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Biology for AP ® Courses
SENIOR CONTRIBUTING A UTHORS
JULIANNE ZEDALIS , BISHOP 'S SCHOOL
JOHN EGGEBRECHT , BROOKLYN TECHNICAL HIGH SCHOOL
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Table of Contents
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Unit 1
Chapter 1: The Study of Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.1 The Science of Biology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.2 Themes and Concepts of Biology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Chapter 2: The Chemical Foundation of Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.1 Atoms, Isotopes, Ions, and Molecules: The Building Blocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
2.2 Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
2.3 Carbon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Chapter 3: Biological Macromolecules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
3.1 Synthesis of Biological Macromolecules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
3.2 Carbohydrates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
3.3 Lipids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
3.4 Proteins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
3.5 Nucleic Acids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Unit 2
Chapter 4: Cell Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
4.1 Studying Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
4.2 Prokaryotic Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
4.3 Eukaryotic Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
4.4 The Endomembrane System and Proteins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
4.5 Cytoskeleton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
4.6 Connections between Cells and Cellular Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
Chapter 5: Structure and Function of Plasma Membranes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
5.1 Components and Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
5.2 Passive Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
5.3 Active Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
5.4 Bulk Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
Chapter 6: Metabolism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
6.1 Energy and Metabolism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
6.2 Potential, Kinetic, Free, and Activation Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
6.3 The Laws of Thermodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
6.4 ATP: Adenosine Triphosphate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
6.5 Enzymes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
Chapter 7: Cellular Respiration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
7.1 Energy in Living Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
7.2 Glycolysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
7.3 Oxidation of Pyruvate and the Citric Acid Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
7.4 Oxidative Phosphorylation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
7.5 Metabolism without Oxygen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
7.6 Connections of Carbohydrate, Protein, and Lipid Metabolic Pathways . . . . . . . . . . 307
7.7 Regulation of Cellular Respiration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
Chapter 8: Photosynthesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
8.1 Overview of Photosynthesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
8.2 The Light-Dependent Reaction of Photosynthesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
8.3 Using Light to Make Organic Molecules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
Chapter 9: Cell Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
9.1 Signaling Molecules and Cellular Receptors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
9.2 Propagation of the Signal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
9.3 Response to the Signal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
9.4 Signaling in Single-Celled Organisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386
Chapter 10: Cell Reproduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
10.1 Cell Division . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
10.2 The Cell Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
10.3 Control of the Cell Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
10.4 Cancer and the Cell Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426
10.5 Prokaryotic Cell Division . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430Unit 3
Chapter 11: Meiosis and Sexual Reproduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445
11.1 The Process of Meiosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446
11.2 Sexual Reproduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456
Chapter 12: Mendel's Experiments and Heredity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469
12.1 Mendel’s Experiments and the Laws of Probability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470
12.2 Characteristics and Traits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477
12.3 Laws of Inheritance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494
Chapter 13: Modern Understandings of Inheritance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 517
13.1 Chromosomal Theory and Genetic Linkages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 518
13.2 Chromosomal Basis of Inherited Disorders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 524
Chapter 14: DNA Structure and Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 543
14.1 Historical Basis of Modern Understanding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 544
14.2 DNA Structure and Sequencing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 549
14.3 Basics of DNA Replication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 559
14.4 DNA Replication in Prokaryotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 562
14.5 DNA Replication in Eukaryotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 566
14.6 DNA Repair . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 569
Chapter 15: Genes and Proteins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 593
15.1 The Genetic Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 593
15.2 Prokaryotic Transcription . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 600
15.3 Eukaryotic Transcription . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 604
15.4 RNA Processing in Eukaryotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 610
15.5 Ribosomes and Protein Synthesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 615
Chapter 16: Gene Regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 635
16.1 Regulation of Gene Expression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 636
16.2 Prokaryotic Gene Regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 639
16.3 Eukaryotic Epigenetic Gene Regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 645
16.4 Eukaryotic Transcriptional Gene Regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 649
16.5 Eukaryotic Post-transcriptional Gene Regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 653
16.6 Eukaryotic Translational and Post-translational Gene Regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . 657
16.7 Cancer and Gene Regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 659
Chapter 17: Biotechnology and Genomics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 677
17.1 Biotechnology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 678
17.2 Mapping Genomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 693
17.3 Whole-Genome Sequencing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 697
