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Behavioral state control is thus a fundamental
intrinsic brain activity.
Another aspect of behavioral
state—arousal—is especially important during wake-
fulness.
Here, reinforcement
depends on sensory feedback about a particular behav-
I.
NEUROSCIENCE
ior’s consequences (Fig.
Thus, neurotransmitter systems
are not functional systems in the traditional sense.
Responses in these
other systems produce “side effects” that may be good
or bad.
Two major features complicate this simple network
model.
And second, sensory infor-
mation also reaches the intrinsic and cognitive
systems.
In fact, all three input systems are inter-
connected bidirectionally.
OVERVIEW OF THE ADULT MAMMALIAN NERVOUS SYSTEM 31
32 2.
BASIC PLAN OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
I.
The full
morphology of individual neurons was visible for the
fi rst time (Fig.
The Golgi stain thus reveals
more by staining less.
Photoreceptors detect light and their axon innervates
bipolar cells.
Photoreceptors are classical
sensory neurons (Fig.
2.3), bipolar cells are local interneurons, and ganglion cells are projection interneurons.
Also note a second retinal local
interneuron class, amacrine cells (f).
I.
NEUROSCIENCE
cut, suggesting retrograde transport of “trophic
factors” from axon to cell body.
By the 1950s selective silver impregnation and
degeneration methods were combined by Walle J.H.
Nauta and colleagues to stain unmyelinated axons and
their terminal fi elds.
2.13).
BASIC PLAN OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
I.
NEUROSCIENCE
where nerves converge and redistribute axons to their
target organs.
The ANS has anatomically and functionally sympa-
thetic and parasympathetic divisions (Chapter 35).
The
two divisions function in a kind of push-pull relation-
ship with each other.
One or the other is never com-
pletely on or off.
Instead, there are degrees of
sympathetic and parasympathetic tone.
During sleep,
certain involuntary functions like digestion are accel-
erated.
In contrast, Walter B.
In contrast, parasympathetic system is rela-
tively fi nely tuned.
This enumeration
varies between species.
The glossopharyngeal (IX) nerve
innervates the pharynx and mediates the swallowing
refl ex.
In
I.
This corrugation allows cerebral (and
cerebellar) cortex to have a larger surface area.
These lobes are only crude guides to the cerebrum’s
functional organization.
2.20), although refi nements and
alternative interpretations abound.
The drawings were probably executed by an artist from Titian’s studio.
OVERVIEW OF THE ADULT MAMMALIAN NERVOUS SYSTEM 35
36 2.
BASIC PLAN OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
I.
The pia (“faithful”) is a very thin, vascular mem-
brane.
In certain CNS regions neural tissue is absent but
meninges persist.
I.
Blood fl ow through
sinuses is slow and under low hydrostatic pressure.
Another approach follows the vertebrate nervous
system’s development from embryo to adult.
At early
developmental stages the CNS of all vertebrates has
the same basic structure.
As this is written, the
relationship between CNS macroregionalization (Figs.
2.14 and 2.15) and functional systems (Fig.