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Section: Challenges > AI welfare. In 2020, professor Shimon Edelman noted that only a small portion of work in the rapidly growing field of AI ethics addressed the possibility of AIs experiencing suffering. This was despite credible theories having outlined possible ways by which AI systems may become conscious, such a... | Wikipedia - Ethics of artificial intelligence - Challenges > AI welfare | 349 | 1,809 | null |
In November 2022, David Chalmers argued that it was unlikely current large language models like GPT-3 had experienced consciousness, but also that he considered there to be a serious possibility that large language models may become conscious in the future. Anthropic hired its first AI welfare researcher in 2024, and i... | Wikipedia - Ethics of artificial intelligence - Challenges > AI welfare | 239 | 1,234 | null |
Section: Challenges > Threat to human dignity. Joseph Weizenbaum argued in 1976 that AI technology should not be used to replace people in positions that require respect and care, such as: A customer service representative (AI technology is already used today for telephone-based interactive voice response systems) A nu... | Wikipedia - Ethics of artificial intelligence - Challenges > Threat to human dignity | 341 | 1,738 | null |
However, Kaplan and Haenlein stress that AI systems are only as smart as the data used to train them since they are, in their essence, nothing more than fancy curve-fitting machines; using AI to support a court ruling can be highly problematic if past rulings show bias toward certain groups since those biases get forma... | Wikipedia - Ethics of artificial intelligence - Challenges > Threat to human dignity | 210 | 998 | null |
Section: Challenges > Liability for self-driving cars. As the widespread use of autonomous cars becomes increasingly imminent, new challenges raised by fully autonomous vehicles must be addressed. There have been debates about the legal liability of the responsible party if these cars get into accidents. In one report ... | Wikipedia - Ethics of artificial intelligence - Challenges > Liability for self-driving cars | 296 | 1,560 | null |
Section: Challenges > Weaponization. Some experts and academics have questioned the use of robots for military combat, especially when such robots are given some degree of autonomous functions. The US Navy has funded a report which indicates that as military robots become more complex, there should be greater attention... | Wikipedia - Ethics of artificial intelligence - Challenges > Weaponization | 292 | 1,694 | null |
Research has studied how to make autonomous power with the ability to learn using assigned moral responsibilities. "The results may be used when designing future military robots, to control unwanted tendencies to assign responsibility to the robots." From a consequentialist view, there is a chance that robots will deve... | Wikipedia - Ethics of artificial intelligence - Challenges > Weaponization | 316 | 1,682 | null |
"If any major military power pushes ahead with the AI weapon development, a global arms race is virtually inevitable, and the endpoint of this technological trajectory is obvious: autonomous weapons will become the Kalashnikovs of tomorrow", says the petition, which includes Skype co-founder Jaan Tallinn and MIT profes... | Wikipedia - Ethics of artificial intelligence - Challenges > Weaponization | 336 | 1,734 | null |
Section: Challenges > Singularity. Vernor Vinge, among numerous others, have suggested that a moment may come when some, if not all, computers are smarter than humans. The onset of this event is commonly referred to as "the Singularity" and is the central point of discussion in the philosophy of Singularitarianism. Whi... | Wikipedia - Ethics of artificial intelligence - Challenges > Singularity | 329 | 1,741 | null |
It could kill off all other agents, persuade them to change their behavior, or block their attempts at interference. However, Bostrom contended that superintelligence also has the potential to solve many difficult problems such as disease, poverty, and environmental destruction, and could help humans enhance themselves... | Wikipedia - Ethics of artificial intelligence - Challenges > Singularity | 167 | 859 | null |
Section: Solutions and approaches. To address ethical challenges in artificial intelligence, developers have introduced various systems designed to ensure responsible AI behavior. Examples include Nvidia's Llama Guard, which focuses on improving the safety and alignment of large AI models, and Preamble's customizable g... | Wikipedia - Ethics of artificial intelligence - Solutions and approaches | 229 | 1,292 | null |
Section: Institutions in AI policy & ethics. There are many organizations concerned with AI ethics and policy, public and governmental as well as corporate and societal. Amazon, Google, Facebook, IBM, and Microsoft have established a non-profit, The Partnership on AI to Benefit People and Society, to formulate best pra... | Wikipedia - Ethics of artificial intelligence - Institutions in AI policy & ethics | 322 | 1,878 | null |
Section: Institutions in AI policy & ethics > Governmental initiatives. In the United States the Obama administration put together a Roadmap for AI Policy. The Obama Administration released two prominent white papers on the future and impact of AI. In 2019 the White House through an executive memo known as the "America... | Wikipedia - Ethics of artificial intelligence - Institutions in AI policy & ethics > Governmental initiatives | 323 | 1,706 | null |
Senator John Thune that would require websites to disclose the use of AI systems in handling interactions with users and regulate the transparency of "high-impact AI systems" by requiring that annual design and safety plans be submitted to the National Institute of Standards and Technology for oversight based on pre-de... | Wikipedia - Ethics of artificial intelligence - Institutions in AI policy & ethics > Governmental initiatives | 203 | 1,064 | null |