17.4 Applying Genomics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 701
17.5 Genomics and Proteomics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 704
Unit 4
Chapter 18: Evolution and Origin of Species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 719
18.1 Understanding Evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 720
18.2 Formation of New Species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 731
18.3 Reconnection and Rates of Speciation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 743
Chapter 19: The Evolution of Populations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 767
19.1 Population Evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 768
19.2 Population Genetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 774
19.3 Adaptive Evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 783
Chapter 20: Phylogenies and the History of Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 807
20.1 Organizing Life on Earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 808
20.2 Determining Evolutionary Relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 815
20.3 Perspectives on the Phylogenetic Tree . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 826
Unit 5
Chapter 21: Viruses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 849
21.1 Viral Evolution, Morphology, and Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 850
21.2 Virus Infection and Hosts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 857
21.3 Prevention and Treatment of Viral Infections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 866
21.4 Other Acellular Entities: Prions and Viroids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 871
Chapter 22: Prokaryotes: Bacteria and Archaea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 889
22.1 Prokaryotic Diversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 890
This OpenStax book is available for free at http://cnx.org/content/col12078/1.622.2 Structure of Prokaryotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 897
22.3 Prokaryotic Metabolism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 907
22.4 Bacterial Diseases in Humans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 911
22.5 Beneficial Prokaryotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 919
Unit 6
Chapter 23: Plant Form and Physiology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 945
23.1 The Plant Body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 946
23.2 Stems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 948
23.3 Roots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 957
23.4 Leaves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 960
23.5 Transport of Water and Solutes in Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 969
23.6 Plant Sensory Systems and Responses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 979
Unit 7
Chapter 24: The Animal Body: Basic Form and Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1017
24.1 Animal Form and Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1018
24.2 Animal Primary Tissues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1026
24.3 Homeostasis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1037
Chapter 25: Animal Nutrition and the Digestive System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1057
25.1 Digestive Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1058
25.2 Nutrition and Energy Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1072
25.3 Digestive System Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1080
25.4 Digestive System Regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1087
Chapter 26: The Nervous System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1107
26.1 Neurons and Glial Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1108
26.2 How Neurons Communicate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1116
26.3 The Central Nervous System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1130
26.4 The Peripheral Nervous System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1137
26.5 Nervous System Disorders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1142
Chapter 27: Sensory Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1165
27.1 Sensory Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1166
27.2 Somatosensation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1170
27.3 Taste and Smell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1175
27.4 Hearing and Vestibular Sensation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1180
27.5 Vision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1187
Chapter 28: The Endocrine System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1209
28.1 Types of Hormones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1209
28.2 How Hormones Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1213
28.3 Regulation of Body Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1217
28.4 Regulation of Hormone Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1230
28.5 Endocrine Glands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1232
Chapter 29: The Musculoskeletal System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1257
29.1 Types of Skeletal Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1258
29.2 Bone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1270
29.3 Joints and Skeletal Movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1278
29.4 Muscle Contraction and Locomotion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1287
Chapter 30: The Respiratory System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1309
30.1 Systems of Gas Exchange . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1309
30.2 Gas Exchange across Respiratory Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1318
30.3 Breathing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1324
30.4 Transport of Gases in Human Bodily Fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1332
Chapter 31: The Circulatory System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1349
31.1 Overview of the Circulatory System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1350
31.2 Components of the Blood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1354
31.3 Mammalian Heart and Blood Vessels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1362
31.4 Blood Flow and Blood Pressure Regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1372
Chapter 32: Osmotic Regulation and Excretion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1393
32.1 Osmoregulation and Osmotic Balance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1394
32.2 The Kidneys and Osmoregulatory Organs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1398
32.3 Excretion Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140732.4 Nitrogenous Wastes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1410
32.5 Hormonal Control of Osmoregulatory Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1414
Chapter 33: The Immune System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1437
33.1 Innate Immune Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1438
33.2 Adaptive Immune Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1446
33.3 Antibodies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1461
33.4 Disruptions in the Immune System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1467
Chapter 34: Animal Reproduction and Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1487
34.1 Reproduction Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1488
34.2 Fertilization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1494
34.3 Human Reproductive Anatomy and Gametogenesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1496
