Halophytes",
"Salts"
] |
72,733,540 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LHS%20475 | LHS 475 is a red dwarf star located away from the Solar System in the constellation of Octans. It hosts one known exoplanet.
Planetary system
The exoplanet LHS 475 b was initially found in transit data from TESS, and its confirmation using the NIRSpec instrument of the James Webb Space Telescope, which also observed its transmission spectrum, was published in January 2023. Another independent confirmation of the planet was published on arXiv in April 2023, and a year later accepted to the Astronomical Journal.
The JWST data is consistent with a featureless spectrum, as would be expected of a planet with no atmosphere, but is also consistent with some types of atmosphere, such as a thin carbon dioxide-dominated atmosphere like that of Mars, or an atmosphere obscured by a thick cloud deck such as that of Venus. Other atmospheric compositions, such as a methane-dominated atmosphere, are ruled out by this spectrum.
LHS 475 b is close in size to Earth, at 99% its diameter, but is much hotter, with an equilibrium temperature of . Assuming the planet has little to no atmosphere, its dayside temperature is estimated at . The planet completes an orbit around its star in just two days and is likely tidally locked.
Notes
References
Octans
M-type main-sequence stars
Planetary systems with one confirmed planet
4102
J19205439-8233170
0910
369327947 | LHS 475 | [
"Astronomy"
] | 293 | [
"Octans",
"Constellations"
] |
72,735,071 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expedition%2069 | Expedition 69 was the 69th long-duration expedition to the International Space Station. The expedition began with the uncrewed departure of Soyuz MS-22 in March 2023 with Russian cosmonaut Sergey Prokopyev continuing his ISS command from Expedition 68. It ended with his departure with his crewmates onboard Soyuz MS-23 on 27 September 2023.
Background, Crew and Events
Initially, the expedition consisted of Prokopyev and his two Soyuz MS-22/23 crewmates, Dmitry Petelin from Russia and American astronaut Francisco Rubio, as well as American astronauts Stephen G. Bowen and Warren Hoburg, Emirati astronaut Sultan Al Neyadi, and another Russian cosmonaut Andrey Fedyaev, who launched aboard SpaceX Crew-6 on March 2, 2023 and were transferred from Expedition 68 alongside the Soyuz MS-22/23 crew. The departure of the MS-22 spacecraft with its crew was ultimately canceled because of a coolant leak in December 2022. The decision was made to return Soyuz MS-22 uncrewed and launch Soyuz MS-23 uncrewed as its replacement. By the time the MS-22/23 crew returned to Earth on 27 September 2023, which was the end of Expedition 69, they had spent more than a year in space due to their mission extension.
The manifest changes do not affect US crew rotation plans, where SpaceX Crew-5 was replaced by Crew-6 in February during Expedition 68.
Previously, US crew handovers since flights returned in 2020 took place during a new expedition, about 2–3 weeks after the Soyuz handover occurs (which officially changes the expeditions). However, in this handover, the swap occurred before the Soyuz MS-22 departure date of March 28. The early US handover was a part of the manifest prior to the Soyuz MS-22 coolant leak in December 2022.
The crew was later replenished by subsequent crew rotation missions in the expedition, SpaceX Crew-7, consisting of NASA astronaut Jasmin Moghbeli, Danish astronaut Andreas Mogensen, Satoshi Furukawa from Japan, and Russian cosmonaut Konstantin Borisov, and Soyuz MS-24, consisting of Russian cosmonauts Oleg Kononenko and Nikolai Chub (both on a year long ISS mission) and another American astronaut Loral O'Hara. The space station was also visited by a non-expedition crew, Axiom Mission 2, consisting of former NASA astronaut Peggy Whitson (who had previously commanded the station twice during Expedition 16 and Expedition 51), John Shoffner, Ali AlQarni, and Rayyanah Barnawi.
Events manifest
Events involving crewed spacecraft are listed in bold.
Previous mission: Expedition 68
28 March 2023 – Soyuz MS-22 Uncrewed undocking, official switch from Expedition 68
6 April 2023 – Soyuz MS-23 Redocking
15 April 2023 – CRS SpX-27 Undocking
16 April 2023 – EVA 1 (VKD-56): 7 hrs, 55 mins
16 April 2023 – Relocation of Nauka outfitting: Moving "RtoD" add-on heat radiator from Rassvet module to Nauka module
21 April 2023 – CRS NG-18 Unberthing & Release
28 April 2023 – EVA 2 (US-86): 7 hrs, 1 min
3–4 May 2023 – EVA 3 (VKD-57): 7 hrs, 11 mins
4 May 2023 – Relocation of Nauka outfitting: Moving experiments airlock "ShK" from Rassvet module to Nauka module forward port
6 May 2023 – SpaceX Crew-6 Redocking
12 May 2023 – EVA 4 (VKD-58): 5 hrs, 14 mins
22 May 2023 – Axiom Mission 2 Docking (Non-Expedition crew)
24 May 2023 – Progress MS-23/84P Docking
30 May 2023 – Axiom Mission 2 Undocking (Non-Expedition crew)
1 June 2023 – CRS SpX-28 Docking
9 June 2023 – EVA 5 (US EVA-87): 6 hrs, 3 mins, installed the fifth iROSA at Array 1A
15 June 2023 – EVA 6 (US EVA-88): 5 hrs, 35 mins, installed the sixth and last iROSA at Array 1B
22 June 2023 – EVA 7 (VKD-59): 6 hrs, 24 mins
29 June 2023 – CRS SpX-28 Undocking
4 August 2023 – CRS NG-19 Capture & Berthing
9 August 2023 – EVA 8 (VKD-60): 6 hrs, 35 mins
9 August 2023 – Relocation of Nauka outfitting: Moving European Robotic Arm's Portable Workpost from Rassvet module to Nauka module
20 August 2023 – Progress MS-22/83P Undocking
25 August 2023 – Progress MS-24/85P Docking
27 August 2023 – SpaceX Crew-7 Docking
3 September 2023 – SpaceX Crew-6 Undocking
15 September 2023 – Soyuz MS-24 Docking
26 September 2023 – ISS Expedition 69/70 Change of Command Ceremony from Sergey Prokopyev to Andreas Mogensen
27 September 2023 – Soyuz MS-23 Undocking, official switch to Expedition 70
Next: Expedition 70
Crew
Vehicle manifest
Notes
References
March 2023
April 2023
May 2023
June 2023
July 2023
August 2023
September 2023
Space exploration
Expeditions to the International Space Station | Expedition 69 | [
"Astronomy"
] | 1,146 | [
"Space exploration",
"Outer space"
] |
72,737,333 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oise%20amber | Oise amber () is a type of amber found near the Oise river near Creil in northern France. Oise amber is around 53 million years old, dating to the Early Eocene (Ypresian). Oise amber is softer than Baltic amber, although Oise amber is older and both types of amber have similar geographic origins. The formation is known for preserving a diverse fauna of invertebrates.
History
In the late 1990s, an amber deposit was discovered by French entomologist near Creil at Le Quesnoy, close to the Oise river in France. The sediments containing the amber were found at the bottom of quarries used for sand and gravel extraction. The Oise amber deposit had more than 20,000 arthropod inclusions to date. In 2000, pollen was extracted for the first time from Oise amber. Using nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, it was then discovered that the amber contained a unique compound, quesnoin, which was similar to fresh resin from a modern tree found in the Amazon, Hymenaea oblongifolia, suggesting that the amber may have been produced by related trees.
Geology
The amber originates from the Argiles d'lignite du Soissonnais, which forms part of the stratigraphy of the Paris Basin. The strata form channels cutting into the underlying marine deposited Late Paleocene (Thanetian) aged greensand. The main lithologies of the beds are lenticular bedded bodies consisting of clay rich sand. These are divided into two subfacies, the first of which contains pyrite-rich lignite, as well as amber, the other contains proportionally less lignite, as well as remains of terrestrial vertebrates. The deposit also contains the remains of many coprolites.
Description
Oise amber tends to be a very clear yellow, and pieces of Oise amber are usually a few centimetres long. In every flow of Oise amber, there is usually at least one inclusion. The amber is of angiosperm origin, with the source tree dubbed Aulacoxylon sparnacense, which is thought to be a member of Fabaceae.
Diversity
The amber shows a high diversity of invertebrate fauna. The most diverse group of insects are Coleoptera (beetles) and Psocoptera, representing 21% each of collected insect specimens as of 2009, followed by Hymenoptera at 16%, Diptera (flies) at 12% and Hemiptera at 10%. However, Oise amber as of 2010 has fewer described species than Baltic, Dominican or New Jersey ambers.
References
External links
Amber
Oise basin | Oise amber | [
"Physics"
] | 544 | [
"Amorphous solids",
"Unsolved problems in physics",
"Amber"
] |
72,737,915 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eri%20Saikawa | Eri Saikawa is a Winship Distinguished Research Professor and Director of Graduate Studies in the Department of Environmental Sciences at the Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University. Her work is primarily based on interdisciplinary environmental sciences. She has received research awards and grants from the National Science Foundation (NSF), the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), and the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA).
Career
In 2013–2015, Saikawa led a research project in the Nam Co region of Tibet, where she and her team investigated household air pollution and indoor emissions from the burning of yak dung as fuel. The study, which initially exposed the dangerous excess of fine particulate matter in people's homes, expanded into a wider interdisciplinary investigation, drawing from strands of atmospheric chemistry, social sciences, and science policy, to attempt to properly tackle the issue.
Saikawa's work has also largely been based in studying environmental issues faced in China. She notably used data from a study conducted by Christine Wiedinmyer and the National Center for Atmospheric Research to model pollution trends in China and investigate the significance of trash burning within the wider problem of excess emissions.
In 2019, Saikawa and a student conducted research in the Westside neighbourhood in Atlanta, collecting soil samples that showed dangerously high concentrations of lead. Their findings alerted the Environmental Protection Agency, who promptly classed over 1,000 properties in the area as Superfund sites in order to mitigate the threat posed by the contamination (which stemmed from slag, one of the byproducts of smelting ore). Saikawa has continued her work within the Westside community, working with the locals to address the issue of contamination.
In both 2014 and 2015, Saikawa was awarded the Emory Sustainability Innovator Award for her contributions to the field of environmental sciences.
References
Year of birth missing (living people)
Living people
American academics
University of Tokyo alumni
Indiana University Bloomington alumni
Princeton University alumni
Environmental scientists | Eri Saikawa | [
"Environmental_science"
] | 397 | [
"American environmental scientists",
"Environmental scientists"
] |
72,738,124 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IMGT | IMGT or the international ImMunoGeneTics information system is a collection of databases and resources for immunoinformatics, particularly the V, D, J, and C gene sequences, as well as a providing other tools and data related to the adaptive immune system. IMGT/LIGM-DB, the first and still largest database hosted as part of IMGT contains reference nucleotide sequences for 360 species' T-cell receptor and immunoglobulin molecules, as of 2023. These genes encode the proteins which are the foundation of adaptive immunity, which allows highly specific recognition and memory of pathogens.
History
IMGT was founded in June, 1989, by Marie-Paule Lefranc, an immunologist working at University of Montpellier. The project was presented to the 10th Human Genome Mapping Workshop, and resulted in the recognition of V, D, J, and C regions as genes. The first resource created was IMGT/LIGM-DB, a reference for nucleotide sequences of T-cell receptor and immunoglobulin of humans, and later vertebrate species. IMGT was created under the auspices of Laboratoire d'ImmunoGénétique Moléculaire at the University of Montpellier as well as French National Centre for Scientific Research (CNRS).
As both T-cell receptors and immunoglobulin molecules are built through a process of recombination of nucleotide sequences, the annotation of the building block regions and their role is unique within the genome. To standardize terminology and references, the IMGT-NC was created in 1992 and recognized by the International Union of Immunological Societies as a nomenclature subcommittee. Other tools include IMGT/Collier-de-Perles, a method for two dimensional representation of receptor amino acid sequences, and IMGT/mAb-DB, a database of monoclonal antibodies. Now maintained by the HLA Informatics Group, the primary reference for human HLA, IPD-IMGT/HLA Database, originated in part with IMGT. It was merged with the Immuno Polymorphism Database in 2003 to form the current reference.
Since 2015, IMGT has been headed by Sofia Kossida.
See also
Open science data
Computational immunology
Immunomics
References
Genetics databases
Bioinformatics
Biological databases | IMGT | [
"Engineering",
"Biology"
] | 481 | [
"Bioinformatics",
"Biological engineering",
"Biological databases"
] |
72,738,197 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saccopharynx%20paucovertebratis | Saccopharynx paucovertebratis is a species of ray-finned fish within the family Saccopharyngidae. The species is known from a single a single holotype collected from a fishing trawl west of Madeira in the Atlantic Ocean at a depth up to in 1931. The holotype was measured at in length. The IUCN Red List has assessed the species as 'Data deficient' as there is there is little information regarding population, ecology, distribution, and potential threats.
References
Fish described in 1985
Deep sea fish
Fish of the Atlantic Ocean
Saccopharyngidae
IUCN Red List data deficient species
Species known from a single specimen | Saccopharynx paucovertebratis | [
"Biology"
] | 140 | [
"Individual organisms",
"Species known from a single specimen"
] |
72,738,568 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bianca%20Falcidieno | Bianca Falcidieno is an Italian applied mathematician whose research interests include computer graphics, geometric modeling, shape analysis, and mesh generation; she has been called a pioneer of semantics-driven shape representation. She is retired as a research director for the Italian National Research Council (CNR), where she led the Shape Modeling Group of the Institute for Applied Mathematics and Information Technologies (IMATI).
Education and career
As a master's student, after earning a degree in mathematics in the 1970s, Falcidieno became interested in computer graphics and geometric modeling through a project to visualize mathematical functions for use in teaching mathematical analysis to engineering students. By 1981, she was a permanent researcher for CNR, and founded its first research center for computer graphics.
In the 1990s, with Japanese researcher Tosiyasu Kunii, she helped found both the Shape Modeling International conference and the associated journal, the International Journal of Shape Modeling, for which she was editor-in-chief.
Recognition
In 2021, Falcidieno became the inaugural winner of the Shape Modeling International Tosiyasu Kunii Achievement Award, given "for her outstanding career achievements in shape modelling research". She is also a Eurographics Fellow and 2019 Eurographics Gold Medalist, and a Pioneer of the Solid Modeling Association.
References
External links
Home page
Year of birth missing (living people)
Living people
Italian mathematicians
Italian women mathematicians
Applied mathematicians
Computer graphics researchers | Bianca Falcidieno | [
"Mathematics"
] | 287 | [
"Applied mathematics",
"Applied mathematicians"
] |
72,738,620 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limonium%20minutum | Limonium minutum, the dwarf statice, is a species of flowering plant in the family Plumbaginaceae, native to the Balearic Islands. A halophyte found in coastal habitats, it is occasionally available from commercial suppliers.
References
minutum
Halophytes
Endemic flora of Spain
Flora of the Balearic Islands
Plants described in 1790 | Limonium minutum | [
"Chemistry"
] | 74 | [
"Halophytes",
"Salts"
] |
72,739,283 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kangla%20Nongpok%20Thong | The , shortly known as the , is the Eastern Gate Bridge of the Kangla Fort of Imphal, .
With the re-opening of the modern Eastern Gate of the Kangla, the Kangla Western Gate () was closed forever, under the leadership of Nongthombam Biren, the then Chief Minister of Manipur, due to the traditional Meitei belief that the western gate is regarded as the gate of the dead and it is ominous to enter the Kangla through the western doorway.
History
The antique Kangla Nongpok Thong was dismantled by the British Army after their victory in the Anglo-Manipur War of 1891 AD, as the Assam Rifles was stationed inside the western side of the Kangla.
Modern re-construction
During June 2019, a decision to reconstruct the old Kangla Nongpok Thong was taken in a meeting session of the Kangla Fort Board (KFB) with the Manipur Chief Minister N Biren Singh in the chair inside the premises of the Kangla Fort.
The re-construction of the modern Kangla Nongpok Thong was done by the Manipur Police Housing Corporation Limited (MPHC Ltd). It was financed by the Imphal Smart City Limited (ISCL).
The timing of the reopening of the Nongpok Thong was expected to be around October of the year 2021, as planned by Chief minister Biren. But due to some reasons, it got delayed.
Re-opening
On 6 January 2023, the Kangla Nongpok Thong was officially inaugurated by Amit Shah, the then Minister of Home Affairs of the Union Government of India. Later, on 10 January 2023, Government of Manipur led by Chief minister Nongthombam Biren, handed the Eastern Gate over to the public of Manipur, in the presence of Leishemba Sanajaoba, after performing a religious ritual ceremony with the help of the and .
On the occasion of inauguration, Nongthombam Biren, the then Chief Minister of Manipur, said:
On the same occasion, Narendra Modi, the then Prime minister of India, replied to Manipur Chief Minister's speech as:
Development
According to the plans of Manipur Chief Minister Nongthombam Biren, the Nongpok Thong will be guarded by Indian Reserve Battalion (IRB) policemen, wearing traditional Meitei uniforms, instead of modern formal ones, the Nongchup Thong (Western Kangla Gate) will be closed afterwards, vehicles will only be allowed to enter from the Northern Gate of the Kangla, the roadway from the Eastern Gate towards the office of the District collector (DC) of Imphal East district, will be made as a double lane one.
Eviction
The Government of Manipur performed eviction of the illegal encroachers from the areas near the historic Kangla Nongpok Thong after its opening program.
The departments concerned used heavy machinery to bring down many residential and commercial buildings built encroaching the place near the eastern-most area of the Kangla Nongpok Thong.
Interpretation of the event
The incident of the reopening of the "Nongpok Thong" was mentioned in the old Meitei chronicles. In modern times, it is interpreted in many ways by many scholars. Among the various interpretations, one is that the reopening of the Nongpok Thong refers to the overturning colonial disruptions in . Another interpretation is that it refers to the opening of trade relations with Myanmar and other Southeast Asian nations.
See also
Hijagang
Iputhou Pakhangba Laishang
Kangla Sha
Manung Kangjeibung
Sanggai Yumpham
Notes
References
External links
Kangla Nongpok Thong at
Kangla Nongpok Thong at
Meitei architecture
Monuments and memorials in Imphal
Monuments and memorials to Meitei royalty
Public art in India
Tourist attractions in Manipur | Kangla Nongpok Thong | [
"Engineering"
] | 794 | [
"Meitei architecture",
"Architecture"
] |
72,740,308 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BedMachine%20Antarctica | BedMachine Antarctica is a project to map the sub-surface landmass below the ice of Antarctica using data from radar depth sounding and ice shelf bathymetry methods and computer analysis of that data based on the conservation of mass.
The project is uses data from 19 research institutes. It is led by the University of California, Irvine.
It has revealed that the Antarctic bedrock is the deepest natural location on land (or at least not under liquid water) worldwide, with the bedrock being below sea level.
References
External links
Science and technology in Antarctica
Geophysics
Research projects | BedMachine Antarctica | [
"Physics"
] | 115 | [
"Applied and interdisciplinary physics",
"Geophysics"
] |
72,741,362 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adversarial%20stylometry | Adversarial stylometry is the practice of altering writing style to reduce the potential for stylometry to discover the author's identity or their characteristics. This task is also known as authorship obfuscation or authorship anonymisation. Stylometry poses a significant privacy challenge in its ability to unmask anonymous authors or to link pseudonyms to an author's other identities, which, for example, creates difficulties for whistleblowers, activists, and hoaxers and fraudsters. The privacy risk is expected to grow as machine learning techniques and text corpora develop.
All adversarial stylometry shares the core idea of faithfully paraphrasing the source text so that the meaning is unchanged but the stylistic signals are obscured. Such a faithful paraphrase is an adversarial example for a stylometric classifier. Several broad approaches to this exist, with some overlap: imitation, substituting the author's own style for another's; translation, applying machine translation with the hope that this eliminates characteristic style in the source text; and obfuscation, deliberately modifying a text's style to make it not resemble the author's own.
Manually obscuring style is possible, but laborious; in some circumstances, it is preferable or necessary. Automated tooling, either semi- or fully-automatic, could assist an author. How best to perform the task and the design of such tools is an open research question. While some approaches have been shown to be able to defeat particular stylometric analyses, particularly those that do not account for the potential of adversariality, establishing safety in the face of unknown analyses is an issue. Ensuring the faithfulness of the paraphrase is a critical challenge for automated tools.
It is uncertain if the practice of adversarial stylometry is detectable in itself. Some studies have found that particular methods produced signals in the output text, but a stylometrist who is uncertain of what methods may have been used may not be able to reliably detect them.
History
, an early work in adversarial stylometry, identified machine translation as a possibility, but noted that the quality of translators available at the time presented severe challenges. is another early work. performed the first evaluation of adversarial stylometric methods on actual texts.
introduced the first corpus of adversarially authored texts specifically for evaluating stylometric methods; other corpora include the International Imitation Hemingway Competition, the Faux Faulkner contest, and the hoax blog A Gay Girl in Damascus.
Motivations
suggest that short, unattributed documents (i.e., anonymous posts) are not at risk of stylometric identification, but pseudonymous authors who have not practiced adversarial stylometry in producing corpuses of thousands of words may be vulnerable. attempted large-scale deanonymisation of 100,000 blog authors with mixed results: the identifications were significantly better than chance, but only accurately matched the blog and author a fifth of the time; identification improved with the number of posts written by the author in the corpus. Even if an author is not identified, some of their characteristics may still be deduced stylometrically, or stylometry may narrow the anonymity set of potential authors sufficiently for other information to complete the identification. Detecting author characteristics (e.g., gender or age) is often simpler than identifying an author from a large, possibly open, set of candidates.
Modern machine learning techniques offer powerful tools for identification; further development of corpora and computational stylometric techniques are likely to raise further privacy issues. say that the general validity of the hypothesis underlying stylometry—that authors have invariant, content-independent 'style fingerprints'—is uncertain, but "the deanonymisation attack is a real privacy concern".
Those interested in practicing adversarial stylometry and stylistic deception include whistleblowers avoiding retribution; journalists and activists; perpetrators of frauds and hoaxes; authors of fake reviews; literary forgers; criminals disguising their identity from investigators; and, generally, anyone with a desire for anonymity or pseudonymity. Authors, or agents acting on behalf of authors, may also attempt to remove stylistic clues to author characteristics (e.g., race or gender) so that knowledge of those characteristics cannot be used for discrimination (e.g., through algorithmic bias). Another possible use for adversarial stylometry is in disguising automatically generated text as human-authored.
Methods
With imitation, the author attempts to mislead stylometry by matching their style to another author's. An incomplete imitation, where some of the true author's unique characteristics appear alongside the imitated author's, can be a detectable signal for the use of adversarial stylometry. Imitation can be performed automatically with style transfer systems, though this typically requires a large corpus in the target style for the system to learn from.
Another approach is translation, which employs machine translation of a source text to eliminate characteristic style, often through multiple translators in sequence to produce a round-trip translation. Such chained translation can lead to texts being significantly altered, even to the point of incomprehensibility; improved translation tools reduce this risk. More simply-structured texts can be easier to machine translate without losing the original meaning. Machine translation blurs into direct stylistic imitation or obfuscation achieved through automated style transfer, which can be viewed as a "translation" with the same language as input and output. With low-quality translation tools, an author can be required to manually correct major translation errors while avoiding the hazard of re-introducing stylistic characteristics. found that gross errors introduced by Google Translate were rare, but more common with several intermediate translations—however, occasional simple or short sentences and misspellings in the source text appeared verbatim in the output, potentially providing an identifying signal. Chain translation can leave characteristic traces of its application in a document, which may allow reconstruction of the intermediate languages used and the number of translation steps performed.
Obfuscation involves deliberately changing the style of a text to reduce its similarity to other texts by some metric; this may be performed at the time of writing by conscious modification, or as part of a revision process with feedback from the metric being targeted as an input to decide when the text has been sufficiently obfuscated. In contrast to translation, complex texts can offer more opportunities for effective obfuscation without altering meaning, and likewise genres with more permissible variation allow more obfuscation. However, longer texts are harder to thoroughly obfuscate. Obfuscation can blend into imitation if the author develops a novel target style, distinct from their original style. With respect to masking author characteristics, obfuscation may aim to achieve a union (adding signals for imitated characteristics) or an intersection (removing signals and normalising) of other authors' styles. Avoiding the author's own idiosyncrasies and producing a "normalised" text is a critical obfuscatory step: an author may have a unique tendency to misspell certain words, use particular variants, or to format a document in a characteristic way. Stylometric signals vary in how simply they can be adversarially masked; an author may easily change their vocabulary by conscious choice, but altering the pattern of grammar or the letter frequency in their text may be harder to achieve, though report that imitation typically succeeds at masking more characteristics than obfuscation. Automated obfuscation may require large amounts of training data written by the author.
Concerning automated implementations of adversarial stylometry, two possible implementations are rule-based systems for paraphrasing; and encoder–decoder architectures, where the text passes through an intermediate format that is (intended to be) style-neutral. Another division in automated methods is whether there is feedback from an identification system or not. With such feedback, finding paraphrases for author masking has been characterised as a heuristic search problem, exploring textual variants until the result is stylistically sufficiently far (in the case of obfuscation) or near (in the case of imitation), which then constitutes an adversarial example for that identification system.
Evaluation
How to best mask stylometric characteristics in practice, and what tasks to perform manually, what with tool assistance, and what fully automatically, is an open field of research, especially in short documents with limited potential variability. Manual adversarial stylometry can be preferred or even required if the author does not trust available computers with the task (as may be the case for a whistleblower, for example). Software tools require maintenance; report that there is no maintained obfuscatory software suitable for general use. identify DS-PAN and Mutant-X as the 2022 state of the art in automated obfuscation. Manual stylistic modulation is a significant effort, with poor scalability properties; tool assistance can reduce the burden to varying degrees. Deterministic automated methods can lose effectiveness against a classifier trained adversarially, where output from the style transfer program is used in the classifier's training set.
give three criteria for use in evaluation of adversarial stylometry methods: safety, meaning that stylistic characteristics are reliably eliminated; soundness, meaning that the semantic content of the text is not unacceptably altered; and sensible, meaning that the output is "well-formed and inconspicuous". Compromising any too deeply is typically an unacceptable result, and the three trade off against each other in practice. find that automatically evaluating sensibility, and specifically whether output is acceptably grammatical and well-formed, is difficult; automated evaluation of soundness is somewhat more promising, but manual review is the best method.
Despite safety being an important property of an adversarial stylometry method, it can still be usefully traded away if the conceded stylometric identification potential is otherwise possible by non-stylometric analysis—for example, an author discussing their own upbringing in Britain is unlikely to care if stylometry can reveal that their text is typical of British English.
Evaluating the safety of different approaches is complicated by how identification-resistance fundamentally depends on the methods of identification under consideration. The property of being resilient to unknown analyses is called transferability. identify four different threat models for authors, varying with their knowledge of how their text will be analysed and what training data will be used: query access, with the weakest analyst and the strongest author who knows both the methods of analysis and the training data; architecture access, where the author knows the analysis methods but not the training data; data access, where the author knows the training data but not the analysis methods; and surrogate access, with the weakest author and the strongest analyst, where the author does not know the methods of analysis nor the training data. Further, when an author chooses a method, they must rely on their threat model and trust that it is valid, and that unknown analyses able to detect remaining stylistic signals cannot or will not be performed, or that the masking successfully transfers; a stylometrist with knowledge of how the author attempted to mask their style, however, may be able to exploit some weakness in the method and render it unsafe. Much of the research into automated methods has assumed that the author has query access, which may not generalise to other settings. Masking methods that internally use an ensemble of different analyses as a model for its adversary may transfer better against unseen analyses.
A thorough soundness loss defeats the purpose of communication, though some degree of meaning change may be tolerable if the core message is preserved; requiring only textual entailment or allowing automatic summarisation are other options to lose some meaning in a possibly-tolerable way. Rewriting an input text to defeat stylometry, as opposed to consciously removing stylistic characteristics during composition, poses challenges in retaining textual meaning. assess the problem of unsoundness as "the most important challenge" for research into fully automatic approaches.
For sensibility, if a text is so ungrammatical as to be incomprehensible or so ill-formed that it cannot fit in to its genre then the method has failed, but compromises short of that point may be useful. If inconspicuity is partially lost, then there is the possibility that more expensive and less scalable analyses will be performed (e.g., consulting a forensic linguist) to confirm suspicions or gather further evidence. The impact of a total inconspicuity failure varies depending on the motivation for performing adversarial stylometry: for someone simply attempting to stay anonymous (e.g., a whistleblower), detection may not be an issue; for a literary forger, however, detection would be disastrous. Adversarial stylometry can leave evidence of its practice, which is an inconspicuity failure. In the Brennan–Greenstadt corpus, the texts have been found to share a common "style" of their own. However, assess existing evidence as insufficient to prove that adversarial stylometry is always detectable, with only limited methods having been studied. Improving the smoothness of the output text may reduce the detectability of automated tools. The overall detectability of adversarial authorship has not been thoroughly studied; if the methods available to be used by the author are unknown to the stylometrist, it may be impossible.
The problems of author identification and verification in an adversarial setting are greatly different from recognising naïve or cooperative authors. Deliberate attempts to mask authorship are described by as a "problem for the current state of stylometric art", and state that, despite stylometry's high performance in identifying non-adversarial authors, manual application of adversarial methods render it unreliable.
observe that low-dimensional stylometric models which operate on small numbers of features are less resistant to adversarial stylometry. Research has found that authors vary in how well they are able to modulate their style, with some able to successfully perform the task even without training. , a replication and reproduction of , found that all three of imitation, translation and obfuscation meaningfully reduced the effectiveness of authorship attribution, with manual obfuscation being somewhat more effective than manual imitation or translation, which performed similarly to each other; the original study found that imitation was superior. reported that even simple automated methods of adversarial stylometry caused major difficulties for state-of-the-art authorship identification systems, though at significant soundness and sensibility cost. Adversarially-aware identification systems can perform much better against adversarial stylometry provided that they know which potential obfuscation methods were used, even if the identifier makes mistakes in analysing which anonymisation method was used.
See also
Adversarial machine learning
Author profiling
De-identification
Digital watermarking
Online identity management
Operational security
Steganography
References
Bibliography
Computational fields of study
Computational linguistics
Data anonymization techniques
Digital humanities
Counter-forensics
Information privacy
Natural language processing
Quantitative linguistics
Personal identification
Stylistics | Adversarial stylometry | [
"Technology",
"Engineering"
] | 3,157 | [
"Cybersecurity engineering",
"Computational fields of study",
"Computational linguistics",
"Information privacy",
"Digital humanities",
"Natural language processing",
"Computing and society",
"Natural language and computing"
] |
72,742,393 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%20memory%20stem%20cell | A T memory stem cell (TSCM) is a type of long-lived memory T cell with the ability to reconstitute the full diversity of memory and effector T cell subpopulations as well as to maintain their own pool through self-renewal. First described in mice in 2009 then in humans represent a cell type that has reshaped the landscape of immunology and medicine because of their superior ability to self-renew and persist in the setting of cancer and infectious disease. Developmentally, TSCM are an intermediate subset between naïve (Tn) and central memory (Tcm) T cells, expressing both naïve T cells markers, such as CD45RA+, CD45RO-, high levels of CD27, CD28, IL-7Rα (CD127), CD62L, and C-C chemokine receptor 7 (CCR7), as well as markers of memory T cells, such as CD95, CD122 (IL-2Rβ), CXCR3, LFA-1. These cells represent a small fraction of circulating T cells, approximately 2-3%. Like naïve T cells, TSCM cells are found more abundantly in lymph nodes than in the spleen or bone marrow; but in contrast to naïve T cells, TSCM cells are clonally expanded. Similarly to memory T cells, TSCM are able to rapidly proliferate and secrete pro-inflammatory cytokines (IFN-γ, IL-2, and TNF-α) in response to antigen re-exposure, but show higher proliferation potential compared with Tcm cells; their homeostatic turnover is also dependent on IL-7 and IL-15.[]
Differentiaion
Longitudinal studies on TSCM dynamics in patients undergoing hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT) have shown that donor-derived TSCM cells were highly enriched early after HSCT, differentiated directly from Tn, and that Tn and TSCM cells (but not central memory or effector T cells) were able to reconstitute the entire heterogeneity of memory T cell subsets including TSCM cells. Together with the transcriptome analysis of differentially expressed genes reflecting the relatedness of TSCM and Tn cells, these data were in sharp contrast to the existing hierarchical model of human T cell differentiation: naïve T cells (Tn) → effector T cells (Teff) → effector memory T cells → central memory T cells (Tcm)/.
After primary antigen exposure and elimination, antigen-specific TSCM preferentially survive among memory T cells and stably persist for a long term throughout the human lifespan. Multiparametric flow cytometry and TCR sequencing studies showed that more than 30% of naïve T cells primed by antigen directly differentiate into TSCM cells. Current observations allow to suggest that TSCM is a population which plays an essential role in maintaining a long-term memory in vivo. Long-term studies on T cells in a cohort of patients vaccinated against yellow fever revealed that vaccine-induced CD8+ TSCM cells specific to yellow fever antigens were stably maintained for 25 years, capable of self-renewal ex vivo, and preserved surface markers and mRNA profiles closest to naïve T cells. In another longitudinal study on leukaemia patients who had undergone HSCT, it was reported that genetically modified TSCM could be detected up to 14 years after infusion. Complex analysis of TSCM dynamics under physiological conditions including stable isotope labeling, mathematical modeling, cross-sectional data from vaccinated individuals, and telomere length analysis revealed that there are at least 2 distinct TSCM subpopulations with different longevity and turnover rates: 1) short-lived, with an average half-life of 5 months, 2) long-lived, with a high degree of self-renewal and the half-life of approximately 9 years, which is consistent with the long-term maintenance of the recall response to antigen (8–15 years).
Analysis of TCR β repertoire of TSCM and Tm revealed that TSCM have higher TCRβ diversity compared with Tm, that TCR sequences of TSCM were antigen-experienced and their composition differed with those of naïve T cells. It also revealed that in type I diabetes patients there was an enrichment of self-reactive clonotypes in TSCM rather than in Tm, suggesting that TSCM might serve as a pool of autoreactive T cells.
In host defense
Pathogen-specific TSCM cells have been identified in a number of studies of human acute and chronic infections caused by viruses, bacteria and parasites. The presence of TSCM might be essential for the control of persisting infections, in which effector T cells undergo exhaustion and need to be restored; this was supported by the evidence of a negative correlation between the severity of chronic viral (HIV-1) and parasitic (trypanosome) infections and the frequency of circulated TSCM cells.
TSCM in cancer
TSCM are considered as a promising approach in immune cell therapy in cancers due to their high proliferation capacity, longevity and increased survival as well as more potent antitumor effects compared with Tcm and Tem in vivo. Studies on adoptive cell therapy in mouse melanoma model revealed a significant linear correlation between the differentiation status of infused T cells and the strength of tumor regression in the order TSCM >TCM > TEM; TSCM infusion led to a more sustained reduction in tumor growth and correlated with a significant increase in overall survival of treated mice. Previous works on humans and mice also demonstrated that less differentiated T cells show greater proliferative capacity and ability to persist after cell transfer compared with their more differentiated counterparts; in humans, the ability of infused T cells to persist has been positively correlated with response to adoptive cell therapy.
However, the clinical exploitation of TSCM cells is impeded due to their paucity in the peripheral blood and due to the current lack of unified protocols for generating and maintaining TSCM in vitro for clinical manufacturing. Among current efficient strategies, there is a combination of IL-7 and IL-15, which have been successfully used to generate tumor-redirected TSCM cells from naive cell precursors, with yielding cells having a gene signature of naturally occurring TSCM cells and enhanced proliferative capacity compared to other T cell subsets. This strategy can be particularly suitable for generating virus-specific TSCM cells for adoptive cell therapy to prevent or treat viral infections after transplantation or in other immunocompromised patients. Another strategy promoting the efficient generation of tumor-reactive TSCM cells relies on the activation of naïve-like T cells in the presence of IL-7, IL-21 and TWS119 which is an agonist of Wnt-β signaling. It has been found that CAR-modified TSCM cells generated this way are phenotypically, functionally and transcriptomically equivalent to naturally occurring TSCM cells; moreover, they had metabolic features which are specific for long-lived memory T cells, such as high spare respiratory capacity and low glycolytic metabolism (predominance of oxidative phosphorylation). Such CAR-modified T cells can be redirected efficiently against required tumor antigens, and have been shown to generate durable anti-tumor responses.
One of the hardest challenges in application of T cell therapies in treatment of solid tumors is the problem of CD8+ T cells exhaustion resulting from their repeated exposure to tumor antigens and immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment sending inhibitory signals through the cytokines and cell surface receptors. Exhausted T cells are characterized by the expression of large amounts of inhibitory molecules such as PD-1, CTLA-4, LAG3, Tim-3, CD244/2B4, CD160, and TIGIT; they do not respond to TCR stimulation and have reduced capacity to secrete anti-tumor cytokines such as IFN-γ and TNF-α. On a transcriptional level, recent studies have found that transcription factors which play key role in T cells exhaustion include TCF-1, T-bet, Eomes, PRDM1, NFAT, NR4A, IRF4 and BATF. According to the current differentiation model of T cells exhaustion, T cells stepwise lose their “stemness” while acquiring “exhaustion”. Therefore, approaches that would avoid T cells exhaustion and would “reinvigorate” exhausted T cells have a potential to significantly improve the efficacy of cancer immunotherapies.
Studies of the recent years revealed that TCF-1+ T cells, which represent early memory T cells including TSCM cells, play important roles in T cells persistence and efficacy in cancer immunotherapy. Flow cytometry analysis of tumor-infiltrating antigen-presenting cell (APC) populations in human kidney, prostate and bladder tumors revealed a significant correlation between the presence of dendritic cells (but not macrophages) and the number of TCF1+ stem-like CD8+ T cells in the tumor. Subsequent immunofluorescence staining showed that TCF1+ stem-like T cells were found only in regions with high density of MHC II+ cells; in contrast, the TCF1- population of terminally exhausted CD8+ T cells was distributed across the tissue with no preference for APC dense zones. Expanded analysis of large sections of tumor tissues confirmed that tumors had many regions with dense APC zones, and TCF-1+ stem-like CD8 cells preferentially resided there. These data suggest that regions highly enriched with APC serve as an intratumoral niche for stem-like CD8+ T cells, which give rise to terminally differentiated T cells and thus sustain the anti-tumor immune response. Furthermore, immunofluorescence analysis of large regions of tumor tissue from 26 patients with kidney cancer revealed that patients with controlled disease had significantly more MHC-II dense regions where TCF1+ CD8 T cells resided; further stratification of patients showed that patients with low MHC-II+ cell density in such regions experienced significantly impaired progression-free survival. A focused study of patients with stage III kidney cancer, around 50% of whom progress after surgery, revealed that there were >10-fold fewer immune niches in patients who progressed.
