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Biology for AP ® Courses SENIOR CONTRIBUTING A UTHORS JULIANNE ZEDALIS , BISHOP 'S SCHOOL JOHN EGGEBRECHT , BROOKLYN TECHNICAL HIGH SCHOOL OpenStax Rice University 6100 Main Street MS -375 Houston, Texas 77005 To learn more about OpenStax, visit http s://openstax.org. Individual print copies and bulk orders can be purchased through our website. ©2018 Rice University
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Textbook content produced by OpenStax is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (CC BY 4.0)
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As a leading research university with a distinctive commitment to undergraduate education, Rice University aspires to path -breaking research, unsurpassed teaching, and contributions to the betterment of ou r world
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It seeks to fulfill this mission by cultivating a diverse community of learning and discovery that produces leaders across the spectrum of human endeavor. FOUNDATION SUPPORT OpenStax is grateful for the tremend ous support of our sponsors
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Without their strong engagement, the goal of free access to high -quality textbooks would remain just a dream. Laura and John Arnold Foundation (LJAF) actively seeks opportunities to invest in organizations and thought leaders that have a sincere interest in implementing fundamental changes that not only yield immediate gains, but also repair broken systems for future generations
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LJAF currently focuses its strategic investments on education, criminal justice, research integrit y, and public accountability. The William and Flora Hewlett Foundation has been making grants since 1967 to help solve social and environmental problems at home and around the world
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The Foundation concentrates its resources on activities in education, t he environment, global development and population, performing arts, and philanthropy, and makes grants to support disadvantaged communities in the San Francisco Bay Area. Calvin K
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Kazanjian was the founder and president of Peter Paul (Almond Joy), Inc
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He firmly believed that the more people understood about basic economics the happier and more prosperous they would be
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Accordingly, he established the Calvin K
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Kazanjian Economics Foundation Inc, in 1949 as a philanthropic, nonpolitical educational organ ization to support efforts that enhanced economic understanding. Guided by the belief that every life has equal value, the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation works to help all people lead healthy, productive lives
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In developing countries, it focuses on imp roving people’s health with vaccines and other life -saving tools and giving them the chance to lift themselves out of hunger and extreme poverty
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In the United States, it seeks to significantly improve education so that all young people have the opportunit y to reach their full potential
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Based in Seattle, Washington, the foundation is led by CEO Jeff Raikes and Co -chair William H
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Gates Sr., under the direction of Bill and Melinda Gates and Warren Buffett. The Maxfield Foundation supports projects with po tential for high impact in science, education, sustainability, and other areas of social importance. Our mission at The Michelson 20MM Foundation is to grow access and success by eliminating unnecessary hurdles to affordability
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The future of education. openstax.org When you access College Success in our web view, you can use our new online highlighting and note-taking features to create your own study guides. Our books are free and flexible, forever. Get started at openstax.org/details/books/biology-ap-courses Table of Contents Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Unit 1 Chapter 1: The Study of Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 1.1 The Science of Biology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 1.2 Themes and Concepts of Biology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 Chapter 2: The Chemical Foundation of Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 2.1 Atoms, Isotopes, Ions, and Molecules: The Building Blocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 2.2 Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 2.3 Carbon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 Chapter 3: Biological Macromolecules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 3.1 Synthesis of Biological Macromolecules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 3.2 Carbohydrates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 3.3 Lipids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 3.4 Proteins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 3.5 Nucleic Acids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 Unit 2 Chapter 4: Cell Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 4.1 Studying Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 4.2 Prokaryotic Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 4.3 Eukaryotic Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156 4.4 The Endomembrane System and Proteins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166 4.5 Cytoskeleton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173 4.6 Connections between Cells and Cellular Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178 Chapter 5: Structure and Function of Plasma Membranes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 5.1 Components and Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196 5.2 Passive Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204 5.3 Active Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212 5.4 Bulk Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218 Chapter 6: Metabolism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237 6.1 Energy and Metabolism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238 6.2 Potential, Kinetic, Free, and Activation Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242 6.3 The Laws of Thermodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252 6.4 ATP: Adenosine Triphosphate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255 6.5 Enzymes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259 Chapter 7: Cellular Respiration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281 7.1 Energy in Living Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282 7.2 Glycolysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286 7.3 Oxidation of Pyruvate and the Citric Acid Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291 7.4 Oxidative Phosphorylation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296 7.5 Metabolism without Oxygen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301 7.6 Connections of Carbohydrate, Protein, and Lipid Metabolic Pathways . . . . . . . . . . 