Section: Institutions in AI policy & ethics > Academic initiatives. Multiple research institutes at the University of Oxford have centrally focused on AI ethics. The Future of Humanity Institute focused on AI safety and the governance of AI before shuttering in 2024. The Institute for Ethics in AI, directed by John Tas... | Wikipedia - Ethics of artificial intelligence - Institutions in AI policy & ethics > Academic initiatives | 325 | 1,801 | null |
Section: History. Historically speaking, the investigation of moral and ethical implications of "thinking machines" goes back at least to the Enlightenment: Leibniz already poses the question if we might attribute intelligence to a mechanism that behaves as if it were a sentient being, and so does Descartes, who descri... | Wikipedia - Ethics of artificial intelligence - History | 315 | 1,593 | null |
Campbell Jr., he proposed the Three Laws of Robotics to govern artificially intelligent systems. Much of his work was then spent testing the boundaries of his three laws to see where they would break down, or where they would create paradoxical or unanticipated behavior. His work suggests that no set of fixed laws can ... | Wikipedia - Ethics of artificial intelligence - History | 343 | 1,845 | null |
Section: Role and impact of fiction. The role of fiction with regards to AI ethics has been a complex one. One can distinguish three levels at which fiction has impacted the development of artificial intelligence and robotics: Historically, fiction has been prefiguring common tropes that have not only influenced goals ... | Wikipedia - Ethics of artificial intelligence - Role and impact of fiction | 204 | 1,122 | null |
Section: Role and impact of fiction > TV series. While ethical questions linked to AI have been featured in science fiction literature and feature films for decades, the emergence of the TV series as a genre allowing for longer and more complex story lines and character development has led to some significant contribut... | Wikipedia - Ethics of artificial intelligence - Role and impact of fiction > TV series | 226 | 1,213 | null |
Section: Role and impact of fiction > Future visions in fiction and games. The movie The Thirteenth Floor suggests a future where simulated worlds with sentient inhabitants are created by computer game consoles for the purpose of entertainment. The movie The Matrix suggests a future where the dominant species on planet... | Wikipedia - Ethics of artificial intelligence - Role and impact of fiction > Future visions in fiction and games | 274 | 1,362 | null |
Article: Explainable artificial intelligence. Explainable AI (XAI), often overlapping with interpretable AI, or explainable machine learning (XML), is a field of research within artificial intelligence (AI) that explores methods that provide humans with the ability of intellectual oversight over AI algorithms. The main... | Wikipedia - Explainable artificial intelligence - Summary | 341 | 1,752 | null |
XAI algorithms follow the three principles of transparency, interpretability, and explainability. A model is transparent "if the processes that extract model parameters from training data and generate labels from testing data can be described and motivated by the approach designer." Interpretability describes the possi... | Wikipedia - Explainable artificial intelligence - Summary | 334 | 1,822 | null |
Concept Bottleneck Models, which use concept-level abstractions to explain model reasoning, are examples of this and can be applied in both image and text prediction tasks. This is especially important in domains like medicine, defense, finance, and law, where it is crucial to understand decisions and build trust in th... | Wikipedia - Explainable artificial intelligence - Summary | 270 | 1,328 | null |
Section: Goals. Cooperation between agents – in this case, algorithms and humans – depends on trust. If humans are to accept algorithmic prescriptions, they need to trust them. Incompleteness in formal trust criteria is a barrier to optimization. Transparency, interpretability, and explainability are intermediate goals... | Wikipedia - Explainable artificial intelligence - Goals | 336 | 1,700 | null |
Human users of such a system can understand the AI's cognition (both in real-time and after the fact) and can determine whether to trust the AI. Other applications of XAI are knowledge extraction from black-box models and model comparisons. In the context of monitoring systems for ethical and socio-legal compliance, th... | Wikipedia - Explainable artificial intelligence - Goals | 179 | 913 | null |
Section: Explainability and interpretability techniques > Explainability. Explainability is useful for ensuring that AI models are not making decisions based on irrelevant or otherwise unfair criteria. For classification and regression models, several popular techniques exist: Partial dependency plots show the marginal... | Wikipedia - Explainable artificial intelligence - Explainability and interpretability techniques > Explainability | 328 | 1,859 | null |
Section: Explainability and interpretability techniques > Interpretability. Scholars sometimes use the term "mechanistic interpretability" to refer to the process of reverse-engineering artificial neural networks to understand their internal decision-making mechanisms and components, similar to how one might analyze a ... | Wikipedia - Explainable artificial intelligence - Explainability and interpretability techniques > Interpretability | 243 | 1,314 | null |