Despite some variations depending on tumor type and therapy, most studies agree that tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (TIL) in patients responding to checkpoint-blockade therapy, such as anti-PD1 therapy, contain more TCF1+ early memory T cells, while fewer T cells with exhausted phenotype compared with TILs in non-responders. A study performed on the preclinical model of colon cancer has shown that PD-1 blockade induced a shift from naïve-like to memory precursor-like subsets, which are maintained by the transcriptional regulator TCF-1. The effectiveness of CAR-T cell therapy in chronic lymphocytic leukemia has also been reported to depend on the number of early memory T cells and T cell exhaustion.
References
T cells
Lymphocytes
Human cells
Immunology
Immune system | T memory stem cell | [
"Biology"
] | 2,311 | [
"Organ systems",
"Immunology",
"Immune system"
] |
72,742,424 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limonium%20gmelini | Limonium gmelini, the Siberian statice, is a species of flowering plant in the family Plumbaginaceae, native to east-central and southeastern Europe, Russia, the north Caucasus, Turkey, Iran, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, parts of Siberia, Xinjiang, and Mongolia. A widespread halophytic species, it is found growing in seeps, meadows, steppes, roadsides, and wastelands, as long as they are saline.
The unimproved species is available from commercial suppliers, and there are a number of cultivars, including 'Ste10', and 'Perestrojka'. The Royal Horticultural Society considers this clump-forming perennial's "smoky-blue, long-lasting flowers" to be "very attractive" to pollinators.
References
gmelini
Halophytes
Garden plants
Flora of Czechoslovakia
Flora of Hungary
Flora of Southeastern Europe
Flora of Ukraine
Flora of the Crimean Peninsula
Flora of Central European Russia
Flora of South European Russia
Flora of East European Russia
Flora of the East Aegean Islands
Flora of the North Caucasus
Flora of Turkey
Flora of Iran
Flora of Kazakhstan
Flora of Kyrgyzstan
Flora of Siberia
Flora of Xinjiang
Flora of Mongolia
Plants described in 1891 | Limonium gmelini | [
"Chemistry"
] | 242 | [
"Halophytes",
"Salts"
] |
72,743,532 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serratus%20%28virology%29 | Serratus is a large scale viroinformatics platform for uncovering the total genetic diversity of Earth's virome. Originating with the goal of uncovering novel coronaviruses that may have been incidentally sequenced by other researchers, the project expanded to encompass all RNA viruses, those which encode a viral RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp).
By the end of 2020 there were approximately 15,000 distinct RNA virus sequences known from public databases, measured by the number of distinct RdRp (greater than 10% difference in amino acid sequence). Using a bioinformatics workflow optimized for large-scale cloud computing, the research team analyzed 5.7 million freely available sequencing datasets (20.4 petabytes of raw data) in the Sequence Read Archive (SRA) in only 11 days and a computing cost of US$23,900. This analysis yielded 132,000 novel viral RdRp, representing nearly an order of magnitude increase in the known genetic diversity of RNA viruses.
Within the database, RNA viruses are classified according to their RdRp palmprint, a type of molecular barcode. The palmprint can be used as a computationally efficient index for the identification of which SRA sequencing runs contain a particular RNA virus. Such an index allows for targeted analysis of raw sequencing datasets from which novel RNA viruses can be characterized.
All Serratus data are freely-available under the INDSC release policy.
References
External links
palmID: RdRp sequence search tool
Serratus code repository
Bioinformatics
Computational biology
Virology
Computational fields of study | Serratus (virology) | [
"Technology",
"Engineering",
"Biology"
] | 327 | [
"Biological engineering",
"Computational fields of study",
"Bioinformatics",
"Computing and society",
"Computational biology"
] |
72,743,552 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2023%20Lithuania%E2%80%93Latvia%20pipeline%20explosion | On 13 January 2023, an explosion occurred on the Lithuania–Latvia Interconnection in Pasvalio Vienkiemiai, Pasvalys District Municipality, Lithuania.
At 16:57, Police department of Pasvalys District received the call about the fire in Pasvalio Vienkiemiai village. Flames reached up to 50 m in height and could be seen at a distance of at least 17 km. As a precaution the entire village of Valakėliai was evacuated. As a result Lithuania stopped natural gas transit to Latvia, while consumers in northern Lithuania were supplied by alternative pipelines. 18km of pipeline was disconnected from the main grid to allow gas to burn out. Firefighters extinguished the flames around 21:00 local time. By midnight Lithuania restored gas transit between Lithuania and Latvia at reduced capacity.
Cause
According to the Amber Grid Chief Executive, they do not have evidence that the explosion was an attack, however said that it will be investigated.
On 14 January 2023, representative of Panevėžys County Police Office confirmed that the cause is current under investigation in line with Lithuanian Penal Code's article 278 punishable by prison sentence up to 5 years.
Explosion
At 16:57, Police department of Pasvalys District received the call about the fire in Pasvalio Vienkiemiai village after a locals heard a loud noise. Flames reached up to 50 m in height and could be seen at a distance of at least 17 km. Buildings within 1km radius overheated above 100 C, therefore firefighters had to cool down the buildings with water. Firefighters used drone to scan the area and monitor fire spreading.
18km of pipeline was disconnected from the main Amber Grid system to allow gas to burn out. Fire stopped at around 21:00 local time.
Evacuations
Nearby village of Valakėliai was instructed to evacuate completely. Temporary rescue centre was established in Joniškėlis Gabrielė Petkevičaitė-Bitė Gymnasium building with 120 beds provided for the ones seeking shelter. On 14 January 2023, locals returned to Valakėliai village.
Locals from villages of Paberžiai and Balsiai were advised to evacuate and temporary shelter in Pasvalys Lėvens primary school. Pasvalys District Municipality officials encourages outside of evacuation zone to close all doors and windows and remain calm.
Transport
All traffic via KK150 national route in Pasvalys District was closed and traffic diverted via rural gravel roads. Due high temperature from the flames the surface of KK150 road was damaged and at least 2km of road was no longer suitable for use.
Repairs
On 14 January 2023, Gintautas Gegužinskas, Pasvalys District mayor confirmed that it will take minimum a week to repair the damaged Lithuania–Latvia Interconnection.
On 16 January 2023 13:30 local time, the repairs were fully finished and gas supply to Latvia restored at full capacity. Lithuania exporting up to 90 GWh per day of natural gas to Latvia via the pipeline after the repairs.
References
January 2023 events in Lithuania
Explosions in Lithuania
Gas explosions
2023 industrial disasters
2023 disasters in Europe
Panevėžys County
Natural gas in Lithuania
Latvia–Lithuania relations
Pollution events in 2023 | 2023 Lithuania–Latvia pipeline explosion | [
"Chemistry"
] | 657 | [
"Natural gas safety",
"Gas explosions"
] |
72,743,781 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/57%20Geminorum | 57 Geminorum (57 Gem) is a yellow giant star in the constellation Gemini, with an apparent magnitude of 5.0. At a distance of about , it has a luminosity about 29 times the Sun's. With an age of about 1.2 billion years, it has evolved away from the main sequence and expanded to seven times the width of the Sun.
57 Geminorum is the star's Flamsteed designation. It also has the rarely-used Bayer designation A Geminorum.
The radial velocity of 57 Geminorum has been closely examined for indications that it may have orbiting exoplanets, but it shows a particularly stable radial velocity.
References
Gemini (constellation)
Cassiopeiae, 57
2808
057727
035846
BD+25 1660
G-type giants
Geminorum, A | 57 Geminorum | [
"Astronomy"
] | 175 | [
"Gemini (constellation)",
"Constellations"
] |
72,744,451 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yu-Ju%20Chen | Yu-Ju Chen () is a Taiwanese proteomics research scientist, who leads international projects in proteogenomics.
Education
Yu-Ju Chen received a PhD in physical chemistry at Iowa State University in 1997, under the direction of Cheuk-Yiu Ng. She completed post-doctoral research at Ames Laboratory in 1997, and then at Yuan-Pern Lee's group at National Tsing Hua University in 1999.
Career
Chen began her career at the Institute of Chemistry of Academia Sinica as assistant research fellow in 1999. She was the Director of the Institute of Chemistry from 2013 to 2019, and is currently a Distinguished Research Fellow. She is also an adjunct professor at National Taiwan University, National Chiayi University, National Taiwan Ocean University, and National Chung Hsing University. She conducts research in mass spectrometry-based bioinformatics, in relation to understanding diseases such as cancer.
Since 2016, Chen has participated in the US Cancer Moonshot Initiative, providing proteogenomics expertise as representative of Academia Sinica. She is the project investigator for the Taiwan Cancer Moonshot Project, which analyzes multiomic data related to gastric cancer. She participates in the Chromosome-centric Human Proteome Project, and is the group lead of chromosome 4.
Chen served as president for the Human Proteome Organization (2021-2022), the Taiwan Proteomics Society, and the Taiwan Society for Mass Spectrometry (2012-2015). She has been a council member of the Asia Oceania Human Proteome Organization since 2019. She current serves as executive director of the Taiwan Proteomics Society (2021-2023), and the Taiwan Society for Mass Spectrometry. She served on editorial boards of European Journal of Mass Spectrometry, Journal of Proteome Research, and Frontiers in Analytical Chemistry, and currently serves on the Executive Advisory Board of Proteomics.
Awards
2023 Tung-Ho Outstanding Research Award, THS Foundation
2023 16th Taiwan Outstanding Women in Science Award, Wu Chien Shiung Education Foundation & L'ORÉAL Taiwan
2022 Outstanding Research Award,National Science and Technology Council
2022 Outstanding Research Award,National Science and Technology Council
2021 National Innovation Award
2020 Taiwan Society for Mass Spectrometry Medal
2011 Taiwan Society for Mass Spectrometry Outstanding Scholar Award
2007 Federation of Asian Chemical Societies Distinguished Young Chemists Award
2006 Chinese Chemical Society Outstanding Young Investigator Award
References
Iowa State University alumni
Academic staff of the National Taiwan University
Academic staff of the National Chiayi University
Academic staff of the National Chung Hsing University
Living people
Women physical chemists
Taiwanese women scientists
Year of birth missing (living people) | Yu-Ju Chen | [
"Chemistry"
] | 541 | [
"Women physical chemists",
"Physical chemists"
] |
72,745,010 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photoblasticism | Photoblasticism is a mechanism of seed dormancy. Photoblastic seeds require light in order to germinate. Once germination starts, the stored nutrients that have accumulated during maturation start to be digested which then supports cell expansion and overall growth. Within light-stimulated germination, Phytochrome B (PHYB) is the photoreceptor that is responsible for the beginning stages of germination. When red light is present, PHYB is converted to its active form and moves from the cytoplasm to the nucleus where it upregulates the degradation of PIF1. PIF1, phytochrome-interaction-factor-1, negatively regulates germination by increasing the expression of proteins that repress the synthesis of gibberellin (GA), a major hormone in the germination process. Another factor that promotes germination is HFR1 which accumulates in light in some way and forms inactive heterodimers with PIF1.
Although the exact mechanism is not known, nitric oxide (NO) plays a role in this pathway as well. NO is thought to repress PIF1 gene expression and stabilises HFR1 in some way to support the start of germination. Bethke et al. (2006) exposed dormant Arabidopsis seeds to NO gas and within the next 4 days, 90% of the seeds broke dormancy and germinated. The authors also looked at how NO and GA effects the vacuolation process of aleurone cells that allow the movement of nutrients to be digested. A NO mutant resulted in inhibition of vacuolation but when GA was later added the process was active again leading to the belief that NO is prior to GA in the pathway. NO may also lead to the decrease in sensitivity of Abscisic acid (ABA), a plant hormone largely responsible for seed dormancy. The balance between GA and ABA is important. When ABA levels are higher than GA then that leads to dormant seeds and when GA levels are higher, seeds germinate. GA known to substitute the requirement of light for germination in positive photoblastic seeds.
References
Botany
Germination | Photoblasticism | [
"Biology"
] | 459 | [
"Plants",
"Botany"
] |
72,745,467 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demolitions%20in%20Jeddah | The demolitions in Jeddah are demolition works carried out by the Saudi government that began in October 2021 and is still ongoing. The government claims that its primary goal is to improve the city and get rid of old and illegally constructed homes in order to boost tourism. Some inhabitants publicly criticized the demolitions by the government, which restricts any opposition activities. Amnesty International said the demolition plan violated human rights and was discriminatory as it excluded foreign nationals, who make up 47 percent of the city's population. It further stated that eviction notices were given to residents in a variety of time frames, from one day in one neighborhood to between one and six weeks in others. As of January 2022, approximately one million people had been affected by the demolitions.
See also
Saudi Vision 2030
Destruction of early Islamic heritage sites in Saudi Arabia
References
Destruction of buildings
2020s in Saudi Arabia
History of Jeddah | Demolitions in Jeddah | [
"Engineering"
] | 183 | [
"Destruction of buildings",
"Architecture"
] |
72,745,888 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rangeland%20health | The rangeland health refers to the degree to which the integrity of the soil and ecological processes of rangeland ecosystems are sustained. The attributes evaluated during rangeland health assessments are 1) Soil and Site Stability 2) Hydrologic Function 3) Biotic Integrity.
References
Ecology | Rangeland health | [
"Biology"
] | 55 | [
"Ecology"
] |
72,746,256 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Make%20People%20Better | Make People Better is a 2022 documentary film about the use of genetic engineering (called CRISPR gene editing) to enhance two twins girls to be immune to HIV. Directed by Cody Sheehy of Rhumbline Media, it was originated by Samira Kiani, a biotechnologist then at Arizona State University. It focuses on the circumstances involving Chinese biologist He Jiankui who created the first genetically modified humans in 2018. Featured experts included Antonio Regalado, senior editor for biomedicine of MIT Technology Review, who first discovered and revealed the secret experiment, and Benjamin Hurlbut, a bioethicist at the Arizona State University.
The film was released on 13 December 2022 by Gravitas Films and Internationally by Cats & Docs. It premiered at Hot Docs Canadian International Documentary Festival, and simultaneously launched on iTunes Store and Amazon Prime Video. The title was taken from James Watson's reply as He asked him, "Do you think that that's [genetically modifying babies is] a good thing to do?"
The Make People Better Podcast released in March of 2023. https://makepeoplebetterfilm.com/podcast/
Background
Code of the Wild: The Nature of Us
CRISPR (clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats) gene editing is a scientific method by which DNA molecules are cut using an enzyme, CRISPR associated protein 9 (Cas9) so that specific genes can be removed or replaced. The technique, independently developed by Emmanuelle Charpentier and Jennifer Doudna, had been used to make genetically modified organisms and better genes in genetic diseases. Samira Kiani was a researcher on CRISPR gene editing at Arizona State University and teamed up with Cody Sheehy of the Rhumbline Media to make a documentary film on the revolutionary technique. They started a project called Code of the Wild: The Nature of Us in 2018.
They first approached expert in the field, George Church at Harvard University, who was popularly known as the "Founding Father of Genomics", and Antonio Regalado, senior editor for biomedicine of MIT Technology Review, who had been well-versed in the development of the technique. Regalado hinted them that CRISPR gene-edited babies would be born in China "very soon". They further learned from Kiani's former acquaintance Ryan Farrell who was working as a public relations specialist to He Jiankui, associate professor in the Department of Biology of the Southern University of Science and Technology(SUSTech) in Shenzhen, China, that He was running a human germline-editing experiment. They visited He for an interview but received no information on the forthcoming genetically modified babies.
He Jiankui affair
On 25 November 2018, Regalado posted on MIT Technology Review website that He Jiankui was making CRIPSR babies. As it was publicised, He was prompted to announce his experiment and posted the news of the birth of twins, nicknamed Lulu and Nana, on YouTube in five videos the same day. He formally presented the experiment at the Second International Summit on Human Genome Editing organized at the University of Hong Kong on 28 November 2018. He explained that the experiment was to make the babies resistant to HIV infection as they were (as embryos) obtained from an HIV-positive father. He specifically used a mutant gene named CCR5-Δ32 that is known to confer innate resistance to HIV. The twins were born in secrecy in October 2018, and a third baby (revealed in 2022 as Amy) was then almost born, as He reported.
Although the People's Daily announced the experimental result as "a historical breakthrough in the application of gene editing technology for disease prevention," the news was met with criticisms from scientists. The Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences publicly condemned the experiment as violation of medical regulations and ethical norms. A group of 122 Chinese scientists jointly issued a statement that the experiment was unethical, "crazy" and "a huge blow to the global reputation and development of Chinese science". He's university, local authorities, and the Chinese government made a series of investigations, and He was found guilty of violating academic ethics and national laws on the use of human embryos. On 21 January 2019, He was fired by SUSTech and all connections were terminated. On 30 December 2019, the Shenzhen Nanshan District People's Court sentenced He to three years in prison and with a fine of 3 million RMB (US$430,000).
Participants
The film was based on the involvement of the following people:
He Jiankui, who made the first CRISPR-edited babies
Antonio Regalado, editor of MIT Technology Review who first revealed He's experiment
Ryan Farrell, a public relations specialist to He
Benjamin Hurlbut, a bioethicist at the Arizona State University
Reception and review
Courtney Small on Point of View Magazine gives a positive review, remarking: "A necessary conversation starter, Make People Better is an intriguing examination of a scientist who was hung out to dry by a community who helped elevate him in the first place." Liz Whittemore on Reel News Daily agrees, commenting that it "does an excellent job of putting scientific advances into perspective." Chris Jones on The Atlanta Mail commented it as "an excellent film for anyone interested in" the understanding of scientific development.
However, the film received mostly critical reviews. Beandrea July on The New York Times criticised the film, saying that "a glut of animations and B-roll footage makes the film's visuals feel convoluted, and a flat narrative structure further muddies the waters." She also wrote that the way Sheehy presented the story was clumsy and "deflating the films dramatic tension with so little fanfare that the information’s premature landing barely registers." She also criticised the film for omitting the news that He was released (in April 2022) while the film was being made. Christopher Cross on Tilt said that the documentary is a narrow-sighted view as the case is not just for scientists, and argues that Sheehy "ignores some of the most glaring facets of a hugely impactful breakthrough. As a thriller, Make People Better is solid, but as a documentary, it's better enjoyed as a Wikipedia article."
G. Owen Schaefer, a biomedical ethicist at the National University of Singapore said, "The documentary does not reflect critically on its own title. The origin of the phrase "make people better" is surprising and the film's most clever narrative moment, so I won't spoil it. But does heritable gene editing really make people better? Perhaps instead, it makes better people."
References
External links
Official website
Rotten Tomatoes profile
2022 documentary films
2022 films
Works about genetics
Genome editing
Documentary films about science | Make People Better | [
"Engineering",
"Biology"
] | 1,397 | [
"Genetics techniques",
"Genetic engineering",
"Genome editing"
] |
72,746,284 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USA-315 | USA-315, also known as SBIRS GEO-5, is a military satellite developed as a part of the Space-Based Infrared System. The satellite aims to increase the capabilities of the United States Department of Defense in terms of missile defense and military intelligence.
Overview
As a part of the SBIRS program, the successor of Defense Support Program (DSP), new satellites with better features were planned to be launched and used by United States Air Force and Space Force. USA-315, like other satellites in SBIRS program, is used for early warning.
The initial work contract for SBIRS GEO-5 and SBIRS GEO-6 was awarded to Lockheed Martin in October 2012. After two years, Lockheed Martin was awarded again in 2014, but this time with a manufacturing contract.
SBIRS GEO-5 is built on an LM 2100 Combat Bus and the development phase took more than five years.
On 18 May 2021, SBIRS GEO-5 (USA-315) was launched from Cape Canaveral Space Force Station, Florida.
The satellite was accepted by the U.S. Space Force and showed %40 improvement in average testing times.
References
Missile defense
Early warning systems
Military space program of the United States
Early warning satellites
Military equipment introduced in the 2000s | USA-315 | [
"Technology"
] | 256 | [
"Warning systems",
"Early warning systems"
] |
72,746,351 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cancer%20Diagnostic%20Probe | The Cancer Diagnostic Probe (CDP) is a medical device used in Iran during breast cancer surgery. First developed by Nano Hesgar Sazan Salamt Arya, an Iranian company, CDP has received medical approval in Iran, where it is used in surgical centers.
Development and application
The Cancer Diagnostic Probe was developed by a team led by Mohammad Abdolahad, a 2019 Mustafa Prize laureate and faculty member of the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering at the University of Tehran, to facilitate the determination of cancerous margins. Abdolahad stated that the clinical trial for the device lasted 4 years and that up to 500 surgeries had been carried out using the CDP by 2020. According to Sayyed Ruhollah Miri, the head of the Cancer Institute at the Tehran University of Medical Sciences, the CDP reduces the diagnosis time to 1–2 minutes.
Mechanism
The CDP device is composed of three main parts: "a disposable sensor; a wireless electrical head probe used by the surgeon; [and] a main control computer system which receives the signals from the head probe". It electrochemically measures the hypoxia glycolysis metabolism in real-time "in pre-cancerous and cancerous lesions in cavity side margins". It measures the release of H2O2 from cancer or atypical cells by the reverse Warburg effect.
Reception
The development of CDP was supported by the Iranian Nano Technology Development Headquarters. After receiving medical approval, this system has been used in breast cancer surgeries in Iran. , four U.S. patents have been published related to CDP.
References
Iranian inventions
Breast cancer
Medical devices
Medical research in Asia | Cancer Diagnostic Probe | [
"Biology"
] | 335 | [
"Medical devices",
"Medical technology"
] |
72,747,069 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limonium%20puberulum | Limonium puberulum, the downy sea lavender, is a species of flowering plant in the family Plumbaginaceae, native to subtropical elevations of Lanzarote in the Canary Islands. It is morphologically similar to but genetically distinct from Limonium bourgeaui.
References
puberulum
Halophytes
Endemic flora of the Canary Islands
Flora of Lanzarote
Plants described in 1891 | Limonium puberulum | [
"Chemistry"
] | 80 | [
"Halophytes",
"Salts"
] |
72,747,164 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limonium%20bourgeaui | Limonium bourgeaui is a species of flowering plant in the family Plumbaginaceae, native to Lanzarote and Fuerteventura in the Canary Islands. A herbaceous perennial and subshrub, it is morphologically similar to but genetically distinct from Limonium puberulum.
References
bourgeaui
Halophytes
Endemic flora of the Canary Islands
Flora of Lanzarote
Plants described in 1891 | Limonium bourgeaui | [
"Chemistry"
] | 87 | [
"Halophytes",
"Salts"
] |
77,187,024 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%28doom%29 | P(doom) is a term in AI safety that refers to the probability of catastrophic outcomes (or "doom") as a result of artificial intelligence. The exact outcomes in question differ from one prediction to another, but generally allude to the existential risk from artificial general intelligence.
Originating as an inside joke among AI researchers, the term came to prominence in 2023 following the release of GPT-4, as high-profile figures such as Geoffrey Hinton and Yoshua Bengio began to warn of the risks of AI. In a 2023 survey, AI researchers were asked to estimate the probability that future AI advancements could lead to human extinction or similarly severe and permanent disempowerment within the next 100 years. The mean value from the responses was 14.4%, with a median value of 5%.
Sample P(doom) values
Criticism
There has been some debate about the usefulness of P(doom) as a term, in part due to the lack of clarity about whether or not a given prediction is conditional on the existence of artificial general intelligence, the time frame, and the precise meaning of "doom".
In popular culture
In 2024, Australian rock band King Gizzard & the Lizard Wizard launched their new label, named p(doom) Records.
See also
Existential risk from artificial general intelligence
Statement on AI risk of extinction
AI alignment
AI takeover
AI safety
Notes
References
Existential risk from artificial general intelligence | P(doom) | [
"Technology"
] | 293 | [
"Existential risk from artificial general intelligence"
] |
77,189,612 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2024%20Tamil%20Nadu%20alcohol%20poisoning | The 2024 Tamil Nadu alcohol poisoning took place in Kallakurichi district in the southern Indian state of Tamil Nadu on 20 June 2024. Consumption of illegally made liquor resulted in at least 65 deaths and more than 200 injuries.
Background
Illegal home-brewed liquor is consumed in various parts of India due to its cheaper price compared to the commercially available brands. These illicit liquors frequently have additional chemicals added to them such as pesticides or methanol, in order to increase potency. There had been sporadic incidents of poisoning involving illegal liquor in India in the preceding years. In 2020, at least 120 people had died from consuming illicit liquor in Punjab and in 2022, 30 people died in Bihar and 28 died in Gujarat from similar incidents.
Incident
On 20 June 2024, an incident of poisoning due to the consumption of illicit liquor occurred in Kallakurichi district in the southern Indian state of Tamil Nadu. It resulted in vomiting, stomach aches and diarrhoea due to the presence of methanol in the liquor. At least 58 people died from consumption of tainted liquor and more than 200 people were admitted to hospitals. The injured were treated at various government hospitals in the state and JIPMER in Puducherry. As of 21 June, 28 people were reported to be in critical condition. Most of those who died were economically and socially backward Dalits from Kallakurichi, and nearby villages.
Aftermath
Chief minister of Tamil Nadu M. K. Stalin announced an ex gratia of for the family of the deceased and for the injured. The Government of Tamil Nadu issued orders for the transfer of then District Collector of Kallakurichi and the appointment of a new collector. It also ordered the suspension of the Superintendent of Police and ten members of the state police's prohibition enforcement wing for negligence.
Investigation
On 21 June 2024, the government appointed a one-man commission headed by former Madras High Court judge B. Gokuldas to investigate the incident. On the same day, three people were arrested in connection with the case and were incarcerated at Cuddalore Central Prison.
Reaction
Governor of Tamil Nadu R. N. Ravi expressed shock over the incident and offered his condolences. Leader of opposition Edappadi K Palaniswami, Bharatiya Janata Party state president K. Annamalai and Tamilaga Vettri Kazhagam president Vijay criticised the government for the tragedy and demanded the resignation of the ministers concerned. The opposition also demanded a CBI-led inquiry of the incident.
See also
List of methanol poisoning incidents
List of alcohol poisonings in India
References
2024 crimes in India
2024 health disasters
2024 disasters in India
Alcohol poisoning
June 2024 events in India
2024 alcohol poisoning
Alcohol-related deaths in India
Adulteration
Deaths by poisoning
Methanol poisoning incidents
Mass poisoning
Kallakurichi district | 2024 Tamil Nadu alcohol poisoning | [
"Chemistry"
] | 577 | [
"Adulteration",
"Drug safety"
] |
77,190,088 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PG%201543%2B489 | PG 1543+489, also known as QSO B1544+4855 and PGC 2325245, is a quasar located in the constellation of Boötes. At the redshift of 0.399, the object is located 4.5 billion light-years away from Earth. It was first discovered in 1983, by researchers who presented 114 objects in the Palomar-Green bright quasar survey, as one of the best studied samples of active galactic nuclei (AGN).
Characteristics
The quasar is also classified as a narrow-line Seyfert 1 galaxy, a type of AGN that shows all properties of normal Type 1 Seyfert galaxies but has peculiar characteristics such as narrowest Balmer lines with a full width at half-maximum (FWHM) of 1630 km s−1.
Observations
Researchers also found a peculiar feature in PG 1543+489. The quasar shows a blueshift of the [O III] 5007 Å line that is 1150 km s−1 with respect to the systemic velocity of the galaxy as well as the blue asymmetry of its profile. The large [O III] blueshift or so-called 'blue outliers' by researchers, is found theoretically interpreted by the result of intense outflows whose receding parts are obscured by an optically thick accretion disc or possibly a scenario which the narrow-line region clouds are entrained by decelerating winds, potentially associated with the high Eddington ratio typical of the 'blue outliers'.
Absorption system
Through observations from Hubble Space Telescope, researchers were able to find an absorption-line system at z = 0.07489. Looking at it, they found the sightline passes within ρ = 66 kpc of an edge-on 2{L}* disk galaxy at a similar redshift, belonging to four other galaxies in the group within ρ = 160 kpc. From the absorption-line system, they detected H I [log N(H I/cm-2) = 19.12 ± 0.04] as well as N I, Mg II, Si II, and Si III, from which we measure a gas-phase abundance of [N/H] = -1.0 ± 0.1. The photoionization models indicate that the nitrogen-to-silicon relative abundance is solar, yet magnesium is found underabundant by a factor of ≈2. By extracting out its rotational curve and reporting emission-line spectroscopy of the nearby galaxy, researchers suggests the metallicity is ≈8× higher compared to [N/H] in the absorber. Interestingly, the absorber velocities in the galaxy suggests gas at ρ = 66 kpc is corotating with the galaxy's stellar disk, possibly with an inflow component. Although indicating the sub-damped Lyα absorber system is responsible in causing cold accretion flow, the absorber abundance patterns are quite peculiar. Researchers hypothesized gas was probably ejected from its home galaxy or result of tidal debris from interactions between the group galaxies, with solar nitrogen abundance, but mixed with the gas in the circumgalactic medium or group. If the gas is bound to the nearby galaxy, this system may become an example of the gas "recycling" as predicted by theoretical galaxy simulations.
References
Quasars
Boötes
Luminous infrared galaxies
Starburst galaxies
Seyfert galaxies
Spiral galaxies
Principal Galaxies Catalogue objects
2MASS objects
Black holes
Active galaxies | PG 1543+489 | [
"Physics",
"Astronomy"
] | 729 | [
"Black holes",
"Physical phenomena",
"Physical quantities",
"Boötes",
"Unsolved problems in physics",
"Astrophysics",
"Constellations",
"Density",
"Stellar phenomena",
"Astronomical objects"
] |
77,190,312 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francesca%20E.%20DeMeo | Francesca DeMeo, or Francesca E. DeMeo is an American doctoral astrophysicist, researcher and speaker specializing in the study of celestial bodies in the Solar System, including more particularly asteroids, comets and moons. She is the creator of the modern system of taxonomic classification of asteroids with Schelte J. Bus. With Benoît Carry, she brought a new vision of the main asteroid belt. She pursued entrepreneurial activities alongside astronomy.
Education and career
At the age of 18, Francesca DeMeo pursued in-depth studies of physics and planetary sciences at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in Cambridge until 2006. She obtained two undergraduate degrees: B.S. in Physics and B.S. in Earth, Atmospheric, and Planetary Sciences.
In 2007, she received a M.S. in Planetary Science including small celestial bodies, asteroids, comets, moons, etc.
She was awarded a Fulbright Scholarship in 2007 and 2008 to study of planetary sciences within astronomy and astrophysics as a Fulbright Advanced Student, to pursue a PhD at the Paris Observatory in Meudon on the study of small bodies in the Solar System. In 2009, she received an Eiffel excellence scholarship to support her final year of doctoral studies.
In 2009 she published the Bus-DeMeo asteroid taxonomic classification system. This system has become the reference in the spectral classification of asteroids.
She obtained her Ph.D. in Astronomy and Astrophysics in 2010. The dissertation on small solar bodies was titled: The Compositional Variation of Small Bodies across the Solar System. Her thesis co-supervisors are Maria Antonella Barucci and Richard P. Binzel.
The taxonomy paper from 2009 is one of the most cited papers in all of asteroid science, 672 times as of June 23, 2024.
She obtained her Ph.D. in Astronomy and Astrophysics in 2010. The dissertation on small solar bodies was titled: "The Compositional Variation of Small Bodies across the Solar System". Her thesis co-supervisors are Maria Antonella Barucci and Richard P. Binzel, with whom she continued collaborating.
Awards
2006 Christopher Goetze Prize
2012 Asteroid named DeMeo (8070).
2013 Hubble Fellowship.
2018 Harold Clayton Urey Award issued by Division of Planetary Sciences of the American Astronomical Society
2018 The Division of Planetology of the American Astronautical Society awards her the Harold C. Urey Prize "in recognition of the broad foundational understanding of the study of solar system bodies using the modern system of asteroid classification that bears her name."
Publication of research
DeMeo's papers on planetology in Nature and Icarus about Pluto, Triton, Charon, (52872) Okyhroe, (90482) Orcus, (379) Huenna and Small Solar System body.
Other activities
In 2011, Francesca DeMeo served as co-founder, CIO of Cambridge Select Inc. The same year, she served as a volunteer member of the board of directors of the Governor's Academy and remained there until 2021.
References
External links
Meanings of minor planet names: 8001–9000
Astrophysics
Massachusetts Institute of Technology School of Science faculty
American planetary scientists
American women planetary scientists
21st-century American astronomers
Scientists from Massachusetts
Living people
Year of birth missing (living people) | Francesca E. DeMeo | [
"Physics",
"Astronomy"
] | 657 | [
"Astronomical sub-disciplines",
"Astrophysics"
] |
77,190,403 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spence%20Galbraith | Nicol Spence Galbraith (17 March 1927 – 7 August 2008) was a British physician in public health and founding director of the Central Public Health Laboratory Service (PHLS) Communicable Disease Surveillance Centre (CDSC). The results of his efforts were demonstrated in 1978, when he represented the PHLS following the smallpox outbreak in Birmingham. Five years later, he warned the government of possible infected blood products.
In 1958, Galbraith joined the Epidemiological Research Laboratory of the Central PHLS, Colindale, which at the time was part of the Medical Research Council (MRC). After five years of working with vaccine trials, polio vaccine safety, and monitoring of foodborne disease, he was appointed deputy medical officer of health for Newham, East London, and in 1974 became the area medical officer. In 1976, he re-joined the PHLS and as director of the CDSC, set up teaching courses for NHS epidemiologists, and improved surveillance programmes in infectious disease.
In 1991, Galbraith was awarded the Jenner Medal of the Royal Society of Medicine, and in 1994, he delivered the John Snow Society's Pumphandle Lecture.
Early life and education
Nicol Spence Galbraith was born in Southborough, Kent, on 17 March 1927, to Samuel Nicol Galbraith, the then medical officer of health for south west Kent. He completed his early education at Tonbridge School, before gaining a place at London University to study medicine, and subsequently qualified in 1950 from Guy's Hospital.
Early career
Galbraith completed house officer posts at Lewisham Hospital and Guy's. In 1952, he enlisted with the Royal Army Medical Corps (RAMC) to do his National Service. The following year, he was posted to Egypt, where he served as deputy assistant director of army health, based at the Suez Canal zone. There, he had to attend to a paratyphoid B fever outbreak. In 1954, he gained the diploma in public health after completing studies at the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine (LSHTM).
In 1958, after four years of house jobs at Brook General Hospital and the Lewisham Hospital, Galbraith joined the Epidemiological Research Laboratory of the Central Public Health Laboratory Service (PHLS), Colindale, which at the time was part of the Medical Research Council (MRC). He remained there as an epidemiologist for five years. There, his work involved looking at vaccine trials, polio vaccine safety, and monitoring of foodborne disease. In 1963, he was appointed deputy medical officer of health for Newham, East London. The following year, he made his first call for a national epidemiological service that would be centrally co-ordinated. In 1974, he became the area medical officer of the City and East London Area Health Authority. During that time, he continued work on polio and BCG vaccines, and called for a centrally funded co-ordinated national epidemiological service, based on the American Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). He had previously first published on the case in 1968, in an article titled "Epidemiology and the Green Paper – a National Epidemiological Service".
Later career
In 1976, Galbraith re-joined the PHLS after being asked to establish a national unit that could report and control communicable disease. The following year, he became the founding director of the Communicable Disease Surveillance Centre (CDSC). It consisted of Galbraith, one other medical officer and a secretary. Administered by the Central Public Health Laboratory Service (PHLS), he chose the Broad Street pump as its logo. That year, he visited Alexander Langmuir at the CDC in Atlanta and subsequently began expanding the CDSC. As director of the CDSC, he set up teaching courses for NHS epidemiologists, and improved surveillance programmes in infectious disease. The weekly bulletin was his creation. At the same time, he lectured at St Bartholomew's Hospital Medical School and at the LSHTM.
1978 smallpox outbreak in Birmingham
The results of Galbraith's successful efforts as director of the CDSC were demonstrated in 1978, when he represented the PHLS following the smallpox outbreak in Birmingham, attending the initial meeting at Birmingham area Health Authority's headquarters along with Alasdair Geddes, Surinder S. Bakhshi, William Nicol, and Henry Bedson. To assist at a local level, he transferred a few epidemiologists to Birmingham and confirmed that testing would be done at the Colindale laboratory. In 1981, he was unsuccessful in his call for a local surveillance system that would include a clinical epidemiologist.
Contaminated blood scandal
On 9 May 1983, after reviewing literature revealing that 11 cases of AIDS in the United States, three in Spain, and one in Wales, were detected in people who had received American Factor VIII, Galbraith wrote to Ian Field of the UK Department of Health and Social Security, and suggested to withdraw products made in the US from blood donated after 1978:
I have reviewed the literature and come to the conclusion that all blood products made from blood donated in the USA after 1978 should be withdrawn from use until the risk of AIDS transmission by these products has been clarified.
The paper Galbraith submitted on the matter was considered and rejected at a meeting of the biological sub-committee of the Committee on Safety of Medicines on 13 July 1983.
Other
In 1986, Galbraith contributed to the founding of the British Paediatric Surveillance Unit, which functioned to detect new diseases in children. A vaccine advocate, he developed a way to examine risks of live polio vaccine, and was able to show the safety and efficacy of giving the BCG, diphtheria-tetanus, and oral polio vaccines at the same time. At the CDSC, he created an immunisation department for monitoring vaccine safety, efficacy, and coverage.
