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Section: History. The primal mechanochemical project was to make fire by rubbing pieces of wood against each other, creating friction and hence heat, triggering combustion at the elevated temperature. Another method involves the use of flint and steel, during which a spark (a small particle of pyrophoric metal) spontan... | Wikipedia - Mechanochemistry - History | 258 | 1,292 | null |
Section: Chemical Reactions > Silicates. Silicates are the most common minerals in the Earth's crust, and thus comprise the mineral type most commonly involved in natural mechanochemical reactions. Silicates are made up of silicon and oxygen atoms, typically arranged in silicon tetrahedra. Mechanical processes break th... | Wikipedia - Mechanochemistry - Chemical Reactions > Silicates | 153 | 534 | null |
Section: Chemical Reactions > Silicates > Oxidant Generation. When oxygen reacts with silicon or oxygen radicals at the surface of crushed rocks, it can chemically adsorb to the surface: ≡Si• + O2 → ≡Si–O–O• ≡Si–O• + O2 → ≡Si–O–O–O• These oxygen radicals can then generate oxidants such as hydroxyl radicals and hydrogen... | Wikipedia - Mechanochemistry - Chemical Reactions > Silicates > Oxidant Generation | 196 | 594 | null |
Section: Industry applications. Fundamentals and applications ranging from nano materials to technology have been reviewed. The approach has been used to synthesize metallic nanoparticles, catalysts, magnets, γ‐graphyne, metal iodates, nickel–vanadium carbide and molybdenum–vanadium carbide nanocomposite powders. Ball ... | Wikipedia - Mechanochemistry - Industry applications | 203 | 883 | null |
Section: Industry applications > Stress Sensing. Mechanophores can be used to sense stress in polymeric materials. By bonding a mechanophore into a polymer chain as the chain is stretched the force is transferred to the mechanophore causing it to undergo a predictable change. There are a couple of common mechanophores ... | Wikipedia - Mechanochemistry - Industry applications > Stress Sensing | 349 | 1,483 | null |
These mechanophores have already been incorporated into silicone elastomers and have proven their ability to indicate fractures. However, to use these acid releasing mechanophores as visual indicators a color changing pH indicator must be incorporated either into the polymer or as a coating on top. There are pros and c... | Wikipedia - Mechanochemistry - Industry applications > Stress Sensing | 239 | 1,157 | null |
Section: Industry applications > Drug Delivery. Mechanochemistry has recently gained interest in the development of drug delivery systems where mechanical forces trigger medicinal release. These systems use materials that undergo mechanochemical transformation, enabling spatial and temporal control over drug release. S... | Wikipedia - Mechanochemistry - Industry applications > Drug Delivery | 270 | 1,379 | null |
Article: Metal assisted chemical etching. Metal Assisted Chemical Etching (also known as MACE) is the process of wet chemical etching of semiconductors (mainly silicon) with the use of a metal catalyst, usually deposited on the surface of a semiconductor in the form of a thin film or nanoparticles. The semiconductor, c... | Wikipedia - Metal assisted chemical etching - Summary | 200 | 1,006 | null |
Section: History of development. MACE is a relatively new technology in semiconductor engineering and therefore it has yet to be a process that is used in industry. The first attempts of MACE consisted of a silicon wafer that was partially covered with aluminum and then immersed in an etching solution. This material co... | Wikipedia - Metal assisted chemical etching - History of development | 261 | 1,303 | null |
Section: Theory. Some elements of MACE are commonly accepted in the scientific community, while others are still under debate. There is agreement that the reduction of the oxidizing agent is catalyzed by the noble metal particle (see figure to the left). This means that the metal particle has a surplus of positive char... | Wikipedia - Metal assisted chemical etching - Theory | 321 | 1,552 | null |
MACE consists of multiple individual reactions. At the metal particle, the oxidizing agent is reduced. In the case of hydrogen peroxide this can be written down as follows: H2O2 + 2 H+ → 2 H2O + 2 h+ The created holes (h+) are then consumed during the dissolution of silicon. There are several possible reactions via whi... | Wikipedia - Metal assisted chemical etching - Theory | 338 | 1,647 | null |
Section: Experimental procedure of MACE. As already stated above MACE requires metal particles or a thin metal thin film on top of a silicon substrate. This can be achieved with several methods such as sputter deposition or thermal evaporation. A method to obtain particles from a continuous thin film is thermal dewetti... | Wikipedia - Metal assisted chemical etching - Experimental procedure of MACE | 273 | 1,361 | null |
Section: Applications of MACE. The reason why MACE is heavily researched is that it allows completely anisotropic etching of silicon substrates which is not possible with other wet chemical etching methods (see figure to the right). Usually the silicon substrate is covered with a protective layer such as photoresist be... | Wikipedia - Metal assisted chemical etching - Applications of MACE | 170 | 890 | null |