34.4 Hormonal Control of Human Reproduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1504
34.5 Fertilization and Early Embryonic Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1510
34.6 Organogenesis and Vertebrate Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1515
34.7 Human Pregnancy and Birth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1518
Unit 8
Chapter 35: Ecology and the Biosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1539
35.1 The Scope of Ecology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1540
35.2 Biogeography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1545
35.3 Terrestrial Biomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1552
35.4 Aquatic Biomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1560
35.5 Climate and the Effects of Global Climate Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1568
Chapter 36: Population and Community Ecology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1593
36.1 Population Demography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1594
36.2 Life Histories and Natural Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1600
36.3 Environmental Limits to Population Growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1605
36.4 Population Dynamics and Regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1611
36.5 Human Population Growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1616
36.6 Community Ecology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1622
36.7 Behavioral Biology: Proximate and Ultimate Causes of Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . 1636
Chapter 37: Ecosystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1683
37.1 Ecology for Ecosystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1683
37.2 Energy Flow through Ecosystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1695
37.3 Biogeochemical Cycles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1702
Chapter 38: Conservation Biology and Biodiversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1727
38.1 The Biodiversity Crisis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1728
38.2 The Importance of Biodiversity to Human Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1739
38.3 Threats to Biodiversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1743
38.4 Preserving Biodiversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1754
Appendix A: The Periodic Table of Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1773
Appendix B: Geological Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1775
Appendix C: Measurements and the Metric System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1777
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1779
This OpenStax book is available for free at http://cnx.org/content/col12078/1.6PREFACE
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OpenStax is committed to remaining transparent about all updates, so you will also find a list
of past errata changes on your book page on OpenStax.org.
Format
You can access this textbook for free in web view or PDF through OpenStax.org, and for a low cost in print.
About Biology for AP®Courses
Biology for AP®Courses covers the scope and sequence requirements of a typical two-semester Advanced Placement®
biology course | [
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The text provides comprehensive coverage of core biology concepts and foundational research through an
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Biology for AP®Courses was designed to meet and exceed the requirements of the College Board’s AP®
Biology framework while allowing significant flexibility for instructors | [
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Each section of the book includes an introduction
based on the AP®curriculum as well as rich features that engage students in scientific practice and AP®test preparation | [
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It
also highlights careers and research opportunities in the biological sciences.
Coverage and scope
In developing Biology for AP®Courses, we relied on experts in the goals and approach of the AP®curriculum, carefully
considered the AP®framework design, and listened to the advice of hundreds of high school and college biology instructors.
The result is a book that provides excellent coverage of the AP®framework while addressing the sheer breadth of biology
topics in the modern age | [
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We also strive to make biology, as a discipline, interesting and accessible to students | [
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In addition to a comprehensivePreface 1coverage of core concepts and foundational research, we have incorporated features that draw learners into the discipline in
meaningful ways.
Unit 1: The Chemistry of Life | [
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Our opening unit introduces students to the sciences, including scientific methods
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biological processes.
Unit 2: The Cell | [
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Students will gain solid understanding of the structures, functions, and processes of the most basic
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Unit 3: Genetics | [
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Our comprehensive genetics unit takes learners from the earliest experiments that revealed the basis
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studies of biotechnology and genomics.
Unit 4: Evolutionary Processes | [
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The core concepts of evolution are discussed in this unit with examples illustrating
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Additionally, the evolutionary basis of biology reappears throughout the textbook in general
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Unit 5: Biological Diversity | [
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The diversity of life is explored through detailed study of all phyla of organisms as well
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Unit 6: Plant Structure and Function | [
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Our plant anatomy and physiology unit thoroughly covers the fundamental
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It also covers important plant physiological functions such as
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Unit 7: Animal Structure and Function | [
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An introduction to the form and function of the animal body is followed
by detailed chapters on specific body systems and their physiological function | [
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This unit touches on the biology of all
organisms while maintaining an engaging focus on human anatomy and physiology that helps students connect to the
topics.
Unit 8: Ecology | [
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Ecological concepts are broadly covered in this unit, beginning with the small-scale relationships
of population ecology and gradually building to the large-scale processes of ecosystem ecology | [
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Localized, real-world
issues of conservation and biodiversity are presented at numerous points along the way.
AP®Connections
Every section of the textbook — over 200 total — begins with a “Connection for AP®Courses.” Section | [
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Written by
Julianne Zedalis, the College Board’s AP®Biology Curriculum Committee Co-Chair, these valuable overviews provide
meaningful support for students and instructors.
