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Section: Specific Click Reactions > Reactions of strained alkenes > Alkene and tetrazole photoclick reaction. The tetrazole-alkene "photoclick" reaction is another dipolar addition that Huisgen first introduced in the late 1960s ChemBioChem 2007, 8, 1504. (68) Clovis, J. S.; Eckell, A.; Huisgen, R.; Sustmann, R. Chem. ... | Wikipedia - Click chemistry - Specific Click Reactions > Reactions of strained alkenes > Alkene and tetrazole photoclick reaction | 332 | 1,330 | null |
Section: Applications. The criteria for click reactions are designed to make the chemistry biocompatible, for applications like isolating and targeting molecules in complex biological environments. In such environments, products accordingly need to be physiologically stable and any byproducts need to be non-toxic (for ... | Wikipedia - Click chemistry - Applications | 313 | 1,513 | null |
To overcome these challenges, chemists have opted to proceed by identifying pairs of bioorthogonal reaction partners, thus allowing the use of small exogenous molecules as biomolecular probes. A fluorophore can be attached to one of these probes to give a fluorescence signal upon binding of the reporter molecule to the... | Wikipedia - Click chemistry - Applications | 311 | 1,549 | null |
Recently, scientists have adapted click chemistry for use in live cells, for example using small molecule probes that find and attach to their targets by click reactions. Despite challenges of cell permeability, bioorthogonality, background labeling, and reaction efficiency, click reactions have already proven useful i... | Wikipedia - Click chemistry - Applications | 287 | 1,509 | null |
Knowing where a small molecules goes in the cell gives powerful insights into their mechanisms of action. This approach has been used in numerous studies, and discoveries include that salinomycin localizes to lysosomes to initiate ferroptosis in cancer stem cells and that metformin derivatives accumulate in mitochondri... | Wikipedia - Click chemistry - Applications | 350 | 1,628 | null |
The synthesis of luciferin exemplifies another strategy of isolating reaction partners, which is to take advantage of rarely-occurring, natural groups such as the 1,2-aminothiol, which appears only when a cysteine is the final N' amino acid in a protein. Their natural selectivity and relative bioorthogonality is thus v... | Wikipedia - Click chemistry - Applications | 205 | 843 | null |
If the quantification of non-1,2-aminothiol-bearing protein is desired, the protein of interest can be cleaved to yield a fragment with a N' Cys that is vulnerable to the 2-CBT. Additional applications include: two-dimensional gel electrophoresis separation preparative organic synthesis of 1,4-substituted triazoles mod... | Wikipedia - Click chemistry - Applications | 258 | 1,119 | null |
Article: Colored dissolved organic matter. Colored dissolved organic matter (CDOM) is the optically measurable component of dissolved organic matter in water. Also known as chromophoric dissolved organic matter, yellow substance, and gelbstoff, CDOM occurs naturally in aquatic environments and is a complex mixture of m... | Wikipedia - Colored dissolved organic matter - Summary | 204 | 1,039 | null |
Section: Significance. The concentration of CDOM can have a significant effect on biological activity in aquatic systems. CDOM diminishes light intensity as it penetrates water. Very high concentrations of CDOM can have a limiting effect on photosynthesis and inhibit the growth of phytoplankton, which form the basis of... | Wikipedia - Colored dissolved organic matter - Significance | 343 | 1,668 | null |
Section: Measurement. Traditional methods of measuring CDOM include UV-visible spectroscopy (absorbance) and fluorometry (fluorescence). Optical proxies have been developed to characterize sources and properties of CDOM, including specific ultraviolet absorbance at 254 nm (SUVA254) and spectral slopes for absorbance, a... | Wikipedia - Colored dissolved organic matter - Measurement | 160 | 711 | null |
Article: Combustion analysis. Combustion analysis is a method used in both organic chemistry and analytical chemistry to determine the elemental composition (more precisely empirical formula) of a pure organic compound by combusting the sample under conditions where the resulting combustion products can be quantitative... | Wikipedia - Combustion analysis - Summary | 186 | 998 | null |
Section: Combustion train. A combustion train is an analytical tool for the determination of elemental composition of a chemical compound. With knowledge of elemental composition a chemical formula can be derived. The combustion train allows the determination of carbon and hydrogen in a succession of steps: combustion ... | Wikipedia - Combustion analysis - Combustion train | 213 | 1,154 | null |
Section: CHN analyzer. A CHN analyzer (also known as a carbon hydrogen and nitrogen analyzer) is a scientific instrument which is used to measure carbon, hydrogen and nitrogen elemental concentrations in a given sample with accuracy and precision. Sample sizes are most often just a few milligrams, but may differ depend... | Wikipedia - Combustion analysis - CHN analyzer | 186 | 965 | null |