Article: Methane functionalization. Methane functionalization is the process of converting methane in its gaseous state to another molecule with a functional group, typically methanol or acetic acid, through the use of transition metal catalysts. In the realm of carbon-hydrogen bond activation and functionalization (C-... | Wikipedia - Methane functionalization - Summary | 313 | 1,608 | null |
The main strategy currently used to increase the reactivity of methane uses transition metal complexes to activate the carbon-hydrogen bonds. In a typical C-H activation mechanism, a transition metal catalyst coordinates to the C-H bond to cleave it, and convert it into a bond with a lower bond dissociation energy. By ... | Wikipedia - Methane functionalization - Summary | 173 | 872 | null |
Section: Methane activation. The four most common methods of transition metal catalyzed methane activation are the Shilov system, sigma bond metathesis, oxidative addition, and 1,2 addition reactions. The Shilov system involves platinum based complexes to produce metal alkyls. It was first discovered when a hydrogen-de... | Wikipedia - Methane functionalization - Methane activation | 343 | 1,476 | null |
Section: Methane functionalization. Once the C-H bond of methane is activated by bonding to a transition metal complex, the net functionalization of the alkyl metal complex into another hydrocarbon containing a functional group is actually much harder to achieve. In general, alkanes of various lengths have typically be... | Wikipedia - Methane functionalization - Methane functionalization | 207 | 1,016 | null |
Section: Methane functionalization > The Catalytica system. In 1993, Periana et al. reported a synthesis of methyl bisulfate from methane using a mercury catalyst at 180 °C. Mercuric bisulfate activates methane electrophilically to form a methyl-complex, which then reacts with sulfuric acid to produce methyl bisulfate.... | Wikipedia - Methane functionalization - Methane functionalization > The Catalytica system | 338 | 1,518 | null |
Section: Methane functionalization > Conversion to acetic acid. Periana's group was also able to convert methane into acetic acid using similar conditions to the Catalytica system. Palladium(II) salts were used in this process, and the products formed were a mixture of methanol and acetic acid, along with side products... | Wikipedia - Methane functionalization - Methane functionalization > Conversion to acetic acid | 218 | 1,008 | null |
Section: Methane functionalization > Dehydrogenative silation and olefin hydromethylation. T. Don Tilley and coworkers were able to use the process of sigma-bond metathesis to design catalytic systems that work by the formation of carbon-carbon bonds. They first demonstrated an example using a scandium-based system, wh... | Wikipedia - Methane functionalization - Methane functionalization > Dehydrogenative silation and olefin hydromethylation | 220 | 975 | null |
Section: Methane functionalization > Carbene insertion. Carbene insertion use a different strategy for the functionalization of methane. A strategy using metallocarbenes has been shown with several linear and branched alkanes with rhodium, silver, copper, and gold-based catalysts. With a carbene ligand attached to a me... | Wikipedia - Methane functionalization - Methane functionalization > Carbene insertion | 344 | 1,609 | null |
However, when applying this method to methane specifically, the gaseous nature of methane requires an appropriate solvent. Reactions with other alkanes usually have the alkane in question be the solvent itself; however, any C-H bond with a lower BDE or higher polarity than methane will react first and prevent methane f... | Wikipedia - Methane functionalization - Methane functionalization > Carbene insertion | 215 | 1,031 | null |
Article: Micro-X-ray fluorescence. Micro x-ray fluorescence (μXRF) is an elemental analysis technique that relies on the same principles as x-ray fluorescence (XRF). Synchrotron X-rays may be used to provide elemental imaging with biological samples. The spatial resolution diameter of micro x-ray fluorescence is many o... | Wikipedia - Micro-X-ray fluorescence - Summary | 256 | 1,201 | null |
Section: Application in forensic science. Micro x-ray fluorescence is among the newest technologies used to detect fingerprints. It is a new visualization technique which rapidly reveals the elemental composition of a sample by irradiating it with a thin beam of X-rays without disturbing the sample. It was discovered r... | Wikipedia - Micro-X-ray fluorescence - Application in forensic science | 345 | 1,813 | null |
Article: Microfluidic cell culture. Microfluidic cell culture integrates knowledge from biology, biochemistry, engineering, and physics to develop devices and techniques for culturing, maintaining, analyzing, and experimenting with cells at the microscale. It merges microfluidics, a set of technologies used for the man... | Wikipedia - Microfluidic cell culture - Summary | 259 | 1,264 | null |