Each Connection highlights the key concepts of the section in the context of the AP®Biology Curriculum Framework
and explains their importance in brief, engaging language.
The explanations build upon the knowledge gained in previous sections, reinforcing the most significant concepts
and alerting students of the foundational basis of upcoming material | [
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This helps students build a more comprehensive
understanding and helps instructors reference prior explanations.
Direct references to the relevant sections of the AP®Curriculum Framework are first explained and then outlined in
table format emphasizing their importance and relating them to the overall design of the course | [
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Students and teachers
using these reference tables can easily see their progression through and coverage of the required curriculum.
Scientific practices
The AP®Biology Science Practices are presented to students through several active learning features.
Science Practice Connections for AP®Courses provide a context and suggested activity linking the concepts with the
relevant science practices | [
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Students are often asked to build representations, undertake brief research, or answer critical
thinking questions.
Science Practice Questions , designed and authored by John Eggebrecht and Julianne Zedalis, present a complex scenario
or data set and ask students a series of multiple-choice and open-ended questions based on a complex scenario or data
set | [
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These robust activities hone students’ scientific thinking skills and prepare them for similar questions on the AP®
Examination.
Pedagogical foundation and features
Biology for AP®Courses®is grounded in a solid scientific base, with features that engage the students in scientific inquiry:2 Preface
This OpenStax book is available for free at http://cnx.org/content/col12078/1.6Evolution Connection features highlight the importance and relevance of evolutionary theory to all biological
study | [
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Through discussions like “The Evolution of Metabolic Pathways” and “Algae and Evolutionary Paths to
Photosynthesis,” the student is able to see how evolution pervades all aspects of biology.
Scientific Methods Connection call-outs walk students through actual or thought experiments that elucidate scientific
processes and procedures for a variety of topics | [
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Features include “Determining the Time Spent in Cell Cycle Stages”
and “Testing the Hypothesis of Independent Assortment.”
Career Connection features present information on a variety of careers in the biological sciences | [
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They are meant
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Examples include
microbiologist, ecologist, neurologist, and forensic scientist.
Everyday Connection features tie biological concepts to students’ everyday lives as well as emerging world issues
related to biology | [
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Topics include “Chesapeake Bay” and “Can Snail Venom Be Used as a Pharmacological Pain
Killer?”
Illustrations and animations that engage
Illustrations within the book are designed to help students visualize the concepts of biology using figures with simple,
clear, designs and color schemes that go side-by-side with vivid photos and micrographs | [
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Biology for AP®Courses also
incorporates links to relevant animations and interactive exercises that help bring biology to life.
Visual Connection features identify core figures in each chapter for student study | [
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Questions about key figures,
including clicker questions that can be used in the classroom, engage students’ critical thinking to ensure genuine
understanding.
Link to Learning features direct students to online interactive exercises and animations that add greater context to
core content.
Additional resources
Student and instructor resources
We'’ve compiled additional resources for both students and instructors, including Getting Started Guides, and a teacher'’s
guide | [
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Instructor resources require a verified instructor account, which you can apply for when you log in or create your
account on OpenStax.org | [
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Take advantage of these resources to supplement your OpenStax book.
Community Hubs
Insert paragraph text here.OpenStax partners with the Institute for the Study of Knowledge Management in Education
(ISKME) to offer Community Hubs on OER Commons – a platform for instructors to share community-created resources
that support OpenStax books, free of charge | [
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Through our Community Hubs, instructors can upload their own materials or
download resources to use in their own courses, including additional ancillaries, teaching material, multimedia, and relevant
course content | [
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We encourage instructors to join the hubs for the subjects most relevant to your teaching and research as an
opportunity both to enrich your courses and to engage with other faculty.
?To reach the Community Hubs, visit https://www.oercommons.org/hubs/OpenStax (https://www.oercommons.org/
hubs/OpenStax) .
Partner resources
OpenStax Partners are our allies in the mission to make high-quality learning materials affordable and accessible to students
and instructors everywhere | [
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Their tools integrate seamlessly with our OpenStax titles at a low cost | [
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To access the partner
resources for your text, visit your book page on OpenStax.org.