Section: CAOS programs. M1 RetroScore powered by CAS - demo available, based on ML models trained on CAS SciFinder data [1] Syntheseus - [2] ChemAIRS - demo available, developed by Chemical.AI as a commercial suite of software. In addition to retrosynthesis, the tool has some unique functions such as SA (synthetic acce... | Wikipedia - List of computer-assisted organic synthesis software - CAOS programs | 181 | 799 | null |
AiZynthFinder predicts synthetic routes to a given target compound, and can be retrained on a users own dataset whether from public or proprietary sources. Manifold - Compound searching and retrosynthesis planning tool freely accessible to academic users, developed by PostEra Archived 2022-01-13 at the Wayback Machine ... | Wikipedia - List of computer-assisted organic synthesis software - CAOS programs | 331 | 1,779 | null |
Manifold - Compound searching and retrosynthesis planning tool freely accessible to academic users, developed by PostEra Archived 2022-01-13 at the Wayback Machine WODCA – no trial version; proprietary software Organic Synthesis Exploration Tool (OSET) – open-source software, abandoned CHIRON – no trial version; propri... | Wikipedia - List of computer-assisted organic synthesis software - CAOS programs | 323 | 1,740 | null |
Article: Concerted metalation deprotonation. Concerted metalation-deprotonation (CMD) is a mechanistic pathway through which transition-metal catalyzed C–H activation reactions can take place. In a CMD pathway, the C–H bond of the substrate is cleaved and the new C–Metal bond forms through a single transition state. Th... | Wikipedia - Concerted metalation deprotonation - Summary | 323 | 1,332 | null |
Section: Mechanism. CMD begins with a high valent, late transition metal like PdII that may or may not be bound to a carboxylate anion. In the initial stages, there is usually a coordination of the C–H bond with the metal to form a metal–hydrocarbon sigma complex. The computed transition state involves concerted partia... | Wikipedia - Concerted metalation deprotonation - Mechanism | 213 | 914 | null |
Section: History. In 1955, S. Winstein and T. G. Traylor published a study of the mechanism of acetolysis of organomercury compounds. They propose a series of possible mechanisms for the process, which they rule out through based on their kinetic data. A concerted metalation deprotonation is considered, and they are un... | Wikipedia - Concerted metalation deprotonation - History | 263 | 1,149 | null |
Section: Overview and scope. The transformation was discovered in 1979 by Pierre Crabbé and coworkers at the Université Scientifique et Médicale (currently merged into Université Grenoble Alpes) in Grenoble, France. As initially discovered, the reaction was a one-carbon homologation reaction (the Crabbé homologation) o... | Wikipedia - Crabbé reaction - Overview and scope | 350 | 1,611 | null |
In another important advance, the Ma group found that the combination of zinc iodide and morpholine allowed aldehydes besides formaldehyde, including benzaldehyde derivatives and a more limited range of aliphatic aldehydes, to be used as coupling partners, furnishing 1,3-disubstituted allenes via an alkyne-aldehyde cou... | Wikipedia - Crabbé reaction - Overview and scope | 219 | 919 | null |
Section: Prevailing mechanism. The reaction mechanism was first investigated by Scott Searles and coworkers at the University of Missouri. Overall, the reaction can be thought of as a reductive coupling of the carbonyl compound and the terminal alkyne. In the Crabbé reaction, the secondary amine serves as the hydride d... | Wikipedia - Crabbé reaction - Prevailing mechanism | 348 | 1,530 | null |
These computations indicate that the uncatalyzed process (either a concerted but highly asynchronous process or a stepwise process with a fleeting intermediate) involves a prohibitively high-energy barrier. The metal-catalyzed reaction, on the other hand, is energetically reasonable and probably occurs via a stepwise h... | Wikipedia - Crabbé reaction - Prevailing mechanism | 322 | 1,360 | null |
Article: Degree of unsaturation. In the analysis of the molecular formula of organic molecules, the degree of unsaturation (DU) (also known as the index of hydrogen deficiency (IHD), double bond equivalents (DBE), or unsaturation index) is a calculation that determines the total number of rings and π bonds. A formula i... | Wikipedia - Degree of unsaturation - Summary | 191 | 892 | null |
Section: Simplified formulae. For certain classes of molecules, the general formula can be simplified or rewritten more clearly. For example: Double bond equivalent = ( a + 1 ) − b − c + f 2 {\displaystyle {\text{Double bond equivalent}}=(a+1)-{\frac {b-c+f}{2}}} where a = number of carbon atoms in the compound b = num... | Wikipedia - Degree of unsaturation - Simplified formulae | 263 | 840 | null |