Section: Fabrication. Some considerations for microfluidic devices relating to cell culture include: fabrication material (e.g., polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS), polystyrene) culture region geometry control system for delivering and removing media when needed using either passive methods (e.g., gravity-driven flow, capilla... | Wikipedia - Microfluidic cell culture - Fabrication | 314 | 1,436 | null |
Perfusion in microfluidic cell culture is important to enable long culture periods on-chip and cell differentiation. Other critical aspects for controlling the microenvironment include: cell seeding density, reduction of air bubbles as they can rupture cell membranes, evaporation of media due to an insufficiently humid... | Wikipedia - Microfluidic cell culture - Fabrication | 229 | 1,155 | null |
Section: Advantages. Some of the major advantages of microfluidic cell culture include reduced sample volumes (especially important when using primary cells, which are often limited) and the flexibility to customize and study multiple microenvironments within the same device. A reduced cell population can also be used ... | Wikipedia - Microfluidic cell culture - Advantages | 327 | 1,636 | null |
Section: Culture platforms > Traditional cell culture. Traditional two-dimensional (2D) cell culture is cell culture that takes place on a flat surface, e.g. the bottom of a well-plate, and is known as the conventional method. While these platforms are useful for growing and passaging cells to be used in subsequent exp... | Wikipedia - Microfluidic cell culture - Culture platforms > Traditional cell culture | 240 | 1,193 | null |
Section: Culture platforms > Microfluidic cell culture. Microfluidic devices make possible the study of a single cell to a few hundred cells in a 3D environment. Comparatively, macroscopic 2D cultures have 104 to 107 cells on a flat surface. Microfluidics also allow for chemical gradients, the continuous flow of fresh ... | Wikipedia - Microfluidic cell culture - Culture platforms > Microfluidic cell culture | 323 | 1,499 | null |
These devices can grow a stripped-down version of an organ-like system that can be used to understand many biological processes. By adding an additional dimension, more advanced cell architectures can be achieved, and cell behavior is more representative of in vivo dynamics; cells can engage in enhanced communication w... | Wikipedia - Microfluidic cell culture - Culture platforms > Microfluidic cell culture | 341 | 1,757 | null |
Section: Multi-culture in microfluidics. Compared to the highly complex microenvironment in vivo, traditional mono-culture of single cell types in vitro only provides limited information about cellular behavior due to the lack of interactions with other cell types. Typically, cell-to-cell signaling can be divided into ... | Wikipedia - Microfluidic cell culture - Multi-culture in microfluidics | 339 | 1,691 | null |
Mixed co-culture is the simplest co-culture method, where two types of cells are in direct contact within a single culture compartment at the desired cell ratio. Cells can communicate by paracrine and juxtacrine signaling, but separated treatments and downstream analysis of a single cell type are not readily feasible d... | Wikipedia - Microfluidic cell culture - Multi-culture in microfluidics | 184 | 889 | null |
Section: Multi-culture in microfluidics > Closed channel multi-culture systems. The flexibility of microfluidic devices greatly contributes to the development of multi-culture studies by improved control over spatial patterns. Closed channel systems made by PDMS are most commonly used because PDMS has traditionally ena... | Wikipedia - Microfluidic cell culture - Multi-culture in microfluidics > Closed channel multi-culture systems | 335 | 1,424 | null |
Section: Multi-culture in microfluidics > Open channel multi-culture systems. Although closed channel microfluidics (discussed in the section above) offers high customizability and biological complexity for multi-culture, the operation often requires handling expertise and specialized equipment, such as pumps and valve... | Wikipedia - Microfluidic cell culture - Multi-culture in microfluidics > Open channel multi-culture systems | 347 | 1,766 | null |
Section: Controlling cell microenvironment > Oxygen concentration control. Oxygen plays an essential role in biological systems. Oxygen concentration control is one of the key elements when designing the microfluidic systems, whether the aerobic species or when modulating cellular functions in vivo, such as baseline me... | Wikipedia - Microfluidic cell culture - Controlling cell microenvironment > Oxygen concentration control | 311 | 1,519 | null |
Section: Controlling cell microenvironment > Temperature control. Temperature can be sensed by cells and influences their behavior, such as biochemical reaction kinetics. However, it is hard to control high-resolution temperature in traditional cell culture systems; whereas, microfluidic systems are proven to successfu... | Wikipedia - Microfluidic cell culture - Controlling cell microenvironment > Temperature control | 214 | 1,159 | null |