About the authors
Senior contributing authors
Julianne Zedalis, Bishop’s School, La Jolla, California
Julianne Zedalis has taught AP®Biology for over twenty years | [
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0.00584447430446744,
-0.0129885... |
She served on the College Board’s committee to rewrite
and test the revised AP® Curriculum Framework, working with other high school AP®teachers and college faculty as
well as the National Science Foundation | [
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0.04924028739333153,
0.07256070524454117,
-0.08241540193557739,
-0.0373... |
She was later selected to chair the College Board’s Curriculum Development andPreface 3Assessment Committee.
John Eggebrecht
Dr | [
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0.03499871492385864,
-0.09202560782432556,
-... |
John Eggebrecht, Brooklyn Technical High School (retired), Brooklyn, New York
John Eggebrecht taught AP®Physics and Biology courses for over thirty years | [
-0.020018115639686584,
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0.028004160150885582,
-0.08945909142494202,
... |
He was instrumental in the development
and revision of various AP®curriculum frameworks over an extended collaboration with the College Board and other
educational organizations | [
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-0.01... |
Under his guidance, Brooklyn Tech was repeatedly selected by the College Board as an
exemplary AP®program, and its practices and students outcomes were featured in several publications | [
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-0.02... |
In addition to his
writing role, John regularly evaluates course materials and programs for alignment and quality.
Contributing authors
Connie Rye, East Mississippi Community College
Robert Wise, The University of Wisconsin Oshkosh
Vladimir Jurukovski, Suffolk County Community College
Jean DeSaix, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
Jung Choi, Georgia Institute of Technology
Yael Avissar, Rhode Island College
Curriculum Framework for AP®Biology
Big Idea 1: The process of evolution drives the diversity and unity of life.
Enduring understanding 1.A | [
-0.07623615860939026,
0.0023612643126398325,
0.008638220839202404,
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0.09501971304416656,
-0.00007772393291816115,
0.06608878821134567,
-0.055454082787036896,
-... |
Change in the genetic makeup of a
population over time is evolution.Chapter/Key Concepts
1.A.1 | [
-0.06347021460533142,
0.04605541378259659,
0.028140902519226074,
0.04575406014919281,
0.017990263178944588,
0.01881909742951393,
-0.05504612997174263,
-0.025676224380731583,
-0.060318075120449066,
0.010305873118340969,
0.09513374418020248,
-0.05818421393632889,
-0.027971969917416573,
-0.04... |
Natural selection is a major mechanism of evolution.5.3, 18.1, 18.2, 19.1, 19.2,
19.3, 21.2, 23.5
1.A.2 | [
-0.04814436659216881,
-0.0023825194220989943,
0.06740101426839828,
0.029953697696328163,
0.10899271816015244,
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0.09490543603897095,
0.08589615672826767,
-0.021393567323684692,
-0.046821292489767075,
-0.... |
Natural selection acts on phenotypic variations in populations. 7.3, 7.6, 18.2, 19.2, 19.3, 36.5
1.A.3 | [
0.03398629650473595,
-0.046139370650053024,
0.10036332905292511,
0.05181644856929779,
0.0683818981051445,
0.0652318149805069,
0.008402193896472454,
-0.05878834053874016,
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0.06181560829281807,
0.07047287374734879,
-0.08497226238250732,
-0.10140127688646317,
-0.023321887... |
Evolutionary change is also driven by random processes. 19.1, 19.2
1.A.4 | [
-0.07361669093370438,
-0.053870268166065216,
0.04206179454922676,
0.03394567593932152,
0.12082874029874802,
0.017933761700987816,
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0.05215081572532654,
0.055130697786808014,
0.04336773231625557,
-0.0048000928945839405,
0.0037195717450231314,
-0.... |
Biological evolution is supported by scientific evidence from many
disciplines, including mathematics.2.1, 5.2, 8.2, 11.1, 14.1, 17.1
18.1, 19.3
Enduring understanding 1.B | [
-0.05480187386274338,
-0.017989451065659523,
0.04510117322206497,
-0.01105534192174673,