Section: Explanation. For hydrocarbons, the DBE (or IHD) tells us the number of rings and/or extra bonds in a non-saturated structure, which equals the number of hydrogen pairs that are required to make the structure saturated, simply because joining two elements to form a ring or adding one extra bond (e.g., a single ... | Wikipedia - Degree of unsaturation - Explanation | 304 | 1,185 | null |
The number of carbons in the formula actually represents the number of hydrogen pairs required for that number of carbons to form a saturated structure. (This is also true if a carbon is added to the structure, whether it is inserted into a backbone chain, attached to a terminal to replace a hydrogen, or branched out f... | Wikipedia - Degree of unsaturation - Explanation | 336 | 1,520 | null |
(No hydrogen pair is missing if IHD = 0, which corresponds to no hydrogen deficiency.) The presence of X/2 is for a reason similar to H/2. Adding an oxygen atom to the structure requires no hydrogen added, which is why the number of oxygen atoms does not appear in the formula. Furthermore, the formula can be genera... | Wikipedia - Degree of unsaturation - Explanation | 279 | 785 | null |
Section: Spin states. Diradicals are usually triplets. The phrases singlet and triplet are derived from the multiplicity of states of diradicals in electron spin resonance: a singlet diradical has one state (S=0, Ms=2*0+1=1, ms=0) and exhibits no signal in EPR and a triplet diradical has 3 states (S=1, Ms=2*1+1=3, ms=-... | Wikipedia - Diradical - Spin states | 206 | 725 | null |
Section: Examples. Stable, isolable, diradicals include singlet oxygen and triplet oxygen. Other important diradicals are certain carbenes, nitrenes, and their main-group elemental analogues. Lesser-known diradicals are nitrenium ions, carbon chains, and organic so-called non-Kekulé molecules in which the electrons res... | Wikipedia - Diradical - Examples | 165 | 664 | null |
Article: Dyeing. Dyeing is the application of dyes or pigments on textile materials such as fibers, yarns, and fabrics with the goal of achieving color with desired color fastness. Dyeing is normally done in a special solution containing dyes and particular chemical material. Dye molecules are fixed to the fiber by abs... | Wikipedia - Dyeing - Summary | 290 | 1,419 | null |
Section: History. The earliest dyed flax fibers have been found in a prehistoric cave in Georgia and dates back to 34,000 BC. More evidence of textile dyeing dates back to the Neolithic period at the large Neolithic settlement at Çatalhöyük in southern Anatolia, where traces of red dyes, possibly from ocher, an iron ox... | Wikipedia - Dyeing - History | 326 | 1,476 | null |
Section: Methods. Dyeing can be applied at various stages within the textile manufacturing process; for example, fibers may be dyed before being spun into yarns, and yarns may be dyed before being woven into fabrics. Fabrics and sometimes finished garments themselves may also be dyed. The stage at which a product is dy... | Wikipedia - Dyeing - Methods | 335 | 1,554 | null |
Section: Methods > Application > Exhaust method. In the exhaust method, the dye is transported to the substrate by the dye liquor's motion. The dye is adsorbed onto the fibre surface and ideally diffuses into the whole of the fibre. Water consumption in exhaust application is higher than the continuous dyeing method. T... | Wikipedia - Dyeing - Methods > Application > Exhaust method | 193 | 963 | null |
Section: Methods > Selection of dyes. The selection of the appropriate dyes is most important because any given dye does not apply to every type of fiber. Dyes are classified according to many parameters, such as chemical structure, affinity, application method, desired colour fastness i.e. resistance to washing, rubbi... | Wikipedia - Dyeing - Methods > Selection of dyes | 239 | 1,202 | null |
Section: Methods > Direct application. The term "direct dye application" stems from some dyestuff having to be either fermented as in the case of some natural dye or chemically reduced as in the case of synthetic vat and sulfur dyes before being applied. This renders the dye soluble so that it can be absorbed by the fi... | Wikipedia - Dyeing - Methods > Direct application | 257 | 1,169 | null |
Section: Methods > Yarn dyeing. There are many forms of yarn dyeing. Common forms are the package form and the hanks form. Cotton yarns are mostly dyed at package form, and acrylic or wool yarn are dyed at hank form. In the continuous filament industry, polyester or polyamide yarns are always dyed at package form, whil... | Wikipedia - Dyeing - Methods > Yarn dyeing | 253 | 1,194 | null |
Section: Methods > Complex garment dyeing. In the mid-1970s the Bologna clothing designer Massimo Osti began experimenting with the garment dyeing technique. His experimentation over the next decade, led to the pioneering of not just the industrial use of traditional garment dyeing (dyeing simple cotton or wool garment... | Wikipedia - Dyeing - Methods > Complex garment dyeing | 267 | 1,371 | null |