307 7.7 Regulation of Cellular Respiration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311 Chapter 8: Photosynthesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329 8.1 Overview of Photosynthesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330 8.2 The Light-Dependent Reaction of Photosynthesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336 8.3 Using Light to Make Organic Molecules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347 Chapter 9: Cell Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365 9.1 Signaling Molecules and Cellular Receptors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366 9.2 Propagation of the Signal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376 9.3 Response to the Signal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382 9.4 Signaling in Single-Celled Organisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386 Chapter 10: Cell Reproduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403 10.1 Cell Division . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403 10.2 The Cell Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408 10.3 Control of the Cell Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419 10.4 Cancer and the Cell Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426 10.5 Prokaryotic Cell Division . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430Unit 3 Chapter 11: Meiosis and Sexual Reproduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445 11.1 The Process of Meiosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446 11.2 Sexual Reproduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456 Chapter 12: Mendel's Experiments and Heredity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469 12.1 Mendel’s Experiments and the Laws of Probability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470 12.2 Characteristics and Traits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477 12.3 Laws of Inheritance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494 Chapter 13: Modern Understandings of Inheritance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 517 13.1 Chromosomal Theory and Genetic Linkages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 518 13.2 Chromosomal Basis of Inherited Disorders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 524 Chapter 14: DNA Structure and Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 543 14.1 Historical Basis of Modern Understanding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 544 14.2 DNA Structure and Sequencing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 549 14.3 Basics of DNA Replication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 559 14.4 DNA Replication in Prokaryotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 562 14.5 DNA Replication in Eukaryotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 566 14.6 DNA Repair . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 569 Chapter 15: Genes and Proteins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 593 15.1 The Genetic Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 593 15.2 Prokaryotic Transcription . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 600 15.3 Eukaryotic Transcription . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 604 15.4 RNA Processing in Eukaryotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 610 15.5 Ribosomes and Protein Synthesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 615 Chapter 16: Gene Regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 635 16.1 Regulation of Gene Expression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 636 16.2 Prokaryotic Gene Regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 639 16.3 Eukaryotic Epigenetic Gene Regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 645 16.4 Eukaryotic Transcriptional Gene Regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 649 16.5 Eukaryotic Post-transcriptional Gene Regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 653 16.6 Eukaryotic Translational and Post-translational Gene Regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . 657 16.7 Cancer and Gene Regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 659 Chapter 17: Biotechnology and Genomics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 677 17.1 Biotechnology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 678 17.2 Mapping Genomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 693 17.3 Whole-Genome Sequencing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 697 17.4 Applying Genomics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 701 17.5 Genomics and Proteomics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 704 Unit 4 Chapter 18: Evolution and Origin of Species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 719 18.1 Understanding Evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 720 18.2 Formation of New Species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 731 18.3 Reconnection and Rates of Speciation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 743 Chapter 19: The Evolution of Populations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 767 19.1 Population Evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 768 19.2 Population Genetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 774 19.3 Adaptive Evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 783 Chapter 20: Phylogenies and the History of Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 807 20.1 Organizing Life on Earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 808 20.2 Determining Evolutionary Relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 815 20.3 Perspectives on the Phylogenetic Tree . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 826 Unit 5 Chapter 21: Viruses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 849 21.1 Viral Evolution, Morphology, and Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 850 21.2 Virus Infection and Hosts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 857 21.3 Prevention and Treatment of Viral Infections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 866 21.4 Other Acellular Entities: Prions and Viroids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 871 Chapter 22: Prokaryotes: Bacteria and Archaea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 889 22.1 Prokaryotic Diversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 890 This OpenStax book is available for free at http://cnx.org/content/col12078/1.622.2 Structure of Prokaryotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 897 22.3 Prokaryotic Metabolism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 907 22.4 Bacterial Diseases in Humans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 911 22.5 Beneficial Prokaryotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 919 Unit 6 Chapter 23: Plant Form and Physiology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 945 23.1 The Plant Body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 946 23.2 Stems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 948 23.3 Roots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 957 23.4 Leaves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 960 23.5 Transport of Water and Solutes in Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 969 23.6 Plant Sensory Systems and Responses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 979 Unit 7 Chapter 24: The Animal Body: Basic Form and Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1017 24.1 Animal Form and Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1018 24.2 Animal Primary Tissues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1026 