Awards and honours
For his efforts as area medical officer in East London, Galbraith was made Freedom of the City of London in 1976. As president of the Epidemiology and Community Medicine Section of the Royal Society of Medicine (RSM), he delivered his presidential address in 1980. In 1991, he was awarded the RSM's Jenner Medal. In 1994, he delivered the John Snow Society's Pumphandle Lecture on the life of John Snow, titled "Dr John Snow – Early Life and Later Triumphs. An exploration of Snow’s work from the epidemiological perspective".
Personal and family
Galbraith married Zina-Mary née Cullingworth Flood, in 1952. They had three daughters. At a young age, due to severe rheumatoid arthritis, he had two hip replacements.
Death
Galbraith died on 7 August 2008, following a heart attack.
Selected publications
Articles
Books
Notes
References
Further reading
"N. S. Galbraith". British Medical Journal
1927 births
2008 deaths
British epidemiologists
British medical researchers
People educated at Tonbridge School
Recipients of the Jenner Medal of the Royal Society of Medicine
People from Southborough, Kent
British academic administrators
British medical writers
Public Health England
Administrators in the National Health Service
Fellows of the Faculty of Public Health
21st-century British medical doctors
Vaccination advocates
Alumni of the University of London
Royal Army Medical Corps officers | Spence Galbraith | [
"Biology"
] | 1,512 | [
"Vaccination",
"Vaccination advocates"
] |
77,190,923 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sullivan%20vortex | In fluid dynamics, the Sullivan vortex is an exact solution of the Navier–Stokes equations describing a two-celled vortex in an axially strained flow, that was discovered by Roger D. Sullivan in 1959. At large radial distances, the Sullivan vortex resembles a Burgers vortex, however, it exhibits a two-cell structure near the center, creating a downdraft at the axis and an updraft at a finite radial location. Specifically, in the outer cell, the fluid spirals inward and upward and in the inner cell, the fluid spirals down at the axis and spirals upwards at the boundary with the outer cell. Due to its multi-celled structure, the vortex is used to model tornadoes and large-scale complex vortex structures in turbulent flows.
Flow description
Consider the velocity components of an incompressible fluid in cylindrical coordinates in the form
where and is the strain rate of the axisymmetric stagnation-point flow. The Burgers vortex solution is simply given by and . Sullivan showed that there exists a non-trivial solution for from the Navier-Stokes equations accompanied by a function that is not the Burgers vortex. The solution is given by
where is the exponential integral. For , the function behaves like with being is the Euler–Mascheroni constant, whereas for large values of , we have .
The boundary between the inner cell and the outer cell is given by , which is obtained by solving the equation Within the inner cell, the transition between the downdraft and the updraft occurs at , which is obtained by solving the equation The vorticity components of the Sullivan vortex are given by
The pressure field with respect to its central value is given by
where is the fluid density. The first term on the right-hand side corresponds to the potential flow motion, i.e., , whereas the remaining two terms originates from the motion associated with the Sullivan vortex.
Sullvin vortex in cylindrical stagnation surfaces
Explicit solution of the Navier–Stokes equations for the Sullivan vortex in stretched cylindrical stagnation surfaces was solved by P. Rajamanickam and A. D. Weiss and is given by
where ,
Note that the location of the stagnation cylindrical surface is not longer given by (or equivalently ), but is given by
where is the principal branch of the Lambert W function. Thus, here should be interpreted as the measure of the volumetric source strength and not the location of the stagnation surface. Here, the vorticity components of the Sullivan vortex are given by
See also
Kerr–Dold vortex
References
Vortices | Sullivan vortex | [
"Chemistry",
"Mathematics"
] | 529 | [
"Dynamical systems",
"Vortices",
"Fluid dynamics"
] |
77,192,142 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gliese%20900 | Gliese 900 (GJ 900, BD+00 5017) is a triple star system, located 68 light-years from Earth in the constellation Pisces. It is made up of three main sequence stars: one is a K-type star, the two others are M-dwarf stars. The two M-dwarfs form a binary system with a period of 36 years, and this system has a period of 80 years around the primary component. With an apparent magnitude of 9.546, Gliese 900 is not visible to the naked eye. A widely separated planet has been detected around the system.
Stellar system
Gliese 900 is a hierarchical star system, made up of three main sequence stars: The primary component (Gliese 900 A) is a K5-K7 type star, that has 0.64–0.67 times the mass of the Sun, 0.72 times its radius, and 12% its luminosity. A light curve from the Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite (TESS) shows that its rotational period is 12 days. Gliese 900 A has a high level of chromospheric and coronal activity, although its apparent brightness presents little variation. The other components are red dwarf stars. Gliese 900 B has a spectral type of M3–M4 and a mass between 0.24 and 0.34 solar masses. Gliese 900 C has a spectral type of M5–M6 and a mass between 0.16 and 0.24 solar masses.
The system is young, about 200 million years old, and is a likely member (99.7% probability) of the nearby moving group Carina-Near. It is a source of X-ray emission, with an observed flux of , and is also a source of ultraviolet emission. The emission of X-rays is typical of young stars, and classifies it as one. The TESS light curve identifies stellar flares on this star.
Orbit
Gliese 900 B and C form an inner pair (named Gliese 900 BC) with an orbital period of around 36 years. Gliese 900 BC and Gliese 900 A orbit the system's center of mass with a period of 80 years. B was separated from A by 751milliarcseconds and C was separated from A by 708mas. This separation changes over time. It was identified as a multiple star system in 2002 by Eduardo L. Martín, using adaptive optics-corrected images at the 8.2 m Subaru Telescope. When first observed, the A–B and A–C separations were of 0.51 and 0.76 arcsecs respectively. A further study by Malogolovets et al. (2007) identified this system as a hierarchical triple.
Other stars in the system
Malogolovets et al. (2007) reported two other objects in 2MASS images (potentially late red dwarfs) that would be the components D and E and make the system quintuple, being "very likely" to be bound to the system. However, these faint stars haven't been confirmed as members of the GJ 900 system, and are likely not associated.
Motion
Gliese 900 is located 68 light-years from Earth, based on parallax measurements by the Gaia spacecraft. The BP-RP spectra suggest a distance of 67.7 ly. The space velocity components of this system are , and . Gliese 900 is part of the thin disk population of the Milky Way. It was once classified as part of the IC 2602 supercluster. A newer analysis using kinematics from the Gaia spacecraft suggest that Gliese 900 has a 99.7% chance of being a member of the Carina-Near moving group and a 0.3% chance of being a field star, i.e. not associated to any star cluster or stellar association.
Planetary system
A 2024 study led by Austin Rothermich identified CWISE J233531.55+014219.6 (abbreviated to CW2335+0142) as a proper motion companion to Gliese 900, with 99.5% probability. This object, also called Gliese 900 b or Gliese 900 (ABC)b, is a planetary-mass object that has 10.5 times the mass of Jupiter (0.01 times the mass of the Sun), a spectral type T9 and a temperature of 500 K. It was found to be at an angular separation of 587" from Gliese 900. At the estimated distance to this system, it translates to a projected separation of 12,000 astronomical units.
, Gliese 900 b has the largest observed separation of any known planet, and assuming a circular orbit, the longest orbital period. The orbital period is estimated at 1.27 million years based on the projected separation. Due to the similar spectral type, orbital separation and age, CW2335+0142 has been compared to COCONUTS-2b by the discovery team.
Also in 2024, a study using data from the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer found a red W2-W3 color, which the researchers interpret as a sign of low gravity for T-dwarfs. Low gravity is often seen as an indicator of a young age and a low mass.
See also
Circumtriple planet, a category of planets to which Gliese 900 b belongs
List of exoplanets discovered in 2024 - including Gliese 900 b
Notes
References
Pisces (constellation)
Planetary systems with one confirmed planet
Triple star systems
K-type main-sequence stars
M-type main-sequence stars
TIC objects
Hipparcos objects
2MASS objects
Gliese and GJ objects
WISE objects | Gliese 900 | [
"Astronomy"
] | 1,187 | [
"Pisces (constellation)",
"Constellations"
] |
77,194,253 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edwina%20Rissland | Edwina Luane Rissland (also published as Edwina Luane Rissland Michener) is a retired American mathematician and computer scientist. Initially focusing on knowledge representation and the philosophy of mathematics, her later research in artificial intelligence included work on case-based reasoning and the applications of AI in legal work. She is a professor emerita in the Manning College of Information & Computer Sciences at the University of Massachusetts Amherst. In her retirement she has worked as a photographer and art curator.
Education and career
Rissland majored in applied mathematics as an undergraduate at Brown University, where her undergraduate studies included a computer science course from Andries van Dam. She graduated in 1969. After a 1970 master's degree at Brandeis University, she completed a Ph.D. in mathematics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1977. Her dissertation, Epistemology, Representation, Understanding and Interactive Exploration of Mathematical Theories, was supervised by Seymour Papert.
She joined the UMass Amherst faculty in 1979. Her interest in law began around this time after reading a book on US Supreme Court decisions. In 1982 and 1983 she was affiliated with the Harvard Law School as a Fellow of Law and Computer Science, and from 1985 to 1986 she returned to the Harvard Law School as a lecturer. She also served two terms as a program director for artificial intelligence and cognitive science at the National Science Foundation, from 2003 to 2007 and again from 2010 to 2012, helped found the International Association for Artificial Intelligence and Law, and later served as its president. She retired in 2013.
Recognition
Rissland was named a Fellow of the Association for the Advancement of Artificial Intelligence in 1991.
In 2023 she received the CodeX prize of the Stanford Center for Legal Informatics for her contributions to computational law, together with her doctoral student, Kevin Ashley, and in particular for their HYPO CBR system for legal case-based reasoning.
Selected publications
Rissland is a coauthor of the textbook Cognitive Science: An Introduction (MIT Press, 1988; 2nd ed., 1995). Her research publications include:
References
External links
Rissland Arts, Rissland's photography web site
The case-based reasoning group, Rissland's research group at UMass Amherst
Year of birth missing (living people)
Living people
American computer scientists
American women computer scientists
American mathematicians
American women mathematicians
Philosophers of mathematics
American artificial intelligence researchers
Brown University alumni
Brandeis University alumni
Massachusetts Institute of Technology alumni
University of Massachusetts Amherst faculty
Fellows of the Association for the Advancement of Artificial Intelligence | Edwina Rissland | [
"Mathematics"
] | 510 | [
"Philosophers of mathematics"
] |
77,194,672 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/8090%20aluminium%20alloy | 8090 aluminium alloy is produced using lithium, copper and magnesium as additives. It is commonly used in aerospace due to having a lower density than 6000 or 2000 series aluminium. 8090 aluminium was developed as a replacement to 2114 and 2024 alloys and has a higher elastic modulus and lower density.
Chemical composition
Applications
Aluminium 8090 is used in aerospace applications due to its low density; for example it is used in the AgustaWestland EH101 helicopter. 8090 can also be extruded.
References
External links
Material Properties
Aluminium alloys | 8090 aluminium alloy | [
"Chemistry"
] | 113 | [
"Alloys",
"Alloy stubs",
"Aluminium alloys"
] |
77,195,293 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aim%20assist | In video games, aim assist is a gameplay feature designed to help players with their aiming. It is commonly found in first-person shooter (FPS) games, and is an element particularly designed for players who use controller inputs, as opposed to a mouse and keyboard (MnK).
Background and description
Aiming down the sights or scope of a gun is a key component of first-person shooters. Allowing for more precise movements and aiming, the mouse and keyboard is considered the easier and more intuitive input. With a controller's thumbsticks being harder to use, developers of FPS games include aim assist as tool for those using controllers.
The aim assist function helps guide a controller player's crosshairs automatically. Contemporary player versus player (PvP) games employ the feature by way of "slowing down crosshair movement when an enemy enters a certain range of the player's crosshair." Games also have been noted to include aim assist as a feature that can be toggled off. An element of aim assist is zoom snapping, which Morgan Park of PC Gamer described as an "invisible force that guides a controller player's reticle to an enemy's head or body when aiming as long as they're looking in the enemy's direction, and keeps the aim locked there for a time".
Some players have utilized third-party re-mapping programs, a software that spoofs their MnK input to trick a console into thinking they are using a controller. This allows for the player to receive benefits from a mouse's precision and the aim assist setting. In response, developers use anti-cheat software to detect these third party re-mapping programs and have banned players for using them.
History
With the rise of games employing crossplay, aim assist began to be more considered by players, developers, and video game media writers. PC players largely use the MnK input, though the aim assist feature is usually available for all controller players, even when they play on PC platforms. Such players have expressed feelings that aim assist is an overpowered mechanic, giving controller players an unfair advantage. Often times, developers of games including the mechanic have "politely ignored" requests to nerf the feature. Indeed, instances of patches to the feature designed to tone down its perceived advantages, such as with The Finals 1.4.1 patch in January 2024, are considered rare. This particular patch addressed zoom snapping and camera magnetism elements of aim assist, as well as prohibiting clients running key remapping programs on PC access to the feature. The complete disabling of the feature in PC–console crossplay matches has been another response from developers, though this is not an available route for games that do not present an option for players to disable crossplay.
In esports
Though players have stated concerns about unfair advantages allowed by the tool, aim assist is not considered "cheating". Players have indeed been noted to actively switch from MnK to controller for competitive advantages. As an intentional feature of games, the aim assist tool is used in professional esports. After winning the ALGS Year 3 Split 1 Playoffs tournament, the professional Apex Legends player ImperialHal cited his switching to controller as helping improve his play.
In other genres
Though it is often discussed in the context of the FPS genre and PvP settings, aim assist has been noted to exist in other types of games. The role-playing game (RPG) Diablo IV, which features player versus environment (PvE) gameplay, has an auto aim system. The feature can be turned off in the game's settings.
See also
Aimbot
References
Esports terminology
Video game terminology | Aim assist | [
"Technology"
] | 740 | [
"Computing terminology",
"Video game terminology"
] |
77,195,423 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal%20Office%20for%20the%20Safety%20of%20Nuclear%20Waste%20Management | The Federal Office for the Safety of Nuclear Waste Management (BASE) is a legally established, independent German federal authority under the jurisdiction of the Federal Ministry for the Environment, Nature Conservation, Nuclear Safety and Consumer Protection (BMUV). It began its activities on 1 September 2014. Its provisional headquarters is Berlin. Other offices are located in Salzgitter and Bonn. The president is Christian Kühn.
History
After the nuclear phase-out of the Merkel/Westerwelle government, the governing parties, together with the opposition parties SPD and Greens, decided to pass a new law to search for a permanent repository. In May 2013, the four parliamentary groups introduced the Draft Act on the Search for and Selection of a Site for a Final Repository for Heat-Generating Radioactive Waste and on the Amendment of Other Laws (Site Selection Act – StandAG). This draft Article Act contained an Article 3 Act on the Establishment of a Federal Office for Nuclear Waste Management (, BfkEG) with only three paragraphs. In the course of the legislative process, Section 1 of the Act was supplemented and transitional provisions were added with Section 4. The BfkEG came into force on January 1, 2014, meaning that the Federal Office for Nuclear Waste Management was formally founded on that day.
Article 4, number 1 of the Act on the Reorganization of the Organizational Structure in the Area of Final Storage (NeuOrgG) renamed the authority the Federal Office for Nuclear Waste Management Safety (, BfE) on July 30, 2016. The reason for the renaming was the intention to more clearly distinguish from the Bundesgesellschaft für Endlagerung (BGE). At the same time, the BfE was given key tasks from the Federal Office for Radiation Protection in the field of nuclear safety and nuclear waste disposal safety. For this reason, the key tasks of the BfE (now BASE) are carried out at the Salzgitter headquarters, where a large part of the staff is also based.
From its founding in 2014 to 2016, the Federal Office was temporarily headed by Ewold Seeba, who later became the chairman and managing director of the BGZ Society for Interim Storage. On August 1, 2016, Wolfram König was appointed as the new president.
On January 1, 2020, the agency was renamed from Bundesamt für kerntechnische Entsorgungssicherheit (BfE) to Bundesamt für die Sicherheit der nuklearen Entsorgung (BASE).
Wolfram König retired at the end of January 2024. On February 15, 2024, Christian Kühn became President of the Federal Office.
Organization
The Federal Office is under the supervision of the BMUV. It is headed by a president with a vice president as permanent representative. In addition to the presidential area, the BASE is divided into the following departments:
Department Z: Central Services
Department F: Research / International
Department B: Participation
Department A: Supervision
Department G: Approval Procedures
Department N: Nuclear Safety
The Participatory Administration Laboratory reports to the vice president. Its task is to develop innovative working methods in public administration and new participation processes between the state and society. As an innovation laboratory in the German administration, it is comparable to the BWI GmbH.
Tasks
The Federal Office for the Safety of Nuclear Waste Management is the central federal authority for the approval, supervision and regulation in the areas of final and intermediate storage as well as for the handling and transport of radioactive waste. The range of tasks of the BASE can be described in more detail based on its organizational structure.
Nuclear safety
Supervision of final storage facilities for heat-generating radioactive substances and the Asse II mine
Receipt and publication of information according to Section 7 Paragraph 1c of the German Atomic Energy Act (AtG)
Recording and documentation of all reportable events in nuclear facilities (Federal Incident Reporting Office)
Nuclear waste disposal safety
Approval of the transport of nuclear fuels in accordance with Section 4 AtG (so-called Castor transports) and large sources in accordance with Section 186 of the German Radiation Protection Act, as well as their withdrawal or revocation
State custody of nuclear fuels within the meaning of Section 5 AtG
Approval of the storage of nuclear fuels outside of state custody (so-called intermediate storage) in accordance with Section 6 AtG, as well as their withdrawal or revocation
Type approval of nuclear flasks of type C, B(U), B(M) and packages for fissile materials (CF, B(U)F, B(M)F, AF and IF)
Recognition of foreign type approvals of nuclear flasks
Site selection procedure
Determining exploration programs and test criteria in accordance with the StandAG
Examining the proposals of the project sponsor in accordance with Section 14 Paragraph 2, Section 16 Paragraph 3 and Section 18 Paragraph 3 StandAG
Supervision of the implementation of the site selection process according to Section 19 Paragraphs 1 to 4 StandAG
Site security according to Section 21 StandAG
Responsible for public participation in the site selection process
Approval and supervision of repositories
Plan approval and approval of repositories for high-level radioactive waste (Section 9b AtG)
Granting of mining permits and other required mining permits and approvals in approval procedures pursuant to Section 9b AtG for the construction, operation and decommissioning of federal facilities for the safekeeping and final storage pursuant to Section 9a Paragraph 3 AtG in consultation with the competent mining authority of the respective state
Mining supervision according to Sections 69 to 74 of the Federal Mining Act on federal facilities for the safekeeping and final storage according to Section 9a Paragraph 3 AtG as well as the
Issuing of water law permits or approvals in approval procedures according to Section 9b AtG for federal facilities for the safekeeping and final storage according to Section 9a Paragraph 3 AtG in consultation with the responsible water authority.
In addition, the BASE provides the BMUV with technical and scientific support within the scope of its responsibilities (Section 2 Paragraph 2 BfkEG) and in this respect carries out federal tasks which it is commissioned to carry out by the BMUV or, with its consent, by the supreme federal authority responsible for the subject matter (Section 2 Paragraph 3 BfkEG). Finally, the BASE is also responsible for sufficient research activities within the scope of its responsibilities (Section 2 Paragraph 4 BfkEG).
Management
Since February 15, 2024, Christian Kühn has headed the Federal Office. His office is classified in salary group B 8 of the Federal Salary Scale B. He has the official title President.
Criticism
Andreas Troge, former President of the German environmental agency, criticized the establishment of the agency with the previously envisaged powers in 2014 as an unnecessary duplicate organization to the Federal Office for Radiation protection.
External links
BASE official site
BASE information platform for the search for a final repository
References
Charlottenburg
Waste management companies of Germany
Nuclear energy policy in Germany
2014 establishments in Germany
Radioactive waste | Federal Office for the Safety of Nuclear Waste Management | [
"Chemistry",
"Technology"
] | 1,415 | [
"Radioactive waste",
"Environmental impact of nuclear power",
"Radioactivity",
"Hazardous waste"
] |
77,195,838 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2024%E2%80%932025%20Kanlaon%20eruption | Kanlaon Volcano in Negros Island Region, Philippines began erupting on June 3, 2024, when an explosive eruption from its summit vent spewed ash over parts of Bago, La Carlota, La Castellana and Canlaon. As a result, evacuations were ordered for five barangays near the volcano. Volcanic activity continued on December 9, with explosive eruptions generating a shockwave, and a plume visible as far away as the islands of Panay, Guimaras and Cebu. The National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Council (NDRRMC) reported that 57,563 people were affected by the June 2024 eruption, with 3,905 displaced from their homes. Additionally, 2,680 houses were damaged. The estimated damage to the agricultural sector was US$3.07 million. Following the December 2024 eruption, the NDRRMC estimated that around 40,489 people in the Visayas were affected. The agricultural sector suffered an estimated loss of US$681,314, with of land impacted.
Volcanic activity
Activity increases
On March 11, 2020, PHIVOLCS raised the volcano's alert level from 0 to 1 due to its abnormal activities since March 9. 80 volcanic earthquakes were plotted since then. On June 21, the volcano showed some signs of increased unrest. By June 22, the volcano's activity continued, with a series of tectonic earthquakes ranging from 3.2 to 4.7. A total of 278 earthquakes was observed for a 72-hour period (from June 21, 8AM – June 24, 8AM), possibly related to the magmatic activity underneath the volcano. Earthquakes continued, with steam and fumarolic activity rising 200–300 meters above. PHIVOLCS reminded the public to stay away to the 4-km PDZ (Permanent Danger Zone) around the volcano, as abnormal conditions and sudden phreatic explosions might occur.
June–December 2024 eruption
On June 3, 2024, PHIVOLCS raised the alert level of Kanlaon from alert level 1 to alert level 2, indicating increasing unrest after an explosive eruption occurred on its summit vent at 6:51 p.m. PST. The eruption produced a voluminous and incandescent plume that rose above the vent and a probable short pyroclastic flow of approximately 2-3 km down the south and southeastern slopes of the volcano. The eruption lasted for six minutes and was followed by a relatively strong volcanic earthquake. Sulfurous odors and ashfall were reported by communities on the western slope of the volcano, particularly in Bago, La Carlota, La Castellana and Canlaon, and as far as Bacolod, away. Particles from the volcano were deposited in the form of haze as far as the Bicol Region. On June 5, rains triggered lahar flows in La Castellana.
On July 15, 2024, PHIVOLCS issued a notice regarding the increasing swelling of Kanlaon's edifice, which has been persisting since mid-June. PHIVOLCS noted that this ongoing ground deformation could indicate magmatic intrusion, potentially increasing the likelihood of eruptive activity. Increased activity was recorded by PHIVOLCS in September, starting with a series of volcano-tectonic earthquakes on September 9. On September 10, Kanlaon produced its highest volume of sulfur dioxide emissions since 2009, at 9,985 tonnes, prompting PHIVOLCS to raise concern over its possible first magmatic eruption since 1902. The record was surpassed the next day, when 11,556 tons of sulfur dioxide was emitted. On October 19, 2024, the summit crater of the volcano exhibited continuous degassing, along with occasional weak ash emissions. PHIVOLCS recorded twenty-eight instances of ash emissions, ranging from four minutes to one hour and eighteen minutes in duration, producing grayish plumes that rose above the summit and drifted to the west. On October 28, PHIVOLCS reported that sulfur dioxide gas emissions from the summit crater of Kanlaon totaled 10,074 tonnes, making it the fifth highest emission recorded from the volcano since instrumental gas monitoring began. Late on October 31, sixty-four volcano-tectonic earthquakes were recorded, with magnitudes ranging from 0.9 to 2.9, occurring at depths of .
Before the December eruption, PHIVOCS noted a significant decrease in summit emissions, with the average sulfur dioxide level dropping to 1,669, and only six minor volcano-tectonic earthquakes were detected, with no significant seismic activity observed leading up to the eruption. On December 9, PHIVOLCS raised the alert level of Kanlaon from level 2 to level 3 after an explosive eruption occurred at the summit vent at 3:03 p.m. The eruption produced a large plume that rose above the vent and drifted west-southwest, with pyroclastic flow moving down the south-southeastern side of the volcano. A resident volcanologist from PHIVOLCS stated that a shockwave was also heard. Ashfall was recorded in Canlaon as well as in ten municipalities and cities of Negros Occidental, and affected other islands such as Guimaras and Panay, particularly in southern Iloilo and Antique. The volcanic plume was visible as far as Iloilo City and Toledo, Cebu. On December 23, PHIVOLCS issued a notice stating that dark ash had been emitted from the summit of Kanlaon Volcano, accompanied by weak, low-frequency volcanic earthquakes. This activity had produced a dark plume approximately tall, drifting to the northwest, and ash emissions continued the following day. On December 25, PHIVOLCS reported an increase in sulfur dioxide emissions from Kanlaon Volcano, measuring 6,014 tons compared to 3,585 tons on the previous day. Elevated sulfur dioxide emissions are typically associated with rising magma and may indicate the potential for further volcanic activity.
January 2025 activity
On January 11, PHIVOLCS issued a significant warning about increased ground swelling and pressurization in Kanlaon. PHIVOLCS stated that these changes were similar to the conditions observed prior to the volcano's eruption in December 2024.
Response
During the June 2024 eruption, evacuations were ordered in Canlaon for five barangays near the volcano and communities located along rivers flowing from the volcano, as well as in La Carlota and La Castellana. A mask mandate was also imposed in San Carlos. At least 4,752 people were displaced, while offices in Canlaon were ordered closed on June 4. Authorities in Negros Occidental were also placed on heightened alert, with ashfall warnings declared in Canlaon, La Carlota and La Castellana. At least 29 flights at Ninoy Aquino International Airport as well as in Iloilo, Cebu, Kalibo, Bacolod, Davao, Cagayan de Oro, General Santos and San Jose Airports were cancelled due to the eruption. At least 248 people were evacuated in Canlaon. On June 4, several flights were cancelled and a mandatory emergency evacuation within a 3-kilometer radius was ordered. Canlaon Mayor Jose Chubasco Cardenas said that 23,622 residents of five barangays were affected. President Bongbong Marcos assured that the government is prepared to offer support to those impacted by the eruption of Kanlaon Volcano.
Following the December 2024 eruption, PHIVOLCS instructed local government units to evacuate residents within a 6-kilometer radius of the volcano's summit and to prepare for possible additional evacuations if the volcanic activity increased. Canlaon Mayor Jose Chubasco Cardenas advised residents in affected areas to prepare for mandatory evacuations. As a precaution, classes and work in local government offices were suspended, and a curfew was imposed, with all establishments required to close from 10 p.m. to 5 a.m. Additionally, a liquor ban was enforced. Several flights were cancelled at Iloilo International Airport. A health advisory was issued in Toledo, Cebu due to air pollution risks caused by the eruption. The Office of Civil Defense said that around 87,000 people had to be evacuated, with 46,900 of them living in La Castellana. A price freeze was imposed in Negros Occidental to curb "predatory pricing" by businesses and prevent the hoarding of goods. A tent city was established in Himamaylan to house displaced residents in the event of an escalation.
Impact and aftermath
The town of La Castellana lost , during the eruption, and the city of Canlaon lost . The eruption impacted the inflation rate from 4.1 percent to 4.3 percent after the eruption. 29 flights were cancelled during the eruption. A state of calamity was declared in Canlaon and La Castellana. Around 23,000 hectares of sugarcane fields in Negros Island were affected by the eruption, while a curfew and water rationing was imposed in La Carlota and La Castellana due to sulfur contamination in regular sources. On June 18, 2024, La Castellana was given permission for more than 400 evacuees to return to their homes. Affected families were given food, hygiene kits, sleeping kits, kitchen kits, which was worth by the Department of Social Welfare and Development. Canlaon was given in financial aid, and La Castellana was given .
, the National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Council (NDRRMC) reported that the June 2024 volcanic eruption affected 57,563 people, displacing 3,905 individuals and damaging 2,680 homes. The agricultural sector suffered an estimated loss of , with of land impacted. Following the December 2024 eruption, the NDRRMC estimated that around 46,259 people in the Visayas were affected and reported that assistance and relief goods worth , had been distributed to the affected families. The agricultural sector suffered an estimated loss of ₱33.55 million (US$681,314.14), with of land impacted. According to the NDRRMC, a state of calamity has been declared in 31 cities and municipalities due to the severe impact of the volcanic eruption.
See also
List of large volcanic eruptions in the 21st century
References
External links
2024 disasters in the Philippines
2024 natural disasters
June 2024 events in the Philippines
December 2024 events in the Philippines
Explosive eruptions
Volcanic eruptions in the Philippines
VEI-3 eruptions
History of Negros Occidental
History of Negros Oriental
Volcanic eruptions in 2024 | 2024–2025 Kanlaon eruption | [
"Chemistry"
] | 2,165 | [
"Explosive eruptions",
"Explosions"
] |
77,196,026 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute%20of%20Life%20Sciences%2C%20India | The Institute of Life Sciences, India (ILS) is an autonomous research institute located in Bhubaneswar, Odisha under the Department of Biotechnology (DBT) for research in the area of cancer biology, infectious disease and plant biotechnology research.
It was established in the year 1989 as an autonomous institute by the Government of Odisha. In 2002 the institute was taken over by Department of Biotechnology, India and was later Prime Minister of India Shri Atal Bihari Vajpayee dedicated the institute to the nation in July 2003.
During the COVID-19 pandemic, the institute played a crucial role in sequencing and monitoring of the SARS-CoV-2 strains. The institute also established several facilities to extend their capability of infectious disease research.
The Institute of Life Sciences is currently ranked 13th in India for Biological science category of Nature Index and 26th for Health Sciences.
The institute has recently signed MoUs with IIT Bhubaneswar and All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Bhubaneswar to collaborate in human health research and technical education.
References
Research institutes in Bhubaneswar
Research institutes in Odisha
Biotechnology organizations
Organizations established in 1989 | Institute of Life Sciences, India | [
"Engineering",
"Biology"
] | 236 | [
"Biotechnology organizations"
] |
77,196,266 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mutinus%20boninensis | Mutinus boninensis is a member of the Phallaceae (stinkhorn) family. It is a small stinkhorn which may be seen in humid areas in Australia, New Caledonia and possibly other areas in the Pacific region.
References
External links
Phallales
Fungi described in 1908
Fungus species
Fungi of Australia
Fungi of New Caledonia | Mutinus boninensis | [
"Biology"
] | 68 | [
"Fungi",
"Fungus species"
] |
77,196,595 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bolitoglossa%20aurae | Bolitoglossa aurae, commonly known as Aura's golden salamander, is a lungless salamander found in the rainforests of Cordillera de Talamanca in Costa Rica. This species is part of the Bolitoglossa genus, commonly known as mushroom-tongued salamanders.
Description
Bolitoglossa aurae has a light yellow color with a dark brown dorsal stripe running down the head through the body and a pair of thin dark brown lateral stripes running from behind the eyes to the tail. The species has long prehensile tails relative to other mushroom-tongued salamanders. Its tail is 57.9% of its total length.
Habitat and dispersal
Aura's golden salamander is believed to be an endemic species of Costa Rica but its range is not currently known. The mid-elevation slopes of northeastern Cordillera de Talamanca are the only known environment inhabited by Bolitoglossa aurae. Aura's golden salamander inhabits cloud forests.
Behavior
Bolitoglossa aurae is nocturnal and burrows during the day.
References
aurae
Amphibians described in 2016
Nocturnal animals
Endemic fauna of Costa Rica | Bolitoglossa aurae | [
"Biology"
] | 246 | [
"Nocturnal animals",
"Animals"
] |
77,196,691 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2MASX%20J10222849%2B5006200 | 2MASX J10222849+5006200 also known as PGC 2362940, is a massive Type-cD elliptical galaxy located in the constellation of Ursa Major. With the redshift of 0.15, the galaxy is located 2.4 billion light-years away from Earth.
An optically bright galaxy, 2MASX J10222849+5006200 is the brightest cluster galaxy (BCG) inside the galaxy cluster, Abell 980. The cluster is located at z = 0.1582, and is X-ray luminous (LX = 7.1 × 1044 erg s−1), containing a mild intracluster medium temperature of 7.1 keV.
2MASX J10222849+5006200 is classified a low-excitation radio galaxy with a 1.4 GHz luminosity range between 2 × 1023 and 3 × 1025 W Hz−1. It has an ellipsoidal stellar halo measuring ~80 kpc with two diffuse ultra-steep spectrum radio sources around the galaxy, extending about ~100 kpc.
In August 2022, this galaxy became a subject of interest. Indian astronomers from Savitribai Phule Pune University noticed a burst of radio jet activity, from its central black hole. Led by Surajit Paul, he mentioned the first pair of radio lobes discovered are the oldest he and the astronomers had seen. They also detected diffuse radio structures formed 260 million years ago and 1.2 million years in length when using the Giant Meterwave Radio Telescope.
Following the primary pair of radio lobes to 2MASX J10222849+5006200, another team of astronomers led by Gopal-Krishna, found the galaxy has drifted to the central region of the cluster by 250,000 light-years from its original position. Here, the galaxy erupted again by going through a new active phrase; it created another set of radio lobes, this time younger. Because both the old and young radio lobes lost their collinearity when their parent galaxy moved, this creates a 'Detached-Double-Double Radio Galaxy' (dDDRG) system.
References
Elliptical galaxies
Ursa Major
Radio galaxies
2MASS objects
SDSS objects
Principal Galaxies Catalogue objects
Astronomical radio sources | 2MASX J10222849+5006200 | [
"Astronomy"
] | 465 | [
"Astronomical radio sources",
"Ursa Major",
"Astronomical events",
"Constellations",
"Astronomical objects"
] |
77,197,868 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trair%C4%81%C5%9Bika | Trairāśika is the Sanskrit term used by Indian astronomers and mathematicians of the pre-modern era to denote what is known as the "rule of three" in elementary mathematics and algebra. In the contemporary mathematical literature, the term "rule of three" refers to the principle of cross-multiplication which states that if then or . The antiquity of the term trairāśika is attested by its presence in the Bakhshali manuscript, a document believed to have been composed in the early centuries of the Common Era.
The trairāśika rule
Basically trairāśika is a rule which helps to solve the following problem:
"If produces what would produce?"
Here is referred to as pramāṇa ("argument"), as phala ("fruit") and as ichcā ("requisition"). The pramāṇa and icchā must be of the same denomination, that is, of the same kind or type like weights, money, time, or numbers of the same objects. Phala can be a of a different denomination. It is also assumed that phala increases in proportion to pramāṇa. The unknown quantity is called icchā-phala, that is, the phala corresponding to the icchā. Āryabhaṭa gives the following solution to the problem:
"In trairāśika, the phala is multiplied by ichcā and then divided by pramāṇa. The result is icchā-phala."
In modern mathematical notations,
The four quantities can be presented in a row like this:
pramāṇa | phala | ichcā | icchā-phala (unknown)
Then the rule to get icchā-phala can be stated thus: "Multiply the middle two and divide by the first."
Illustrative examples
1. This example is taken from Bījagaṇita, a treatise on algebra by the Indian mathematician Bhāskara II (c. 1114–1185).
Problem: "If two and a half pala-s (a unit of weight) of saffron be obtained for three-sevenths of a nishca (a unit of money); say instantly, best of merchants, how much is got for nine nishca-s?"
Solution: pramāṇa = nishca, phala = pala-s of saffron, icchā = nishca-s and we have to find the icchā-phala. pala-s of safron.
2. This example is taken from Yuktibhāṣā, a work on mathematics and astronomy, composed by Jyesthadeva of the Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics around 1530.
Problem: "When 5 measures of paddy is known to yield 2 measures of rice how many measures of rice will be obtained from 12 measures of paddy?"
Solution: pramāṇa = 5 measures of paddy, phala = 2 measures of rice, icchā = 12 measures of rice and we have to find the icchā-phala. measures of rice.
Vyasta-trairāśika: Inverse rule of three
The four quantities associated with trairāśika are presented in a row as follows:
pramāṇa | phala | ichcā | icchā-phala (unknown)
In trairāśika it was assumed that the phala increases with pramāṇa. If it is assumed that phala decreases with increases in pramāṇa, the rule for finding icchā-phala is called vyasta-trairāśika (or, viloma-trairāśika) or "inverse rule of three". In vyasta-trairāśika the rule for finding the icchā-phala may be stated as follows assuming that the relevant quantities are written in a row as indicated above.
"In the three known quantities, multiply the middle term by the first and divide by the last."
In modern mathematical notations we have,
Illustrative example
This example is from Bījagaṇita:
Problem: "If a female slave sixteen years of age, bring thirty-two nishca-s, what will one aged twenty cost?"
Solution: pramāṇa = 16 years, phala 32 = nishca-s, ichcā = 20 years. It is assumed that phala decreases with pramāṇa. Hence nishca-s.
Compound proportion
In trairāśika there is only one pramāṇa and the corresponding phala. We are required to find the phala corresponding to a given value of ichcā for the pramāṇa. The relevant quantities may also be represented in the following form:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| pramāṇa || ichcā
|-
| phala|| ichcā-phala
|}
Indian mathematicians have generalized this problem to the case where there are more than one pramāṇa. Let there be n pramāṇa-s pramāṇa-1, pramāṇa-2, . . ., pramāṇa-n and the corresponding phala. Let the iccha-s corresponding to the pramāṇa-s be iccha-1, iccha-2, . . ., iccha-n. The problem is to find the phala corresponding to these iccha-s. This may be represented in the following tabular form:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| pramāṇa-1 || ichcā-1
|-
| pramāṇa-2|| ichcā-2
|-
| . . .|| . . .
|-
| pramāṇa-n|| ichcāa-n
|-
| phala|| ichcā-phala
|}
This is the problem of compound proportion. The ichcā-phala is given by
Since there are quantities, the method for solving the problem may be called the "rule of ". In his Bǐjagaṇita Bhāskara II has discussed some special cases of this general principle, like, "rule of five" (pañjarāśika), "rule of seven" (saptarāśika), "rule of nine" ("navarāśika") and "rule of eleven" (ekādaśarāśika).