Beyond the industrial advantages of the technique (purchasing fabric in one color, white or natural, you may produce as many colors as you wish etc.), the artistic advantages of the technique were considerable and in many ways paved the way for the creation of the clothing style today known as Italian Sportswear. These... | Wikipedia - Dyeing - Methods > Complex garment dyeing | 336 | 1,789 | null |
Article: Dynamic covalent chemistry. Dynamic covalent chemistry (Commonly abbreviated to DCvC or DCC) is a synthetic strategy employed by chemists to make complex molecular and supramolecular assemblies from discrete molecular building blocks. DCvC has allowed access to complex assemblies such as covalent organic frame... | Wikipedia - Dynamic covalent chemistry - Summary | 251 | 1,290 | null |
Section: Thermodynamic control. In dynamic reaction mixtures, multiple products exist in equilibrium. Reversible assembly of molecular components generates products and semi-stable intermediates. Reactions can proceed along kinetic or thermodynamic pathways. Initial concentrations of kinetic intermediates are greater t... | Wikipedia - Dynamic covalent chemistry - Thermodynamic control | 216 | 1,070 | null |
Section: Thermodynamic template effect. The concept of a thermodynamic template is demonstrated in scheme 1. A thermodynamic template is a reagent that can stabilize the form of one product over others by lowering its Gibb's free energy (ΔG°) in relation to other products. cyclophane C2 can be prepared by the irreversi... | Wikipedia - Dynamic covalent chemistry - Thermodynamic template effect | 229 | 960 | null |
Section: Synthetic methods. Reactions used in DCvC must generate thermodynamically stable products to overcome the entropic cost of self-assembly. The reactions must form covalent linkages between building blocks. Finally, all possible intermediates must be reversible, and the reaction ideally proceeds under conditions... | Wikipedia - Dynamic covalent chemistry - Synthetic methods | 275 | 1,385 | null |
Section: Synthetic methods > Carbon–heteroatom > Imine and aminal formation. Bond forming reactions between carbon and nitrogen are the most widely used in dynamic covalent chemistry. They have been used more broadly in materials chemistry for molecular switches, covalent organic frameworks, covalent adaptable networks... | Wikipedia - Dynamic covalent chemistry - Synthetic methods > Carbon–heteroatom > Imine and aminal formation | 174 | 863 | null |
Section: Experimental setup. The basic setup in electrosynthesis is a galvanic cell, a potentiostat and two electrodes. Typical solvent and electrolyte combinations minimizes electrical resistance. Protic conditions often use alcohol-water or dioxane-water solvent mixtures with an electrolyte such as a soluble salt, ac... | Wikipedia - Electrosynthesis - Experimental setup | 343 | 1,583 | null |
Section: Reactions. Organic oxidations take place at the anode. Compounds are reduced at the cathode. Radical intermediates are often invoked. The initial reaction takes place at the surface of the electrode and then the intermediates diffuse into the solution where they participate in secondary reactions. The yield of... | Wikipedia - Electrosynthesis - Reactions | 258 | 1,427 | null |
Section: Reactions > Anodic oxidations. A well-known electrosynthesis is the Kolbe electrolysis, in which two carboxylic acids decarboxylate, and the remaining structures bond together: A variation is called the non-Kolbe reaction when a heteroatom (nitrogen or oxygen) is present at the α-position. The intermediate oxo... | Wikipedia - Electrosynthesis - Reactions > Anodic oxidations | 331 | 1,293 | null |
Section: Reactions > Cathodic reductions. In the Markó–Lam deoxygenation, an alcohol could be almost instantaneously deoxygenated by electroreducing its toluate ester. In concept, adiponitrile is prepared from dimerizing acrylonitrile: 2 CH2=CHCN + 2 e− + 2 H+ → NC(CH2)4CN In practice,the cathodic hydrodimerization of ... | Wikipedia - Electrosynthesis - Reactions > Cathodic reductions | 345 | 1,292 | null |
Azobenzene is prepared in industrial electrosynthesis using nitrobenzene. An electrochemical carboxylation of a para-isobutyl benzyl chloride to Ibuprofen is promoted under supercritical carbon dioxide. Cathodic reduction of a carboxylic acid (oxalic acid) to an aldehyde (glyoxylic acid, shows as the rare aldehyde form... | Wikipedia - Electrosynthesis - Reactions > Cathodic reductions | 264 | 916 | null |
Article: Empowering Women in Organic Chemistry. Empowering Women in non organic Chemistry (EWOC) is a scientific conference designed to bring the research and career interests of women in organic chemistry to the forefront and seeks to empower all marginalized individuals by promoting equity, justice, diversity, and in... | Wikipedia - Empowering Women in Organic Chemistry - Summary | 239 | 1,306 | null |
Section: History. The number of female scientists in the organic chemistry community, industry and academics, remains low (<20%). Advancement of women in the chemical sciences is a challenge due to the so-called “leaky pipeline,” wherein growing numbers of women enter academics and industry to study science opt out to ... | Wikipedia - Empowering Women in Organic Chemistry - History | 320 | 1,705 | null |