Article: Microscale chemistry. Microscale chemistry (often referred to as small-scale chemistry, in German: Chemie im Mikromaßstab) is an analytical method and also a teaching method widely used at school and at university levels, working with small quantities of chemical substances. While much of traditional chemistry... | Wikipedia - Microscale chemistry - Summary | 175 | 892 | null |
Section: History. There are two main strands of the modern approach. One is based on the idea that many of the experiments associated with general chemistry (acids and bases, oxidation and reduction, electrochemistry, etc.) can be carried out in equipment much simpler (injection bottles, dropper bottles, syringes, well... | Wikipedia - Microscale chemistry - History | 303 | 1,587 | null |
These approaches were accompanied by the introduction of some specialised equipment, which was subsequently simplified by Breuer without great loss of versatility. There is a great deal of published material available to help in the introduction of such a scheme, providing advice on choice of equipment, techniques and ... | Wikipedia - Microscale chemistry - History | 193 | 1,059 | null |
Section: Centres. Austria Viktor Obendrauf China Zhou Ning-Huai Egypt Mahmoud K. El-Marsafy Germany Angela Koehler-Kruetzfeld, Peter Schwarz, Waltraud Habelitz-Tkotz, Michael Tausch, John McCaskill, Theodor Grofe, Bernd-Heinrich Brand, Gregor von Borstel, Stephan Mattusek Hong Kong Winghong Chan Israel Mordechai Livneh... | Wikipedia - Microscale chemistry - Centres | 259 | 935 | null |
Section: Conferences. 1st International Symposium on Microscale Chemistry May 2000 at Universidad Iberoamericana – Ciudad de Mexico 2nd International Symposium on Microscale Chemistry 13. – 15. December 2001 at Hong Kong Baptist University – Hong Kong [2] 3rd International Symposium on Microscale Chemistry 18. – 20. Ma... | Wikipedia - Microscale chemistry - Conferences | 205 | 1,039 | null |
Article: Mixed oxidant. A mixed oxidant solution (MOS) is a type of disinfectant that has many uses including disinfecting, sterilizing, and eliminating pathogenic microorganisms in water. An MOS may have advantages such as a higher disinfecting power, stable residual chlorine in water, elimination of biofilm, and safe... | Wikipedia - Mixed oxidant - Summary | 152 | 624 | null |
Section: Performance > Reactions. A mixed oxidant solution (MOS) is produced by on-site electrolysis. The concentration of disinfectant output is proportional to the concentration of salt input, voltage, temperature, current, and electrolysis time. An MOS production system contains corrosion-resistant electrodes or dim... | Wikipedia - Mixed oxidant - Performance > Reactions | 327 | 1,624 | null |
Section: Performance > Production Cell > Membrane cell. This cell consists of anode and cathode electrodes with an ion exchange membrane between them. This membrane allows cations pass through it and leads them to the cathode. This cell has two inputs and two outputs for water. One pair of input and output is located a... | Wikipedia - Mixed oxidant - Performance > Production Cell > Membrane cell | 347 | 1,441 | null |
Section: Performance > Production Cell > Membraneless cell > Types of cell connections. Electrolysis cells with more than one anode and cathode pair have two types of arrangement: unipolar and bipolar. Unipolar arrangement: Cells are arranged in parallel and therefore have the same potential difference between the anod... | Wikipedia - Mixed oxidant - Performance > Production Cell > Membraneless cell > Types of cell connections | 180 | 827 | null |
Section: Comparisons > Advantages of Mixed oxidant solution compared to other disinfecting methods. Application of mixed-oxidant solution for disinfecting water has several advantages compared to other methods, such as sodium hypochlorite bleach and calcium hypochlorite. The disinfecting effect of applying mixed oxidan... | Wikipedia - Mixed oxidant - Comparisons > Advantages of Mixed oxidant solution compared to other disinfecting methods | 209 | 941 | null |
Section: Comparisons > Comparison of the membrane cell and membraneless cell. A mixed oxidant production cell generally works regardless of a membrane. Each of these structures has advantages and disadvantages that should be considered. The membraneless cell output contains hydroxide ions which increase the pH; therefo... | Wikipedia - Mixed oxidant - Comparisons > Comparison of the membrane cell and membraneless cell | 334 | 1,529 | null |
Section: Applications. Mixed oxidant solutions for water treatment may improve safety, lower general corrosion rates, increase performance, and save money. MOS may be more effective than bleach and can be used for a variety of applications. Some of these applications are cited below. Cooling water treatment: An MOS for... | Wikipedia - Mixed oxidant - Applications | 324 | 1,746 | null |
MOS is both the most cost-effective solution and the preferred technology for disinfection and oxidation of wastewater for reuse or reintroduction into the environment eliminating many of the negative problems associated with traditional chlorine disinfection. Drinking water & beverage facilities: An MOS is a proven di... | Wikipedia - Mixed oxidant - Applications | 344 | 1,711 | null |