0.006725647486746311,
0.07443326711654663,
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0.09003971517086029,
0.012023487128317356,
-0.010771410539746284,
-0.04582761600613594,
0.0923... |
Organisms are linked by lines of descent
from common ancestry.Chapter/Key Concepts
1.B.1 | [
-0.008912966586649418,
0.009476167149841785,
-0.004307896830141544,
-0.029409518465399742,
-0.028309982270002365,
0.05356219410896301,
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0.014989287592470646,
0.10458648949861526,
-0.10333453118801117,
-0.04143497347831726,
-0... |
Organisms share many conserved core processes and features that
evolved and are widely distributed among organisms today.3.4, 4.3, 4.6, 8.2, 15.3, 13.2,
14.1, 15.5, 18.1, 20.1, 20.2
1.B.2 | [
-0.010564909316599369,
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0.04050609841942787,
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0.0840543881058693,
0.020193498581647873,
-0.08100765198469162,
-0.06343340873718262,
0.05658409... |
Phylogenetic trees and cladograms are graphical representations
(models) of evolutionary history that can be tested.14.4, 20.1, 20.2, 20.3
Enduring understanding 1.C | [
-0.02238372154533863,
-0.011552104726433754,
-0.03136506304144859,
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0.0402122363448143,
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0.039147790521383286,
0.04951817914843559,
-0.11206194758415222,
-0.04307461157441139,
0.0902543... |
Life continues to evolve within a changing
environment.Chapter/Key Concepts
1.C.1 | [
-0.03978656232357025,
-0.008247214369475842,
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0.000798368884716183,
0.0926220566034317,
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0.03706808760762215,
0.0519428625702858,
-0.050274841487407684,
0.006630747579038143,
-0.002... |
Speciation and extinction have occurred throughout the Earth's
history.14.4, 18.2, 20.1, 38.1
1.C.2 | [
-0.026448477059602737,
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0.010547247715294361,
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0.05569140240550041,
0.10352160781621933,
-0.05751724913716316,
-0.007065194193273783,
0.029870... |
Speciation may occur when two populations become reproductively
isolated from each other.18.2, 19.2, 23.5
1.C.3 | [
-0.036126721650362015,
-0.029227258637547493,
-0.003872876288369298,
-0.023465247824788094,
0.06580594182014465,
0.018264103680849075,
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0.01581915095448494,
0.1846642941236496,
-0.06961722671985626,
-0.010424847714602947,
... |
Populations of organisms continue to evolve.7.3, 7.6, 18.1, 18.3, 19.1, 19.2,
20.1, 20.2, 23.5
Enduring understanding 1.D | [
0.01811615750193596,
-0.025432728230953217,
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0.04449275881052017,
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0.0009614739683456719,
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0.04619579017162323,
0.07953919470310211,
-0.07791931182146072,
-0.056132931262254715,
0.0245... |
The origin of living systems is explained by
natural processes.Chapter/Key Concepts
1.D.1 | [
-0.07482181489467621,
-0.03456945717334747,
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-0.0009643146186135709,
0.05195177346467972,
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0.07701490074396133,
0.06315964460372925,
-0.060061629861593246,
-0.04789651185274124,
0.... |
There are several hypotheses about the natural origin of life on Earth,
each with supporting scientific evidence.8.2, 18.1, 20.1, 21.1, 20.3
1.D.2 | [
-0.09987014532089233,
-0.0014780659694224596,
0.05169535055756569,
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0.10881240665912628,
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0.058430563658475876,
0.12578967213630676,
-0.09659860283136368,
-0.06538475304841995,
0.016825... |
Scientific evidence from many different disciplines supports models of
the origin of life.8.2, 18.1, 20.2, 28.14 Preface
This OpenStax book is available for free at http://cnx.org/content/col12078/1.6Big Idea 2: Biological systems utilize free energy and molecular building blocks
to grow, to reproduce and to maintain dynamic homeostasis.