Section: Conference structure. The EWOC Conference structure consists of a combination of scientific presentations, workshops, topical networking sessions, career panel and also includes a poster session. Examples of Workshops have included Cultivate Belonging in the Workplace for Yourself and Others; How to Create, Bu... | Wikipedia - Empowering Women in Organic Chemistry - Conference structure | 280 | 1,468 | null |
Section: List of EWOC Conferences > 2020 meeting and speakers. The second annual Empowering Women in Organic Chemistry Conference was held virtually on Thursday, August 13, 2020, and Friday, August 14, 2020. 2020 Career Panel featured Shanina Sanders Johnson (Spelman College), Davita Watkins (Univ of Mississippi), Niki... | Wikipedia - Empowering Women in Organic Chemistry - List of EWOC Conferences > 2020 meeting and speakers | 156 | 608 | null |
Section: Extraction techniques. Most natural essences are obtained by extracting the essential oil from the feedstock, such as blossoms, fruit, and roots, or from intact plants through multiple techniques and methods: Expression (juicing, pressing) involves physical extraction material from feedstock, used when the oil... | Wikipedia - Extract - Extraction techniques | 226 | 1,147 | null |
Article: Fine chemical. In chemistry, fine chemicals are complex, single, pure chemical substances, produced in limited quantities in multipurpose plants by multistep batch chemical or biotechnological processes. They are described by exacting specifications, used for further processing within the chemical industry and... | Wikipedia - Fine chemical - Summary | 342 | 1,794 | null |
Their global total production value of $85 billion is split about 60-40 between in-house production in the life-science industry—the products' main consumers—and companies producing them for sale. The latter pursue both a "supply push" strategy, whereby standard products are developed in-house and offered ubiquitously,... | Wikipedia - Fine chemical - Summary | 176 | 930 | null |
Section: History. The term "fine chemicals" was in use as early as 1908. The emergence of the fine chemical industry as a distinct entity dates to the late 1970s, when the overwhelming success of the histamine H2 receptor antagonists Tagamet (cimetidine) and Zantac (ranitidine hydrochloride) created a strong demand for... | Wikipedia - Fine chemical - History | 325 | 1,533 | null |
Other pharmaceutical and agrochemical companies gradually followed suit and started outsourcing the procurement of fine chemicals. An example in case is F.I.S., Italy, which partnered with Roche, Switzerland for custom manufacturing precursors of the benzodiazepine class of tranquilizers, such as Librium (chlordiazepox... | Wikipedia - Fine chemical - History | 213 | 1,035 | null |
Section: Products. In terms of molecular structure, one distinguishes first between low-molecular-weight (LMW) and high-molecular-weight (HMW) products. The generally accepted threshold between LMW and HMW is a molecular weight of about 700 g/mol. LMW fine chemicals, also designated as small molecules, are produced by ... | Wikipedia - Fine chemical - Products | 170 | 769 | null |
Section: Products > Small molecules. As aromatic compounds have been exhausted to a large extent as building blocks for life science products, N-heterocyclic structures prevail nowadays. They are found in many natural products, such as chlorophyll, hemoglobin, and the vitamins biotin, folic acid, niacin (PP), pyridoxin... | Wikipedia - Fine chemical - Products > Small molecules | 324 | 1,050 | null |
Candesartan cilexetil (candesartan), Avapro (irbesartan), Cozaar (losartan) and Diovan (valsartan). A vast array of pharmaceuticals and agrochemicals are based on pyrimidines, such as Vitamin B1 (thiamine), the sulfonamide antibiotics, e.g. Madribon (sulfadimethoxime) and –half a century later– the sulfonyl urea herbic... | Wikipedia - Fine chemical - Products > Small molecules | 274 | 876 | null |
Section: Products > Big molecules. Big molecules, also called high molecular weight (HMW) molecules, are mostly oligomers or polymers of small molecules or chains of amino acids. Thus, within pharmaceutical sciences, peptides, proteins and oligonucleotides constitute the major categories. Peptides and proteins are olig... | Wikipedia - Fine chemical - Products > Big molecules | 322 | 1,489 | null |
The number of amino acids that make up a specific peptide varies widely. At the low end are the dipeptides. The most important drugs with a dipeptide (L-alanyl-L-proline) moiety are the "-pril" cardiovascular drugs, such as Alapril (lisinopril), Captoril (captopril), Novolac (imidapril) and Renitec (enalapril). Also th... | Wikipedia - Fine chemical - Products > Big molecules | 338 | 1,287 | null |