Article: Mixture. In chemistry, a mixture is a material made up of two or more different chemical substances which can be separated by physical method. It is an impure substance made up of 2 or more elements or compounds mechanically mixed together in any proportion. A mixture is the physical combination of two or more... | Wikipedia - Mixture - Summary | 213 | 1,171 | null |
Section: Characteristics of mixtures. All mixtures can be characterized as being separable by mechanical means (e.g. purification, distillation, electrolysis, chromatography, heat, filtration, gravitational sorting, centrifugation). Mixtures differ from chemical compounds in the following ways: The substances in a mixt... | Wikipedia - Mixture - Characteristics of mixtures | 227 | 1,121 | null |
Section: Homogeneous and heterogeneous mixtures. Mixtures can be either homogeneous or heterogeneous: a mixture of uniform composition and in which all components are in the same phase, such as salt in water, is called homogeneous, whereas a mixture of non-uniform composition and of which the components can be easily i... | Wikipedia - Mixture - Homogeneous and heterogeneous mixtures | 328 | 1,551 | null |
Section: Homogeneous and heterogeneous mixtures > Heterogeneous mixtures. Examples of heterogeneous mixtures are emulsions and foams. In most cases, the mixture consists of two main constituents. For an emulsion, these are immiscible fluids such as water and oil. For a foam, these are a solid and a fluid, or a liquid a... | Wikipedia - Mixture - Homogeneous and heterogeneous mixtures > Heterogeneous mixtures | 308 | 1,483 | null |
Gy's sampling theory quantitatively defines the heterogeneity of a particle as: h i = ( c i − c batch ) m i c batch m aver , {\displaystyle h_{i}={\frac {(c_{i}-c_{\text{batch}})m_{i}}{c_{\text{batch}}m_{\text{aver}}}},} where h i {\displaystyle h_{i}} , c i {\displaystyle c_{i}} , c batch {\displaystyle c_{\text{batch... | Wikipedia - Mixture - Distinguishing between mixture types | 287 | 904 | null |
During sampling of heterogeneous mixtures of particles, the variance of the sampling error is generally non-zero. Pierre Gy derived, from the Poisson sampling model, the following formula for the variance of the sampling error in the mass concentration in a sample: V = 1 ( ∑ i = 1 N q i m i ) 2 ∑ i = 1 N q i ( 1 − q i ... | Wikipedia - Mixture - Distinguishing between mixture types | 317 | 792 | null |
Pierre Gy derived, from the Poisson sampling model, the following formula for the variance of the sampling error in the mass concentration in a sample: V = 1 ( ∑ i = 1 N q i m i ) 2 ∑ i = 1 N q i ( 1 − q i ) m i 2 ( a i − ∑ j = 1 N q j a j m j ∑ j = 1 N q j m j ) 2 , {\displaystyle V={\frac {1}{(\sum _{i=1}^{N}q_{i}m_{... | Wikipedia - Mixture - Distinguishing between mixture types | 340 | 893 | null |
the first-order inclusion probability of the ith particle), m i is the mass of the ith particle of the population and a i is the mass concentration of the property of interest in the ith particle of the population. The above equation for the variance of the sampling error is an approximation based on a linearization of... | Wikipedia - Mixture - Distinguishing between mixture types | 284 | 1,041 | null |
Section: Periodic table > Periods > Periods 1, 2 and 3. Hi Hello Little Beer Bottles Crack Nicely On Freddie's kNee. Nasties Merge All Silly 'People Suffer Clouts Arnti Happy Henry Likes Beans Brownies and Chocolate Nuts Over Friday's News. Naughty Margaret Always Sighs, "Please Stop Clowning Around." Kind Cats Scare T... | Wikipedia - List of chemistry mnemonics - Periodic table > Periods > Periods 1, 2 and 3 | 271 | 1,264 | null |
Section: Properties of elements > Activity series of metals. Please Stop Calling Me A Cute Zebra Crab I Like Her Call Smart Goat Please Stop Calling Me A Carless Zebra Crab Instead Try Learning How Copper Miners Save Gold Pit Popular Scientists Can Make A Zoo In Low Humid Climate ... Note that carbon and hydrogen are n... | Wikipedia - List of chemistry mnemonics - Properties of elements > Activity series of metals | 198 | 849 | null |
Section: Reactions and ions > Oxidation vs. reduction: electrochemical cell and electron gain/loss. AN OIL RIG CAT: At the ANode, Oxidation Involves Loss of electrons. Reduction Involves Gaining electrons at the CAThode. LOAN - Left Anode Oxidation Negative. In written representation of galvanic cell, anode is written ... | Wikipedia - List of chemistry mnemonics - Reactions and ions > Oxidation vs. reduction: electrochemical cell and electron gain/loss | 157 | 698 | null |
Section: Reactions and ions > Electrodes. An electrode in which oxidation takes place is called an anode while in that which reduction takes place is called cathode. This applies for both electrolytic and electrochemical cells, though the charge on them reverses. The red cat and an ox mnemonics are useful to remember t... | Wikipedia - List of chemistry mnemonics - Reactions and ions > Electrodes | 152 | 661 | null |