Illustrative example
This example for rule of nine is taken from Bǐjagaṇita:
Problem: If thirty benches, twelve fingers thick, square of four wide, and fourteen cubits long, cost a hundred [nishcas]; tell me, my friend, what price will fourteen benches fetch, which are four less in every dimension?
Solution: The data is presented in the following tabular form:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| 30 || 14
|-
| 12 || 8
|-
| 16 || 12
|-
| 14 || 10
|-
| 100 || iccha-phala
|}
iccha-phala = .
Importance of the trairāśika
All Indian astronomers and mathematicians have placed the trairāśika principle on a high pedestal. For example, Bhaskara II in his Līlāvatī even compares the trairāśika to God himself!
"As the being, who relieves the minds of his worshipers from suffering, and who is the sole cause of the production of this universe, pervades the whole, and does so with his various manifestations, as worlds, paradises, mountains, rivers, gods, demons, men, trees," and cities; so is all this collection of instructions for computations pervaded by the rule of three terms."
Additional reading
For advanced applications of trairāśika in astronomy, see: .
For a complete discussion on trairāśika, see:
For applications of trairāśika in Indian architecture, see: (Chapter V Trairāśika'' (Rule of Three) in Traditional Architecture)
References
Fractions (mathematics)
Arithmetic
Indian mathematics
Elementary algebra | Trairāśika | [
"Mathematics"
] | 1,634 | [
"Fractions (mathematics)",
"Algebra",
"Mathematical objects",
"Elementary algebra",
"Elementary mathematics",
"Arithmetic",
"Numbers",
"Number theory"
] |
69,661,810 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adwaita%20%28design%20language%29 | Adwaita is the design language of the GNOME desktop environment. As an implementation, it exists as the default theme and icon set of the GNOME Shell and Phosh, and as widgets for applications targeting usage in GNOME. Adwaita first appeared in 2011 with the release of GNOME 3.0 as a replacement for the design principles used in Clearlooks, and with incremental modernization and refinements, continues with current version releases.
Until 2021, Adwaita's theme was included as a part of the GTK widget toolkit, but in an effort to further increase independence and divergent release schedules of GTK from that of GNOME, it has since been migrated to libadwaita, which as an overall project, serves to extend GTK's base widgets with those specifically conforming to the GNOME human interface guidelines.
Development
Prior to version 3.0, the GNOME desktop environment utilized the Clearlooks theme. In October 2008, designers and developers met at the GNOME User Experience Hackfest in Boston. During this event, the concept of a GNOME Shell was conceived. Some very early mockups were produced that entertained the possibility of differing design from the previous incarnation of GNOME. Red Hat designers Jon McCann and Jeremy Perry authored a document, drawn from a broad consensus of collaborative effort, that aimed to set standards and direction for GNOME's design. In February 2010, GNOME designers met again, and produced several more publicly-available mockups.
Also produced from the 2010 meeting was the decision to use Cantarell as the default typeface. Cantarell had been designed by Dave Crossland during his studies in the Department of Typography and Graphic Communication at the University of Reading the previous year. It was officially added to GNOME Shell in February 2011, and the GNOME Project agreed to maintain and extend the font as needed.
On January 19, 2011, Carlos Garnacho announced his completion of a tangible GTK theme implementation of Adwaita that could then be utilized by GNOME.
The first major Linux distribution to ship with GNOME 3.0 and Adwaita as a default was Fedora Linux when it released version 15 on May 24, 2011.
Due to GTK's strong ties with GNOME, Adwaita's theme had replaced "Raleigh" as the default GTK theme in 2014; however, in preparation for the release of libadwaita, the theme was removed from GTK in favor of a divergent, simpler one on January 14, 2021. This clear demarcation allowed for both GNOME, with its own design needs, and GTK, with its need for a simple theme that could be extended by downstream projects, to simultaneously prosper. Libadwaita first shipped with the release of GNOME 42.
Design language
Adwaita is characterized by its clean, modern aesthetic and focus on usability. Adwaita's design principles are rooted in simplicity, consistency, and accessibility.
Libadwaita
The libadwaita library was created to further develop Adwaita as a more closely-adherent component of the GNOME Human Interface Guidelines. Libadwaita is a library augmenting the GTK widget toolkit in a manner conformant with the GNOME Human Interface Guidelines. It lets applications change their layout based on the available screen space, integrates the Adwaita stylesheet, allows runtime recoloring with named colors and adds APIs to support the cross-desktop dark style preference.
Responsive design and Linux smartphones
Libadwaita offers tools for creating applications with responsive design, allowing applications to adapt their layouts based on the available screen space, which aids in the development of smartphone-compatible GNOME applications.
Libhandy
Libhandy is a library sponsored by Purism, which was the predecessor of Libadwaita. The libhandy project was used as the basis for libadwaita.
GNOME Human Interface Guidelines
The GNOME Human Interface Guidelines (HIG) serve as a comprehensive guide to designing applications for the GNOME desktop environment. It helps with creation of user interfaces that align with GNOME's design philosophy.
Elements
Color
Adwaita's color palette is used in design of application icons and in illustrations. It consists of several color shade families that are not named beyond their number designations. Those lacking saturation are known as "light" and "dark". This naming convention extends into the applied concept of user interface styles, where users can choose a base style for on-screen widget components that creates a light or dark overall look and feel.
|}
Typography
Adwaita uses the contemporary humanist sans-serif Cantarell typeface that was designed by Dave Crossland. Corresponding with the 3.28 version release of GNOME in 2018, Cantarell was expanded to include light and extra bold weights.
The Cantarell family does not contain a monospaced font, and Adwaita does not specify an alternative. Oftentimes, where a monospaced font is beneficial, GNOME calls for simply using a monospaced style that is chosen by the operating system shipping GNOME.
Iconography
Adwaita defines two separate style classes of icons that are meant to differentiate between concepts used for applications and user interfaces. Whereas applications use full-color in their primary icons, "symbolic" icons, monochromatic by design, are meant for user interfaces.
App icons
Each app targeted for GNOME should have a primary icon. The GNOME Human Interface Guidelines prescribe that an app's icon should correspond to a simple, recognizable metaphor. They are not meant to be flat, but rather simplistic, and can contain some depth. However, shadows are to be avoided.
Symbolic icons
In user interfaces, even simpler, monochromatic icons that work well when viewed at small sizes are used. If color is needed, it is expected that they should be programmatically re-colored.
Implementations
The GNOME Shell was the primary vehicle for the original development of Adwaita's theme and icons. It remains a major implementation. Similarly, Phosh, Purism's mobile shell, serves in the same role.
See also
GNOME
GNOME Project
GNOME Core Applications
References
External links
GNOME Human Interface Guidelines
Cantarell typeface official site
Design language
GNOME | Adwaita (design language) | [
"Engineering"
] | 1,272 | [
"Design",
"Design languages"
] |
69,662,091 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heterogenite | Heterogenite is a natural tri-valent cobalt oxyhydroxide mineral. It is the most abundant oxidised cobalt mineral in the Katanga Copperbelt, a region in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. About 70% of known heterogenite is located in the DRC.
The name heterogenite came from Greek, "of another kind", as the mineral differs in composition from similar minerals. Its formation is likely related to the weathering of carrollite (CuCo2S4). In nature it is found coexisting with other minerals like smaltite, pharmacosiderite, calcite, linnaeite, sphaerocobaltite, malachite and cuprite.
Composition
Heterogenite has an average grade of 64.1% cobalt, one of the highest rates among cobalt-containing minerals.
Similar to most oxyhydroxides, heterogenite acts as a chemical 'sponge', trapping many trace elements such as Ni, Zn, V, As, Mo, and Pb. Amongst these trace elements is also uranium, whose concentration in the mineral can be as high as a few percent.
Heterogenite contains cobalt in both Co2+ and Co3+ oxidation states.
Occurrence
Heterogenite is formed by the oxidation of cobalt-sulfides and accumulated as residual deposits during a Pliocene weathering event. Many studies highlight that heterogenite was formed in oxidizing conditions under the surface. In several locations, primary sulfides have been oxidised due to surface weathering down to about 100 meters below the surface, which resulted in significant cobalt enrichment and transformation to oxidic ore minerals, such as heterogenite.
Treatment
The preferred concentration technique for treating heterogenite is surface sulfidation followed by flotation. Sulfidation typically requires sodium sulfide (Na2S), ammonium sulfide (NH4)2S), or sodium sulfydrate (NaSH) in order to make heterogenite suitable for collection with sulfydryl-type collectors.
References
Natural materials
Cobalt minerals
Mining in the Democratic Republic of the Congo
Oxide minerals | Heterogenite | [
"Physics"
] | 454 | [
"Natural materials",
"Materials",
"Matter"
] |
69,662,099 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acquired%20homosexuality | Acquired homosexuality is the idea that homosexuality can be spread, either through sexual seduction or recruitment by homosexuals, or through exposure to media depicting homosexuality. According to this belief, any child or young person could become homosexual if exposed to it; conversely, through conversion therapy, a homosexual person could be made straight.
Scientific evidence
Although there is not yet complete understanding of the causes of sexual orientation, the evidence supporting biological causes is much stronger than that supporting social factors, and there is little or no evidence supporting the theory that homosexuality can be acquired through sexual contact with homosexual adults. In contrast, there is evidence that homosexual attractions precede behavior, usually by a few years, in most cases. Bailey et al. state, "a belief in the recruitment hypothesis has often been associated with strongly negative attitudes toward homosexual people", and those who make this argument generally do not explain an empirical basis for this belief.
History
In her book Epistemology of the Closet, Eve Kosofsky Sedgwick distinguishes between the minoritizing and universalizing view of sexual orientation; according to the former view, homosexuality is a property of a relatively stable minority, while according to latter view, anyone can potentially engage in homosexuality. The original view was a universalizing one, whereas the ideas about homosexuality being a fixed sexual preference developed in the second half of the nineteenth century, proposed independently by gay activist Karl Heinrich Ulrichs, French psychiatrist Claude-François Michéa, and German physician Johann Ludwig Casper. In the early twentieth century, German sexual science showed that many adolescent boys practiced homosexual behaviors (such as kisses, hugs, caresses, and mutual masturbation) for a few years; healthy development was considered to consist of abandoning them when they were older. It was believed that the incidence of adolescent homosexual behavior had increased after World War I, one of the most popular explanations being that adult homosexual men (either in person or via gay-oriented publications) had caused the increase. This theory was popular among the general public, but also among psychologists and psychiatrists who treated youth.
Based on the theories of Karl Bonhoeffer and Emil Kraepelin, the Nazis believed that homosexuals seduced young men and infected them with homosexuality, permanently changing the sexual orientation and preventing the youth from becoming fathers. Rhetoric described homosexuality as a contagious disease, but not in the medical sense. Rather, homosexuality was a disease of the (national body), a metaphor for the desired national or racial community (). According to Nazi ideology, individuals' lives were to be subordinated to the like cells in the human body. Homosexuality was seen as a virus or cancer in the because it was seen as a threat to the German nation. The SS newspaper Das Schwarze Korps argued that forty thousand homosexuals were capable of "poisoning" two million men if left to roam free.
Consequences
Belief that homosexuality was acquired through sexual contact was one of the ideas fueling the persecution of homosexuals in Nazi Germany. Because of the all-male organizations for boys and young men, such as the Hitler Youth, SA, and SS, the Nazis were afraid that homosexuality would spread rapidly in the absence of a harsh crackdown. The murders of the Night of Long Knives were justified by claims of crushing alleged homosexual cliques in the SA. Adolf Hitler stated afterwards that "every mother should be able to send her son to the SA, Party, or Hitler Youth without fear that he would be ethically or morally corrupted there".
A 2018 study in the United States found that exposing participants to scientific information about the causes of homosexuality did not change support for LGBT rights.
Age of consent laws
Belief that it is possible to become homosexual through sexual contact with a person of the same sex has been cited in order to justify setting the age of consent higher for homosexual acts than heterosexual ones. This was the case in Belgium, the United Kingdom, and Germany both in the Weimar era and in West Germany.
In the 2003 European Court of Human Rights case S. L. v. Austria, the court ruled that "modern science had shown that sexual orientation was already established at the beginning of puberty", therefore discrediting the recruitment argument. The court, therefore, found that the different age of consent for male homosexual relationships was discriminatory and violated the applicant's human rights.
Censorship
The belief that homosexuality can be acquired by reading about it in media has been cited in justification for censorship of LGBT-focused media in the Weimar Republic in the United Kingdom with the Section 28 law intended to prevent young people from learning about homosexuality, and in 21st century Hungary (the Hungarian anti-LGBT law) and Russia (the Russian gay propaganda law).
Employment discrimination
Belief that homosexuality can be acquired has been cited to promote direct occupational bans for known homosexuals, e.g. in education, as well as rejection of anti-discrimination laws covering sexual orientation. In 1977, anti-gay activist Anita Bryant claimed during the Save Our Children campaign, "Homosexuals cannot reproduce, so they must recruit."
Public opinion
In the Weimar Republic, there was a widespread belief among Germans that homosexuality was not inborn but instead acquired. In Russia, a 2012 survey found that 61 percent of people believe homosexuality is acquired, while 25 percent believe it is innate.
See also
Rapid onset gender dysphoria controversy
Situational homosexuality
References
Works cited
Homosexuality
Adolescent sexuality
Homophobia
LGBTQ-related conspiracy theories
Male prostitution
Moral panic
Pederasty
Pseudoscience
Psychological theories
Psychology controversies
Seduction
Sexology
Sexual misconduct allegations
Sexual identity models
Sexual orientation and science
Sexual orientation change efforts
Sexuality and age | Acquired homosexuality | [
"Biology"
] | 1,125 | [
"Behavioural sciences",
"Behavior",
"Sexology"
] |
69,662,589 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oberheim%20DSX | The Oberheim DSX is a 9-track digital sequencer equipped with the Oberheim Serial Buss for connecting with the company's OB-Xa or OB-8 synthesizers and DMX drum machine. Connected and used together, Oberheim marketed these products as "The System". In addition to the Oberheim Serial Buss, the DSX has an 8-channel CV/Gate interface for sequencing traditional analog synthesizers.
Features
The DSX is capable of storing and sequencing over 6,000 events, over 10 songs of 10 patterns each. The DSX is capable of driving up to 16 voices concurrently. Sequences are stored in internal memory after power-off using static RAM which remains powered up from an internal NiCad battery.
The DSX equipped with the Oberheim Serial Buss, a pre-MIDI proprietary parallel bus designed to directly interface the DSX with Oberheim's OB-Xa or OB-8 synthesizers along with their DMX drum machine. Connection was via a heavy 1:1 cable, which plugged from the host DSX to the target synthesizer using a rear DB-37 connector. The combination of the DSX, DMX and either OB-Xa or OB-8 were marketed by Oberheim as "The System".
Notable users
Michael Beinhorn
Trevor Horn
Geddy Lee
Mike Oldfield
Steve Roach
Sting
References
Music sequencers
Oberheim synthesizers | Oberheim DSX | [
"Engineering"
] | 290 | [
"Music sequencers",
"Automation"
] |
69,663,693 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George%20M.%20Kober%20Medal%20and%20Lectureship | The George M. Kober Medal and Lectureship are two different awards by the Association of American Physicians (AAP) in honor of one of its early presidents, George M. Kober. The George M. Kober Lectureship, is an honor given to an AAP member "for outstanding research contributions which have extraordinary impact on patients"; beginning in 1925, the Lectureship has been awarded every three years. The George M. Kober Medal, started in 1927, has, beginning in 1929, been awarded annually (except for 1944 and 1946) to an AAP member "whose lifetime efforts have had an enormous impact ..."
Prize winners
George M. Kober Lectureship
1925: John J. Abel, Baltimore
1928: Simon Flexner, New York
1931: Frederick George Novy, Ann Arbor
1934: Walter B. Cannon, Boston
1937: Ludvig Hektoen, Chicago
1940: William George MacCallum, Baltimore
1943: Eugene L. Opie, New York
1946: Peyton Rous, New York
1949: Homer F. Swift, New York
1952: Arthur L. Bloomfield, San Francisco
1955: James Howard Means, Boston
1958: Homer W. Smith, New York
1961: Rene J. Dubos, New York
1964: Frank L. Horsfall, Jr., New York
1967: Francis D. Lukens, Pittsburgh
1970: Robert A. Good, Minneapolis
1973: Lewis Thomas, New York
1977: Arno G. Motulsky, Seattle
1980: Grant W. Liddle, Nashville
1982: Bengt Samuelsson, Stockholm
1985: Oscar D. Ratnoff, Cleveland
1988: Anthony S. Fauci, Bethesda
1991: Philip W. Majerus, St. Louis
1994: Bert Vogelstein, Baltimore
1997: Mark Keating, Salt Lake City
2000: Francis Collins, Bethesda
2003: Stanley Korsmeyer, Boston
2006: Robert Lefkowitz, Durham
2009: Michael J. Welsh, Iowa City
2012: Barry S. Coller, New York
2015: P. Frederick Sparling, Chapel Hill
2018: Helen H. Hobbs, Dallas
2021: Jean Bennett, Pennsylvania
George M. Kober Medal
1927: Victor C. Vaughan and William H. Welch
1929: George R. Minot
1930: James B. Herrick
1931: Henry Sewall
1932: Elliott P. Joslin
1933: Alfred N. Richards
1934: John Jacob Abel
1935: Frank B. Mallory
1936: Edward R. Baldwin
1937: William H. Park
1938: Rufus Cole
1939: George H. Whipple
1940: Frederick F. Russell
1941: William de B. MacNider
1942: Donald D. Van Slyke
1943: Ernest W. Goodpasture
1944: No award
1945: Oswald T. Avery
1946: No award
1947: Eugene Floyd DuBois
1948: Warfield T. Longcope
1949: Alphonse R. Dochez
1950: Edwards A. Park
1951: James L. Gamble
1952: Edward C. Kendall
1953: Peyton Rous
1954: Herbert S. Gasser
1955: William C. Stadie
1956: Stanley Cobb
1957: Richard E. Shope
1958: Arnold R. Rich
1959: Robert F. Loeb
1960: David Marine
1961: Oswald Hope Robertson (1886–1966)
1962: William Bosworth Castle
1963: John R. Paul
1964: J. Howard Means
1965: Joseph T. Wearn
1966: Joseph C. Aub
1967: Isaac Starr
1968: Tinsley R. Harrison
1969: Dana W. Atchley
1970: Dickinson W. Richards
1971: W. Barry Wood, Jr.
1972: Cecil J. Watson
1973: Paul B. Beeson
1974: Maxwell M. Wintrobe
1975: Walsh McDermott
1976: George W. Thorn
1977: Robert H. Williams
1978: Maxwell Finland
1979: Franz J. Ingelfinger
1980: Eugene A. Stead
1981: A. McGehee Harvey
1982: James A. Shannon
1983: Lewis Thomas
1984: Robert W. Berliner
1985: Donald W. Seldin
1986: Lloyd H. Smith, Jr.
1987: Helen B. Taussig
1988: Oscar D. Ratnoff
1989: Maclyn McCarty
1990: Victor A. McKusick
1991: James B. Wyngaarden
1992: E. Donnall Thomas
1993: Arnold S. Relman
1994: David M. Kipnis
1995: Alexander Leaf
1996: Robert Petersdorf
1997: Helen Ranney
1998: Eugene Braunwald
1999: Jean Wilson
2000: J. Claude Bennett
2001: Kurt J. Isselbacher
2002: Michael Stuart Brown, Joseph L. Goldstein
2003: Leon E. Rosenberg
2004: K. Frank Austen
2005: William N. Kelley
2006: David G. Nathan
2007: Anthony Fauci
2008: Samuel O. Thier
2009: Francois Abboud
2010: Stuart Kornfeld
2011: Robert Lefkowitz
2012: Arthur H. Rubenstein
2013: John T. Potts, Jr.
2014: Elizabeth G. Nabel
2015: Francis Collins
2016: Peter Agre
2017: Laurie H. Glimcher
2018: Stuart H. Orkin
2019: C. Ronald Kahn
2020: Michael J. Welsh
2021: Jeffrey I. Gordon
2022: Linda Fried
References
Awards established in 1927
American science and technology awards
Medicine awards
1925 establishments in the United States
Medical lecture series
Recurring events established in 1925
Triennial events | George M. Kober Medal and Lectureship | [
"Technology"
] | 1,097 | [
"Science and technology awards",
"Medicine awards"
] |
69,664,162 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empirical%20dynamic%20modeling | Empirical dynamic modeling (EDM) is a framework for analysis and prediction of nonlinear dynamical systems. Applications include population dynamics, ecosystem service, medicine, neuroscience, dynamical systems, geophysics, and human-computer interaction. EDM was originally developed by Robert May and George Sugihara. It can be considered a methodology for data modeling, predictive analytics, dynamical system analysis, machine learning and time series analysis.
Description
Mathematical models have tremendous power to describe observations of real-world systems. They are routinely used to test hypothesis, explain mechanisms and predict future outcomes. However, real-world systems are often nonlinear and multidimensional, in some instances rendering explicit equation-based modeling problematic. Empirical models, which infer patterns and associations from the data instead of using hypothesized equations, represent a natural and flexible framework for modeling complex dynamics.
Donald DeAngelis and Simeon Yurek illustrated that canonical statistical models are ill-posed when applied to nonlinear dynamical systems. A hallmark of nonlinear dynamics is state-dependence: system states are related to previous states governing transition from one state to another. EDM operates in this space, the multidimensional state-space of system dynamics rather than on one-dimensional observational time series. EDM does not presume relationships among states, for example, a functional dependence, but projects future states from localised, neighboring states. EDM is thus a state-space, nearest-neighbors paradigm where system dynamics are inferred from states derived from observational time series. This provides a model-free representation of the system naturally encompassing nonlinear dynamics.
A cornerstone of EDM is recognition that time series observed from a dynamical system can be transformed into higher-dimensional state-spaces by time-delay embedding with Takens's theorem. The state-space models are evaluated based on in-sample fidelity to observations, conventionally with Pearson correlation between predictions and observations.
Methods
EDM is continuing to evolve. As of 2022, the main algorithms are Simplex projection, Sequential locally weighted global linear maps (S-Map) projection, Multivariate embedding in Simplex or S-Map,
Convergent cross mapping (CCM),
and Multiview Embeding, described below.
Nearest neighbors are found according to:
Simplex
Simplex projection is a nearest neighbor projection. It locates the nearest neighbors to the location in the state-space from which a prediction is desired. To minimize the number of free parameters is typically set to defining an dimensional simplex in the state-space. The prediction is computed as the average of the weighted phase-space simplex projected points ahead. Each neighbor is weighted proportional to their distance to the projection origin vector in the state-space.
Find nearest neighbor:
Define the distance scale:
Compute weights: For{} :
Average of state-space simplex:
S-Map
S-Map extends the state-space prediction in Simplex from an average of the nearest neighbors to a linear regression fit to all neighbors, but localised with an exponential decay kernel. The exponential localisation function is , where is the neighbor distance and the mean distance. In this way, depending on the value of , neighbors close to the prediction origin point have a higher weight than those further from it, such that a local linear approximation to the nonlinear system is reasonable. This localisation ability allows one to identify an optimal local scale, in-effect quantifying the degree of state dependence, and hence nonlinearity of the system.
Another feature of S-Map is that for a properly fit model, the regression coefficients between variables have been shown to approximate the gradient (directional derivative) of variables along the manifold. These Jacobians represent the time-varying interaction strengths between system variables.
Find nearest neighbor:
Sum of distances:
Compute weights: For{} :
Reweighting matrix:
Design matrix:
Weighted design matrix:
Response vector at :
Weighted response vector:
Least squares solution (SVD):
Local linear model is prediction:
Multivariate Embedding
Multivariate Embedding recognizes that time-delay embeddings are not the only valid state-space construction. In Simplex and S-Map one can generate a state-space from observational vectors, or time-delay embeddings of a single observational time series, or both.
Convergent Cross Mapping
Convergent cross mapping (CCM) leverages a corollary to the Generalized Takens Theorem that it should be possible to cross predict or cross map between variables observed from the same system. Suppose that in some dynamical system involving variables and , causes . Since and belong to the same dynamical system, their reconstructions (via embeddings) , and , also map to the same system.
The causal variable leaves a signature on the affected variable , and consequently, the reconstructed states based on can be used to cross predict values of . CCM leverages this property to infer causality by predicting using the library of points (or vice versa for the other direction of causality), while assessing improvements in cross map predictability as larger and larger random samplings of are used. If the prediction skill of increases and saturates as the entire is used, this provides evidence that is casually influencing .
Multiview Embedding
Multiview Embedding is a Dimensionality reduction technique where a large number of state-space time series vectors are combitorially assessed towards maximal model predictability.
Extensions
Extensions to EDM techniques include:
Generalized Theorems for Nonlinear State Space Reconstruction
Extended Convergent Cross Mapping
Dynamic stability
S-Map regularization
Visual analytics with EDM
Convergent Cross Sorting
Expert system with EDM hybrid
Sliding windows based on the extended convergent cross-mapping
Empirical Mode Modeling
Variable step sizes with bundle embedding
Multiview distance regularised S-map
See also
System dynamics
Complex dynamics
Nonlinear dimensionality reduction
References
Further reading
External links
Animations
Online books or lecture notes
EDM Introduction. Introduction with video, examples and references.
Geometrical theory of dynamical systems. Nils Berglund's lecture notes for a course at ETH at the advanced undergraduate level.
Arxiv preprint server has daily submissions of (non-refereed) manuscripts in dynamical systems.
Research groups
Sugihara Lab, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California San Diego.
Nonlinear systems
Data modeling
Predictive analytics
Machine learning
Nonlinear time series analysis | Empirical dynamic modeling | [
"Mathematics",
"Engineering"
] | 1,299 | [
"Machine learning",
"Data modeling",
"Nonlinear systems",
"Data engineering",
"Artificial intelligence engineering",
"Dynamical systems"
] |
69,664,295 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Languages%20of%20science | Languages of science are vehicular languages used by one or several scientific communities for international communication. According to science historian Michael Gordin, scientific languages are "either specific forms of a given language that are used in conducting science, or they are the set of distinct languages in which science is done." These two terms are different as one describes a distinct prose in a given language, while the other describes which languages are used in mainstream science.
Until the 19th century, classical languages such as Latin, Classical Arabic, Sanskrit, and Classical Chinese were commonly used across Afro-Eurasia for the purpose of international scientific communication. A combination of structural factors, the emergence of nation-states in Europe, the Industrial Revolution and the expansion of colonization entailed the global use of three European national languages: French, German and English. Yet new languages of science such as Russian or Italian had started to emerge by the end the 19th century, to the point that international scientific organizations started to promote the use of constructed languages like Esperanto as a non-national global standard.
After the First World War, English gradually outpaced French and German and became the leading language of science, but not the only international standard. Research in the Soviet Union rapidly expanded in the years following the Second World War, and access to Russian journals became a major policy issue in the United States, prompting the early development of machine translation. In the last decades of the 20th century, an increasing number of scientific publications used primarily English, in part due to the preeminence of English-speaking scientific infrastructures, indexes and metrics like the Science Citation Index. Local languages still remain largely relevant scientificly in major countries and world regions such as China, Latin America, and Indonesia. Disciplines and fields of study with a significant degree of public engagement such as social sciences, environmental studies, and medicine also have a maintained relevance of local languages.
The development of open science has revived the debate over linguistic diversity in science, as social and local impact has become an important objective of open science infrastructures and platforms. In 2019, 120 international research organizations co-signed the Helsinki Initiative on Multilingualism in Scholarly Communication and called for supporting multilingualism and the development of "infrastructure of scholarly communication in national languages". The 2021 Unesco Recommendation for Open Science includes "linguistic diversity" as one of the core features of open science, as it aims to "make multilingual scientific knowledge openly available, accessible and reusable for everyone." In 2022, the Council of the European Union officially supported "initiatives to promote multilingualism" in science, such as the Helsinki declaration.
History
From classical languages to vernaculars
Until the 19th century, classical languages played an instrumental role in the diffusion of languages in Europe, Asia and North Africa.
In Europe, starting in the 12th century, Latin was the primary language of religion, law and administration until the Early Modern period. It became a language of science "through its encounter with Arabic"; during the Renaissance of the 12th century, a large corpus of Arabian scholarly texts was translated into Latin, in order for it to be available in the emerging network of European universities and centers of knowledge. In this process, the Latin language changed, and acquired the specific features of scholastic Latin, through numerous lexical and even syntactic borrowings from Greek and Arabic. The use of scientific Latin persisted long after the replacement of Latin by vernacular languages in most European administrations: "Latin's status as a language of science rested on the contrast it made with the use of the vernacular in other contexts" and created "a European community of learning" entirely distinct from the local communities where the scholars lived. Latin never was the sole language of science and education. Beyond local publications, vernaculars very early attained a status of international scientific languages, that could be expected to be understood and translated across Europe. In the mid-16th century, a significant amount of printed output in France was in Italian.
In the Indian and South Asian region, Sanskrit was a leading vehicular language for science. Sanskrit has been remodeled even more radically than Latin for the purpose of scientific communication as it shifted "toward ever more complex noun forms to encompass the kinds of abstractions demanded by scientific and mathematical thinking." Classical Chinese held a similarly prestigious position in East Asia, being largely adopted by scientific and Buddhist communities beyond the Chinese Empire, notably in Japan and Korea.
Classical languages declined throughout Eurasia during the 2nd millennium. Sanskrit was increasingly marginalized after the 13th century. Until the end of the 17th century, there was no clear trend of displacement of Latin in Europe by vernacular languages: while in the 16th century, medical books started to use French as well; this trend was reversed after 1597 and most medical literature in France remained only accessible in Latin until the 1680s. In 1670, as many books were printed in Latin as in German in the German states; in 1787, they accounted for no more 10%. At this point, the decline became irreversible: since less and less European scholars were conversant with Latin, publications dwindled and there was less incentive to maintain linguistic training in Latin.
The emergence of scientific journals was both a symptom and cause of the declining use of a classical language. The first two modern scientific journals were published simultaneously in 1665: the Journal des Sçavans in France and the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society in England. They both used the local vernacular, which "made perfect historical sense" as both the Kingdom of France and the Kingdom of England were engaged in an active policy of linguistic promotion of the language standard.
French, English, German and the quest for an auxiliary language (1800–1920)
The gradual disuse of Latin opened an uneasy transition period as more and more works were only accessible in local languages. Many national European languages held the potential to become a language of science within a specific research field: some scholars "took measures to learn Swedish so they could follow the work of [the Swedish chemist] Bergman and his compatriots."
Language preferences and use across scientific communities were gradually consolidated into a triumvirate or triad of dominant languages of science: French, English and German. While each language would be expected to be understood for the purpose of international scientific communication, they also followed "different functional distributions evident in various scientific fields". French had been almost acknowledged as the international standard of European science in the late 18th century, and remained "essential" throughout the 19th century. German became a major scientific language within the 19th century as it "covered portions of the physical sciences, particularly physics and chemistry, plus mathematics and medicine." English was largely used by researchers and engineers, due to the seminal contribution of English technology to the Industrial Revolution.
In the years preceding the First World War, linguistic diversity of scientific publications increased significantly. The emergence of modern nationalities and early decolonization movements created new incentives to publish scientific knowledge in one's national language. Russian was one of the most successful developments of a new language of science. In the 1860s and 1870s, Russian researchers in chemistry and other physical sciences ceased to publish in German in favor of local periodicals, following a major work of adaptation and creation of names for scientific concepts or elements (such as chemical compounds). A controversy over the meaning of the periodic table of Dmitri Mendeleev contributed to the acknowledgement of original publications in Russian in the global scientific debate: the original version was deemed more authoritative than its first "imperfect" translation in German.
Linguistic diversity became framed as a structural problem that ultimately limited the spread of scientific knowledge. In 1924, the linguist Roland Grubb Kent underlined that scientific communication could be significantly disrupted in the near future by the use of as many as "twenty" languages of science:
The definition of an auxiliary language for science became a major issue discussed in the emerging international scientific institutions. On January 17, 1901, the newly established International Association of Academies created a Delegation for the Adoption of an International Auxiliary Language "with support from 310 member organizations". The Delegation was tasked to find an auxiliary language that could be used for "scientific and philosophical exchanges" and could not be any "national language". In the context of increased nationalistic tensions any of the dominant languages of science would have appeared as a non-neutral choice. The Delegation had consequently a limited set of options that included the unlikely revival of a classical language like Latin or a new constructed language such as Volapük, Idiom Neutral or Esperanto.
Throughout the first part of the 20th century, Esperanto was seriously considered as a potential international language of science. As late as 1954, UNESCO passed a recommendation to promote the use of Esperanto for scientific communication. In contrast with Idiom Neutral, or the simplified version of Latin, Interlingua, Esperanto was not primarily conceived as a scientific language. Yet, by the early 1900s, it was by far the most successful constructed language, with a large international community as well as numerous dedicated publications. Starting in 1904, the Internacia Science Revuo aimed to adapt Esperanto to the specific needs of scientific communication. The development of a specialized technical vocabulary was a challenging task, as the extensive system of derivation of Esperanto made it complicated to import directly words commonly used in German, French or English scientific publications. In 1907, the Delegation for the Adoption of an International Auxiliary Language seemed close to retaining Esperanto as its preferred language. Significant criticism was nevertheless still addressed at a few remaining complexities of the language as well as its lack of scientific purpose and technical vocabulary. Unexpectedly, the Delegation supported a new variant of the Esperanto, Ido, which was submitted very late in the process by an unknown contributor. While it was framed as a compromise between the esperantist and the anti-esperantist factions, this decision ultimately disappointed all the proponents of an international medium for scientific communication and durably harmed the adoption of constructed languages in academic circles.
A transition period: English, new competitors and machine translation (1920–1965)
The two world wars had a lasting impact on scientific languages. A combination of political, economic and social factors durably weakened the triumvirate of the three main languages of science in 19th century and paved the way for the domination in English in the latter part of the 20th century. There is still ongoing debate as to whether the world wars accelerated a structural tendency toward English predominance or merely created the conditions for it. For Ulrich Ammon, "even without the World Wars the English language community would have gained economic and, consequently, scientific superiority and, thus, preference of its language for international scientific communication." In contrast, Michael Gordin underlines that until the 1960s the privileged status of English was far from settled.
The First World War had an immediate impact on the global use of German in academic settings. For nearly a decade after the First World War, German researchers were boycotted by international scientific events. The German scientific communities had been compromised by nationalistic propaganda in favor of German science during the war, as well as by the exploitation of scientific research for war crimes. German was no longer acknowledged as a global scientific language. While the boycott did not last, its effects were long-term. In 1919 the International Research Council was created to replace the International Association of Academies and used only French and English as working languages. In 1932, almost all (98.5%) of international scientific conferences admitted contributions in French, 83.5% in English and only 60% in German. In parallel, the focus of German periodicals and conferences had become increasingly local, and less and less frequently included research from non-Germanic countries. German never recovered its privileged status as a leading language of science in the United States, and due to the lack of alternatives beyond French, American education became "increasingly monoglot" and isolationist. Not affected by international boycott, the use of French reached "a plateau between the 1920s and 1940s": while it did not decline, neither did it profit from the marginalization of German, but instead decreased relative to the expansion of English.
The rise of totalitarianism in the 1930s reinforced the status of English as the leading scientific language. In absolute terms German publications retained some relevance, but German scientific research was structurally weakened by anti-Semitic and political purges, rejection of international collaborations and emigration. The German language was not boycotted again in international scientific conferences after the Second World War, as its use had quickly become marginal, even in Germany itself: even after the end of the occupied zone, English in the West and Russian in the East became major vehicular languages for higher education.
In the two decades following the Second World War, English had become the leading language of science. However, a large share of global research continued to be published in other languages, and language diversity even seemed to increase until the 1960s. Russian publications in numerous fields, especially chemistry and astronomy, had grown rapidly after the war: "in 1948, more than 33% of all technical data published in a foreign language now appeared in Russian." In 1962, Christopher Wharton Hanson still raised doubts about the future of English as the leading language in science, with Russian and Japanese rising as major languages of science and the new decolonized states seemingly poised to favor local languages:
The expansion of Russian scientific publication became a source of recurring tensions in the United States during the decade of the cold war. Very few American researchers were able to read Russian which contrasted with a still widespread familiarity in the two oldest languages of science, French and German: "In a 1958 survey, 49% of American scientific and technical personnel claimed they could read at least one foreign language, yet only 1.2% could handle Russian." Science administrators and funders had recurring fears that they were not able to track efficiently the progress of academic research in the URSS. This ongoing anxiety became an overt crisis after the successful launch of Sputnik in 1958, as the decentralized American research system seemed for a time outpaced by the efficiency of Soviet planning.
Although the Sputnik crisis did not last long, it had far reaching consequences for linguistic practices in science: in particular, the development of machine translation. Research in this area emerged very precociously: automated translation appeared as a natural extension of the initial purpose of the first computers: code-breaking. Despite the initial reluctance of leading figures in computing like Norbert Wiener, several well-connected science administrators in the US, like Warren Weaver and Léon Dostert, set up a series of major conferences and experiments in the nascent field, out of a concern that "translation was vital to national security". On January 7, 1954, Dostert coordinated the Georgetown–IBM experiment, which aimed to demonstrate that the technique was sufficiently mature despite the significant shortcomings of the computing infrastructure of the time: some sentences from Russian scientific articles were automatically translated using a dictionary of 250 words and six basic syntax rules. It was not made clear at the time that the sentences had been purposely selected for their fitness for automated translation. At most Dostert argued that "scientific Russian" was easier to translate since it was more formulaic and less grammatically diverse than day-to-day Russian.
Machine translation became a major priority in Federal research funding in 1956 due to an emerging arms race with Soviet researchers. While the Georgetown–IBM experiment did not have a large impact at first in the United States, it was immediately noticed in the USSR. The first articles in the field appeared in 1955; and only one year later, a major conference was held attracting 340 representatives. In 1956, Léon Dostert secured a large funding with the support of the CIA and had enough resources to overcome the technical limitations of existing computing infrastructure: in 1957, automated translation from Russian to English could run on a vastly expanded dictionary of 24,000 words and rely on hundreds of predefined syntax rules. At this scale, automated translation remained costly as it relied on numerous computer operators using thousands of punch cards. Yet the quality of the output did not progress significantly: in 1964, the automated translation of the few sentences submitted during the Georgetown–IBM experiment yielded a much less readable output, as it was no longer possible to tweak the rules on a predefined corpus.