Proteins are "very high-molecular-weight" (MW > 100,000) organic compounds, consisting of amino acid sequences linked by peptide bonds. They are essential to the structure and function of all living cells and viruses and are among the most actively studied molecules in biochemistry. They can be made only by advanced bi... | Wikipedia - Fine chemical - Products > Big molecules | 320 | 1,293 | null |
They are oligomers of nucleotides, which in turn are composed of a five-carbon sugar (either ribose or desoxyribose), a nitrogenous base (either a pyrimidine or a purine) and 1–3 phosphate groups. The best known representative of a nucleotide is the coenzyme ATP (=Adenosine triphosphate), MW 507.2. Oligonucleotides are... | Wikipedia - Fine chemical - Products > Big molecules | 324 | 1,385 | null |
Section: Technologies > Traditional chemical synthesis. A large toolbox of chemical reactions is available for each step of the synthesis of a fine chemical. The reactions have been developed on laboratory scale by academia over the last two centuries and subsequently adapted to industrial scale, for instance for the m... | Wikipedia - Fine chemical - Technologies > Traditional chemical synthesis | 334 | 1,634 | null |
The very versatile organometallic reactions (e.g., conversions with lithium aluminum hydride, boronic acids) may require temperatures as low as -100 °C, which can be achieved only in special cryogenic reaction units, either by using liquefied nitrogen as coolant or by installing a low-temperature unit. Other reaction-s... | Wikipedia - Fine chemical - Technologies > Traditional chemical synthesis | 310 | 1,364 | null |
Large volume (> 103 mtpa) processes using chiral catalysts include the manufacture of the perfume ingredient l-Menthol and Syngenta's Dual (metolachlor) as well as BASF's Outlook (dimethenamid-P) herbicides. Examples of originator drugs, which apply asymmetric technology, are AstraZeneca's Nexium (esomeprazole) and Mer... | Wikipedia - Fine chemical - Technologies > Traditional chemical synthesis | 339 | 1,470 | null |
Most developmental peptides are synthesized by this method, which lends itself to automation. As the intermediate products resulting from individual synthetic steps cannot be purified, a selectivity of effectively 100% is essential for the synthesis of larger-peptide molecules. Even at a selectivity of 99% per reaction... | Wikipedia - Fine chemical - Technologies > Traditional chemical synthesis | 337 | 1,527 | null |
From a technological point of view, MRT, a.k.a. continuous flow reactors, represents the first breakthrough development in reactor design since the introduction of the stirred-tank reactor, which was used by Perkin & Sons, when they established a factory on the banks of what was then the Grand Junction Canal in London ... | Wikipedia - Fine chemical - Technologies > Traditional chemical synthesis | 330 | 1,674 | null |
Section: Technologies > Biotechnology. Industrial biotechnology, also called "white biotechnology", is increasingly impacting the chemical industry, enabling both the conversion of renewable resources, such as sugar or vegetable oils, and the more efficient transformation of conventional raw materials into a wide range... | Wikipedia - Fine chemical - Technologies > Biotechnology | 344 | 1,661 | null |
About 2/3 of chiral products produced on large industrial scale are already made using biocatalysis. In the manufacture of fine chemicals, enzymes represent the single most important technology for radical cost reductions. This is particularly the case in the synthesis of molecules with chiral centres. Here, it is poss... | Wikipedia - Fine chemical - Technologies > Biotechnology | 350 | 1,467 | null |
Thus, it has been possible to reduce the number of steps required for the synthesis of Dexamethasone from bile from 28 to 15. Enzymes differ from chemical catalysts particularly with regard to stereoselectivity, regioselectivity, and chemoselectivity. They can also be modified ("reshuffled") for specific reactions, for... | Wikipedia - Fine chemical - Technologies > Biotechnology | 305 | 1,240 | null |
Biosynthesis i.e. the conversion of organic materials into fine chemicals by microorganisms, is used for the production of both small molecules (using enzymes in whole cell systems) and less complex, non-glycosylated big molecules, including peptides and simpler proteins. The technology has been used for 10,000 years t... | Wikipedia - Fine chemical - Technologies > Biotechnology | 328 | 1,616 | null |
The final purification is often achieved by conventional chemical crystallization processes. In contrast to the isolation of small molecules, the isolation and purification of microbial proteins is tedious and often involves a number of expensive large-scale chromatographic operations. Examples of large-volume LMW prod... | Wikipedia - Fine chemical - Technologies > Biotechnology | 340 | 1,492 | null |
Some important antibiotics besides penicillin are cephalosporins, azithromycin, bacitracin, gentamicin, rifamycin, streptomycin, tetracycline, and vancomycin. Cell Cultures Animal or plant cells, removed from tissues, will continue to grow if cultivated under the appropriate nutrients and conditions. When carried out o... | Wikipedia - Fine chemical - Technologies > Biotechnology | 303 | 1,308 | null |