Enduring understanding 2.A | [
-0.0855860784649849,
0.006060706451535225,
-0.028696060180664062,
0.02432234026491642,
0.08840662240982056,
0.06724750995635986,
-0.08884059637784958,
0.010319964028894901,
0.0743701383471489,
0.09556636959314346,
0.04049982503056526,
-0.07334113866090775,
-0.04699607193470001,
0.032953977... |
Growth, reproduction and maintenance of
the organization of living systems require free energy and matter.Chapter/Key Concepts
2.A.1 | [
-0.05203477665781975,
0.017731809988617897,
-0.040312424302101135,
0.07311209291219711,
0.07853840291500092,
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-0.0021245493553578854,
-0.05804233253002167,
0.021521154791116714,
0.11380559951066971,
0.06073293834924698,
-0.06973296403884888,
-0.02945573814213276,
-0.0... |
All living systems require constant input of free energy6.1, 6.2, 6.3, 6.4, 6.7, 7.1, 7.2, 7.3,
7.4, 7.5, 7.6, 8.2, 23.1, 23.5, 36.3,
37.2
2.A.2 | [
-0.04431862011551857,
-0.02941269800066948,
-0.08137302100658417,
0.02937323786318302,
0.017010511830449104,
0.011466864496469498,
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0.041039690375328064,
0.04145614802837372,
0.012022290378808975,
-0.05119035765528679,
-0.013344816863536835,
-0.0... |
Organisms capture and store free energy for use in biological
processes.3.2, 4.3, 6.1, 6.4, 6.5, 7.1, 7.2, 7.3,
7.4, 7.4, 7.5, 7.6, 8.1, 8.2, 8.3, 9.2,
22.1, 22.2, 23.1, 23.5, 37.2
2.A.3 | [
-0.019742166623473167,
-0.005358362570405006,
-0.025394413620233536,
0.03644304350018501,
0.038066502660512924,
0.053020820021629333,
0.04646359384059906,
0.008735401555895805,
0.07957175374031067,
0.12319981306791306,
-0.01620873622596264,
-0.11603329330682755,
-0.11037301272153854,
-0.01... |
Organisms must exchange matter with the environment to grow,
reproduce and maintain organization.2.1, 2.2, 3.3, 4.2, 4.6, 6.1, 6.8,
22.4, 22.5, 23.5, 25.8, 37.3
Enduring understanding 2.B | [
0.02863769233226776,
-0.04375143349170685,
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0.03460043668746948,
0.07856650650501251,
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0.00148042815271765,
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0.09985482692718506,
0.008657270111143589,
-0.09451416879892349,
-0.05496079474687576,
0.027678... |
Growth, reproduction and dynamic
homeostasis require that cells create and maintain internal environments
that are different from their external environments.Chapter/Key Concepts
2.B.1 | [
-0.020110715180635452,
-0.026715204119682312,
-0.0049474118277430534,
-0.006628578528761864,
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0.03886141628026962,
0.032337043434381485,
-0.052850767970085144,
-0.00618278374895453... |
Cell membranes are selectively permeable due to their structure. 3.2, 3.3, 5.1, 5.2, 5.3, 5.4, 8.3
2.B.2 | [
0.013734990730881691,
-0.0999167412519455,
0.01875602826476097,
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0.06931443512439728,
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-0.006014290265738964,
-0.06137287989258766,
0.080... |
Growth and dynamic homeostasis are maintained by the constant
movement of molecules across membranes.2.3, 3.3, 5.2, 5.3, 5.4
2.B.3 | [
0.00865652784705162,
-0.13914161920547485,
-0.056108009070158005,
-0.008176050148904324,
-0.006394565105438232,
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0.047028299421072006,
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0.009751318953931332,
0.03844934329390526,
0.0032993718050420284,
-0.052240606397390366,
0.... |
Eukaryotic cells maintain internal membranes that partition the cell
into specialized regions.3.3, 4.2, 4.3, 4.4
Enduring understanding 2.C | [
-0.015198725275695324,
0.0017164252931252122,
-0.016104601323604584,
-0.01009103748947382,
0.0003015409456565976,
-0.022542381659150124,
0.06194159388542175,
0.00899895653128624,
0.01661655120551586,
0.01470261998474598,
-0.024347111582756042,
-0.052358582615852356,
-0.13821782171726227,
0... |
Organisms use feedback mechanisms to
regulate growth and reproduction, and to maintain dynamic homeostasis.Chapter/Key Concepts
2.C.1 | [
-0.012369420379400253,
-0.014364236034452915,
-0.04214092716574669,
0.06000000610947609,
0.004500884562730789,
0.07682698220014572,
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0.014729056507349014,
0.05932541564106941,
0.015036308206617832,
-0.05503684654831886,
-0.009853393770754337,
-... |
Organisms use feedback mechanisms to maintain their internal
environments and respond to external environmental changes.5.2, 5.3, 7.1, 7.2, 7.3, 7.4, 7.5, 7.6,
8.2, 10.1, 11.1, 21.1, 23.5, 24.3,
28.3
2.C.2 | [
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-0.06347990781068802,
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0.040865957736968994,
0.07305078208446503,
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0.038613490760326385,
0.05475526303052902,
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0.07578489184379578,
-0.04023570567369461,
-0.11708920449018478,
-0.03416972979903221,
-0.00366... |
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