English as a global standard (1965 onwards)
During the 1960s and the 1970s, English was no longer a majority language of science but a scientific lingua franca. The transformation had more wide-ranging consequences than the substitution or two or three main language of science by one language: it marked "the transition from a triumvirate that valued, at least in a limited way, the expression of identity within science, to an overwhelming emphasis on communication and thus a single vehicular language." Ulrich Ammon characterizes English as an "asymmetrical lingua franca", as it is "the native tongue and the national language of the most influential segment of the global scientific community, but a foreign language for the rest of the world." This paradigm is usually connected with the globalization of American and English-speaking culture in the later part of the 20th century.
No specific event accounts for the entire shift although numerous transformations highlight an accelerated conversion to English science in the later part of the 1960s. On June 11, 1965, President Lyndon B. Johnson acted that the English language has become a lingua franca that opened "doors to scientific and technical knowledge" and whose promotion should be a "major policy" of the United States. In 1969, the most prestigious abstract collection in chemistry of the early 20th century, the German Chemisches Zentralblatt disappeared: this polyglot compilation in 36 languages could no longer compete with the English-focused Chemical abstract as more than 65% of publications in the field were in English. By 1982, the Compte-rendu of the Académie des Sciences admitted that "English is by now the international standard language of science and it could very nearly become its unique language" and is already the main "mean of communication" in European countries with a long-standing tradition of publication in the local language like Germany and Italy. In the European Union, the Bologna Declaration of 1999 "obliged universities throughout Europe and beyond to align their systems with that of the United Kingdom" and created strong incentives to publish academic results in English. From 1999 to 2014, the number of English-speaking course in European universities increased ten-fold.
Machine translation, which has been booming since 1954 thanks to Soviet-American competition, was immediately affected by the new paradigm. In 1964, the National Science Foundation underlined that "there is no emergency in the field of translation" and that translators were easily up to the task of making foreign research accessible. Funding stopped simultaneously in the United States and the Soviet Union and Machine Translation did not recover from this research "winter" until the 1980s and, by then, the translation of scientific publications was no longer the main incentive. Research in this area was still pursued in a few countries where bilingualism was an important political and cultural issue: in Canada, a METEO system was successfully set up to "translate weather forecasts from English into French".
English content became gradually prevalent in originally non-English journals, first as an additional language and then as the default language. In 1998, seven leading European journals published in their local languages (Acta Physica Hungarica, Anales de Física, Il Nuovo Cimento, Journal de Physique, Portugaliae Physica and Zeitschrift für Physik) merged and become the European Physical Journal, an international journal only accepting English submissions. The same process occurred repeatedly in less prestigious publications:
Early scientific infrastructures have been a leading factor in the conversion to a single vehicular languages. Critical developments in applied scientific computing and information retrieval system occurred in the United States after the 1960s. The Sputnik crisis has been the main incentive, as it "turned the librarians’ problem of bibliographic control into a national information crisis." and favored ambitious research plans like SCITEL (an ultimately failed proposal to create a centrally planned system of electronic publication in the early 1960s), MEDLINE (for medicine journals) or NASA/RECON (for astronomics and engineering). In contrast with the decline of Machine Translation, scientific infrastructure and database became a profitable business in the 1970s. Even before the emergence of global network like the World Wide Web, "it was estimated in 1986 that fully 85% of the information available in worldwide networks was already in English."
The predominant use of English was not limited to the architecture of networks and infrastructures but affected the content as well. The Science Citation Index created by Eugene Garfield on the ruins of the SCITEL had a massive and lasting influence on the structure of global scientific publication in the last decades of the 20th century, as its most important metrics; the Journal Impact Factor, "ultimately came to provide the metric tool needed to structure a competitive market among journals." The Science Citation Index had a better coverage of English-speaking journals which yielded them a stronger Journal Impact Factor and created incentives to publish in English: "Publishing in English placed the lowest barriers toward making one’s work "detectable" to researchers." Due to the convenience of dealing with a monolingual corpus, Eugene Garfield called for acknowledging English as the only international language for science:
Current trends
English standardization
Nearly all the scientific publications indexed on the leading commercial academic search engines are in English. In 2022, this concerns 95.86% of the 28,142,849 references indexed on the Web of Science and 84.35% of the 20,600,733 references indexed on Scopus.
The lack of coverage of non-English languages creates a feedback loop as non-English publications can be held less valuable since they are not indexed in international rankings and fare poorly in evaluation metrics. As many as 75,000 articles, book titles and book reviews from Germany were excluded from Biological abstracts from 1970 to 1996. In 2009, at least 6555 journals were published in Spanish and Portuguese on a global scale and "only a small fraction are included in the Scopus and Web of Science indices."
Criteria for inclusion in commercial databases not only favor English journals but incentivize non-English journals to give up on their local journals. They "demand that articles be in English, have abstracts in English, or at least have their references in English". In 2012, the Web of Science was explicitly committed to the anglicization (and romanization) of published knowledge:
This commitment toward English science has a significant performative effect. Commercial databases "now wield on the international stage is considerable and works very much in favor of English" as they provide a wide range of indicators of research quality. They contributed "large-scale inequality, notably between Northern and Southern countries". While leading scientific publishers had initially, "failed to grasp the significance of electronic publishing," they have successfully pivoted to a "data analytics business" by the 2010s. Actors like Elsevier or Springer are increasingly able to control "all aspects of the research lifecycle, from submission to publication and beyond" Due to this vertical integration, commercial metrics are no longer restricted to journal article metadata but can include a wide range of individual and social data extracted among scientific communities.
National databases of scientific publications shows that the use English has continued to expand in the 2000s and the 2010s at the expense of local language. A comparison of seven national database in Europe from 2011 to 2014 shows that in "all countries, there was a growth in the proportion of English publications". In France, data from the Open Science Barometer shows that the share of publication in French has shrunk from 23% in 2013 to 12-16% by 2019–2020.
For Ulrich Ammon the predominance of English has created a hierarchy and a "central-peripheral dimension" within the global scientific publication landscape, that affects negatively the reception of research published in a non-English language. The unique use of English has discriminating effects on scholar who are not sufficiently conversant in the language: in a survey organized in Germany in 1991, 30% of researchers in all disciplines gave up on publication whenever English was the only option. In this context, the emergence of new scientific powers is no longer linked with the apparition of a new language science as it used to be the case until the 1960s. China has fast become a major player in international research, ranking second behind the United States in numerous rankings and disciplines. Yet, most of this research is English-speaking and abide to the linguistic norms set up by commercial indexes.
The dominant position of English has also been strengthened by the "lexical deficit" accumulated through the past decades by alternative language of sciences: after the 1960s "new terms were being coined in English at a much faster rate than they were being created in French."
Persistence of linguistic diversity
Several languages have kept a secondary status of international language of science, either due to the extent of the local scientific production or to their continued use as a vehicular language in specific contexts. This includes generally "Chinese, French, German, Italian, Japanese, Russian, and Spanish." Local languages have remained prevalent in major scientific countries: "most scientific publications are still published in Chinese in China".
Empirical studies of the use of languages in scientific publications have long been constrained by structural bias in the most readily accessible sources: commercial databases like the Web of Science. Unprecedented access to larger corpus not covered by global index showed that multilingualism remain non-negligible, although it remains little studied: by 2022 there are "few examples of analyses at scale" of multilingualism in science. In seven European countries with a limited international reach of the local language, one third of researcher in Social Sciences and the Humanities publishes in two different languages or more: "research is international, but multilingual publishing keeps locally relevant research alive with the added potential for creating impact." Due to the discrepancy between the actual practices and their visibility, multilingualism has been described as a "hidden norm of academic publication".
Overall, the social sciences and the humanities have preserved more diverse linguistic practices: "while natural scientists of any linguistic background have largely shifted to English as their language of publication, social scientists and scholars of the humanities have not done so to the same extent." In these disciplines, the need for global communication is balanced by an implication in local culture: "the SSH are typically collaborating with, influencing and improving culture and society. To achieve this, their scholarly publishing is partly in the native languages." Yet, the specificity of the social science and the humanities has been increasingly reduced after 2000: by the 2010s, a large proportion of German and French articles in art and the humanities indexed in the Web of Science were in English. While German has been outpaced by English even in Germanic-speaking countries since the Second World War, it has also continued to be used marginally as a vehicular scientific language in specific disciplines or research fields (the Nischenfächer or "niche-disciplines"). Linguistic diversity is not specific to social sciences but this persistence may be invisibilized by the high prestige attached to international commercial databases: in the Earth sciences, "the proportion of English-language documents in the regional or national databases (KCI, RSCI, SciELO) was approximately 26%, whereas virtually all the documents (approximately 98%) in Scopus and WoS were in English."
Beyond the generic distinction between social sciences and natural sciences, there are finer-grained distribution of language practices. In 2018, a bibliometric analysis of the publications of eight European countries in social sciences and the humanities (SSH) highlighted that "patterns in the language and type of SSH publications are related not only to the norms, culture, and expectations of each SSH discipline but also to each country’s specific cultural and historic heritage." Use of English was more prevalent in Northern Europe than in Eastern Europe and publication in the local languages remain especially significant in Poland due to a large "‘local’ market of academic output". Local research policies may have a significant impact as preference for international commercial database like Scopus or the Web of Science may account for a steeper decline of publications in the local language in the Czech Republic, in comparison with Poland. Additional factors include the distribution of economic model within the journals: non-commercial publications have a much stronger "language diversity" than commercial publications.
Since the 2000s, the expansion of digital collections had contributed to a relative increase in linguistic diversity academic indexes and search engines. The Web of Science enhanced its regional coverage during the 2005-2010 period, which had the effect to "increase the number of non-English papers such as Spanish papers". In the Portuguese research communities, there have been a steep rise of Portuguese-language papers during the 2007-2018 period in commercial indexes which is both indicative of remaining "spaces of resilience and contestation of some hegemonic practices" and of a potential new paradigm of scientific publishing "steered towards plurilingual diversity". Multilingualism as a practice and competency has also increased: in 2022, 65% of early career researchers in Poland have published in two or more languages whereas only 54% of the older generations have done so.
In 2022, Bianca Kramer and Cameron Neylon have led a large scale analysis of the metadata available for 122 millions of Crossref objects indexed by a DOI. Overall, non-English publications make up for "less than 20%", although they can be under-estimated due to a lower adoption rate of DOIs or the use of local DOIs (like the Chinese National Knowledge Infrastructure). Yet, multilingualism seem to have improved through the past 20 years, with a significant growth of publication in Portuguese, Spanish and Indonesian.
Machine translation
Scientific publication has been the first major use case of machine translation with early experiments going back to 1954. Developments in this area were slowed after 1965, due to the increasing domination of English, the limitations of the computing infrastructure, and the shortcomings of the leading approach, rule-based machine translation. Rule-based methods favored by design translations between a few major languages (English, Russian, French, German...), as a "transfer module" had to be developed for "each pair of languages" which quickly led to a combinatory explosions whenever more languages were contemplated. After the 1980s, the field of Machine Translation was revived as it underwent a "full-scale paradigm shift": explicit rules were replaced by statistical and machine learning methods applied to large aligned corpus. By then, most of the demand stemmed non longer from scientific publication but from commercial translations such as technical and engineering manuals. A second paradigm shift occurred in the 2010s, with the development of deep learning methods, that can be partially trained on non-aligned corpus ("zero-shot translation"). Requiring little supervision inputs, deep learning models makes it possible to incorporate a wider diversity of languages, but also a wider diversity of linguistic contexts within one language. The results are significantly more accurate: after 2018, the automated translation of PubMed abstracts was deemed better than human translation for a few languages (like English to Portuguese). Scientific publications are a rather fitting use case for neural-network translation model since they work best "in restricted fields for which it has a lot of training data."
In 2021, there were "few in-depth studies on the efficiency of Machine Translation in social science and the humanities" as "most research in translation studies are focused on technical, commercial or law texts". Uses of machine translation are especially difficult to estimate and ascertain, as freely accessible tools like Google Translate have become ubiquitous: "There is an emerging yet rapidly increasing need for machine translation literacy among members of the scientific research and scholarly communication communities. Yet in spite of this, there are very few resources to help these community members acquire and teach this type of literacy."
In an academic setting, machine translation covers a variety of uses. Production of written translations remain constrained by a lack of accuracy and, consequently, of efficiency, as the post-editing of an imperfect translation needs to take less time than human translation. Automated translation of foreign language text in the context of literature survey or "information assimilation" is more widespread, as the quality requirements are generally lower and a global understanding of a text is sufficient. The impact of machine translation on linguistic diversity in science depends on these use:
Increased use machine translation has created concerns of "uniform multilingualism". Research in the field has largely been focused on English and a few major European languages: "While we live in a multilingual word, this is paradoxically not taken into account by machine translation". English has frequently been used as a "pivotal" language and served as a hidden intermediary state for the translation of two non-English languages. Probabilistic methods tend to favor the most expected possible translation from the training corpus and to rule out more unusual alternatives: "A common argument against the statistical methods in translation is that when the algorithm suggests the most probable translation, it eliminates alternative options and makes the language of the text so produced conform to well-documented modes of expression." While deep learning models are able to deal with a wider diversity of language construct, they can still be limited by collection bias of the original corpus: "the translation of a word can be affected by the prevailing theories or paradigms in the corpus harvested to train the AI".
In its 2022 research assessment of open science, the Council of European Union welcomed the "promising developments that have recently emerged in the area of automatic translation" and supported a more widespread use of "semi-automatic translation of scholarly publications within Europe" due to its "major potential in terms of market creation".
Open science and multilingualism
Open science infrastructures
The development of open science infrastructure or "community-controlled infrastructure" has become a major policy issue of the open science movement. In the 2010s expansion of commercial scientific infrastructure created a large acknowledgment of the fragility of open scholarly publishing and open archives. The concept of open science infrastructure emerged in 2015 with the publication of Principles for Open Scholarly Infrastructures. In November 2021, the UNESCO Recommendation acknowledged open science infrastructure as one of the four pillar of open science, along with open science knowledge, open engagement of societal actors and open dialog with other knowledge system and called for sustained investment and funding: "open science infrastructures are often the result of community-building efforts, which are crucial for their long-term sustainability and therefore should be not-for-profit and guarantee permanent and unrestricted access to all public to the largest extent possible." Examples of Open science infrastructure include indexes, publishing platforms, shared databases or computer grids.
Open infrastructures have supported linguistic diversity in science. The leading free software for scientific publishing, Open Journal Systems, is available in 50 languages and is widespread among non-commercial open access journals. A landscape study of SPARC in 2021 shows that European open science infrastructures "provide access to a range of language content of local and international significance." In 2019, leading open science infrastructure have endorsed the Helsinki Initiative on Multilingualism in Scholarly Communication and thus committed to "protect national infrastructures for publishing locally relevant research." Signatories include the DOAJ, DARIAH, LATINDEX, OpenEdition, OPERAS or SPARC Europe.
In contrast with commercial index, the Directory of Open Access Journals does not prescribe the use of English. Consequently, only half of the journals indexed are primarily published in English, which comes in stark contrast with the large prevalence of English in commercial indexes like Web of Science (> 95%). Six languages are represented by more than 500 journals: Spanish (2776 journals, or 19.3%), Portuguese (1917 journals), Indonesia (1329 journals), French (993 journals), Russian (733 journals) and Italian (529 journals). Most of the language diversity is due to non-commercial journals (or diamond open access): 25.7% of these publications accept contributions in Spanish vs. only 2.4% of APC-based journals. On the 2020-2022 period, "for English articles in DOAJ journals, 21% are in non-APC journals, but for articles in languages other than English, this percentage is a massive 86%."
Non-English open infrastructures have experimented a significant growth: in 2022, "national repositories and databases are growing everywhere (see the databases such as Latindex in Latin America, or the new repositories in Asia, China, Russia, India)". This development opens up new research opportunities for the study of multilingualism in a scientific context: it will become increasingly feasible to study " differences between locally published research in non-English speaking contexts and English-speaking international authors".
Multilingualism and social impact
Publication in open access platforms has created new incentives for publishing in a local language. In commercial indexes, non-English publications were penalized by the lack of international reception and had a significantly lower impact factor. Without a paywall, local language publication can find their own specific audience among a large non-academic public that may be less competent in English.
In the 2010s, quantitative studies have started to highlight the positive impact of local languages on the reuse of open access resources in varied national contexts such as Finland, Québec, Croatia or Mexico. A study of the Finnish platform Journal.fi shows that the audience of Finnish-speaking articles is significantly more diverse: "in case of the national language publications students (42%) are clearly the largest group, and besides researchers (25%), also private citizens (12%) and other experts (11%)". Comparatively, English-speaking publications attract mostly professional researchers. Due to the ease of access, open science platforms in a local language can also attain a more global reach. The French-Canadian journal consortium Érudit has mostly an international audience, with less than one third of the readers coming from Canada.
The development of a strong network of open science infrastructures in South America (such as Scielo or Redalyc) and the Iberian region has concurred to the resurgence of the Spanish and Portuguese language in international scientific communication: regional growth "may also be associated with the boom in open access publishing. Both Portuguese and Spanish (as well as Brazil and Spain) play important roles in open access publishing.
While multilingualism have been either neglected or even discriminated in commercial databases, it has been valued as a significant component of the social impact of open science platforms and infrastructure. In 2015, Juan Pablo Alperin introduced a systematic measure of social impact that highlighted the relevancy of scientific content for local communities : "By looking at a broad range of indicators of impact and reach, far beyond the typical measures of one article citing another, I argue, it is possible to gain a sense of the people that are using Latin American research, thereby opening the door for others to see the ways in which it has touched those individuals and communities. In this context, new indicators for linguistic diversity. Proposals include the PLOTE-index and the Linguistic Diversity Index. Yet, as of 2022, they have had "limited traction in the scholarly anglophone literature". Comprehensive indicators for the local impact of research remain largely non-existent: "many aspects of research cannot be measured quantitatively, especially its socio-cultural impact."
Policies in favor of multilingualism
A new scientific and policy debate over linguistic diversity emerged after 2015: "in recent years, policies for Responsible Research and Innovation (RRI) and Open Science call for increasing access to research, interaction between science and society and public understanding of science". It initially stemmed from a wider discussion over the evaluation of open science and the limitations of commercial metrics: in 2015, the Leiden Manifesto issued ten principles to "guide research evaluation" that included a call to "protect excellence in locally relevant research". Building up on empirical data showing the persistence of non-English research communities in Europe, Gunnar Sivertsen has in 2018 theorized the need for a balanced multilingualism: "to consider all the communication purposes in all different areas of research, and all the languages needed to fulfil these purposes, in a holistic manner without exclusions or priorities." In 2016, Sivertsen contributed to the "Norwegian model" of scientific evaluation by proposing a flat hierarchy between a few large international journals and a wide selection of journals that would not discriminate against local publications, and encouraged journals in social sciences and the humanities to favor Norwegian publications.
These local initiatives developed into a new international movement in favor of multilingualism. In 2019, 120 research organizations and several hundred individual researchers co-signed Helsinki Initiative on Multilingualism in Scholarly Communication. The declaration include three principles:
"Support dissemination of research results for the full benefit of the society", which implies that they should be available "in a variety of languages".
"Protect national infrastructures for publishing locally relevant research" through a specific support of the non-commercial/diamond model "make sure not for-profit journals and book publishers have both sufficient resources". Non-commercial journals are more likely to be published in a local language.
"Promote language diversity in research assessment, evaluation, and funding systems", in line with third recommendation of the Leiden Manifesto.
In the wake of the Helsinki Initiative, multilingualism has been increasingly associated to Open Science. This trend was accelerated in the context of the COVID pandemic, which "saw a widespread need for multilingual scholarly communication, not only between researchers, but to enable research to reach decision-makers, professionals and citizens". Multilingualism has also re-emerged as a topic of debate beyond the social sciences: in 2022, the Journal of Science Policy and Governance published a "Call to Diversify the Lingua Franca of Academic STEM Communities", that stressed that "cross-cultural solutions are necessary to prevent critical information from being missed by English-speaking researchers."
In November 2021, the UNESCO Recommendation for Open Science included multilingualism at the core of its definition of Open Science: "For the purpose of this Recommendation, open science is defined as an inclusive construct that combines various movements and practices aiming to make multilingual scientific knowledge openly available, accessible and reusable for everyone".
In the early 2020s, the European Union started to officially support language diversity in science, as a continuation of its general policies in favor of multilingualism. In December 2021, an important report of the European Commission on the future of scientific assessment in European countries still overlooked the issue of linguistic diversity: "Multilingualism is the most notable omission". In June 2022, the Council of the European Union included a detailed recommendation on "Development of multilingualism for European scholarly publications" in its research assessment of open science. The declaration acknowledges the "important role of multilingualism in the context of science communication with society" and welcomes "initiatives to promote multilingualism, such as the Helsinki initiative on multilingualism in scholarly communication." While the declaration is not constraining it invites the experiment with multilingualism "on a voluntary basis" and to assess the needs for further actions by the end of 2023.
References
Bibliography
Books & theses
Reports
Articles & chapters
Conferences
Other articles
Declaration
External links
A Call to Diversify the Lingua Franca of Academic STEM Communities
AmeliCA Ciencia Abierta
GOAP: UNESCO's Global Open Access Portal, providing "status of open access to scientific information around the world."
Helsinki Initiative on Multilingualism in Scholarly Communication
History of science
Multilingualism | Languages of science | [
"Technology"
] | 8,962 | [
"History of science",
"History of science and technology"
] |
69,665,405 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macbeath%20region | In mathematics, a Macbeath region is an explicitly defined region in convex analysis on a bounded convex subset of d-dimensional Euclidean space . The idea was introduced by and dubbed by G. Ewald, D. G. Larman and C. A. Rogers in 1970. Macbeath regions have been used to solve certain complex problems in the study of the boundaries of convex bodies. Recently they have been used in the study of convex approximations and other aspects of computational geometry.
Definition
Let K be a bounded convex set in a Euclidean space. Given a point x and a scaler λ the λ-scaled the Macbeath region around a point x is:
The scaled Macbeath region at x is defined as:
This can be seen to be the intersection of K with the reflection of K around x scaled by λ.
Example uses
Macbeath regions can be used to create approximations, with respect to the Hausdorff distance, of convex shapes within a factor of combinatorial complexity of the lower bound.
Macbeath regions can be used to approximate balls in the Hilbert metric, e.g. given any convex K, containing an x and a then:
Dikin’s Method
Properties
The is centrally symmetric around x.
Macbeath regions are convex sets.
If and then . Essentially if two Macbeath regions intersect, you can scale one of them up to contain the other.
If some convex K in containing both a ball of radius r and a half-space H, with the half-space disjoint from the ball, and the cap of our convex set has a width less than or equal to , we get for x, the center of gravity of K in the bounding hyper-plane of H.
Given a convex body in canonical form, then any cap of K with width at most then , where x is the centroid of the base of the cap.
Given a convex K and some constant , then for any point x in a cap C of K we know . In particular when , we get .
Given a convex body K, and a cap C of K, if x is in K and we get .
Given a small and a convex in canonical form, there exists some collection of centrally symmetric disjoint convex bodies and caps such that for some constant and depending on d we have:
Each has width , and
If C is any cap of width there must exist an i so that and
References
Further reading
Metric geometry
Convex analysis
Computational geometry | Macbeath region | [
"Mathematics"
] | 503 | [
"Computational geometry",
"Computational mathematics"
] |
69,665,867 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas%20Ernest%20Stanton | Sir Thomas Ernest Stanton (12 December 1865 - 30 August 1931) was a British mechanical engineer and a specialist in fluid dynamics and tribology. He was the first to construct a supersonic wind tunnel in 1921. The eponymous Stanton number is based on his research on the transfer of heat between metal surfaces through a separating thin layer of lubricating fluid.
Life
Stanton was born at Atherstone, Warwickshire to plumber Thomas and his wife Mary Ann Wagstaff. Educated at the local grammar school, he then apprenticed at Gimson and Co. engineers before going to Owens College, Manchester in 1887. He received a BSc in engineering in 1891 and worked for five years under Professor Osborne Reynolds. He then joined the University of Liverpool in 1896 and received a DSc in 1898 and became a professor the next year at University College, Bristol. He joined the National Physical Laboratory in 1901 and was involved in the testing of materials. He began wind tunnel studies in 1903 and by 1921 he had constructed a supersonic wind tunnel of 3 inch diameter going to 3.2 times the speed of sound for testing projectiles. This work was conducted secretly for the Britain's Ordnance Committee. It was here that he and Dorothy Marshall made studies on heat flow and found a relation between surface heat transfer rate, temperature difference and friction coefficients that is now known as Stanton number. Stanton was elected Fellow of the Royal Society in 1914 and was knighted in 1928 for his contributions to the wartime effort.
Stanton married Martha Grace Child in 1912 and they had two sons and a daughter, Hannah Margaret Stanton who was a leading anti-apartheid activist. He retired in 1930 and was living at Pevensy Bay where he was recovering after one surgery and preparing for another. His body was found, drowned, dressed in night clothes on 30 August 1931 off the beach near his family home.
References
1865 births
1931 deaths
English mechanical engineers
Fellows of the Royal Society
Deaths by drowning in the United Kingdom
Alumni of the University of Manchester
Tribologists
Aerodynamicists
People from Atherstone
Knights Bachelor
Commanders of the Order of the British Empire
Scientists of the National Physical Laboratory (United Kingdom) | Thomas Ernest Stanton | [
"Materials_science"
] | 430 | [
"Tribology",
"Tribologists"
] |
69,666,444 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycosamine | D-Mycosamine is an amino sugar found in several polyene antimycotics. Structural analogs of these agents lacking this monosaccharide component do not exhibit substantial antifungal activity.
References
Biosynthesis:
Hexosamines
Deoxy sugars
Monosaccharides | Mycosamine | [
"Chemistry",
"Biology"
] | 66 | [
"Carbohydrates",
"Deoxy sugars",
"Biotechnology stubs",
"Monosaccharides",
"Biochemistry stubs",
"Biochemistry"
] |
69,668,524 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarah%20E.%20Petrie | Sarah Elaine B. Petrie is a Canadian and American physical chemist who worked for the research laboratories of Eastman Kodak and became known for her research on the thermal properties of glasses, polymers, and liquid crystals.
Petrie earned a Ph.D. in chemistry in 1957 from the University of Toronto, with the dissertation Dielectric behaviour of vapours adsorbed on porous and non-porous adsorbents, supervised by Robert L. McIntosh. By the same year she was working for the Kodak Research Laboratories. In 1977 she was appointed to a panel on polymers in the National Bureau of Standards and as an advisor to the office of chemistry and chemical technology of the National Research Council. She also served as a councilor to the American Chemical Society Division of Polymer Chemistry from 1979 to 1981. By 1994, when she served on the Committee on Polymer Science and Engineering of the National Research Council, she was listed as retired from Kodak.
In 1976, Petrie was named a Fellow of the American Physical Society (APS), after a nomination from the APS Division of Polymer Physics.
References
Year of birth missing (living people)
Living people
American chemists
American women chemists
Canadian chemists
Canadian women chemists
Physical chemists
University of Toronto alumni
Fellows of the American Physical Society | Sarah E. Petrie | [
"Chemistry"
] | 263 | [
"Physical chemists"
] |
69,668,880 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen%20Garton | Stephen Garton AM, FAHA, FRAHS, FASSA FRSN (born 1955) is an Australian historian and Professor of History at the University of Sydney.
Books
Medicine and Madness: Insanity in NSW 1880-1940 (1988)
Out of Luck: Poor Australians 1788-1988 (1990)
The Cost of War: Australians Return (1996)
Histories of Sexuality: Antiquity to Sexual Revolution (2004)
Playing the Numbers: Gambling in Harlem between the Wars (with Shane white, Stephen Robertson and Graham White, 2010)
Preserving the Past: The University of Sydney and the Unified National System of Higher Education 1987-96 (with Julia Horne, 2017)
References
Living people
1955 births
Fellows of the Australian Academy of the Humanities
Academic staff of the University of Sydney
Australian historians
Historians of sexuality
Members of the Order of Australia
Fellows of the Academy of the Social Sciences in Australia
Challis professor | Stephen Garton | [
"Biology"
] | 175 | [
"Behavior",
"Sexuality",
"Historians of sexuality"
] |
69,669,133 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cara%20Augustenborg | Cara Aisling Augustenborg (born 1978) is an American and Irish environmental scientist, media pundit, assistant professor at University College Dublin and a member of Ireland's Climate Change Advisory Council and President Michael D. Higgins' Council of State.
Early life and education
Augustenborg was born in 1978 in Germany where her father, who has Danish ancestry, was stationed as a United States Air Force fighter pilot; her mother is from County Kerry, Ireland. In her childhood she lived in Pennsylvania, Saudi Arabia and New Orleans before the family settled near the Hanford Site, a nuclear power plant in Washington state, United States, where she attended high school. She has a BSc in biochemistry from the University of Washington and an MSc in Environmental Health Sciences and Ph.D. in Environmental Science and Engineering from University of California, Los Angeles. Her 2007 dissertation was titled Nitrogen recycling for the sustainability of Irish agriculture. was her committee chair.
She moved to Ireland in 2003 with a Fulbright Scholarship to do research at Teagasc in County Wexford, and in 2007 moved to do post-doctoral research at Trinity College Dublin's School of Business and University College Dublin's School of Agriculture. She has both Irish and American citizenship.
Career
Since 2011 Augustenborg has led her own consultancy company, Impact Research Management, based in Bray.
In 2014, Augustenborg was an unsuccessful candidate for the Green Party in Irish local elections.
Augustenborg was chair of Friends of the Earth Europe from 2015 to 2019, and of Friends of the Earth Ireland from 2015 to 2017.
Augustenborg is an assistant professor in landscape studies and environmental policy in the school of architecture, planning and environmental policy at University College Dublin, appointed in 2021.
In 2019, she was appointed by Michael D. Higgins as one of the seven presidential nominees on the Irish Council of State, a body which advises the president. In 2021 she was appointed by Eamon Ryan to the Climate Change Advisory Council.
She writes a blog as "The Verdant Yank", which was awarded "Best Irish Current Affairs and Politics blog" in the 2016 Littlewoods Ireland Blog Awards. She hosts a weekly podcast "Down To Earth" on Newstalk.
She was named as "Woman of Influence" in the 2020 Irish Women's Awards.
Personal life
Augustenborg was married to Irishman Mark Hughes but the marriage ended in 2016. She lives in Bray, County Wicklow, and has one child. She has said that "If I could change one thing in our society, I would take over the airwaves for a week of non- stop climate content." and that the best advice ever given to her was "Good enough is good enough".
References
External links
Profile at University College Dublin
Living people
Environmental scientists
21st-century Irish women scientists
21st-century American women scientists
University of Washington alumni
University of California, Los Angeles alumni
Academics of University College Dublin
Presidential appointees to the Council of State (Ireland)
Irish podcasters
Irish women podcasters
Irish bloggers
Irish women bloggers
American women bloggers
American bloggers
Irish people of Danish descent
American people of Irish descent
American people of Danish descent
1978 births | Cara Augustenborg | [
"Environmental_science"
] | 636 | [
"American environmental scientists",
"Environmental scientists"
] |
69,670,271 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HD%2068402 | HD 68402 is a solitary star located in the circumpolar constellation Volans. With an apparent magnitude of 9.09, it is invisible to the naked eye but can be seen with an amateur telescope. This star is located at a distance of 256 light years based on its parallax shift but is drifting away at a rate of 11.60 km/s.
HD 68402 has a classification of G5 IV/V, which indicates that it is a G5 star with the characteristics of a subgiant and main-sequence star. Contrary to its classification, it is actually a G1 dwarf. At present it is slightly more massive than the Sun and has a similar radius to the latter. It radiates at 1.17 times the luminosity of the Sun from its photosphere at an effective temperature of 5,907 K, which gives it a yellow hue. At an age of 1 billion years HD 68402 has a projected rotational velocity of almost 3 km/s and is metal rich like most planetary hosts (1.94 times to be exact).
Planetary system
In 2017, a superjovian planet was discovered using doppler spectroscopy data from HARPS and CORALIE. In 2023, the inclination and true mass of HD 68402 b were determined via astrometry.
References
G-type main-sequence stars
G-type subgiants
CD-74 00392
068402
039589
Volans
Planetary systems with one confirmed planet | HD 68402 | [
"Astronomy"
] | 309 | [
"Volans",
"Constellations"
] |
69,670,410 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron%28III%29%20azide | Iron(III) azide, also called ferric azide, is a chemical compound with the formula . It is an extremely explosive, impact-sensitive, hygroscopic dark brown solid. This compound is used to prepare various azidoalkanes, such as n-butyl azide, from alkenes via formation of alkylboranes and subsequent anti-Markovnikov addition of azide group.
Preparation
This compound is prepared by the reaction of sodium azide and iron(III) sulfate in methanol:
Iron(III) azide can also be formed by pulse gamma-irradiation of a mixture of iron(II) perchlorate, sodium azide, and hydrogen peroxide. Under these conditions, a neutral N3 radical is formed, which oxidizes the iron(II) to iron(III); the iron(III) then promptly combines with azide ions.
References
Iron(III) compounds
Azides | Iron(III) azide | [
"Chemistry"
] | 201 | [
"Explosive chemicals",
"Azides"
] |
69,671,739 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhouli%20Xu | Zhouli Xu (; born 1987) is a Chinese mathematician specializing in topology as a Professor of Mathematics at the University of California, Los Angeles, known for computations of homotopy groups of spheres.
Education and career
Xu earned both his B.S. and M.S. in Mathematics from Peking University and his Ph.D. from The University of Chicago in 2017 under the supervision of J. Peter May, Daniel Isaksen, and Mark Mahowald.
Xu was a C.L.E. Moore Instructor at Massachusetts Institute of Technology from 2017 to 2020. He was a member of the mathematics faculty at University of California, San Diego from 2020 and 2024. Since 2024, he has been a professor in the mathematics department at University of California, Los Angeles.
Work
He works in algebraic topology and focuses on classical, motivic and equivariant homotopy groups of spheres, with connections and applications to chromatic homotopy theory and geometric topology.
His research accomplishments include his joint works with collaborators in proving that the 61-dimensional sphere has a unique smooth structure, proving a "10/8 + 4"-theorem on the geography problem in 4-dimensional topology, developing the motivic deformation method and the Chow t-structure, and computing the classical and motivic stable homotopy groups of spheres in the previously unknown range of dimensions.
Awards and honors
Xu is a recipient of the Plotnick Fellowship in 2015, and the William Rainey Harper Dissertation Fellowship in 2016, both by the University of Chicago.
Xu is a recipient of the K-Theory prize in 2022, which is awarded to two recipients of no more than 35 years of age once every four years by the K-Theory Foundation, for his work in the computation of homotopy groups of spheres using motivic homotopy theory.
Xu is an invited speaker in the topology section at the International Congress of Mathematicians 2022.
Xu is elected as a Fellow of the American Mathematical Society of class 2023, for contributions to stable homotopy theory, applications to manifold topology, and motivic homotopy theory.
Selected publications
"The Strong Kervaire invariant problem in dimension 62", Geometry and Topology 20-3 (2016), 1611–1624.
(with Guozhen Wang) "The triviality of the 61-stem in the stable homotopy groups of spheres", Annals of Mathematics 186(2) (2017), 501–580.
(with Dan Isaksen, Guozhen Wang) "Stable homotopy groups of spheres", Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences October 6, 2020 117 (40) 24757-24763.
(with Michael J. Hopkins, Jianfeng Lin, XiaoLin Danny Shi) "Intersection forms of spin 4-manifolds and Pin(2)-equivariant Mahowald invariants", Comm. Amer. Math. Soc. (2) (2022), 22-132.
(with Dan Isaksen, Guozhen Wang) "Stable homotopy groups of spheres: from dimension 0 to 90", Publications Mathématiques de l'IHÉS 137, 107–243 (2023).
(with Bogdan Gheorghe, Guozhen Wang) "The special fiber of the motivic deformation of the stable homotopy category is algebraic", Acta Mathematica Vol. 226, No. 2 (2021), 319–407.
(with Tom Bachmann, Hana Jia Kong, Guozhen Wang) "The Chow t-structure on the ∞-category of motivic spectra", Annals of Mathematics 195(2) (2022), 707–773.
References
1987 births
Living people
21st-century Chinese science writers
Fellows of the American Mathematical Society
University of Chicago alumni
University of California, San Diego faculty
21st-century Chinese mathematicians
Topologists
Peking University alumni | Zhouli Xu | [
"Mathematics"
] | 806 | [
"Topologists",
"Topology"
] |
69,672,343 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underwater%20vehicle | An underwater vehicle is any member of the class of watercraft that is intended to operate in the underwater environment, as opposed to surface vessels that only stay afloat on top of water. This article lists the types of underwater vehicle, with a brief description of each type. An underwater vehicle can be crewed or unmanned (which may be remotely operated or fully autonomous), and will generally, but not necessarily, have some form of onboard propulsion system.
Types
(towed underwater vehicle)
(towed underwater vehicle)
Vehicles
Underwater diving lists | Underwater vehicle | [
"Physics"
] | 107 | [
"Physical systems",
"Transport",
"Vehicles"
] |
78,521,046 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maheder%20Haileselassie | Maheder Haileselassie Tadese (born 1990) is an Ethiopian artist and photographer. She won the 2023 Contemporary African Photography Prize and she was chosen as one of the BBC's 100 inspiring women in 2024 as a "climate pioneer".
Life
Haileselassie was born and raised in Addis Ababa in 1990. She was at university studying civil engineering. Her interest became photography in her final year when she took photos of her friends with her Blackberry phone. In the following year she upgraded to an IPhone and by 2013 her primary interest was photography.
She runs the Center for Photography to encourage younger photographers in Ethiopia. She has criticised the work of photographer Mahesh Shantaram
who has tried to document the effect of colonialism, but she finds his work problematic as she feels that he creates poses that are for the pleasure of the viewer. She thinks this is a colonial view where women are needlessly naked to fascinate a western audience.