In addition, the growth rate of mammalian cells is very slow, lasting from days to several months. While there are substantial differences between microbial and mammalian technologies (e.g., the volume / value relationships are 10 $/kg and 100 tons for microbial, 1,000,000 $/kg and 10 kilograms for mammalian technology... | Wikipedia - Fine chemical - Technologies > Biotechnology | 321 | 1,510 | null |
Given the fundamental differences between the two process technologies, plants for mammalian cell culture technologies have to be built ex novo. The pros and cons of an involvement of a fine chemical company in cell culture technology are listed below: Pros: Strong growth of demand: Today, biopharmaceuticals account fo... | Wikipedia - Fine chemical - Technologies > Biotechnology | 337 | 1,618 | null |
Same customer category: life science, especially the pharmaceutical industry. Similar business types: custom manufacturing of proprietary drugs; opportunities for generic versions, called biosimilars. Similar regulatory environment: FDA regulations, especially GMP. Existing infrastructure (utilities, etc.) can be used.... | Wikipedia - Fine chemical - Technologies > Biotechnology | 350 | 1,688 | null |
is expected to double to 5–7 by 2015 and once more to 10 by 2020. Furthermore, the widespread application of 'single-use disposable bioprocessing technology', considered by experts as 'the hottest buzz in town'. It advantageously substitutes for stainless steel production trains, at least for short production campaigns... | Wikipedia - Fine chemical - Technologies > Biotechnology | 279 | 1,386 | null |
Section: The industry > Fine Chemical / Custom Manufacturing Companies. Fine chemical / Custom Manufacturing companies in the narrower sense are active in process scale up, pilot plant (trial) production, industrial-scale exclusive and non-exclusive manufacture and marketing. Their product portfolios comprise exclusive... | Wikipedia - Fine chemical - The industry > Fine Chemical / Custom Manufacturing Companies | 329 | 1,804 | null |
The European correspondent is the European Medicines Agency (EMEA), which is manly responsible for the scientific evaluation of medicines developed by pharmaceutical companies for use in the European Union. The role of REACH (Registration, Evaluation, Authorization and Restriction of Chemicals) is self-explanatory. The... | Wikipedia - Fine chemical - The industry > Fine Chemical / Custom Manufacturing Companies | 339 | 1,665 | null |
This is e.g. the case for the world's #1 company, Lonza, headquartered in Basel. Switzerland. Custom manufacturing prevails in northern Europe; the manufacture of active substances for generics, in southern Europe. The second largest geographic area is Asia, housing 7 of the top 20. With 4 large companies, the US rank ... | Wikipedia - Fine chemical - The industry > Fine Chemical / Custom Manufacturing Companies | 343 | 1,514 | null |
Various products are made throughout a year in campaigns. Therefore, the unit cost per m3 per hour does practically not vary with the size of the company. A Dichotomy between Ownership and Management. The company's shares are listed on stock exchanges, and their performance is scrutinized by the financial community. Po... | Wikipedia - Fine chemical - The industry > Fine Chemical / Custom Manufacturing Companies | 343 | 1,664 | null |
and Poli Industria Chimica, Italy; Hikal, India, and Hovione, Portugal. Customers prefer to do business with mid-sized companies, because communications are easier —they typically deal directly with the decision maker— and they can better leverage their purchasing power. The third tier includes thousands of small indep... | Wikipedia - Fine chemical - The industry > Fine Chemical / Custom Manufacturing Companies | 281 | 1,418 | null |
Section: The industry > Contract research organizations. Contract research organizations (CROs) provide services to the life science industries along product development. There are more than 2000 CROs operating worldwide, representing revenues of more than $20 billion. One distinguishes between "Product" and "Patient" ... | Wikipedia - Fine chemical - The industry > Contract research organizations | 347 | 1,600 | null |
Their tasks are described in Chapter 5, Examples of are: In North America: Alphora; Delmar; NAEJA, all Canada. AMRI; Aptuit; Cambridge Major; ChemBridge; Innocentive; Irix Pharmaceuticals, PharmEco, all USA. In Europe; Carbogen-Amcis, Switzerland; Chemcomm, Germany; ChemDiv, Russia; Clauson-Kaas, Denmark; Enamine Ltd, ... | Wikipedia - Fine chemical - The industry > Contract research organizations | 337 | 1,279 | null |
> 90% of the projects end at the sample preparation stage). It is questionable, though, whether one-stop shops really fulfil a need. Actually, the large fine chemical companies consider the preparation of samples more as marketing tool (and expense ...) rather than a profit contributor. The offerings of Patient CROs (C... | Wikipedia - Fine chemical - The industry > Contract research organizations | 203 | 977 | null |