Article: Molecule. A molecule is a group of two or more atoms that are held together by attractive forces known as chemical bonds; depending on context, the term may or may not include ions that satisfy this criterion. In quantum physics, organic chemistry, and biochemistry, the distinction from ions is dropped and mol... | Wikipedia - Molecule - Summary | 286 | 1,382 | null |
Section: History. The definition of the molecule has evolved as knowledge of the structure of molecules has increased. Earlier definitions were less precise, defining molecules as the smallest particles of pure chemical substances that still retain their composition and chemical properties. This definition often breaks... | Wikipedia - Molecule - History | 338 | 1,660 | null |
Boyle argued that matter's basic elements consisted of various sorts and sizes of particles, called "corpuscles", which were capable of arranging themselves into groups. In 1789, William Higgins published views on what he called combinations of "ultimate" particles, which foreshadowed the concept of valency bonds. If, ... | Wikipedia - Molecule - History | 330 | 1,649 | null |
Pauling, however, was not satisfied with this method and looked to the newly emerging field of quantum physics for a new method. In 1926, French physicist Jean Perrin received the Nobel Prize in physics for proving, conclusively, the existence of molecules. He did this by calculating the Avogadro constant using three d... | Wikipedia - Molecule - History | 331 | 1,608 | null |
Section: Molecular science. The science of molecules is called molecular chemistry or molecular physics, depending on whether the focus is on chemistry or physics. Molecular chemistry deals with the laws governing the interaction between molecules that results in the formation and breakage of chemical bonds, while mole... | Wikipedia - Molecule - Molecular science | 177 | 927 | null |
Section: Prevalence. Molecules as components of matter are common. They also make up most of the oceans and atmosphere. Most organic substances are molecules. The substances of life are molecules, e.g. proteins, the amino acids of which they are composed, the nucleic acids (DNA and RNA), sugars, carbohydrates, fats, an... | Wikipedia - Molecule - Prevalence | 324 | 1,531 | null |
Section: Bonding > Ionic. Ionic bonding is a type of chemical bond that involves the electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions, and is the primary interaction occurring in ionic compounds. The ions are atoms that have lost one or more electrons (termed cations) and atoms that have gained one or more elec... | Wikipedia - Molecule - Bonding > Ionic | 187 | 929 | null |
Section: Molecular size. Most molecules are far too small to be seen with the naked eye, although molecules of many polymers can reach macroscopic sizes, including biopolymers such as DNA. Molecules commonly used as building blocks for organic synthesis have a dimension of a few angstroms (Å) to several dozen Å, or aro... | Wikipedia - Molecule - Molecular size | 180 | 852 | null |
Section: Molecular formulas > Chemical formula types. The chemical formula for a molecule uses one line of chemical element symbols, numbers, and sometimes also other symbols, such as parentheses, dashes, brackets, and plus (+) and minus (−) signs. These are limited to one typographic line of symbols, which may include... | Wikipedia - Molecule - Molecular formulas > Chemical formula types | 347 | 1,658 | null |
Section: Molecular spectroscopy. Molecular spectroscopy deals with the response (spectrum) of molecules interacting with probing signals of known energy (or frequency, according to the Planck relation). Molecules have quantized energy levels that can be analyzed by detecting the molecule's energy exchange through absor... | Wikipedia - Molecule - Molecular spectroscopy | 207 | 1,194 | null |
Section: Theoretical aspects. The study of molecules by molecular physics and theoretical chemistry is largely based on quantum mechanics and is essential for the understanding of the chemical bond. The simplest of molecules is the hydrogen molecule-ion, H2+, and the simplest of all the chemical bonds is the one-electr... | Wikipedia - Molecule - Theoretical aspects | 340 | 1,791 | null |
Article: Nanochemistry. Nanochemistry is an emerging sub-discipline of the chemical and material sciences that deals with the development of new methods for creating nanoscale materials. The term "nanochemistry" was first used by Ozin in 1992 as 'the uses of chemical synthesis to reproducibly afford nanomaterials from ... | Wikipedia - Nanochemistry - Summary | 326 | 1,638 | null |
Section: Applications > Medicine > Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) Detection. Over the past two decades, iron oxide nanoparticles for biomedical use had increased dramatically, largely due to its ability of non-invasive imaging, targeting and triggering drug release, or cancer therapy. Stem or immune cell could be mar... | Wikipedia - Nanochemistry - Applications > Medicine > Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) Detection | 150 | 778 | null |