Haileselassie won the 2023 Contemporary African Photography Prize. The other four winning photographers were Nadia Ettwein, Yassmin Forte, Carlos Idun-Tawiah and Léonard Pongo.
The African Photography Encounters 14th biennial takes the theme “Kuma, La Parole” (Kuma, the Word). The artistic director is Lassana Igo Diarra with a team that includes Nadine Hounkpatin, Manthia Diawara, Soufiane Er-Rahoui, Oyindamola (Fakeye) Faithfull and Patrick Mudekereza. The thirty artists selected for the group exhibition titled La Panafricane include Haileselassie, Bernard Akoi-Jackson of Ghana, Jeannette Ehlers of Denmark and Trinidad and Tobago and the Moroccan Mounir Fatmi (Morocco).
She was chosen as one of the BBC's 100 inspiring women in 2024. The BBC and The Guardian drew attention to her work in 2024 where she documents the effect of climate change on young girls. The rate of child marriage in Somalia had more than doubled as families try to cope with the shortage of food and water. Her photographs show the girls and they document the effect of the drought on the landscape.
References
Living people
People from Addis Ababa
Ethiopian artists
Ethiopian photographers
1990 births
Civil engineers
Climate activists | Maheder Haileselassie | [
"Engineering"
] | 472 | [
"Civil engineering",
"Civil engineers"
] |
78,522,819 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Similarity%20%28signal%20processing%29 | Similarity between two different signals is important in the field of signal processing. Below are some common methods for calculating similarity.
For instance, let's consider two signals represented as and , where and .
Maximum error (ME)
Measuring the maximum magnitude of the difference between two signals. Maximum error is useful for assessing the worst-case scenario of prediction accuracy
Mean squared error (MSE)
Measuring the average squared difference between two signals. Unlike the maximum error, mean squared error takes into account the overall magnitude and spread of errors, offering a comprehensive assessment of the difference between the two signals.
Normalized mean square error (NMSE)
NMSE is an extension of MSE. It is calculated by normalizing the MSE with the signal power, enabling fair comparisons across different datasets and scales.
Root-mean-square deviation (RMSE)
Root-mean-square deviation is derived from MSE by taking the square root of the MSE. It downscale the MSE, providing a more interpretable and comparable measure for better understanding for outcome.
Normalized root-mean-square error (NRMSE)
An extension of RMSE, which allows for signal comparisons between different datasets and models with varying scales.
Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR)
In signal processing, signal-to-noise ratio is calculated as the ratio of signal power to noise power, typically expressed in decibels. A high SNR indicates a clear signal, while a low SNR suggests that the signal is corrupted by noise. In this context, the signal MSE can be considered as noise, and the similarity between two signals can be viewed as the equation below:
Peak signal-to-noise ratio (PSNR)
Peak signal-to-noise ratio is a metric used to measure the maximum power of a signal to the noise. It is commonly used in image signals because the pixel intensity in an image does not directly represent the actual signal value. Instead, the pixel intensity corresponds to color values, such as white being represented as 255 and black as 0
Gray scale image:
Color image:
-Norm
A mathematical concept used to measure the distance between two vectors. In signal processing, the L-norm is employed to quantify the difference between two signals. The L1-norm corresponds to the Manhattan distance, while the L2-norm corresponds to the Euclidean distance .
Structural similarity (SSIM)
Structural similarity is a similarity metric specifically designed for measuring the similarity between two image signals. Unlike other similarity measures, SSIM leverages the strong interdependencies between neighboring pixels, providing a measure that closely aligns with human visual perception and feeling of similarity.
with:
the pixel sample mean of ;
the pixel sample mean of ;
the variance of ;
the variance of ;
the covariance of and ;
, two variables to stabilize the division with weak denominator;
the dynamic range of the pixel-values (typically this is );
and by default.
References
Signal processing | Similarity (signal processing) | [
"Technology",
"Engineering"
] | 602 | [
"Telecommunications engineering",
"Computer engineering",
"Signal processing"
] |
78,522,963 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matrix%20%28app%29 | Matrix was an instant messaging (IM) and communications network that was shut down by cooperation between Dutch and French police in December 2024. It was also known by the names Mactrix, Totalsec, X-Quantum and Q-Safe.
History
Dutch police discovered the network while investigating the murder of Peter de Vries in 2021. A mobile phone was found in the getaway car. The phone was found to be connected to the Matrix network.
A joint task force involving Dutch and French police was formed, with 2.3 million messages in 33 languages intercepted. Police forces in Italy, Lithuania, Spain and Germany were also involved. Europol and Eurojust coordinated the investigation.
Infrastructure
The service operated on around 40 servers throughout Europe and had about 8000 users. Users paid between $1350 and $1700 in cryptocurrency for a Google Pixel handset and six months subscription to the service.
Seizures and arrests
Simultaneous raids and searches took place on 3 December 2024 in four countries, leading to the arrest of five suspects in Spain and France, the shutdown of 40 servers in France and Germany, the seizure of 970 encrypted phones, €145,000 in cash, €500,000 in cryptocurrency and four vehicles. A 52-year-old Lithuanian man who was arrested is believed to be the primary owner and operator.
A 30-year-old Dutch man who used the app was arrested - he is suspected of smuggling cocaine in 2020.
Closure
Users of the network were informed of it closing by a splash screen.
See also
Operation Trojan Shield - a sting operation to intercept messages from criminals via the AN0M app
EncroChat – a network infiltrated by law enforcement to investigate organized crime in Europe
Ennetcom – a network seized by Dutch authorities, who used it to make arrests
Sky Global – a communications network and service provider based in Vancouver, Canada
References
Anonymity networks
Cyberspace
Dark web
Defunct darknet markets
Distributed computing architecture
End-to-end encryption
File sharing
Internet architecture
Internet culture
Network architecture
Law enforcement operations in France
Crime in the Netherlands | Matrix (app) | [
"Technology",
"Engineering"
] | 425 | [
"Internet architecture",
"IT infrastructure",
"Cyberspace",
"Network architecture",
"Computer networks engineering",
"Information technology"
] |
78,523,008 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Candidatus%20Liberimonas%20magnetica | {{Automatic taxobox
| name = Candidatus Liberimonas magnetica
| taxon = Liberimonadaceae
| genus_text = {{nowrap|''Ca. Liberimonas}}
| species_text =
| binomial_text = Candidatus Liberimonas magnetica
| authority = Uzun et al. 2023
}}Candidatus'' Liberimonas magnetica is a species of bacteria from the phylum of Elusimicrobiota. It is considered part of the "rare biosphere", meaning it is found at very low concentrations in the environments they inhabit. Liberimonas magnetica is uncultured as of yet, so its name is currently provisional.
References
Bacteria
Bacteria described in 2023 | Candidatus Liberimonas magnetica | [
"Biology"
] | 167 | [
"Microorganisms",
"Bacteria stubs",
"Prokaryotes",
"Bacteria"
] |
78,523,860 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eilenberg%E2%80%93Watts%20theorem | In mathematics, specifically homological algebra, the Eilenberg–Watts theorem tells when a functor between the categories of modules is given by an application of a tensor product. Precisely, it says that a functor is additive, is right-exact and preserves coproducts if and only if it is of the form .
For a proof, see The theorems of Eilenberg & Watts (Part 1)
References
Charles E. Watts, Intrinsic characterizations of some additive functors, Proc. Amer. Math. Soc. 11, 1960, 5–8.
Samuel Eilenberg, Abstract description of some basic functors, J. Indian Math. Soc. (N.S.) 24, 1960, 231–234 (1961).
Further reading
Eilenberg-Watts theorem in nLab
Homological algebra | Eilenberg–Watts theorem | [
"Mathematics"
] | 170 | [
"Algebra stubs",
"Mathematical structures",
"Theorems in algebra",
"Fields of abstract algebra",
"Category theory",
"Mathematical problems",
"Mathematical theorems",
"Algebra",
"Homological algebra"
] |
78,524,503 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium%20hypoiodite | Sodium hypoiodite is an inorganic chemical used as an oxidant in various organic chemical reactions. It causes iodination of nitrogen atoms, such 1H-benzotriazole to give 1-iodo-1H-benzotriazole and an imine to give the analogous iodoimine. It oxidatively cleaves methyl ketones to give iodoform.
References
Hypoiodites
Sodium compounds | Sodium hypoiodite | [
"Chemistry"
] | 94 | [
"Hypoiodites",
"Inorganic compounds",
"Oxidizing agents",
"Inorganic compound stubs"
] |
78,524,607 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enmetazobactam | Enmetazobactam (AAI-101) is an antibiotic adjuvant drug which acts as a beta-lactamase inhibitor, preventing the breakdown of other antibiotic drugs.
See also
Cefepime
References
Beta-lactamase inhibitors
Triazoles
Sulfones
Thiazolidines
Azetidines
Carboxylic acids | Enmetazobactam | [
"Chemistry"
] | 75 | [
"Sulfones",
"Carboxylic acids",
"Functional groups"
] |
78,524,699 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nafithromycin | Nafithromycin is an experimental antibiotic medication for the treatment of pneumonia.
References
Antibiotics
Lactones
Dimethylamino compounds
Methoxy compounds
Pyridines
Thiadiazoles
Heterocyclic compounds with 2 rings
Tetrahydropyrans | Nafithromycin | [
"Biology"
] | 57 | [
"Antibiotics",
"Biocides",
"Biotechnology products"
] |
78,525,437 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISEE%20Kenneth%20Boulding%20Award%20for%20Ecological%20Economics | 'The International Society for Ecological Economics Kenneth E. Boulding Memorial Award for Ecological Economics' has been awarded since 1994. It is named after Kenneth E. Boulding to scholars who shared Boulding's sensibility for moral philosophy and natural sciences. This is not to be confused with the Boulding Award established since 1990 by the Association for Interdisciplinary Studies.
ISEE Boulding Award Recipients
See also
Ecological Economics (journal)
References
External links
Home page of The International Society for Ecological Economics
Economics awards
Sustainability
Ecology
International awards | ISEE Kenneth Boulding Award for Ecological Economics | [
"Biology"
] | 109 | [
"Ecology"
] |
78,525,915 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Candidatus%20Parvarchaeum | Candidatus Parvarchaeum is a genus of Archaea in the proposed phylum of Nanoarchaeota. There are two species in the genus, Candidatus Parvarchaeum acidiphilum and Candidatus Parvarchaeum paracidiphilum (synonym Candidatus Parvarchaeum acidophilus), both of which are currently uncultured.
References
Archaea | Candidatus Parvarchaeum | [
"Biology"
] | 87 | [
"Archaea",
"Archaea stubs",
"Microorganisms",
"Prokaryotes"
] |
78,526,139 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haliovirgaceae | Haliovirgaceae is a family of bacteria in the order Fusobacteriales. The family contains one genus: Haliovirga. Bacteria in this family are gram-negative, mesophilic, anerobic, and sulfur-reducing.
See also
List of bacteria genera
List of bacterial orders
References
Microbiology
Bacteria described in 2023 | Haliovirgaceae | [
"Chemistry",
"Biology"
] | 74 | [
"Bacteria stubs",
"Microbiology",
"Bacteria",
"Microscopy"
] |
78,527,273 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structural%20set%20theory | In mathematics, a structural set theory is an approach to set theory that emphasizes the aspect of sets as abstract structures. It is in contrast to a more traditional ZFC set-theory, which emphasizes membership. A prime example is Lawvere's Elementary Theory of the Category of Sets, which identifies sets in terms of relations to each other through functions. Another example is SEAR (Sets, Elements, And Relations).
The adjective "structural" comes from the structuralism in the philosophy of mathematics.
References
François G. Dorais, Back to Cantor?, a blog post
Further reading
structural set theory in nLab
Set theory | Structural set theory | [
"Mathematics"
] | 127 | [
"Mathematical logic",
"Set theory"
] |
78,527,600 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verstraetearchaeota | (Candidatus) Verstraetearchaeota is a phylum in the domain of Archaea. Other valid names for this phylum are Nitrososphaerota and Thermoproteota, but it also has a number of non-valid synonyms. This phylum has not been cultured. This domain is capable of Methanogenesis.
References
Archaea
Microorganisms
Methanogenesis | Verstraetearchaeota | [
"Chemistry",
"Biology"
] | 93 | [
"Archaea",
"Prokaryotes",
"Methanogenesis",
"Biochemical reactions",
"Microorganisms"
] |
78,529,188 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NGC%207343 | NGC 7343 is a barred spiral galaxy located in the constellation Pegasus. Its velocity relative to the cosmic microwave background is 7150 ± 24 km/s, which corresponds to a Hubble distance of 105.5 ± 7.4 Mpc (∼344 million ly). NGC 7343 was discovered by American astronomer Truman Safford in 1866. It was independently rediscovered by French astronomer Édouard Stephan on September 27, 1873.
The luminosity class of NGC 7343 is II-III and it has a broad HI line. In addition, it is also a LINER galaxy, a galaxy whose nucleus presents an emission spectrum characterized by broad lines of weakly ionized atoms. To date, eight non-redshift measurements yield a distance of 65.787 ± 44.256 Mpc (∼215 million ly), which is outside the Hubble distance values.
Supernova
The supernova SN 1974J (typeIa, mag. 15.5) was discovered in NGC 7343 on 9 October 1974 by Italian astronomer Leonida Rosino.
See also
List of NGC objects (7001–7840)
References
7343
pegasus (constellation)
Barred spiral galaxies
Astronomical objects discovered in 1866
069391
+06-49-059
12129
22363+3348
Discoveries by Truman Safford | NGC 7343 | [
"Astronomy"
] | 267 | [
"Pegasus (constellation)",
"Constellations"
] |
78,529,411 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delpazolid | Delpazolid (LCB01-0371) is an experimental antibiotic drug for the treatment of tuberculosis.
References
Antibiotics
Fluorobenzene derivatives
Oxazolidinones
Triazines | Delpazolid | [
"Biology"
] | 43 | [
"Antibiotics",
"Biocides",
"Biotechnology products"
] |
78,529,413 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geminibasidiomycetes | Geminibasidiomycetes is a class of dikaryotic fungus classified in 2015. Geminibasidiomycetes are heat resistant
References
Fungus classes
Taxa described in 2015
Basidiomycota | Geminibasidiomycetes | [
"Biology"
] | 42 | [
"Fungus stubs",
"Fungi"
] |
78,529,880 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benapenem | Benapenem is an experimental antibiotic drug for the treatment of Gram-negative bacterial infections such as with Enterobacter.
References
Antibiotics
Pyrrolidines
Sulfonamide antibiotics
Carboxamides
Carboxylic acids | Benapenem | [
"Chemistry",
"Biology"
] | 49 | [
"Biotechnology products",
"Carboxylic acids",
"Functional groups",
"Antibiotics",
"Biocides"
] |
78,530,707 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C/1967%20Y1%20%28Ikeya%E2%80%93Seki%29 | Comet Ikeya-Seki, formally designated as C/1967 Y1, is a retrograde non-periodic comet discovered by Kaoru Ikeya and Tsutomu Seki on 1967. It is the second comet discovered together by the two Japanese astronomers after C/1965 S1.
Discovery and observations
C/1967 Y1 was the 14th comet discovered in 1967 when both Kaoru Ikeya and Tsutomu Seki spotted it as a 9th-magnitude object on the evening of December 28th. The comet's position remained circumpolar throughout its last perihelion, thus giving astronomers a rare opportunity to observe it all night long.
By 25 February 1968, the comet reached an apparent magnitude of 7.1 and developed a very faint tail. Photometric spectroscopy of the comet's tail together with comets C/1968 L1 and C/1968 N1 has shown its forward scattering to be gray in the 3500–6300 Å spectrum, in contrast to the reddening of the dust tail seen in other comets. The comet was last observed from the Kitt Peak Observatory on 4 November 1969.
References
External links
Non-periodic comets | C/1967 Y1 (Ikeya–Seki) | [
"Astronomy"
] | 237 | [
"Astronomy stubs",
"Comet stubs"
] |
78,531,452 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%86miel%C3%B3w%20figurines | Ćmielów figurines are objects of small-scale (decorative) ceramic sculpture created in Poland during the 1950s and 1960s, reflecting the style of the so-called New Look or the Post-Sevastopol Thaw, cast in porcelain or porcelainite. They were designed by artists employed at the , particularly Henryk Jędrasiak, , , and Lubomir Tomaszewski, and produced in various ceramic manufacturing facilities across Poland. In 1964, the production of figurines designed by the Institute of Industrial Design was (with a few exceptions) moved to the Ćmielów Porcelain Works in Ćmielów.
Ćmielów figurines represent an important phenomenon in the applied arts of their time, with significance comparable to that of Nymphenburg and Meissen figurines in the 18th century and Copenhagen figurines in the era of modernism.
In 2021, the first biography of Lubomir Tomaszewski was published by Agora, authored by Katarzyna Rij and Jerzy A. Wlazło. The book explores the broader context associated with Ćmielów figurines.
Historical background
In the 1950s, a four-member team of artists was established at the Institute of Industrial Design in Warsaw under the leadership of Henryk Jędrasiak. The team included young graduates of the Warsaw Academy of Fine Arts – Mirosław Naruszewicz, Hanna Orthwein, and Lubomir Tomaszewski. Their task was to create a new collection of porcelain sculptures, representing a contemporary take on decorative figurines. Work on the designs began in 1955, initially as experimental efforts due to the need to break away from traditional approaches to small-scale sculpture. Moreover, apart from Naruszewicz, the artists had no prior experience working with this type of material and needed to familiarize themselves with its properties.
The first design was completed in mid-1956. It was Akt – Końska Wenus by Henryk Jędrasiak. This figurine still bore features of the earlier style, characterized by numerous angular details and a decorative base. However, subsequent designs – Jędrasiak's Jeleń and Naruszewicz's Dzik – increasingly showcased new trends. These included simplified forms and a synthesis of the object's silhouette, with deliberate deformations emphasizing specific distinctive elements.
The production of the figurines was entrusted to several factories: the Bogucice Porcelain Works, the Porcelain and Porcelainite Works in Chodzież, the Ćmielów Porcelain Works, the in Jaworzyna Śląska, the Tułowice Porcelainite Works, the Krzysztof Porcelain Works in Wałbrzych, and the Wałbrzych Porcelain Works. The figurines were produced under the supervision of their creators, though this oversight was rarely enforced. Designs were often adjusted locally for production, resulting in variations of the same project in different factories. For example, Sowa, designed by Hanna Orthwein, differs in claw shapes between the versions from Ćmielów and Karolina works.
In 1964, the production of all small-scale sculpture designs was taken over by the Świt division of the Ćmielów Porcelain Works. However, Tułowice retained the rights to produce most of the Institute of Industrial Design's figurines, while Bogucice did not transfer the original molds created in their facility.
Already in 1956, Ćmielów figurines achieved exhibition success at the Poznań International Fair. Until 1964, they were featured attractions at nearly all domestic and international exhibitions and trade fairs. They were showcased at the Leipzig Trade Fair, in New York and Chicago, at the Second Polish Industrial Exhibition in Moscow in 1959, and at the Polish Exhibition of Glass and Ceramics in Berlin.
The English magazine The Studio highlighted them in its annual special editions dedicated to the best designs in applied arts: in 1959 (Dzik and Batalion by M. Naruszewicz), 1960 (Gibbon by H. Orthwein and Kura by L. Tomaszewski), 1961 (Gołębie and Gazela by H. Jędrasiak), and 1962 (Bawół afrykański by L. Tomaszewski).
The design of these figurines continued at the Institute of Industrial Design until about 1965. During the late 1950s and early 1960s, they were widely available consumer goods. By the late 1970s, the Ćmielów Porcelain Works attempted to reintroduce them into production under a new program, but this effort met resistance and was not pursued further until the 1990s. In 1991, the Ćmielów factories declared bankruptcy, but their new owner initiated a reissue of the Institute of Industrial Design patterns.
The new owner, , purchased the Ćmielów Porcelain Works in 1996 and 1997. Along with the factory, he acquired the original molds and models of the figurines. Over four years, damaged designs were restored, a new design studio was established, and production resumed in 2000. Ćmielów figurines are now made from English porcelain, with each figurine accompanied by a certificate of authenticity, a serial number, a trademark (AS Ćmielów), the year of production, and, in some cases, a limited-edition label. In 2004, Adam Spała published a catalog featuring the figurines listed by their catalog names. The catalog includes photographs of the figurines, each labeled with a consecutive number, as well as information about the designer and the year the design was created.
The catalog also explains how to interpret the markings on the figurines. For numbered figurines, the markings follow this format: 1/13/02
1 represents the catalog number
13 indicates the sequential number of the figurine produced in that year
02 shows the year the figurine was created.
For items in a limited edition series, the marking would be: 13/500
13 is the sequential number of the figurine since 2000
500 represents the size of the edition.
The first figurines sold were numbered 13. Figurines numbered 1 to 12 were given a gold certificate and reserved for the owner of the AS Porcelain Factory and his friends.
Characteristics
Ćmielów figurines represent the style known as the New Look or the Post-Sevastopol Thaw, characterized by biomorphic lines, asymmetry, and abstract patterns. The shapes of the figurines simplify the silhouettes of the objects depicted, omitting details except for a few distinctive elements, which are emphasized and define the overall expression of the figurine, reflecting the essence of the object. This approach was based on the observation of nature and a deep understanding of the subject being portrayed. Transparency, lightness, and a sense of openness were used, evoking associations with the work of Henry Moore, as seen in Jędrasiak’s Sziedząca Dziewczyna and, particularly, in the works of Lubomir Tomaszewski (e.g., Dama z lustrem). Typically, the objects are depicted in a static pose, though some figurines suggest movement, such as Naruszewicz's Jeździec meksykański and Bizon.
Researchers have identified around 130 designs of Ćmielów figurines, though incomplete project documentation has led to challenges in attributing some of them. The thematic scope of the designs was inspired by the animal world, with an emphasis on domestic, farm, forest, exotic animals, and a few prehistoric creatures (e.g., Brontozaurus and Ichtiozaurus by H. Jędrasiak, Mamut by L. Tomaszewski), as well as birds. Human figures made up a smaller group.
Figurine models typically came in one size, with some exceptions, such as H. Orthwein's Pingwin, which was available in three sizes, and L. Tomaszewski's Pocałunek, which was produced in two sizes. There were also designs featuring group compositions, the first being H. Jędrasiak’s Gołąbki, which consisted of two figurines. A unique case was the two-part sculptures by Jędrasiak – Pawian, Marabut, and Bażant – which consisted of two separate pieces that formed a complete figurine when assembled. These were not introduced into mass production and remained in the prototype stage.
An important element influencing the final form of the figurines was their painting. In addition to glaze painting, spray painting and selective spraying techniques were used. These techniques enhanced the realism of the design, mimicking the feathers or fur of animals (as in Naruszewicz's Czapla), or emphasized the sculptural qualities with an abstract character. Although bold and expressive colors were used (e.g., Arabka by L. Tomaszewski), the most common palette was a range of greys, based on contrasts of white and black, reflecting the existentialist fashion prevailing in the culture. Multiple painting designs were created for one model, sometimes changing the entire expression of the figurine (e.g., Śpiewaczka by L. Tomaszewski).
The painters involved in the decoration of these figurines included designers from the Institute of Industrial Design, such as , Barbara Frybes, Zofia Przybyszewska, Zofia Galińska, , and . According to Barbara Banaś, some of the painting designs were also created within the factories that produced the figurines.
Designers
The main designers of Ćmielów figurines were members of the team formed at the Institute of Industrial Design: Henryk Jędrasiak, Mieczysław Naruszewicz, Hanna Orthwein, and Lubomir Tomaszewski:
Henryk Jędrasiak was the author of 24 models, including both human and animal figures. He did not shy away from abstraction but avoided distorting the shapes, simplifying them instead. Objects were often reduced to the shape of a triangle, as seen in Ryba skalar. By twisting the head or torso of the object, he added dynamics to the figurine. Most of his designs were decorated in black and white. He believed that decoration should fit the form well and organize its surface appropriately.
Mieczysław Naruszewicz was the author of 44 models, primarily animal figures, especially birds. When simplifying the depicted figures, he reduced the number of support points, such as in his Dzik design, where the limbs of the animal are connected.
Hanna Orthwein created 33 models and was a well-regarded animalist. She claimed that each of her projects aimed to illustrate a specific construction or compositional problem, refer to trends in contemporary art, and prepare the viewer for a better understanding of it.
Lubomir Tomaszewski designed 34 models, focusing mostly on human figures. He was the boldest of the team when it came to deformation, using straight lines to emphasize verticality. He promoted the image of the modern woman, creating slender figures with hair tied in a ponytail, such as in Dziewczyna w spodniach. He applied bold decorations with distinct color patches.
In the 1950s and 1960s, small-scale sculptural works were created that were not directly considered Ćmielów figurines by researchers, but they fit the aesthetic created by them. These works came from other designers associated with the Institute of Industrial Design, as well as from designers employed in modeling centers established by a 1952 directive at porcelain factories.
Other designers at the Institute of Industrial Design involved in the creation of figurines include Zdana Kosicka, who created models of Kotek/Kotek Siedzący and Konik/Konik mały in the early 1950s, and Liliana Borenowska-Ziemka, who created a Kotek model in the 1950s. Kosicka’s Kotek was realized at the Bogucice factory, while the other two models were produced in Ćmielów. In Ćmielów, designed Wesoły byczek (Fernando) and Kazimierz Czuba designed Zajączek/Zajączek ze stojącymi słuchami.
At the Bogucice factory, Paweł Karasek designed Dziewczyna z gitarą/Dziewczyna z mandoliną, and created five designs, including Pierwszy bal. For the Krzysztof factories in Wałbrzych, Stanisław Olszamowski designed Biały niedźwiedź and Panna plażowa, while Zbigniewa Śliwowska-Wawrzyniak created Grzybiarka/Dama z koszykiem. Jan Kwinta, head of the modeling center at Krzysztof, designed Mrówkojad.
In addition to the models mentioned above, there are several figurine designs created in Chodzież, Karolina, and Krzysztof factories whose designers remain unidentified. Some of them are attributed to Jędrasiak, Naruszewicz, Orthwein, or Tomaszewski.
References
Bibliography
Figurines
Design
Arts in Poland
Porcelain sculptures | Ćmielów figurines | [
"Engineering"
] | 2,745 | [
"Design"
] |
78,531,472 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Therald%20Moeller | George Therald Moeller (April 3, 1913- November 24, 1997) was an American chemist and emeritus professor of Arizona State University. He is known for his various books, including the textbook Inorganic Chemistry, an Advanced Text of 1952 which has been dubbed the "Bible of inorganic chemistry."
Biography
Early life and studies
George Therald Moeller was born in North Bend, Oregon in 1913.
He graduated from Oregon State College, earning a degree in chemical engineering in 1934. Afterwards he went to the University of Wisconsin–Madison, where he obtained a Sigma Tau National Fellowship and a Du Pont Fellowship. He received obtained his PhD in inorganic and physical chemistry in 1938. His thesis was titled "A Study of the Preparation and Certain Properties of Hydrous Lanthanum Oxide Sols", his supervisor was Francis C. Krauskopf.
Career
From 1938 to 1940, Moeller served as instructor at Michigan State College before joining the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign in 1940, where he became an expert in the chemistry of rare-earth elements. In 1969, he became chairman of the department of chemistry at Arizona State University (ASU), a role he held until 1975. Moeller retired in 1983 as emeritus professor at ASU.
In 1953, he published his book Inorganic Chemistry, an Advanced Text which was well received internationally and allowed US universities to teach advanced chemistry.
Moeller and John C. Bailar Jr. founded the Inorganic Chemistry Division of the American Chemical Society in 1959. Moeller served also as president of the board of directors of Inorganic Syntheses.
Personal life
Moeller married his wife Ellyn Stephenson in 1935, they had three children.
He died in Broken Arrow, Oklahoma in 1997.
Honors and awards
In 1980, Arizona State University (ASU) stablished the Therald Moeller scolarship, to support students with a career in chemistry in the School of Molecular Sciences.
In 1981, he received the Award for Distinction in Undergraduate Teaching by the department of chemistry and in 1983 he received the Alumni Association's Distinguished Teacher Award as best instructor at ASU.
Textbooks
References
20th-century American chemists
1913 births
1997 deaths
American inorganic chemists
Arizona State University faculty
University of Wisconsin–Madison alumni
People from North Bend, Oregon | Therald Moeller | [
"Chemistry"
] | 456 | [
"American inorganic chemists",
"Inorganic chemists"
] |
78,531,531 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CAP-XX | CAP-XX Limited is an Australian based manufacturer of energy storage products for industrial IoT (Sensors, Smart Devices, Robotics), Cloud computing (Artificial intelligence Data centers), Automotive (Electric Vehicles), Electrical Grid, and Aerospace applications. CAP-XX maintains partnerships with Universities for supercapacitor Research & Development (R&D). CAP-XX specialises in thin form factor (design) supercapacitor products. The company is also developing products such as the reduced Graphite Oxide (rGO) electrode to increase the energy density of supercapacitors, and Surface-Mount Technology (SMT) to enable the attachment of supercapacitors to PCBs in automated assembly lines compatible with reflow soldering. CAP-XX is publicly traded on the AIM market of the London Stock Exchange under the ticker symbol CPX.
History
CAP-XX was founded in 1997 in Seven Hills, New South Wales, Australia by Mr Anthony Kongats. In 1994, Mr Kongats was associated with a company called Energy Storage Systems Pty ltd founded in 1990 (now incorporated as CAP-XX ltd) which partnered with CSIRO to research and commercialise supercapacitor technology. Mr Kongats later used the research conducted with CSIRO to found CAP-XX along with the Intellectual Property that resulted from the partnership. The company specialised in energy-dense Double-layer capacitance for small electronic devices. In 2005 CAP-XX was selected for the World Economic Forum 2005 Technology Pioneers list.
In 2006 CAP-XX was admitted to the London Stock Exchange. In the early 2000s, CAP-XX began commercialising its supercapacitor products, servicing the consumer electronics for wearable technology. In 2008, CAP-XX entered into a licensing agreement with Murata, to manufacture Murata branded prismatic supercapacitors using CAP-XX's patents. In 2009, CAP-XX entered into a Manufacturing agreement with Nationwide Technologies of Penang, Malaysia.
In 2019, CAP-XX filed a lawsuit against Maxwell Technologies (owned by Tesla at the time but later sold to UCAP Power in 2021) for patent infringement of the electrodes used in its supercapacitors. In 2023, Tesla (which kept some energy storage patents that were previously owned by Maxwell Technologies) sued CAP-XX for the same reason.
In 2020, CAP-XX expanded its production capacity by acquiring the supercapacitor production line from Murata in Japan and transferring it to its Seven Hills, Sydney headquarters.
In 2022, CAP-XX had been selected as a Tier 1 supplier for Continental AG to provide the DMT220 prismatic supercapacitors. The sourcing agreement with Continental is expected to begin late 2024 through 2030
In 2023, CAP-XX announced a discounted placing and the exit of its founder / CEO, Anthony Kongats, effective May 2023. Subsequently in May 2023, a new CEO, Lars Stegmann, was appointed. By December 2023, CAP-XX had entered into a Joint Venture with an Australian Graphene technology specialist called Ionic Industries. The partnership is currently developing reduced graphite oxide (rGO) electrode technology. The aim of integrating Ionic's electrode nanotechnology with CAP-XX's Supercapacitors, is to increase the energy density of electrodes within supercapacitors. The rGO electrode technology was developed over the course of several years with Monash University.
In March 2024, the court ruled to settle the legal action between CAP-XX and Tesla. In June 2024, CAP-XX had appointed some new Non-Executive Directors, including Dr Graham Cooley (former CEO of ITM Power). In July 2024, Schurter (Majority owned by Capvis) signed a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) to collaborate on a Joint Venture in developing supercapacitors under a unified brand, namely ultra-thin prismatic supercapacitors.
As of December 2024, CEO Lars Stegmann has made various changes to the company. However, the company remains focused on supercapacitor R&D, forming joint ventures to develop new product lines, and maintaining their Supply Chain & distribution network.
Products and Technology
CAP-XX produces a range of energy storage products, including:
Ultra-thin prismatic supercapacitors: Features a compact form factor (design) and ability to operate in harsh environments.
DMV: The 3V (Volt), 750mF (Capacitance), 21 x 14 x 2.2mm supercapacitor.
DMH: The 4.5V / 35mF or 2.25V / 140mF, 20 x 20 x 0.4mm supercapacitors.
DMF: The 5V, up to 1F (1000mF), 30 x 14 x 3.7mm supercapacitors.
DMT: The 4.2V up to 470mF, 21 x 14 x 3.5mm supercapacitors.
Cylindrical Supercapacitors: From 0.5F to 3000F Capacitance. Designed for applications requiring higher energy density.
Coin Cell supercapacitors: 0.5F to 1.5F Capacitance.
Lithium-ion Hybrid supercapacitors: Combining the energy density of lithium-ion batteries with the fast charge-discharge of supercapacitors (10F to 220F).
Large Microgrid Modules: Stabilsing energy, managing fluctuations, and support renewables.
Truck Start Modules: Providing quick, efficient electric power for vehicle startups.
Future products:
Cylindrical Surface-Mount Technology (SMT) for Supercapacitors: New patents submitted 2024.
rGO Supercapacitors: Development with Ionic Industries ongoing.
Markets and Applications
CAP-XX’s supercapacitors have been utilised by businesses in various industries over the years, namely through licensing of its patented technology to large electronics manufacturers such as Murata, AVX Corporation, including:
Smart meters: Providing backup power and enabling efficient data transmission
Automotive: Supporting electrified systems and regenerative braking in electric and hybrid vehicles.
IoT and Wearable Devices: Efficient energy storage in compact designs.
Renewable Energy: Supporting energy storage and grid balancing applications.
Data Centers: Providing power when demand is high and charge when it is low, smoothing out power fluctuations.
Marine propulsion Systems: Providing regenerative power management to ship propulsion systems
Finances
When CAP-XX was founded in 1997 it received grants from the Australian government of around A$5.4million, and then received US$1million (1999) in seed capital. In the early 2000s, before CAP-XX went public, it raised an additional £17million (A$34million) during 2 funding rounds with investors such as Intel through its venture capital arm, Intel Capital. Since the CAP-XX IPO in 2006, the company has been a revenue generating business but has consistently made a loss over the years.
As of the end of financial year 2024, CAP-XX generated a revenue of A$4.6million (AUD) and made a loss after tax of A$6.0million. As a result, CAP-XX has completed a fundraise during a £2.5million placing offer, a £250k subscription offer, and a £275k exclusive retail offer, all issued at £0.0011. Thus, CAP-XX has raised a total of £3.025million (or A$6.014million) for the 2025 financial year. In addition, CAP-XX is due to receive a R&D tax rebate of A$1.25million from Australia in January 2025.
References
Companies of Australia
Electronics companies of Australia
Battery manufacturers
Technology companies of Australia
Capacitor manufacturers
Electrical engineering companies
Technology companies
Companies listed on the London Stock Exchange | CAP-XX | [
"Engineering"
] | 1,615 | [
"Electrical engineering companies",
"Electrical engineering organizations",
"Engineering companies"
] |
78,531,943 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M4-18 | Minkowski 4-18 (M 4-18) is a planetary nebula or protoplanetary nebula in the deep northern constellation of Camelopardalis. Distance estimates range widely across publications between 1–7 kpc, though a 2022 paper gives a distance of . The nebula appears to be very young, at about 3,100 years old. Notably, the central star of the nebula is a very cool, late-type Wolf-Rayet star of spectral type [WC11].
Description
This object was discovered by German-American astronomer Rudolph Minkowski in 1959. The nebula extends about from its center. As early as 1974, the central star was known to be among the coolest carbon-sequence (type WC) Wolf-Rayet stars. The nebula has a mass of 0.08 and an electron temperature, that is the average kinetic energy of electrons within the plasma, of .
The central star has only 62% the mass of the Sun but is 2.4 times as large. It radiates 5,250 times the luminosity of the Sun from its photosphere at an effective temperature of , according to De Marco & Crowther (1999). Some other sources, such as Acker et al. (2002), find a lower temperature of around 25,000 K.
Variability
The center star of M 4-18, together with two other objects M 2-54 and NGC 2392, was reported to be a low-amplitude variable in 1996, brightening by 0.03 mag over a 7-hour observation period in the night of 12 December 1995.
Reddening
The star is reddened substantially at EB−V = . The reddening in the ultraviolet region is considered anomalous, as different methods yield very different results for EB−V. This is possibly caused by an undetected shell of circumstellar dust. The infrared reddening profile can be explained by grains of amorphous carbon of a uniform size.
Spectra and abundances
The central star displays broad emission lines of C+, C2+, and C3+ (C II, C III, and C IV in spectroscopic notation), of which the lines of C+ are the strongest, consistent with the star's carbon-rich, Wolf-Rayet nature and relatively low effective temperature. The carbon lines overlay the nebula's emission lines, namely neutral hydrogen (H I), as well as the forbidden lines, indicated by the square brackets, of singly ionized nitrogen ([N II]) and sulfur ([S II]). The forbidden line [O III] (O2+; wavelength 4959–5007 Å) is unusually weak, similar to HD 184738 (Campbell's Hydrogen Star). Compared to HD 184738, M 4-18 shows weaker lines of C IV, O IV (O3+), and N V (N4+), implying that atoms in this nebula are in a less excited state.
A 1980 paper claimed that the nebula was deficient in nitrogen and oxygen, but a study in 1995 found a solar-like abundance of carbon, nitrogen, and neon, as well as an oxygen content twice as high as that of the Sun. In contrast, it is very poor in sulfur, only containing 10% as much as the Sun. The reported enrichment in oxygen is dubious, however, as a paper published in 2022 presented a slightly subsolar oxygen abundance. The same paper described an overabundance of xenon.
Weak P Cygni emission features were confirmed in 1984, evidence of stellar winds radiating away from the central star reaching a velocity of approximately 300 km/s.
In 2003, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) were detected using infrared spectroscopy. This was independently confirmed in a 2008 paper.