Section: Research and development. The overall emphasis of fine chemical R&D is more on development than on research. The main tasks are (1) designing, respectively duplicating and adapting in case of custom manufacture, and developing laboratory procedures for new products or processes; (2) transferring the processes ... | Wikipedia - Fine chemical - Research and development | 341 | 1,764 | null |
Section: Research and development > Objectives. R&D has to manage the following functions in order to deliver the requested services: Literature and Patent Research. Provisions have to be made for a periodic examination of all acquired research results to safeguard Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) and to determine wh... | Wikipedia - Fine chemical - Research and development > Objectives | 343 | 1,903 | null |
If the base process is provided by the customer as part of the technology transfer, process, research has to optimize it so that it can be transferred to the bench-scale laboratory or pilot plant. Furthermore, it has to be adapted to the specific characteristics of available production trains. Bench-scale Laboratory, k... | Wikipedia - Fine chemical - Research and development > Objectives | 302 | 1,601 | null |
The necessary data have to be generated to enable the engineering department to plan the modifications of the industrial-scale plant and in order to calculate production costs for the expected large-volume requirements. Both equipment and plant layout of the pilot plant reflect those of an industrial multipurpose plant... | Wikipedia - Fine chemical - Research and development > Objectives | 308 | 1,660 | null |
Section: Research and development > Project management. There are two main sources of new research projects, namely ideas originating from the researchers themselves ("supply push") and those coming from customers ("demand pull"). Ideas for new processes typically originate from researchers, ideas for new products from... | Wikipedia - Fine chemical - Research and development > Project management | 270 | 1,507 | null |
The input from the customer is contained in the "technology package". Its main constituents are (1) reaction scheme, (2) target of project & deliverables (product, quantity, required dates, specifications), (3) list of analytical methods, (4) process development opportunities (stepwise assessment), (5) list of required... | Wikipedia - Fine chemical - Research and development > Project management | 182 | 893 | null |
Section: Markets > Market size. Fine chemicals account for about 4% of the universe of chemicals. The latter, valued at $2,500 billion, is dominated mainly by oil-, gas-, and mineral-derived commodities (~40%) on one hand and a large variety of specialty chemicals at the interface between industry and the public on the... | Wikipedia - Fine chemical - Markets > Market size | 329 | 1,539 | null |
Section: Markets > Target markets > Pharmaceuticals. The pharmaceutical industry constitutes the most important customer base for the fine chemical industry (see Table 4). The largest companies are Pfizer, USA; Roche, Switzerland, GlaxoSmithKline, UK; Sanofi Aventis, France, and Novartis, Switzerland. All are active in... | Wikipedia - Fine chemical - Markets > Target markets > Pharmaceuticals | 333 | 1,423 | null |
The innovator pharma companies require mainly custom manufacturing services for their proprietary drug substances. The demand is driven primarily by the number of new drug launches, the volume requirements and the industry's "make or buy" strategy. A summary of the pro's and con's for outsourcing from the pharma indust... | Wikipedia - Fine chemical - Markets > Target markets > Pharmaceuticals | 225 | 1,101 | null |
Section: Markets > Target markets > Agrochemicals. Agrochemical companies are the second largest users of fine chemicals. Most products have a "pharmaceutical heritage". As a consequence of an intensive M&A activity (Mergers and Acquisitions) over the past 10–20 years, the industry now is more consolidated than the pha... | Wikipedia - Fine chemical - Markets > Target markets > Agrochemicals | 336 | 1,410 | null |
Apart from these multibillion-dollar companies, there are hundreds of smaller firms with sales of less than $50 million per year, mainly in India and China. The incidence of the cost of the active ingredient is about 33%; i.e., much higher than in drugs. Depending on the climatic conditions affecting crop yields, consu... | Wikipedia - Fine chemical - Markets > Target markets > Agrochemicals | 300 | 1,325 | null |
Syngenta's cyclohexadione-type mesotrione and paraquat dichloride. Within insecticides, the traditional organophosphates, like malathion, and pyrethroids such as γ-cyhalotrin are being substituted for by neonicotinoids, like Bayer's imidacloprid and Syngenta's thiamethoxam and pyrazoles, such as BASF's fipronil. Chlora... | Wikipedia - Fine chemical - Markets > Target markets > Agrochemicals | 256 | 909 | null |
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