Section: Applications > Medicine > Drug delivery. Emerging methods of drug delivery involving nanotechnological methods can be useful by improving bodily response, specific targeting, and non-toxic metabolism. Many nanotechnological methods and materials can be functionalized for drug delivery. Ideal materials employ a... | Wikipedia - Nanochemistry - Applications > Medicine > Drug delivery | 334 | 1,769 | null |
Section: Applications > Electrics > Nanowire compositions. Scientists have devised a large number of nanowire compositions with controlled length, diameter, doping, and surface structure by using vapor and solution phase strategies. These oriented single crystals are being used in semiconductor nanowire devices such as... | Wikipedia - Nanochemistry - Applications > Electrics > Nanowire compositions | 225 | 1,206 | null |
Section: Research areas > Nanodiamonds > Synthesis. Fluorescent nanoparticles are highly sought after. They have broad applications, but their use in macroscopic arrays allows them efficient in applications of plasmonics, photonics, and quantum communications. While there are many methods in assembling nanoparticles ar... | Wikipedia - Nanochemistry - Research areas > Nanodiamonds > Synthesis | 303 | 1,440 | null |
Section: Research areas > Nanodiamonds > Fluorescent (nitrogen vacancy). Fluorescent properties in nanodiamonds arise from the presence of nitrogen-vacancy (NV) centers, nitrogen atoms next to a vacancy. Fluorescent nanodiamond (FND) was invented in 2005 and has since been used in various fields of study. The invention... | Wikipedia - Nanochemistry - Research areas > Nanodiamonds > Fluorescent (nitrogen vacancy) | 324 | 1,290 | null |
Section: Research areas > Nanodiamonds > Drug-delivery and biological compatibility. Nanodiamonds can self-assemble and a wide range of small molecules, proteins antibodies, therapeutics, and nucleic acids can bind to its surface allowing for drug delivery, protein-mimicking, and surgical implants. Other potential biom... | Wikipedia - Nanochemistry - Research areas > Nanodiamonds > Drug-delivery and biological compatibility | 252 | 1,224 | null |
Section: Research areas > Nanolithography. Nanolithography is the technique to pattern materials and build devices under nano-scale. Nanolithography is often used together with thin-film-deposition, self-assembly, and self-organization techniques for various nanofabrications purpose. Many practical applications make us... | Wikipedia - Nanochemistry - Research areas > Nanolithography | 343 | 1,704 | null |
Section: Research areas > Nanolithography > Photoresists. Photoresists are light-sensitive materials, composed of a polymer, a sensitizer, and a solvent. Each element has a particular function. The polymer changes its structure when it is exposed to radiation. The solvent allows the photoresist to be spun and to form t... | Wikipedia - Nanochemistry - Research areas > Nanolithography > Photoresists | 292 | 1,449 | null |
Section: Research areas > Nanometer-size clusters. Monodisperse, nanometer-size clusters (also known as nanoclusters) are synthetically grown crystals whose size and structure influence their properties through the effects of quantum confinement. One method of growing these crystals is through inverse micellar cages in... | Wikipedia - Nanochemistry - Research areas > Nanometer-size clusters | 267 | 1,309 | null |
Section: Notable researchers. There are several researchers in nanochemistry that have been credited with the development of the field. Geoffrey A. Ozin, from the University of Toronto, is known as one of the "founding fathers of Nanochemistry" due to his four and a half decades of research on this subject. This resear... | Wikipedia - Nanochemistry - Notable researchers | 333 | 1,666 | null |
Section: Selected books. J.W. Steed, D.R. Turner, K. Wallace Core Concepts in Supramolecular Chemistry and Nanochemistry (Wiley, 2007) 315p. ISBN 978-0-470-85867-7 Brechignac C., Houdy P., Lahmani M. (Eds.) Nanomaterials and Nanochemistry (Springer, 2007) 748p. ISBN 978-3-540-72993-8 H. Watarai, N. Teramae, T. Sawada I... | Wikipedia - Nanochemistry - Selected books | 260 | 770 | null |
Article: Natural product. A natural product is a natural compound or substance produced by a living organism—that is, found in nature. In the broadest sense, natural products include any substance produced by life. Natural products can also be prepared by chemical synthesis (both semisynthesis and total synthesis and h... | Wikipedia - Natural product - Summary | 299 | 1,707 | null |
Section: Function. Following Albrecht Kossel's original proposal in 1891, natural products are often divided into two major classes, the primary and secondary metabolites. Primary metabolites have an intrinsic function that is essential to the survival of the organism that produces them. Secondary metabolites in contra... | Wikipedia - Natural product - Function | 214 | 1,125 | null |
Section: Function > Primary metabolites. Primary metabolites, as defined by Kossel, are essential components of basic metabolic pathways required for life. They are associated with fundamental cellular functions such as nutrient assimilation, energy production, and growth and development. These metabolites have a wide ... | Wikipedia - Natural product - Function > Primary metabolites | 306 | 1,306 | null |