References
Camelopardalis
Planetary nebulae
Protoplanetary nebulae
Wolf–Rayet stars
Variable stars
04255084+6007127 | M4-18 | [
"Astronomy"
] | 815 | [
"Camelopardalis",
"Constellations"
] |
78,533,242 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HD%2064568 | HD 64568 is a massive solitary star in the southern constellation of Puppis. With an apparent magnitude of 9.39, it is too faint to be seen by the naked eye, but can barely be observed by binoculars, appearing as a blue-hued dot of light. It is located approximately distant according to Gaia EDR3 parallax measurements.
Properties
HD 64568 belongs to an OB association named Puppis OB2, which is part of the star-forming region NGC 2467. It is one of the ionizing stars of the H II region Sh 2-311.
This is a very early O-type main-sequence star that is among the most massive stars, weighing 57 times the mass of the Sun, but has a comparatively modest radius of 14 . It radiates roughly 500,000 times the luminosity of the Sun from its photosphere at an effective temperature of . It is losing mass to stellar winds, but the rate at which this occurs is highly uncertain, with two models yielding values of /yr and 2.3 /yr.
In 1982, it was given the spectral type O3V((f*)), becoming the first object of its kind. The ((f*)) suffix signifies the presence of weak N IV (N3+) 4058 Å emission line and N V (N4+) absorption lines, the lack of any N III (N2+) emission, along with the strong He II (He+) 4686 Å absorption. Radial velocity variations were discovered in 1986, which, at the time, was theorized to be either caused by an unseen binary companion or atmospheric instabilities seen in massive stars. The latter theory was confirmed to be true by Markova (2011) as there was no evidence for a secondary object, and the variations are now thought to be the result of stellar pulsations and/or stellar wind variations. The same study also corroborated the O3V((f*)) classification. Sota et al. (2014) updated the spectral type to O3V((f*))z, with the added "z" suffix to indicate that the 4686 Å helium line is abnormally strong.
References
O-type main-sequence stars
Puppis
064568
CD−25 05228
J07533820-2614025
038548 | HD 64568 | [
"Astronomy"
] | 495 | [
"Puppis",
"Constellations"
] |
78,533,518 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carfentrazone | Carfentrazone is an aryl triazoline herbicide, used for pre-crop-establishment control of broadleaf weeds, including marshmallow, annual nettles, and volunteer cotton, and frequently in tank mixtures with knock-down herbicides, such as glyphosate. Under the system of HRAC classification it is a Group 14 (numeric), E (global) or G (Australian), since it acts by membrane disruption, through the inhibition of protoporphyrinogen oxidase. Carfentrazone is used on crops, fallows, forest plantations, industrial, horticultural and commercial areas.
Carfentrazone is used in Australia, the United Kingdom, the European Union, and the United States. It was introduced in 1997.
Mechanism and effects
Affected weeds rapidly absorb carfentrazone through foliage, and show symptoms within hours, of desiccation, necrosis and death. It is often applied at 75 mL/ha in Australia, or less if part of a knockdown mixture with glyphosate, due to carfentrazone's prevention of weeds' metabolism, which reduces the translocation and effectiveness of glyphosate. Effectiveness is best when applied with much water, and reduced by high temperatures, sunlight and muddy or saline mix-water.
Safety
Carfentrazone is toxic to aquatic life, both in acute and chronic toxicities. In mammals, carfentrazone has a low toxicity, with an LD50 of over 5000 mg/kg, tested orally in rats. For birds, carfentrazone is also of low toxicity.
References
Links
Herbicides
Chloroarenes
Fluoroarenes
1,2,4-Triazol-3-ones
Carboxylic acids | Carfentrazone | [
"Chemistry",
"Biology"
] | 365 | [
"Herbicides",
"Carboxylic acids",
"Biocides",
"Functional groups"
] |
78,535,388 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proplyd%20114-426 | Proplyd 114-426 is a large protoplanetary disk seen in absorption in front of the emission of the Orion Nebula. It is one of the largest protoplanetary disks in the Orion Nebula with a diameter of 950 AU.
Discovery
Proplyd 114-426 was discovered in 1996 by Mark McCaughrean and Robert O'Dell with images of the Hubble Space Telescope. The central star was hidden behind the edge-on disk, but the disk showed emission nebulae above and below the center with the filter F547M. These nebulae are present because light from the central star is scattered by the dust of the disk. The disk was published together with other so-called proplyds.
The central star
While the central star is not seen directly, the scattered light can be used to study the central star. An infrared spectrum was published in 2004, showing that the central star had a spectral type of M0 and intermediate gravity. A mass of 0.58 and a temperature of 3750 Kelvin were estimated. The rotation of the disk helped to constrain the mass of the central star to below 1 and a likely mass of 0.4 .
The disk
The disk is one of the largest in the Orion Nebula. Initially the diameter was measured to be 2.3 arcseconds or 1012 AU. The dust mass of the disk was estimated to be 2.9 x 1028 grams (4.6 ) and the total (gas+dust) mass was estimated to be 4.34 x 1030 g (2.29 ). Additional Hubble observations showed that the disk is tilted, warped and experiences external photoevaporation. This photoevaporation is caused by diffuse radiation. According to this study the disk should dissipate in a few tens of thousands of years. This study also found that the disk is surrounded by a large "foot-like" structure seen in H-alpha. This "foot-like" structure could however belong to the Herbig-Haro object HH 530, which is located just north of proplyd 114–426. The disk was imaged with ALMA and the disk mass was estimated to be 3.38 ±0.56 . The disk is quite faint at longer wavelengths despite being a large disk. This is explained by the disk being an evolved disk with large particles of solids and ices. The disk is seen in dust continuum emission and absorption in the carbon monoxide band. The disk size was updated to be around 950 AU from Hubble images. The dust emission from ALMA is however confined to the inner region within about 350 AU. JWST NIRCam observed the central part of the Orion Nebula, including proplyd 114–426. This observation found a dip at 3 μm, which is seen as evidence of water ice. The grain size was estimated to be smaller than 0.25 to 5 μm and the dust+ice mass of the disk was estimated to be 0.46 in the silhouette region. The dust mass was previously estimated to be 9.9 in the scattered light region from ALMA observations. This indicates that while the silhouette is large, it contains a small fraction of mass, due to a small grain size. Absorption of the Paschen-alpha line might also be present, indicating excited hydrogen in the disk. The hydrogen could be excited by the central star or by an external source of ultraviolet light. The morphology from NIRCam images also support a tilted inner disk.
See also
List of resolved circumstellar disks
Other edge-on disks
Gomez's Hamburger
Dracula's Chivito
HK Tauri B
References
Circumstellar disks
M-type stars
Astronomical objects discovered in 1996
Orion (constellation)
Orion molecular cloud complex | Proplyd 114-426 | [
"Astronomy"
] | 767 | [
"Constellations",
"Orion (constellation)"
] |
78,535,434 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermomicrobiales | Thermomicrobiales is an order of thermophilic green non-sulfur bacteria within the class of Thermomicrobia. This order contains one family with a validly published name, Thermobicrobiaceae
Phylogeny
The currently accepted taxonomy is based on the List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature (LPSN) and National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI).
See also
List of bacteria genera
List of bacterial orders
References
Bacteria orders
Taxa described in 2002 | Thermomicrobiales | [
"Biology"
] | 107 | [
"Bacteria stubs",
"Bacteria"
] |
78,535,888 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul%20Rappaport%20Award | The Paul Rappaport Award was established in 1984 to commemorate the achievement of the late American physicist Paul Rappaport. The best paper appearing in a fast turn around archival publication of the IEEE Electron Devices Society is given the award annually. The recipients are awarded a certificate and $2,500, presented at the IEEE EDS International Electron Devices Meeting.
Recipients
The past recipients are:
See also
Paul Rappaport
References
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers | Paul Rappaport Award | [
"Engineering"
] | 90 | [
"Electrical engineering organizations",
"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"
] |
78,536,056 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lie%20n-algebra | In mathematics, a Lie n-algebra is a generalization of a Lie algebra, a vector space with a bracket, to higher order operations. For example, in the case of a Lie 2-algebra, the Jacobi identity is replaced by an isomorphism called a Jacobiator.
See also
2-ring
homotopy Lie algebra
References
Jim Stasheff and Urs Schreiber, Zoo of Lie n-Algebras.
A post about the paper at the n-category café.
John Baez, Alissa Crans, Higher-Dimensional Algebra VI: Lie 2-Algebras Theory and Applications of Categories, Vol. 12, (2004) No. 15, pp 492–528.
Further reading
https://ncatlab.org/nlab/show/Lie+2-algebra
https://golem.ph.utexas.edu/category/2007/08/string_and_chernsimons_lie_3al.html
Lie algebras | Lie n-algebra | [
"Mathematics"
] | 210 | [
"Algebra stubs",
"Algebra"
] |
78,536,622 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington%20Hood | Washington Hood (February 2, 1808 – July 17, 1840) was an American surveyor with the U.S. Army Corps of Topographical Engineers. A 1827 West Point graduate, he worked with fellow officer Robert E. Lee to determine the boundary line between the state of Ohio and Michigan Territory in 1835.
Biography
Hood was born on February 2, 1808, in Philadelphia. He was the eldest of twelve children born to Eliza Forebaugh and John McClellan Hood, an Irish immigrant and wholesale grocery and wine merchant. John Hood constructed Hood Mansion, a country estate in Limerick, Pennsylvania, in 1834. The site of a family mausoleum where Hood and his parents are interred, the estate has been abandoned since 2008.
A 1827 graduate of the United States Military Academy, Hood worked as a surveyor and topographical engineer. He is best known for working with fellow officer Robert E. Lee to map the border between the state of Ohio and Michigan Territory in 1835, when he earned a promotion to first lieutenant. He resigned in 1836 to work as a private-sector civil engineer in Cuba before rejoining the Army Corps of Topographical Engineers as a captain. He mapped the Oregon Territory in 1838 but reproduced errors found in earlier maps.
In 1839, President Martin Van Buren dispatched an expedition led by Hood to survey parts of Indian Territory bordering the states of Missouri and Arkansas (present-day northeastern Oklahoma). Hood contracted a disease, probably yellow fever, while on the expedition. He died in Bedford Springs, Pennsylvania, on July 17, 1840, at the age of 32.
Hood's journals, letters, drawings, maps, architectural plans, and other papers are held in the collections of the Winterthur Library and the Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library at Yale University.
References
External links
Washington Hood drawings in the collection of the Winterthur Library
1808 births
1840 deaths
19th-century American explorers
American surveyors
American topographers
Engineers from Philadelphia
Military personnel from Philadelphia
United States Army Corps of Topographical Engineers
United States Army officers
United States Military Academy alumni | Washington Hood | [
"Engineering"
] | 410 | [
"United States Army Corps of Topographical Engineers",
"Civil engineering organizations"
] |
78,536,772 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enzyme%20memory | Enzyme memory is a concept in enzyme kinetics based on the idea that the kinetic properties of an enzyme may vary according to conditions in its previous catalytic cycle. It can occur both in ternary-complex mechanisms and in substituted-enzyme ("ping-pong") mechanisms, with very different consequences.
Ternary-complex mechanism
A mnemonical mechanism for a reaction A + B → products that proceeds through a ternary complex EAB is shown in the illustration at the right. The essential characteristic, that makes this different from any mechanism in which substrate binding is at or close to equilibrium, is that it contains both slow and fast steps, with the fast step preventing the binding from reaching equilibrium, because release of products is too rapid to allow this. The enzyme exists in two forms: as a free enzyme it exists as E′, but the form released at the end of the catalytic cycle is E.
E′ is the form that exists during the catalytic reaction at low concentrations of the first substrate A, because substrate binding is too slow to prevent equilibration between the two forms of free enzyme. However, at high concentrations of A, EA is formed much more rapidly, and can be swept away too fast to allow E′ to be produced. In consequence the kinetic behaviour can vary with the substrate concentration, and deviations from Michaelis–Menten kinetics can result — negative cooperativity in the case of wheat-germ hexokinase, the enzyme for which the model was proposed, and positive cooperativity for liver hexokinase D.
However, the mnemonical model is not the only possible explanation of such behaviour, and other authors have preferred a slow-transition mechanism for similar experimental data. The differences in predictions made by these two models are very small, making it difficult or impossible to distinguish between them.
The idea that kinetic mechanisms could lead to properties that would be impossible for prcesses at equilibrium, such as cooperativity in monomeric enzymes originated in a suggestion that the kinetic behaviour of phosphofructokinase could be explained by a non-equilibrium mechanism in which the two substrates could bind in either order and a more general suggestion of how kinetic cooperativity could arise in a one-substrate reaction. However, the absence of any experimental cases that seemed to require such models resulted in their being regarded as theoretical hypotheses rather than as practical mechanisms until the development of the mnemonical model.
Substituted-enzyme mechanism
A substituted-enzyme mechanism consists of two half reactions. In the first a group G in a substrate AG is transferred to the enzyme E, which becomes EG (the "substituted enzyme"):
E + AG → EG + A
In the second half reaction the group G is transferred to the second substrate B, producing BG and regenerating the free enzyme E:
EG + B → E + BG
The complete reaction is thus
AG + B → A + BG
with E left unchanged. As the substituted enzyme EG is expected to be exactly the same regardless of which possible substrate, out of several possibilities AG, A′G, A′′G etc., donated G. One would expect, therefore, that the kinetics with respect to B would be the same regardless of the identity of AG. That is not, however, what was observed with rhodanese, or with ascorbate oxidase and aspartate aminotransferase. The reaction catalysed by ascorbate oxidase follows a triple-displacement mechanism, with two different substituted-enzyme forms, but it follows the same principles of enzyme memory.
Jarabak and Westley interpreted the results of these experiments to mean that in the first half reaction the substrate left an "imprint" on the enzyme that caused it to "remember" what it had been exposed to in the first half reaction. Subsequently, similar effects have been observed with other enzymes, such nitrate reductase from E. coli.
References
Enzyme kinetics
Catalysis | Enzyme memory | [
"Chemistry"
] | 819 | [
"Catalysis",
"Chemical kinetics",
"Enzyme kinetics"
] |
78,537,564 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forster%E2%80%93Swan%20theorem | The Forster–Swan theorem is a result from commutative algebra that states an upper bound for the minimal number of generators of a finitely generated module over a commutative Noetherian ring. The usefulness of the theorem stems from the fact, that in order to form the bound, one only need the minimum number of generators of all localizations .
The theorem was proven in a more restrictive form in 1964 by Otto Forster and then in 1967 generalized by Richard G. Swan to its modern form.
Forster–Swan theorem
Let
be a commutative Noetherian ring with one,
be a finitely generated -module,
a prime ideal of .
are the minimal die number of generators to generated the -module respectively the -module .
According to Nakayama's lemma, in order to compute one can compute the dimension of over the field , i.e.
Statement
Define the local -bound
then the following holds
Bibliography
References
Commutative algebra | Forster–Swan theorem | [
"Mathematics"
] | 194 | [
"Mathematical theorems",
"Theorems in algebra",
"Algebra",
"Fields of abstract algebra",
"Mathematical problems",
"Commutative algebra"
] |
78,539,056 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equine%20intelligence | Equine intelligence, long described in myths and anecdotes, has been the subject of scientific study since the early 20th century. The worldwide fascination for clever horses, such as Clever Hans, gave rise to a long-running controversy over the cognitive abilities of horse. The discovery of the Clever Hans effect, followed by the development of ethological studies, has progressively revealed a high level of social intelligence evident in horse's behavior. The scientific discipline that studies equine cognition, at the crossroads of ethology and animal psychology, is cognitive ethology.
Although the existence of consciousness among horses is yet to be proven, their remarkable memory has been recognized for centuries. Because of their wild herd lifestyle, horses also exhibit advanced cognitive abilities related to the theory of mind, enabling them to understand interactions with other individuals. They can recognize a human by their facial features, communicate with them through body language, and learn new skills by observing a person's behavior. Horses are also adept at categorizing and conceptual learning. In terms of working intelligence, horses respond well to habituation, desensitization, classical conditioning, and operant conditioning. They can also improvise and adapt to suit their rider. Understanding how horses' cognitive abilities function has practical applications in the relationship between domesticated horses and humans, particularly in areas such as training, breeding, and day-to-day management, which can ultimately improve their well-being.
The perception of horse intelligence varies across cultures. While the influence of Christianity may have led to it being viewed as limited, except for some medieval literature, it is more widely recognized among people who value animals as much as humans. This intelligence is often portrayed as human-like in tales and legends about wise, talking horses, such as the Kyrgyz epic Er-Töshtük and the Russian tale of The Little Humpbacked Horse, as well as in novels, films, comics, and series for young people, including The Black Stallion, Jolly Jumper, and Black Beauty.
History
The horse has played an important socio-economic role across various historical periods, serving humans in labor, combat, sports, therapy, consumption, and religious practices. However, the intrinsic qualities of horses have sometimes been overlooked, with a variety of cultural narratives and perceptions surrounding them. Humans have shown interest in horses since prehistoric times, prior to their domestication, and horses have inspired written works since antiquity. Vanina Deneux-le Barh observes a recurring theme in equestrian literature, both technical and literary: humans can train horses to become skilled fighters. This suggests that, in their shared lives with humans, horses are believed to demonstrate situational intelligence.
Many equestrian authors have expressed a desire for horses to demonstrate intelligence and dedication to work. Despite this, horses have often been subjected to harsh treatment. The oldest known equestrian treatise, written by Kikkuli of the kingdom of Mittani in the 14th century BC, is an instruction manual for the training of chariot horses. This text is characterized by its stringent selection methods.
Xenophon (430-355 B.C.), the first European author whose equestrian writings have survived, frequently discussed horses in his works. He recognized situational intelligence in warhorses of Athens and strongly advocated against using violence in training:
From the Middle Ages to modern times
A significant portion of medieval technical literature consists of treatises on veterinary care. Arab and Muslim scholars made notable contributions to the knowledge of equine medicine, education, and training, in part due to the contributions of the translator Ibn Akhî Hizâm, who wrote around 895, and Ibn al-Awam, who advocated for non-violent training methods and pioneered the application of habituation methods.
There are historical accounts of horses reported to be extraordinarily intelligent, such as the Catalan knight Giraud de Cabrières' horse, described by the medieval English chronicler Gervais de Tilbury as both refined and invincible in races, capable of dancing, and even advising its knight and helping him in his victories by communicating with him through a secret language. Similarly, the English horse Marocco (), nicknamed "The Thinking Horse" or "The Talking Horse," was trained and performed in public shows.
During the Renaissance, the printing press revolutionized the production and dissemination of equestrian literature. Writings primarily focused on methods to achieve obedience and maneuverability in horses. The Italian horseman Federico Grisone, for instance, promoted the use of physical punishment to control horses he considered difficult to train.
With the rise of philosophical debates in France, René Descartes' concept of the "animal machine" contrasted with Michel de Montaigne's perspective, which viewed animals as possessing intelligence and virtues. Antoine de Pluvinel, influenced by Xenophon, acknowledged the sensitivity, individuality, and psychology of horses, emphasizing the importance of understanding the brain. François Robichon de La Guérinière (1733) also recognized a form of intelligence in horses, noting that some horses exhibited challenging behaviors or appeared indecisive. According to Sophie Barreau and zootechnician-sociologist Jocelyne Porcher, Guérinière was among the first to reject harsh methods, prioritizing the horse's cooperation over submission.
In the 19th century
From the 19th century onwards, numerous equestrian treatises acknowledged the intelligence of horses. People who interacted with horses daily observed their ability to communicate and their sensitivity. The era's interest in animal intelligence was reflected in the organization of numerous horse-focused performances, which became a common circus feature during the mid-19th century, especially at Victor Franconi's circus, which was inaugurated in Paris in 1845. In 1868, the Spanish writer Carlos Frontaura observed the "great intelligence" (gran inteligencia) of the horses pulling Parisian omnibuses, praising their initiative.
François Baucher included a detailed discussion of the term "intelligence" where he expressed his firm belief in the horse's intelligence:
The structured training system promoted by Baucher emphasized engaging with the horse's intelligence. Similarly, zoologist Ernest Menault also recognized "signs of intelligence" in horses, though his observations were less grounded in scientific evidence. Gustave Le Bon was one of the early researchers in horse psychology, and his 1892 equestrian treatise acknowledged the horse's intellectual abilities.
According to Jocelyne Porcher, 19th- and 20th-century zootechnicians applied the "animal machine" hypothesis to horses, drawing on the ideas of René Descartes, Nicolas Malebranche, and Francis Bacon. This perspective held that horses could not think, feel pain, or possess consciousness and emotions. Social pressures discouraged researchers from challenging these views, as their findings might not be well received, given that the "animal machine" concept was easier to defend in the context of industrialized farming practices. In 1892, T. B. Redding reported on a societal divide: some attributed intelligence and reason to horses, while others dismissed their actions as purely instinctual.
Additionally, misconceptions persisted. One of the most widely disputed misconceptions, according to equestrian journalist Maria Franchini, was the belief—circulating since at least 1898—that a horse's obedience stems from seeing humans as seven times taller than they actually are.
The worldwide popularity of "Learned Horses"
Until the mid-20th century, discussions about animal intelligence were framed through ontological comparison with human cognition. In 1901, French military veterinarian Adolphe Guénon published a comparative psychology study titled L'Âme du cheval, where he characterized the horse's brain as relatively simple compared to that of humans. Starting in the late 19th century, there was a global interest in animals believed to demonstrate intelligence. These horses, described as "calculating," were equipped with specially designed tools—such as cubes, sticks, and boards—and demonstrated patience in performing tasks.
Numerous journalists wrote articles about the intelligence of horses. In 1904, C. Mader questioned the view of the horse as a "living machine". In 1912, Remy de Gourmont commented on the growing fascination with horse intelligence in a society that had previously considered horses to be of average intellect at best. In 1913, a writer for The New York Times published an article asking whether horses were capable of "thinking".
The case of Clever Hans () is a notable example of this interest. This black horse, raised in Germany, became an international sensation in the early 20th century due to his supposed ability to solve complex arithmetic problems by tapping his hoof to indicate answers:
Belgian philosopher Vinciane Despret notes the prolonged scientific debate sparked by Hans’s abilities, questioning whether horses possess conceptual intelligence. German psychologist Oskar Pfungst later revealed that Hans was not actually calculating but was instead highly attuned to human body language, stopping his hoof taps when he detected subtle cues. This discovery contributed to the development of the Clever Hans Effect.
Another notable example is Beautiful Jim Key, a horse which was trained to perform complex tasks and gained widespread fame in the early 20th century. Similarly, the case of the mare Lady Wonder sparked a debate about whether horses could communicate telepathically with humans. Despite doubts, some individuals continued to believe in equine telepathy well into the 1970s.
Implications of the Clever Hans case for equine cognition research
Dutch primatologist and ethologist Frans de Waal discusses the relevance of Morgan's Canon—a scientific principle stating that animal behavior should not be attributed to higher mental faculties if it can be explained by simpler processes—illustrated by the case of Clever Hans. According to Jocelyne Porcher, Morgan's Canon had a lasting impact on research into animal cognition.
De Waal also observes that the experiments on Hans were interpreted in ways that undermined his intelligence, even though the experiments demonstrated his ability to read and interpret human body language. Ethologist Léa Lansade emphasizes that, at the time and up until the 1960s, animals were considered "intelligent" only if they demonstrated human-like abilities—such as calculating or learning sign language—even though these skills were not necessarily aligned with their natural behaviors.
The Clever Hans case had a significant impact on subsequent studies of animal cognition, contributing to the adoption of more rigorous experimental protocols. As Deneux-Le Barh notes, "experimental sciences aim to minimize the influence of the mètis (cunning intelligence) of the individuals being studied."
In the first half of the 20th century, research was primarily focused on behaviorism. Over time, this field divided into two main currents: ethology and cognitive animal psychology, which later converged into cognitive ethology.
Highlighting the cognitive faculties of the horse
The behaviorist hypothesis that horses are merely "machines" reacting to stimuli has been critically reassessed, partly due to Maurice Hontang's Psychology of the Horse (1954) and subsequent scientific studies. Early research in equine ethology began with Pearl Gardner in the 1930s, where horses were initially tested under controlled conditions commonly used for laboratory animals, using mechanisms that granted access to food. These experiments were later refined, incorporating visual discrimination tasks and maze tests to evaluate learning abilities.
Recent studies have shown that horses do not simply follow "pre-programmed routines" but engage in cognitive processes to solve problems, indicating cognitive flexibility. The number of scientific publications on animal intelligence has increased steadily since the 2000s, particularly as cognitive ethology began including horses among its subjects of study.
Knowledge still incomplete
Despite these advancements, there are still gaps in knowledge about equine mental faculties. In 2022, psychologist and neuroscientist Michel-Antoine Leblanc observed significant gaps in research, noting the relatively small number of scientific publications, particularly before 2005. Many earlier studies were anecdotal or speculative rather than systematic.
Horses have been the subject of less research compared to other species. While primates have benefited from groundbreaking studies like those of Jane Goodall, and dogs are the primary focus among domestic animals, equine cognition has been less studied by comparison. In 2016, researchers Lauren Brubaker and Monique A.R. Udell noted that studies on rat cognition outnumber those on horse cognition by a factor of seven. The question of whether horses possess consciousness remains unresolved.
In 2023, Éditions Quæ published the first book dedicated to the intelligence of working horses. Jocelyne Porcher emphasized the potential insights gained from observing animals in work-related contexts, a field long overlooked by researchers despite its potential to reveal complex cognitive abilities.
Definition of equine intelligence
Michel-Antoine Leblanc highlights the long-standing debate over equine intelligence, which has generated a range of responses. He notes that there is no singular or unambiguous definition of intelligence, particularly when applied to horses. Historian and journalist Stephen Budiansky discusses the broader question of how intelligence itself is defined, as its meaning has evolved over time. Jocelyne Porcher and Sophie Barreau emphasized the importance of originality in behavioral responses as a characteristic of intelligence, distinguishing it from simple conditioned reactions. Instinctual behaviors in horses, such as fighting biting insects or seeking cooler areas during hot weather, are sometimes interpreted as signs of intelligence.
Modern interpretations of intelligence focus on the ability to solve problems, establish relationships between elements, and assimilate new information, rather than merely demonstrating good memory. Jocelyne Porcher underscores the subjective nature of these assessments, noting that horses possess "the intelligence that researchers are willing to attribute to them", as it is researchers who define the experimental conditions and cognitive tests. As human evaluators, researchers inherently influence the interpretation of equine cognition, particularly in comparisons with other mammal species.
To navigate these definitional challenges, some researchers, including Michel-Antoine Leblanc and Léa Lansade, focus on describing horses' cognitive processes without attempting to quantify their intellectual performance. Leblanc rejects efforts to measure an intelligence quotient (IQ) equivalent for horses, as well as attempts to determine whether horses are "more" or "less" intelligent than other species like dogs or cats. Horses, as herbivorous prey animals, exhibit cognition and behavior that present different scientific questions compared to carnivorous domestic species like dogs and cats.
Intelligence studied through interaction with humans
Among domestic animals, horses hold a unique position. Their modern domestic lifestyle differs significantly from that of their wild ancestors, while their intensive training for roles in sport, work, or companionship involves learning tasks far removed from their natural instincts—for instance, a movie horse learning to simulate death. Beyond suppressing their innate flight responses in frightening situations, horses are trained to communicate and cooperate with humans, a species they might naturally associate with predators. Authors like Alexis L'Hotte, François Baucher, Alois Podhajsky, and Nuno Oliveira suggest that intelligence in equestrian work is closely associated with affectivity and mutual understanding:
A survey conducted in France by sociologist Vanina Deneux-le Barh, involving 800 professionals in the equestrian sector and published in 2021 and 2023, reveals that equestrian professionals often describe their horses as "partners". These professionals highlight situational intelligence in horses, recognizing their ability to adapt and take initiative. Notably, the mental demands placed on horses often correspond to the complexity of their tasks.
Respondents also stressed the importance of rewarding horses to foster cooperation and nurture their intelligence. Equine intelligence often reflects the skills and methods of their trainers, particularly when conditioning and positive reinforcement align with the horse's natural inclinations.
The outcomes of horse-human collaboration highlight both the physical and cognitive contributions of horses to their activities. Deneux-le Barh describes equestrian disciplines as communities of practices that highlight the recognition of equine subjectivity and intelligence:
Horses demonstrate intelligence through isopraxis—their ability to subtly perceive and respond to the movements of their riders. Furthermore, studies on equine cognition suggest that familiarity with humans or other partners may influence how a horse's cognitive abilities are expressed.
Conditions of experience and limits
Like all mammals, horses construct their understanding of the world through sensory information. However, their sensory perception and understanding of the world differ from that of humans. Any evaluation of equine intelligence should consider their unique perceptual capacities.
Horses are sometimes studied under experimental conditions suited to their species. Both Budiansky and Leblanc suggest that comparing the intelligence of different species may reflect cultural biases and may not fully account for differences in sensory perception and physical capabilities. For instance, while horses are sometimes considered "less intelligent" than octopuses or equated with the intelligence of three-year-old children, comparisons with octopuses often overlook the differences in their anatomical adaptations, particularly regarding their ability to manipulate objects:
Another major limitation in cognitive studies is the insufficient consideration of the horse's emotional state. Stress or discomfort can negatively influence performance in experiments. Ethologist Martine Hausberger and her team highlight the impact of living conditions on cognitive outcomes, noting that horses subjected to poor living conditions tend to exhibit diminished cognitive abilities.
Earlier studies, especially those conducted before the 2000s, did not always account for the potential influence of prior learning on experimental outcomes.
Although anthropomorphism has traditionally been viewed as inappropriate, it can occasionally help in understanding horses' cognitive abilities through comparisons with human behavior. However, attributing human-like emotions and reasoning to horses—such as jealousy or premeditated malice—may oversimplify their behaviors.
Factors influencing cognitive performance in horses
Leblanc also points out that expressions of intelligence can vary greatly within the same individual and species, depending on factors such as social preferences or the ability to engage in abstract thinking. There is no evidence to suggest that horses dominant in the social hierarchy are more intelligent than other members of their group. Young horses tend to demonstrate more investigative behavior (curiosity) and interact more with test devices than older horses, which may influence their learning in certain contexts. In addition to age, a lower hierarchical rank may be a factor that promotes learning, potentially due to reduced neophobia.
Breed differences
There are very few comparative studies on equine intelligence by breed, but Budiansky suggests that the American Quarter Horse might perform differently from the Thoroughbred. This hypothesis is consistent with the findings of Lindberg et al., who propose that cold-blooded horses (such as ponies and draft horses) may complete conditioning tasks faster than hot-blooded horses such as the Thoroughbred and the Arabian. In 1933, L. P. Gardner concluded that the Belgian Draft horse, under certain conditions, learned tasks more quickly than the Percheron.
Many older and more recent studies describe the Arabian as a breed with certain cognitive traits that are sometimes perceived as more 'intelligent' compared to other breeds. This view is expressed in The Illustrated Horse Management by Edward Mayhew, published in 1864:
French veterinarian Alexandre-Bernard Vallon (1863) considered oriental horses, such as the Arabian and the Barb, to be more intelligent than those of "common breeds." Maurice Hontang notes that the Arabian and Thoroughbred have been bred for their competitive nature, which might contribute to their psychological differences.
The Horse's Brain
As with other large mammals, the horse's brain regulates its nervous system, processing perceptions to help the animal respond to them. The brain has an ovoid shape, with a length greater than its width, and contains numerous tightly packed gyri. Some studies suggest that the right cerebral hemisphere may be more involved in processing communication signals, while the left cerebral hemisphere may play a greater role in categorization stimuli.
The brain of an adult horse weighs approximately 510 grams; however, brain size relative to body size is not considered a definitive factor in measuring intelligence. The encephalization quotient (EQ) for horses is 0.9%
Cognitive abilities of horses
As riding instructor Nicolas Blondeau observes, a horse possesses learning and adaptation abilities that enable them to acquire new skills. Training enables horses to acquire specific skills through repeated practice and reinforcement. Horses display intelligence in solving various daily tasks, such as finding food and managing social interactions. Discriminative learning is an important aspect to assess when studying horse cognition, as it provides insights into their abilities and contributes to understanding other cognitive domains.
The ability to learn conspecifically (by observing other horses) was long unknown, until it was demonstrated in 2008.
Horse problem solving performance
Domestic horses, which live in controlled environments and are trained to perform specific tasks, are often tested in problem-solving contexts, but direct comparisons to wild horses are limited.
Budiansky suggests that, compared to some other species, horses may not be as adept at problem-solving. Some studies suggest that carnivores and primates may perform better in certain problem-solving tasks, such as avoiding obstacles. He also hypothesizes that differences between carnivores and herbivores, such as evolutionary adaptations, might influence their performance in these tasks. Herbivores, such as horses, may approach problem-solving differently from carnivores due to their distinct evolutionary behaviors. Veterinarian Robert M. Miller suggests that horses are capable of making decisions when faced with challenging situations.
Ethnologist María Fernanda de Torres Álvarez suggests that working relationships may allow horses to apply their cognitive abilities to solve practical problems. She cites the example of Camargue horses, which, when used for cattle work, are reported to help manage the situation by responding to their rider's cues and adjusting their actions. According to some observations, horses demonstrate problem-solving abilities in contexts where they need to find solutions to tasks. Budiansky notes that horses tend to perform at an average level in most maze tests. The learning performance of horses in maze tests has been found to be similar to that of other species, including tropical fish, octopuses, and guinea pigs, in some studies. Maria Franchini points out that rats, being subterranean animals, may be better suited to navigating maze-like environments, which could explain some of the differences in performance compared to horses, which naturally inhabit more open spaces.
Horse performance in maze tests
According to Budiansky, horses tend to perform at an average level in most maze tests. These tests typically involve a "T" or "Y" shaped maze with two options: one leading to a dead end and the other leading to food, water, or social contact with other horses. The horse cannot see the end of either branch of the maze in advance. The performance of horses in these tests is generally similar to that of tropical fish, octopuses, and guinea pigs. In the experiment cited by Budiansky, 20% of the horses made errors in finding the exit even after five trials.
Maria Franchini points out that while rats tend to perform better than horses in maze tests, this may be influenced by the rats' subterranean behavior, as they are accustomed to navigating confined spaces, while wild horses typically inhabit larger, open environments.
Memory
Horses' strong memory is one of the few characteristics commonly acknowledged by both 19th-century horsemen and modern researchers. In 1892, the sociologist Gustave Le Bon wrote:
In the equestrian world, there are numerous reports of horses recalling individuals who mistreated them, even years later. However, Michel-Antoine Leblanc notes that scientific research on this topic has historically been limited, and the consensus on horses' memory has often been based on anecdotal evidence.
In 1995, Dr. R. M. Miller suggested that horses possess excellent memory due to their evolutionary history, though he did not provide empirical evidence to support this. In 2009, a study by Evelyn Hanggi and Jerry Hingersol provided the first scientific evidence of long-term memory in horses, showing that they could retain complex memories—such as learning rules and performing mental tasks—for up to ten years. Horses also appear to remember people they interact with, recalling both positive and negative experiences. Ethologist Marthe Kiley-Worthington reported training two horses from a young age to understand approximately two hundred words.
When horses were exposed daily to an arena with new objects, they demonstrated the ability to recognize and remember objects previously inspected earlier in the day, but would continue to explore them on subsequent days.
Regarding short-term memory, horses perform similarly to other mammals such as donkeys, cats, and dogs, retaining information for at least 30 seconds. Their short-term memory is particularly strong when exploring new objects. However, their working memory is more limited, lasting about 20 seconds. Lansade suggests that this limitation may be due to the lower demand for extensive working memory in grazing herbivores.
Spatial visualization
Despite misconceptions about their visual perception, horses have eyesight adapted to open environments. While they do not have sharp and their color perception is dichromatic, horses excel in spatial visualization. This makes sense, as sight plays an important role in their social interactions. Their ability to navigate suggests they rely on a cognitive map of their surroundings.
Horses perform well on spatial (3D) visual discrimination tasks but struggle more with 2D object discrimination, such as patterns on colored backgrounds. There is no scientific evidence to support the myth that horses need to see an object with both eyes to recognize it, as the optic nerve fibers from each eye are connected to the opposite hemisphere of the brain.
Hanggi provides examples of horses noticing changes in their surroundings, such as when objects are moved. These reactions highlight their ability to detect alterations in their visual environment. This skill applies to both concrete objects, such as toys or doors, and abstract ones, like patterns or figures. In contrast, experiments on object permanence suggest that horses may struggle to track objects once they are no longer visible.
Maria Franchini speculates that some horses may be able to perceive small animals or insects in their path, citing the example of a mare which avoided live insects but stepped on dead ones. Additionally, many riders report that horses exhibit a strong sense of direction, which psychologist Sara J. Shettleworth suggests is closely linked to their memory.
Counting and categorizing
Horses have demonstrated the ability to solve complex cognitive tasks, including categorizing and understanding concepts. Researcher Evelyn Hanggi demonstrated that horses can grasp the relational concept of size by sorting objects of different dimensions. Horses can also distinguish complex patterns, such as certain geometric shapes, and are particularly adept at recognizing triangles.
Studies on horses’ counting abilities often reference the famous case of Clever Hans, though it remains unclear whether horses truly possess the ability to count. Some research indicates that horses can differentiate between quantities, such as one apple and two, or two apples and three, but may not distinguish between larger quantities like four and six. This suggests that horses can "count" up to four.
These studies also show that horses can form mental representations and perform simple counting tasks.
An ability to improvise?
Based on practical experiences, Doctor of Theatre Studies Charlène Dray suggests that show horses are capable of improvising on stage without expecting a reward, provided they have exploratory objects available. However, some riders who work with show horses agree that these animals are not aware of creating artistic emotions.
Shelly R. Scott describes a similar practical example, involving a horse race for where neither the horses nor their riders were prepared, requiring both to improvised during the event.
Social intelligence of the horse
Many studies have highlighted horses' advanced social intelligence. According to Lansade, scientific research on horses' social cognition toward humans has yielded significant findings, especially in the late 2010s. These studies suggest that horses have a complex representation of the individuals they interact with, which has led to their consideration as potential subjects for research on the theory of mind. These findings contribute to understanding their broader learning capabilities.