24.3 Homeostasis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1037 Chapter 25: Animal Nutrition and the Digestive System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1057 25.1 Digestive Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1058 25.2 Nutrition and Energy Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1072 25.3 Digestive System Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1080 25.4 Digestive System Regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1087 Chapter 26: The Nervous System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1107 26.1 Neurons and Glial Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1108 26.2 How Neurons Communicate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1116 26.3 The Central Nervous System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1130 26.4 The Peripheral Nervous System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1137 26.5 Nervous System Disorders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1142 Chapter 27: Sensory Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1165 27.1 Sensory Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1166 27.2 Somatosensation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1170 27.3 Taste and Smell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1175 27.4 Hearing and Vestibular Sensation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1180 27.5 Vision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1187 Chapter 28: The Endocrine System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1209 28.1 Types of Hormones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1209 28.2 How Hormones Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1213 28.3 Regulation of Body Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1217 28.4 Regulation of Hormone Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1230 28.5 Endocrine Glands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1232 Chapter 29: The Musculoskeletal System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1257 29.1 Types of Skeletal Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1258 29.2 Bone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1270 29.3 Joints and Skeletal Movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1278 29.4 Muscle Contraction and Locomotion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1287 Chapter 30: The Respiratory System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1309 30.1 Systems of Gas Exchange . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1309 30.2 Gas Exchange across Respiratory Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1318 30.3 Breathing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1324 30.4 Transport of Gases in Human Bodily Fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1332 Chapter 31: The Circulatory System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1349 31.1 Overview of the Circulatory System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1350 31.2 Components of the Blood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1354 31.3 Mammalian Heart and Blood Vessels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1362 31.4 Blood Flow and Blood Pressure Regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1372 Chapter 32: Osmotic Regulation and Excretion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1393 32.1 Osmoregulation and Osmotic Balance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1394 32.2 The Kidneys and Osmoregulatory Organs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1398 32.3 Excretion Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140732.4 Nitrogenous Wastes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1410 32.5 Hormonal Control of Osmoregulatory Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1414 Chapter 33: The Immune System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1437 33.1 Innate Immune Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1438 33.2 Adaptive Immune Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1446 33.3 Antibodies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1461 33.4 Disruptions in the Immune System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1467 Chapter 34: Animal Reproduction and Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1487 34.1 Reproduction Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1488 34.2 Fertilization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1494 34.3 Human Reproductive Anatomy and Gametogenesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1496 34.4 Hormonal Control of Human Reproduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1504 34.5 Fertilization and Early Embryonic Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1510 34.6 Organogenesis and Vertebrate Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1515 34.7 Human Pregnancy and Birth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1518 Unit 8 Chapter 35: Ecology and the Biosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1539 35.1 The Scope of Ecology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1540 35.2 Biogeography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1545 35.3 Terrestrial Biomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1552 35.4 Aquatic Biomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1560 35.5 Climate and the Effects of Global Climate Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1568 Chapter 36: Population and Community Ecology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1593 36.1 Population Demography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1594 36.2 Life Histories and Natural Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1600 36.3 Environmental Limits to Population Growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1605 36.4 Population Dynamics and Regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1611 36.5 Human Population Growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1616 36.6 Community Ecology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1622 36.7 Behavioral Biology: Proximate and Ultimate Causes of Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . 1636 Chapter 37: Ecosystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1683 37.1 Ecology for Ecosystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1683 37.2 Energy Flow through Ecosystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1695 37.3 Biogeochemical Cycles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1702 Chapter 38: Conservation Biology and Biodiversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1727 38.1 The Biodiversity Crisis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1728 38.2 The Importance of Biodiversity to Human Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1739 38.3 Threats to Biodiversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1743 38.4 Preserving Biodiversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1754 Appendix A: The Periodic Table of Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1773 Appendix B: Geological Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1775 Appendix C: Measurements and the Metric System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1777 Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1779 This OpenStax book is available for free at http://cnx.org/content/col12078/1.6PREFACE Welcome to Biology for AP®Courses , an OpenStax resource
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