For instance, Vitamin B1 (thiamine diphosphate), synthesized from 1-deoxy-D-xylulose 5-phosphate, serves as a coenzyme for enzymes such as pyruvate dehydrogenase, 2-oxoglutarate dehydrogenase, and transketolase—all involved in carbohydrate metabolism. Vitamin B2 (riboflavin), derived from ribulose 5-phosphate and guano... | Wikipedia - Natural product - Function > Primary metabolites | 327 | 1,119 | null |
Vitamin B6 (pyridoxol, pyridoxal, and pyridoxamine, originating from erythrose 4-phosphate), functions as pyridoxal 5′-phosphate and acts as a cofactor for enzymes, particularly transaminases, involved in amino acid metabolism. Vitamin B12 (cobalamins) contains a corrin ring structure, similar to porphyrin, and serves ... | Wikipedia - Natural product - Function > Primary metabolites | 310 | 1,324 | null |
Section: Function > Secondary metabolites. Secondary in contrast to primary metabolites are dispensable and not absolutely required for survival. Furthermore, secondary metabolites typically have a narrow species distribution. Secondary metabolites have a broad range of functions. These include pheromones that act as s... | Wikipedia - Natural product - Function > Secondary metabolites | 241 | 1,200 | null |
Section: Biosynthesis > Carbohydrates. Carbohydrates are organic molecules essential for energy storage, structural support, and various biological processes in living organisms. They are produced through photosynthesis in plants or gluconeogenesis in animals and can be converted into larger polysaccharides:: Ch. 8 Pho... | Wikipedia - Natural product - Biosynthesis > Carbohydrates | 249 | 1,007 | null |
Section: Biosynthesis > Fatty acids and polyketides. Fatty acids and polyketides are synthesized via the acetate pathway, which starts from basic building blocks derived from sugars:: Ch. 3 Sugars → acetate pathway → fatty acids and polyketides During glycolysis, sugars are broken down into acetyl-CoA. In an ATP-depend... | Wikipedia - Natural product - Biosynthesis > Fatty acids and polyketides | 329 | 1,265 | null |
Section: Biosynthesis > Aromatic amino acids and phenylpropanoids. The shikimate pathway is a key metabolic route responsible for the production of aromatic amino acids and their derivatives in plants, fungi, bacteria, and some protozoans:: Ch. 4 Shikimate pathway → aromatic amino acids and phenylpropanoids The shikima... | Wikipedia - Natural product - Biosynthesis > Aromatic amino acids and phenylpropanoids | 348 | 1,513 | null |
Section: Biosynthesis > Terpenoids and steroids. The biosynthesis of terpenoids and steroids involves two primary pathways, which produce essential building blocks for these compounds:: Ch. 5 Mevalonate pathway and methylerythritol phosphate pathway → terpenoids and steroids The mevalonate (MVA) and methylerythritol ph... | Wikipedia - Natural product - Biosynthesis > Terpenoids and steroids | 327 | 1,179 | null |
Both pathways converge at IPP and DMAPP, which combine to form longer prenyl diphosphates like geranyl (C10), farnesyl (C15), and geranylgeranyl (C20). These compounds serve as precursors for a wide range of terpenoids, including monoterpenes, sesquiterpenes, and triterpenes. The diversity of terpenoids arises from mod... | Wikipedia - Natural product - Biosynthesis > Terpenoids and steroids | 173 | 673 | null |
Section: Biosynthesis > Alkaloids. Alkaloids are nitrogen-containing organic compounds produced by plants through complex biosynthetic pathways, starting from amino acids. The biosynthesis of alkaloids from amino acids is essential for producing many biologically active compounds in plants. These compounds range from s... | Wikipedia - Natural product - Biosynthesis > Alkaloids | 327 | 1,393 | null |
This reaction involves the condensation of an aldehyde with an amine, as seen in the biosynthesis of strictosidine, a precursor to numerous monoterpene indole alkaloids. Oxidoreductases, including cytochrome P450s and flavin-containing monooxygenases, play a vital role in modifying the core alkaloid structures through ... | Wikipedia - Natural product - Biosynthesis > Alkaloids | 224 | 923 | null |
Section: Biosynthesis > Peptides, proteins, and other amino acid derivatives. Biosynthesis of peptides, proteins, and other amino acid derivatives assembles amino acids into biologically active molecules, producing compounds like peptide hormones, modified peptides, and plant-derived substances.: Ch. 8 Peptides and pro... | Wikipedia - Natural product - Biosynthesis > Peptides, proteins, and other amino acid derivatives | 320 | 1,554 | null |
Section: Medical uses > Modern natural product-derived drugs. Many prescribed drugs have been either directly derived from or inspired by natural products. Approximately 35% of the annual global market of medicine is either from natural products or related drugs. This breaks down as 25% from plants, 13% from microorgan... | Wikipedia - Natural product - Medical uses > Modern natural product-derived drugs | 345 | 1,544 | null |
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