In the wild, horses live in groups and learn from one another within these social structures. Social learning is influenced by hierarchy, with horses more likely to learn from dominant members of their group than from subordinate members or those outside the group. While visual social communication is a key aspect of equine interaction, it is more difficult to study in comparison to species that rely on sound-based communication. Additionally, horses can experience emotional contagion, as seen in their responses to films.
When working with humans, horses tend to seek cooperation, calmness, and avoidance of conflict. They are capable of interpreting human body language, reading human emotions, and attributing mental states to humans. For example, Maria Franchini describes a situation in which a horse distinguishes between a helpful gesture, such as swatting an insect off its body, and an aggressive gesture, such as an attempt to hit it. In response to the latter, the horse may react by fleeing or resisting. An Icelandic study involving two groups of horses exposed to a peer's visual demonstration in solving spatial maze tasks found that the horses exposed to demonstrations did not perform better than control animals, suggesting that social learning was not effective in this context.
Recognition of other horses and humans
Horses can recognize individual humans and other horses using simple auditory cues, such as a voice, or visual cues, like facial features. Experiments have shown that horses can discriminate between faces in photographs or films and associate these with real individuals. Horses have also demonstrated the ability to differentiate between photographs of identical twins. Additionally, horses can remember familiar faces they have not seen for up to six months and can recognize them in photos. This ability to recognize faces appears to be holistic, similar to how humans perceive faces as a whole, rather than focusing on individual features. Lansade notes the significance of this discovery, drawing a comparison with humans who are accustomed to cows, as they may struggle to differentiate individual cows, while most horses can differentiate human faces with ease in just a few days.
Horses can also differentiate between human voices and associate a voice heard through a speaker with the person when they hear it in real life. They link voices with past experiences, whether positive or negative. Furthermore, horses can recognize emotions expressed through human facial expressions and vocalizations and respond accordingly.
Finally, horses seem to have an intermodal mental representation of both their peers and humans. They associate faces, smells, voices, and expectations based on past experiences. Horses deprived of one sense are likely to compensate by relying on their remaining senses to recognize individuals.
Interspecific communication
Horses can communicate with humans when they feel the need to do so. They are capable of drawing attention to gain access to a food source, such as through their gaze or, in some cases, by making physical contact. The horse is the second domestic animal species, after the dog, in which this ability has been demonstrated. Horses appear to be more interested in humans when they anticipate being provided with food, the training method used may influence their interspecific learning abilities. Training that incorporates ethological principles tends to yield better results.
A study has identified a "symbolic communication primer" between humans and horses, which allows horses to express their preference for wearing a blanket or not. According to the 2016 study, horses can learn the meaning of symbols through positive reinforcement (one symbol for putting on a blanket, one for staying as they are, and one for removing the blanket), and can use these symbols to communicate their preferences to humans.
In interspecific communication, horses can consider a human's perspective. In an experiment where two people are present—one knowing where food is hidden and inaccessible to the horse—the horse will instinctively ask for help from the person who knows where the food is. This ability, once thought to be exclusive to large primates and dogs, is considered complex.
Experiments on horses’ sensitivity to human pointing gestures (e.g., pointing at an object containing food with a finger) have shown that horses value these gestures, though it remains unclear whether they interpret them as communicative signals directed at them.. Four different pointing methods were tested; horses performed well in all tasks except for distal dynamic-momentary pointing, which was significantly more cognitively demanding than the other styles.
Horses are also sensitive to human attention and are more likely to approach a person who is looking at them while feeding them than one who is not. Young horses do not seem to be inherently predisposed to recognize or respond to human attention, suggesting that they acquire this skill through learning as they age.
Interspecific learning
Horses can acquire new skills by observing humans.
In one experiment, humans demonstrated to horses how to press a button to open a feeder, while another group of horses did not witness a demonstration. Some horses learned to open the feeder through observational conditioning, while most learned socially by observing humans, understanding where and how to manipulate the opening mechanism, and then using trial and error to access the food.
This ability to learn from humans may help explain why domestic horses can figure out how to open their stall doors or even operate the handle of an electric fence.
Reputation attribution
The horse can associate an emotional valence (a reputation) with a human based on its own experiences, as well as its observations of interactions between an experimenter and another horse. Lansade discusses this ability, noting that many horses respond to the arrival of a veterinarian, even one they have never encountered before. This seems to demonstrate an ability to recognize attributes specific to this profession (such as clothing or a particular smell) and to associate them with past experiences. In Lansade's cited experiments, horses retain memories for up to a year of being groomed by a person who provided either a positive or negative experience. They may even display characteristic facial expressions anticipation before the grooming begins. Horses can also recognize, in a film, a person who provides a positive or negative experience to one of their peers, and they adjust their interactions with these individuals based on the information observed in the films.
Applications of knowledge of equine cognition
Throughout its life, a horse must learn new skills, whether for survival and adaptation to its environment or for human purposes. From its historical roles in warfare and agriculture to its modern uses in sports and leisure, learning remains important. Breeding and selection practices have not eliminated the need for this learning. The horse industry relies on the animal's ability to learn under human guidance.
A large body of literature exists on various methods for training horses for riding, as well as on the diversity of training approaches that can be applied. The horse's social intelligence is also utilized in "equicoaching" sessions, which aim to help humans "reconnect with their emotional intelligence."
Learning is a complex and multifactorial process that requires time and commitment. Horses generally respond best to short, frequent training sessions. Other influential factors include genetics, motivation, and the horse's mood. An individual horse's temperament can also affect its learning abilities, with calmer horses often learning more quickly. Personality may further influence how a horse responds to different experiences.
Understanding the horse's cognitive abilities allows for practical applications that can better integrate its learning capacity. This can improve relationships between horses and humans and contribute to the horse's well-being, training, breeding, and daily care:
However, many horses still live in conditions that may not meet their cognitive and emotional needs, such as stalls without social contact, darkness, dusty environments, and a lack of mental stimulation. The use of inappropriate punishments remains widespread, as theoretical advancements in understanding horse behavior are not always accompanied by changes in practical training methods.
Responses to conditioning
The concept of "conditioning" refers to the association between a stimulus and a response, which can lead to habitual behavior. It does not imply that the conditioned subject is like a machine. Simple conditioning can be voluntary (for example, training circus horses) or involuntary, such as horses that become agitated and neigh at mealtime because they have associated a specific time or a noise in a food storage room with the impending arrival of their food.
A series of experiments show that horses respond well to simple forms of learning, such as classical conditioning (or Pavlovian conditioning) and operant conditioning. These techniques, which involve rewarding or removing a constraint after a successful task, are commonly used by humans to train horses to perform expected tasks. Reinforcement can be positive or negative. At the beginning of reinforcement learning, the horse may be unaware of what is expected and give random responses. The consequence of the response (reinforcement or punishment) is what enables learning.
Examples of positive and negative reinforcement and punishment in horses
In practice, horse professionals tend to use negative reinforcement more frequently than positive reinforcement.
Chaining can also be useful, for example, in teaching complex movements, such as the curtsy, step by step. Regardless of the reinforcement method used, it is important to apply consistent techniques over the long term and avoid mistakes during the learning process, particularly due to the horse's memory. Lansade cites the example of a horse that learns to avoid its rider by leaping over them, and "will never forget that it has mastered this technique." The only way to extinguish this behavior is for the horse to discover that "it no longer has the desired effect." The conditioning response also implies that "any bad start permanently compromises future success."
Positive reinforcement learning
Among the operant conditioning techniques used with horses, positive reinforcement is considered highly effective, even when applied to horses that bite. However, its effectiveness largely depends on maintaining a clear link between the desired behavior and the reward: the reward must be given immediately after the successful completion of an exercise. Initially, an incomplete response may be rewarded (e.g., a simple weight transfer onto the hind limbs in a horse learning to back up). Then, increasingly complete responses are required before rewarding (in the case of backing up, this could be one step back, then two steps back).
Once positive reinforcement learning is mastered, rewards become less frequent, but it is important to continue soliciting this learning from the horse regularly to prevent its extinction.
Care should be taken not to inadvertently reinforce unwanted behaviors. For example, a horse that taps on the door of its stall out of boredom may have this behavior inadvertently reinforced if a person raises their voice at it until the tapping stops. From the horse's perspective, attracting the attention of a human may be seen as a form of positive reinforcement, increasing the likelihood that it will tap on the door again to seek attention.
Negative reinforcement learning and punishment
Negative reinforcement learning in horses should never involve intentionally inflicting pain but rather temporarily placing them in an uncomfortable situation (e.g., applying pressure behind their ears with a halter) until they voluntarily change their behavior to regain comfort (in this example, by following the movement of the person holding the lead rope of the halter). Negative reinforcement appears to be very effective in training foals, but it can also increase their stress response. When negative reinforcement occurs spontaneously (such as a horse touching an electric fence), it can result in long-term memory of the experience. This may explain why some horses become anxious at the sight of a syringe, associating it with the pain of a subsequent injection. If a horse's defensive behavior is associated with the termination of a request (e.g., a request to remain calm during an injection or clipping), the animal learns that its defense results in the cessation of the request, which may cause it to become uncontrollable by humans. Horses may then develop threatening behaviors toward their veterinarian.
According to Australian researchers Paul D. McGreevy and Andrew N. McLean, the misuse of negative reinforcement can lead to learned helplessness or neurosis. It can be difficult for horses to make the connection between the behavior being punished and the punishment. For example, if a horse is whipped after refusing to jump an obstacle, it may not associate the punishment with its refusal and might develop an aversion to the show jumping arena, riding, or even to the person who punished it. A horse can also become "jaded" by harsh and inconsistent stimuli, making it insensitive to more subtle cues from a potential rider. Therefore, before using punishment, it is important to ensure that the behavior was clearly understood by the horse.
Trial and error learning
Horses are also capable of learning through trial and error. For instance, they may discover how to use large balls by initiating a gentle push on the side of the ball after initially attempting to jump on them. They may also learn how to operate an automatic waterer or accidentally figure out how to open the door of their stall after playing with the latch. In the latter case, if the horse discovers greater freedom of movement and access to food, positive reinforcement follows, increasing the likelihood that the horse will attempt to open the door again.
Responses to non-associative learning
Horses also respond well to habituation and desensitization, which are two forms of non-associative learning.
Habituation
Habituation is a common learning process among all animal species. It allows the horse to filter perceptions in its environment by no longer associating them with potential dangers (for example, plastic bags flying or ropes floating above its head). The response to the stimulus gradually diminishes. This type of learning is particularly important for foals or adult horses placed in a new environment, as it helps them adjust to noises, human touch, and the sight of unusual objects. For example, letting the horse hear the sound of clippers during feeding can significantly reduce its fear reaction when the clippers are used on its neck and poll.
An extreme form of habituation, called "behavioral imprinting", has been tested on foals. This involves intensive handling immediately after birth, including inserting fingers into natural orifices (mouth, ear, and anus), with the goal of producing horses that are easier to train and handle as adults. However, its intrusive nature and mixed results have led many scientists to question its effectiveness and discourage its use. Some breeders use it to accustom foals to the presence of humans and dogs at a young age.
Desensitization
Desensitization involves regularly exposing the horse to a stimulus that triggers a reaction until the response is reduced or extinguished. A classic example is opening an umbrella, which typically triggers a stress reaction, such as an increased heart rate. After about ten repetitions of opening the umbrella, the desensitized horse usually no longer reacts with stress.
The opposite of desensitization, sensitization, can result from mistreatment, such as a horse developing a strong reaction to a person who has caused it pain in the past.
Controversies and preconceived ideas
PhD in animal behavior biology Evelyn B. Hanggi and sociologist Vanina Deneux-Le Barh emphasize the persistence of beliefs that attribute limited abilities to horses. These beliefs postulate, for instance, that horses react only by instinct or respond solely to conditioning, without demonstrating cognitive abilities. One common fallacy is the argument that intelligence is incompatible with being ridden or mistreated by humans, even though mistreatment also occurs between humans without being linked to reduced intelligence.
These misconceptions continue to persist in professional equestrian circles. The results of Deneux-Le Barh's 2021 survey reveal significant ambivalence in the perception of intelligence in working horses. Some breeders and users believe that responses to conditioning are merely the reproduction of behavior, despite their statements suggesting the horses' mètis (ingenuity or craftiness). Leblanc cites the example of many riders who "deny any intelligence in the horse" while simultaneously attributing complex mental processes to it, using anthropomorphic phrases such as "he did it on purpose to annoy me." Linda Kohanov shares that, according to the American cowboys she interviewed, horses are not intelligent enough to recognize their own names. Equestrian journalist Maria Franchini also reported in 2009 hearing frequent claims about horses' low intellectual capacities, both in stables and in major media outlets.
Memory and empathy, however, are more widely recognized in professional circles, as illustrated by stories of horses adapting to work with disabled individuals, such as in equine therapy.
In an appearance on the show La Tête au carré on October 3, 2007, geneticist Axel Kahn asserted that horses possess much more limited intellectual capacities than octopuses, primates, and cetaceans. He cited the example of a mirror test where horses attacked the mirror placed in front of them. Maria Franchini expressed concern that this statement, made on a popular program, might contribute to misconceptions. Leblanc notes that the mirror test alone (or the Gordon G. Gallup test) may not be sufficient to confirm or deny a species' self-awareness. He refers to a 2017 study by Paul Baragli and his colleagues, in which horses subjected to the mirror test displayed clear signs of distinguishing between the reflection and a real animal. However, there were no indications that they recognized themselves in the mirror.
In culture
Mythology, legends and tales
Some stories from mythology, legends, and folktales depict horses as extraordinarily intelligent. The Scythian mythology, many fabulous horses appear, including the kokcwal, aquatic descendants of the sea god's horses, which are capable of understanding human speech. Bucephalus, the horse of Alexander the Great, is described in Greek sources and the Alexander Romance as "very intelligent," much like his young master, particularly because he, too, understands human speech. In the Turkish epic of Er-Töshtük, a folktale from Kyrgyzstan, the horse Tchal-Kouyrouk warns his rider, Töshtük, with these words: "Your chest is broad, but your mind is narrow; you think of nothing. You do not see what I see, you do not know what I know... You have courage, but you lack intelligence." In some stories, the psychopomp powers of the horse are portrayed as superior to those of humans.
Medieval Christian literature features numerous "extraordinary horses" endowed with intelligence and human-like qualities. Professor of medieval literature Francis Dubost cites examples such as Bayard, the horse from the lai of Lanval, and The Song of the Aliscans. Even the horses of pagans are depicted as possessing formidable intelligence, capable of fighting independently. The medievalist Michel Zink also observes the presence of faithful horses in this literature, which "demonstrate an intelligence that exceeds their nature." Examples include La Chevalerie d'Ogier, the Broiefort d'Ogier, and the Marchegai d'Aiol.
Italian ethnologist Angelo De Gubernatis identifies a mytheme— the transformation of a fool into an intelligent and wise man—as parallel to the transformation of a worthless nag into a noble horse:
De Gubernatis cites, among other examples, the Russian tale of The Little Humpbacked Horse, in which a small horse gifted with the ability to fly repeatedly saves its rider and wisely advises him.
The Dogon tale "Why Doesn't the Horse Speak?" explains that in the past, horses spoke with humans, but an ungrateful and deceitful woman exploited the advice of a clever horse without thanking him or informing her family of his help. In retaliation, all horses stopped speaking to humans, choosing instead to neigh.
The Mahi tale (from central Benin) titled Destiny tells of an orphan abandoned by his brothers who spares three horses destroying his crops and gains their help to win the love of a princess.
In the Aarne-Thompson-Uther classification, these tales correspond to the ATU 531 type tale, "The Intelligent Horse." This theme is also found in the Norwegian tale Dapplegrim, the Sicilian tale Lu cavadduzzu fidili (The Loyal Horse), the Guatemalan tale of the "Bad Combadre," and the medieval Jewish tale "Joḥanan and the Scorpion," one of the seven stories from the Sefer ha-ma'asim.
Religious and cultural particularisms
Professor of religious studies Judy Skeen emphasizes the importance of questioning the "concept of human domination over nature" to move beyond the view of animals as "mere functions or resources for humans" and to challenge the assumption "that human beings have more value than other creatures." She advocates for evaluating intelligent life using criteria beyond human intelligence. She also highlights a contrast between the perception of the horse's intelligence in Christian tradition, which assigns greater value to humans than to horses, and in other traditions, such as Native Americans beliefs, which readily acknowledge animal intelligence—for example, through observations of prey-predator relationships.
Christianity
According to historian Éric Baratay, the refusal to recognize animal intelligence was largely adopted by Western Christianity, drawing on Platonist and Aristotelian philosophies to elevate humans while diminishing and devaluing animals.
Through Germanic pagan beliefs, historian Marc-André Wagner explores a progressive demonization of the horse, aimed at Christian leaders ending the ritualistic reverence once afforded to the animal. He specifically mentions the fight against hippomancy (divination using horses), wherein evangelists countered pagan claims that horses possessed divinatory powers by asserting instead that it was the Christian God speaking through the animal. Wagner cites the example of the 7th-century text Vita de Columba of Iona, in which the Irish saint's horse lays its head on his knees and begins to weep, apparently sensing its imminent death:
In Ladakh
According to S. C. Gupta et al., Tibetans in the cold, arid region of Ladakh believe that the intelligence of their small local Zanskari horses enabled warriors to achieve superior performance in regional wars during the 18th century.
In Mongolia
Anthropology lecturer Gregory Delaplace (2015) notes that the Mongols regard horses as companions and recognize not only their intelligence (uhaan) but also their ability to perceive and feel the invisible—a quality independent of intellect. The Mongolian historian Françoise Aubin provides an example in the Mongolian phrase used to inquire about the best gait for a horse, "ene jamar erdemtej mor' ve," which literally translates as "What is its science?" or "What is its art?"
Literature, film and television
The satirical novel Gulliver's Travels (1721) features noble, rational, and intelligent horses called the Houyhnhnms. According to literature professor Bryan Alkemeyer, its author Jonathan Swift may have intended to prompt a reevaluation of the definition of humans and their supposed superiority over animals. The Mearas imagined by J. R. R. Tolkien, include Grippoil, Gandalf's mount, a type of highly intelligent horse capable of understanding human language. These horses are said to be descended from Nahar, the steed of Oromë.
Professor Sylvine Pickel-Chevalier and Dr. Gwenaëlle Grefe identify an archetypal model of the horse in children's and youth literature and cinema, which they call "horse-love." Representative examples include the cultural productions surrounding The Black Stallion, White Mane, Black Beauty, Running Free, the novels, films, and series of My Friend Flicka and War Horse, as well as the films Spirit and Windstorm.
In this type of narrative, which centers on a story of mutual affection between a human protagonist, often a child, and an equine companion, they note that the horse, "elevated to the rank of an epic hero to the point of sometimes becoming the narrator," is distinguished by physical and behavioral traits, including intelligence. However, the portrayal of the horse's abilities often includes a strong dose of anthropomorphism.
In his children's book The Learned Horse (1991), Laurent Cresp tells the story of an intelligent horse living in Istanbul, that wishes to be treated like a sentient being.
In comics, Lucky Luke's mount, Jolly Jumper (created in 1946), is depicted as the most intelligent horse in the West. He is capable of speaking (and even engaging in philosophical discussions), counting, writing, playing chess, and fishing on his own. Similarly, the American television series of the 1960s Mister Ed features a horse that speaks only to its owner, who has a fondness for drink. The intelligence of the horse actors in the series has often been praised.
See also
Horse behavior
Clever Hans
Beautiful Jim Key
Lady Wonder
Animal cognition
Cognitive ethology
Notes and references
Notes
References
Academic references
Historical references
Press references
Bibliography
Cognitive psychology
Animal intelligence
Horse behavior | Equine intelligence | [
"Biology"
] | 10,739 | [
"Behavioural sciences",
"Behavior",
"Cognitive psychology"
] |
74,192,384 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/11%CE%B2-Hydroxydihydrotestosterone | 11β-Hydroxydihydrotestosterone (11OHDHT) is an endogenous steroid. Although it may not have significant androgenic activity, it may still be an important precursor to androgenic molecules.
Biological role
11OHDHT, along with other carbon-11-oxygenated (C11-oxy) steroids, 11-ketodihydrotestosterone (11KDHT) and 11-ketotestosterone (11KT), are androgen receptor (AR) agonists. The interconversion of C11-oxy C19 steroids, which includes 11OHDHT, was found to be more efficient than that of C11-oxy C21 steroids. 11OHDHT was also found to exhibit antagonism towards the progesterone receptor B (PRB), although it is not a pregnane (C21) steroid, highlighting the intricate interplay between receptors and active as well as "inactive" C11-oxy steroids.
See also
Dihydrotestosterone
Steroid 11β-hydroxylase
11-Ketodihydrotestosterone
11β-Hydroxytestosterone
External links
An entry in the LIPID MAPS database: https://www.lipidmaps.org/databases/lmsd/LMST02020136
References
5α-Reduced steroid metabolites
Androstanes
Cyclopentanols
Ketones | 11β-Hydroxydihydrotestosterone | [
"Chemistry"
] | 320 | [
"Ketones",
"Functional groups"
] |
74,194,049 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PsiQuantum | PsiQuantum, Corp. (formerly PsiQ) is an American quantum computing company based in Palo Alto, California. It is developing a general-purpose silicon photonic quantum computer.
History
PsiQuantum was co-founded in 2016 by Jeremy O'Brien, Terry Rudolph, Peter Shadbolt, and Mark Thompson. They are or were professors and researchers at the University of Bristol and Imperial College London, England.
As of July 2021, PsiQuantum was reported to have raised $665 million from investors at a valuation of $3.15 billion. Its investors include BlackRock, Baillie Gifford, and Microsoft's venture fund M12.
In 2022, PsiQuantum and GlobalFoundries received U.S. federal funding for quantum computer research and development. PsiQuantum also entered into a collaboration with the Air Force Research Laboratory.
In 2023, DARPA selected PsiQuantum as one of the companies to receive funding under its Underexplored Systems for Utility-Scale Quantum Computing (US2QC) program. The UK Government also provided funding for PsiQuantum to open a test facility for cryogenic testing in the UK.
In 2024, the Australian Commonwealth and Queensland governments announced a million investment into the company via share equity (US$250 million) and loans. to build the world's first utility-scale, fault-tolerant quantum computer in Brisbane, Queensland. PsiQuantum stated that it had an aggressive plan to have the system operational by the end of 2027. In July 2024, PsiQuantum announced it had signed a memorandum of understanding (MOU) with five Queensland universities (The University of Queensland, Griffith University, Queensland University of Technology, University of Southern Queensland and the University of the Sunshine Coast) to develop educational programs in quantum fields and collaborate on research projects.
Later in July 2024, PsiQuantum announced it would be partnering with the State of Illinois, Cook County, and the City of Chicago to anchor Governor JB Pritzker's new Illinois Quantum and Microelectronics Park.
References
2016 establishments in California
Computer companies established in 2016
Computer hardware companies
Quantum information science
Quantum computing
Computer companies of the United States
Privately held companies based in California | PsiQuantum | [
"Technology"
] | 461 | [
"Computer hardware companies",
"Computers"
] |
74,199,361 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pi%20is%203 | Pi is 3 is a misunderstanding that the Japanese public believed that, due to the revision of the Japanese Curriculum guideline in 2002, the approximate value of pi (π), which had previously been taught as 3.14, is now taught as 3 in arithmetic education. In fact, this is not true, and even after the revision, the approximate value of pi is still taught as 3.14.
In the Japanese Curriculum guideline published in December 1998 and implemented in 2002, regulations such as the limitation on the number of digits for decimal multiplication were changed. Although the new regulations did not change the fact that pi was to be calculated using "3.14," they added the statement that "3 is used for the purpose."
At that time, many people believed elementary school students were forced to hand calculate pi as "3", and believed that is a typical example of the negative effects of a relaxed education. This misunderstanding was not easily resolved.
Overview
In the fall of 1999, a major cram school company launched a major campaign with advertisements that read "The formula for finding the area of a circle: radius x radius x 3!", "Calculate the quadrature of a circle with pi as approximately 3 instead of 3.14."
The mass media also picked up on this issue, and it wrongly became widely believed in society that "as a result of the relaxed education system, pi is now taught as 3.
As a criticism of the decline in scholastic achievement and the relaxed education system, "Pi is 3" was widely covered in weekly and monthly magazines and other mathematics-related journals.
Details
"Use 3 if fits your purpose" guideline
The Japanese Curriculum guideline was started as a guide only, but at some point, they came to be considered legally binding. In addition to this, there was also a so-called "restrictive provision" that "has to teach without excesses or deficiencies of what the guidelines say." This statement was carried over to the 1998 revision (implemented in 2002 for elementary schools.)
"To process using 3 for the purpose" assumed for,
If you want to make an estimate, calculate quickly by 3.
The decimal point is not calculated from the beginning, and a rough guess is made with 3 to reduce the possibility of calculation errors.
When want to approximate the perimeter or area of an object that is similar to a circle, calculate the circumference and area of the circle using pi as 3.
One interpretation is that they expect to develop the ability to make appropriate judgments and process the information according to the situation and application.
Issues with the 1998 Revised Guidelines
As part of the so-called "relaxed education," the content of arithmetic learning in multiplication, division, and decimals was reduced, while calculators were allowed to be used from the arithmetic learning stage.
On the other hand, because relaxed education reduced the time for learning but not the areas of learning, many people believed that, students were forced by guideline to use 3 instead of 3.14 as the approximate number of Pi for calculating. However, it was a misunderstanding.
In addition, the use of calculators, which was allowed from the 5th grade under the previous teaching guidelines, was allowed from the 4th grade and calculations using 3.14 were possible even with a calculator.
Limit the number of decimal digits
In the 1998 Revised Curriculum guideline in Japan, the calculation of decimals in the fifth grade of elementary school is,
Because of the above limitation, this led to the misunderstanding that 3 must be used as pi. But even if decimals were limited to 1/10th of a place, the pi used would still be 3.1, which does not define pi as 3.
The misunderstanding that "pi is approximately 3"
At that time, in the fall of 1999, a major cram school company released the following advertisement.
They conducted a major campaign in the Tokyo metropolitan area, and the media covered it extensively.
This led to widespread public awareness of the misunderstanding that pi is now taught as 3 because of the relaxed education system.
Akito Arima, who promoted "relaxed education" as the Minister of Education at the time, repeatedly said, "I was stunned by that," and regretted "my failure to go around the country and explain it in detail."
Disappearance of the sentence
In the second report of the Japanese Central Council for Education on February 23, 2003, the policy of emphasizing scholastic ability was formulated.
In December 2003, the Curriculum guideline was partially revised to remove the limitation that they must be taught without excesses or deficiencies and changed to a minimum standard that allows teaching in more detail than what is written in the Curriculum guideline, if necessary.
On February 15, 2008, the Japanese Ministry of Education released the new Curriculum guideline (effective in 2011 for elementary schools), the first after the complete revision of the Fundamental Law of Education, and the restrictive provision was eliminated.
As a result of the increase in the content of the study, the content has become such that have already learned how to calculate the decimal point by the time they use pi, and the section on pi now states only that "pi shall be 3.14" and the statement "3 is used for the purpose" has been deleted.
Social Impacts
Impact on science and education professionals
The issue of "pi is 3" was discussed in mathematics-related journals and various academic journals. This misunderstanding was not easily resolved, and there were many misunderstandings even among those involved in education.
In response to this situation, Masahiro Kaminaga, an associate professor of the Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering in Tohoku Gakuin University, confessed that he had been convinced that "relaxed education is a foolish reform that teaches pi as 3." And he said, "I usually said, 'Go and do your own research until you are satisfied,' but if teachers are like this, it must be a problem before educational reform."
Other issues with treating pi as approximately 3 that were discussed, included "pi is an irrational number, so it is neither exactly 3 nor 3.14. Thus, while the former and the latter are essentially equivalent in learning the procedure, there is a clear difference in approximate accuracy," "if pi is calculated as 3, the perimeter is the same for the circle and the regular hexagon inscribed in it," and "for the circumference of a circle with a diameter of 10 cm, the error would be 1.4 cm." were point out.
It also points out the danger of adding ".14" in vain in terms of significant figures.
Impact on the public
The misunderstanding that "they teach pi as 3 in elementary school" was seen in weekly and monthly magazines as well. This has resulted in a distrust of public school education.
In Nisio Isin's novel Zaregoto, a scene appeared in which the truncated decimal point is introduced as "the tragedy of 0.14".
On one TV program, five comedians presented a skit in which they used "Pi is OK at 3" as a key line.
The theme song of "Yutori-chan," an animation about Japan's "Yutori" generation, includes the lyrics "3.1415 pi is approximately 3."
The misunderstanding of teaching pi as 3 was also introduced by Akira Ikegami in a 2013 TV program.
Impact on University Entrance Examination Questions
In 2003, in the sixth question of the first semester of science at the University of Tokyo, a question asking "Prove that pi is greater than 3.05" was included and it became famous as a question with a message opposing the government's stance of teaching pi as 3.
Example of a solution
To solve this problem, to prove that the perimeter of the regular dodecagon inscribed in the circle of diameter 1 is greater than 3.05.
First, consider a circle of diameter and a regular dodecagon inscribed in circle . Since the length of the circumference of a circle of radius is , the length of the circumference of circle whose radius is
.
Also, if the perimeter of the regular dodecagon inscribed in circle is defined as ,
.
Thus, the circumference of a regular dodecagon are greater than 3.05. Then
.
See also
Yutori education
Curriculum guideline (Japan)
Approximations of π
References
Pi
Education in Japan
Misconceptions
2002 in education
3 (number) | Pi is 3 | [
"Mathematics"
] | 1,716 | [
"Pi"
] |
74,199,747 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bristol%20perambulation | The Bristol perambulation was a civic ritual, usually performed annually, in Bristol, England, from the sixteenth to the nineteenth centuries. Also called 'beating the bounds' it usually involved a party of civic officers (headed by the mayor and sheriffs) walking or riding around the land boundary of the city and county of Bristol. On the way they inspected the 'shirestones' (boundary markers) to ensure all were visible and in good order.
Origin
The first perambulation took place on 30 September 1373, following the granting of a royal charter to Bristol on 8 August that established it as a county in it own right - with its own sheriffs and county court. The first action required following this was for the boundary of the town's existing lands to be accurately surveyed and agreed, by notable people from Bristol, Gloucestershire and Somerset. This resulted in a long textual description of the route taken, describing landmarks and places along the way, such as ditches, embankments and existing stone boundary markers. On 20 December 1373 this survey was enshrined in a royal charter under the Great Seal of England - defining the territory of the new county in law. The original charter survives in Bristol Archives.
The route and the shirestones must have been subject to regular checks by the mayor or his officers over the following centuries to ensure that boundary stones had not been moved or disturbed. In an age before accurate maps or surveys, this was vital to ensure, for example, that nobody moved a boundary stone as a way of stealing land. It was also important to be clear about the exact boundary because county law officers only had jurisdiction within their county. So they would only be able to arrest or prosecute a highwayman, for example, if they were in their county.
Early civic perambulations
Perambulating the county boundary as a civic ritual is only clearly documented from the late sixteenth century. The earliest identified reference is found in the Mayor's Audit Book for 1584, where expenses relating to the costs involved are recorded. These included breakfast for the mayor and sheriffs. Following the inspection of the shirestones, the party spent the afternoon drinking a gallon of Madeira wine. Similar expenses are recorded in the city records of the seventeenth century. A typical entry, which has been published in full, is that for September 1628:
Item paide for the Charges goeing about the Shirestones viz for ale & cakes at Jacobs Well ij.s.: vj.d., for labourers to open the wayes vj.s., for butter, cheese plums sugar, duckes carrienge the provisions and other thinges as per William Loydes note xvij.s.vij.d., for wyne at Robert Shewardes xxxj.s., for bread & cakes xj.s., and for sweete meates & comfittes to the widowe Patch xvj,s,.: all is iiij.li, vis. j.d.
In some years the perambulation had to be abandoned or curtailed. For example, during the Great Plague outbreak of 1665-66, the mayor decided not to ride out to the 'Receipt House' (alias Conduit House) near Baptist Mills. This was because doing so would have required the party to twice pass by the pesthouse that had been established on the Forlorn Hope Estate
Other towns and cities, such as Norwich, also developed or regularised the perambulation of their town / city lands during the sixteenth century. In part this was a response to the English Reformation, which had resulted in many religious processions being abolished because they were associated with saints' days or incorporated rituals or practices that were seen as papist. The historian Matthew Woodcock argues that city and town governments saw Perambulation Day as a way 'to actively stage a reaffirmation and celebration of communal identity'. Although these perambulations were centred around the civic elite, in some instances much larger crowds joined them.
In Bristol, the perambulation typically took place between the election of the new mayor and sheriffs on 15 September and the commencement of their office at Michaelmas (29 September). The mayor and sheriffs typically served for just one year. Doing the perambulation at this time thus allowed the outgoing and incoming officers to beat the bounds together, surveying the land and the boundaries that were being passed on from one set of civic officers to the next. Writing in the late 18th century, the antiquarian William Barrett noted that in his time 'the circumference of the whole within the liberties as appears by the perambulation round it, (which to preserve its true limits and boundaries, is made annually, at choosing a new mayor) consists of seven miles two quarters and fifty-five pearch.' To 'satisfy the curious and inquisitive' Barrett then provides a seven-page description of the 'Bounds'. Earlier similar published descriptions of the bounds testify to the longstanding interest of the wider public in the exact route of the perambulation. This interest outlasted the creation of accurate maps and survey of the complete county, such as that of John Rocque in 1743, which was the first to mark the county boundary in its entirety, including the location of each shirestone.
Victorian and Edwardian perambulations
From 1835 the boundary of Bristol was successively expanded through Acts of Parliament. This made the route longer and, as a result, they only took place every few years. However, when they did take place, they could be very large-scale events. For instance, the newspaper reports of a perambulation in 1874 indicate that the perambulation of the land boundary took two days and involved about five hundred people. This was followed by a perambulation of the count's water boundary. That included the lower part of the River Avon and the southern half of the Severn Estuary extending to Steep Holm and Flat Holm. In 1900 there was another perambulation of the much enlarged county boundary. On 11 September 1900 it was reported in the press that ‘the area to be covered renders the task so arduous that five days have to be set apart for the task, which will not be completed until Saturday evening.’ The party was to 'proceed from stone to stone, and see that the stones were properly marked and placed on the boundary in such a way that disputes would be averted and trouble with owners of adjoining property avoided, and also to see that the rights of the city on the line of the boundary were upheld. They would be marshalled in something like processional order’. Great pains were taken to follow the exact route, in some cases passing through private houses, going through one window by ladder and out the other, or traversing walls. A reporter noted on the first day that at one point in Horfield '‘a considerable length of wall had to be traversed. In negotiating this part of the journey Alderman Dix had the misfortune to make an abrupt and unexpected descent through the roof a fowl house’.
Twenty-first century civic perambulations
Bristol's civic perambulations died out during the twentieth century. There was one in 2007, during the mayoralty of Royston Griffey, which involved a perambulation of the water boundary. A civic perambulation of the medieval land boundary, led by the Deputy Lord Mayor and Deputy Sheriff, took place on 30 September 2023. This was to commemorate the 650th anniversary of the original perambulation.
Perambulating the medieval county boundary today
In July 2023 historian Evan Jones from the University of Bristol produced a free online map to allow ordinary people to perambulate the city according to its original 1373 boundary. This includes the location of the shirestones recorded in the 1736 survey and a route along public roads / rights of way that sticks as closely as possible to the original boundary. Most of the 1373 route remain public roads or paths today. However, wholesale redevelopment of parts of the city, such as Kingsdown and part of Redcliffe mean that buildings now block some of the early route, requiring diversions. The development of the city docks in the nineteenth century, with the creation of the New Cut, also forces some diversions in the Redcliffe/Bedminster area. The total length of Jones' route is ; all can be done on foot and most of it by bicycle. In June 2024, 'Arts Matter' at the University of Bristol published a 2 minute video, featuring Jones, to promote the route and explain its background.
Route
Since the perambulation is a circular walk, it can be started from any point and walked in either direction. The route identified by Evan Jones is based on the 1736 description of the perambulation route. This began at the River Avon at the bottom of Jacobs Wells Road and included a separate numbering of the shirestones on the Gloucestershire border and the Somerset border. The numbers allocated in 1736 were given on maps of Bristol produced by George Ashmead in 1828 and 1855. Since boundary stones were added in various places between 1373 and 1736, to make the line of the boundary clearer, not all the stones described in 1736 were extant in 1373.
References
History_of_Bristol
British traditions
Ceremonies
Borders
Boundary markers
Landscape history | Bristol perambulation | [
"Physics"
] | 1,923 | [
"Spacetime",
"Borders",
"Space"
] |
74,199,840 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project%20Adam | Project Adam was a proposed plan by the United States Army for a manned, suborbital rocket flight. It was developed in 1958, in parallel with the United States Air Force's Project Manhigh, and was initially called Project Man Very High. The twin aims were to gather scientific data on high-altitude flight and to enhance national prestige in the wake of the successful launch of the Soviet Union's Sputnik 1. A further goal was to investigate the possibility of troop transport by ballistic missile.
History
The plan involved using off-the-shelf hardware to send a passenger on a steep ballistic flight from Cape Canaveral, with a splashdown in the North Atlantic. The launch vehicle would have been a modified Redstone Jupiter-C. The astronaut would have been housed in a capsule modelled on the USAF's Manhigh gondola, modified for a water landing, with no provision for manual control. At the apogee of flight the astronaut would have experienced six minutes of weightlessness. The first manned flight would have been preceded by a series of flights involving primates.
Project Adam was devised by the Army Ballistic Missile Agency, and was proposed to the Advanced Research Projects Agency on 11 July 1958. However although Secretary to the Army Wilber M. Brucker backed the project, largely as a psychological demonstration, Deputy Secretary of Defense Donald A. Quarles believed that it had "about the same technical value as the circus stunt of shooting a young lady from a cannon". The plan was not formally approved, although after the formation of NASA on 29 July 1958 elements of the hardware were folded into Project Mercury.
References
Space research
Human subject research in the United States
Military projects of the United States | Project Adam | [
"Engineering"
] | 349 | [
"Military projects of the United States",
"Military projects"
] |
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