Section: History and methods. During the 1970s to 1990s, symbolic reasoning systems, such as MYCIN, GUIDON, SOPHIE, and PROTOS could represent, reason about, and explain their reasoning for diagnostic, instructional, or machine-learning (explanation-based learning) purposes. MYCIN, developed in the early 1970s as a res... | Wikipedia - Explainable artificial intelligence - History and methods | 348 | 1,846 | null |
To provide an explanation, they trace reasoning from conclusions to assumptions through rule operations or logical inferences, allowing explanations to be generated from the reasoning traces. As an example, consider a rule-based problem solver with just a few rules about Socrates that concludes he has died from poison:... | Wikipedia - Explainable artificial intelligence - History and methods | 349 | 1,907 | null |
Modern complex AI techniques, such as deep learning, are naturally opaque. To address this issue, methods have been developed to make new models more explainable and interpretable. This includes layerwise relevance propagation (LRP), a technique for determining which features in a particular input vector contribute mos... | Wikipedia - Explainable artificial intelligence - History and methods | 349 | 1,858 | null |
Section: Regulation. As regulators, official bodies, and general users come to depend on AI-based dynamic systems, clearer accountability will be required for automated decision-making processes to ensure trust and transparency. The first global conference exclusively dedicated to this emerging discipline was the 2017 ... | Wikipedia - Explainable artificial intelligence - Regulation | 234 | 1,331 | null |
Section: Limitations > Adversarial parties. By making an AI system more explainable, we also reveal more of its inner workings. For example, the explainability method of feature importance identifies features or variables that are most important in determining the model's output, while the influential samples method id... | Wikipedia - Explainable artificial intelligence - Limitations > Adversarial parties | 258 | 1,358 | null |
Section: Limitations > Technical complexity. A fundamental barrier to making AI systems explainable is the technical complexity of such systems. End users often lack the coding knowledge required to understand software of any kind. Current methods used to explain AI are mainly technical ones, geared toward machine lear... | Wikipedia - Explainable artificial intelligence - Limitations > Technical complexity | 204 | 1,157 | null |
Section: Limitations > Understanding versus trust. The goal of explainability to end users of AI systems is to increase trust in the systems, even “address concerns about lack of ‘fairness’ and discriminatory effects”. However, even with a good understanding of an AI system, end users may not necessarily trust the syst... | Wikipedia - Explainable artificial intelligence - Limitations > Understanding versus trust | 328 | 1,703 | null |
Section: Criticism. Some scholars have suggested that explainability in AI should be considered a goal secondary to AI effectiveness, and that encouraging the exclusive development of XAI may limit the functionality of AI more broadly. Critiques of XAI rely on developed concepts of mechanistic and empiric reasoning fro... | Wikipedia - Explainable artificial intelligence - Criticism | 266 | 1,398 | null |
Section: Explainability in social choice > Participatory budgeting. Yang, Hausladen, Peters, Pournaras, Fricker and Helbing present an empirical study of explainability in participatory budgeting. They compared the greedy and the equal shares rules, and three types of explanations: mechanism explanation (a general expl... | Wikipedia - Explainable artificial intelligence - Explainability in social choice > Participatory budgeting | 215 | 1,142 | null |
Section: Relation to self-organized criticality. Self-organized criticality (SOC) is a statistical physics concept to describe a class of dynamical systems that have a critical point as an attractor. Specifically, these are non-equilibrium systems that evolve through avalanches of change and dissipations that reach up ... | Wikipedia - Extremal optimization - Relation to self-organized criticality | 152 | 767 | null |
Section: The technique. EO was designed as a local search algorithm for combinatorial optimization problems. Unlike genetic algorithms, which work with a population of candidate solutions, EO evolves a single solution and makes local modifications to the worst components. This requires that a suitable representation be... | Wikipedia - Extremal optimization - The technique | 342 | 2,010 | null |
Section: History. In 2022, the company introduced its prototype, Figure 01, a bipedal robot designed for manual labor, initially targeting the logistics and warehousing sectors. In May 2023, the company raised $70 million from investors led by Parkway Venture Capital. On January 18, 2024, Figure announced a partnership... | Wikipedia - Figure AI - History | 270 | 1,338 | null |
Section: Products > Figure 02. On August 6, 2024, Figure AI introduced Figure 02, a new version of its humanoid robot. The company described it as the next step toward deploying humanoids for industrial use. Figure 02 features integrated cabling in its limbs and a battery integrated into the torso. It is equipped with ... | Wikipedia - Figure AI - Products > Figure 02 | 175 | 863 | null |
Section: Products > Helix. Helix is an evolved version of Figure 02 that comes with 35 degrees of freedom, including human-like wrists, hands, and fingers. It features Helix VLA, a generalist vision-language-action neural network that can control two robots at once. The system can observe its surroundings, respond to n... | Wikipedia - Figure AI - Products > Helix | 176 | 860 | null |
Section: Features > AI Assist > Bixby and Bixby Vision. Provide distinct input methods within the Galaxy device interface. Bixby supports voice-based hands-free operation, while Bixby Vision facilitates real-time recognition of objects and text through the camera. Bixby: A voice assistant that allows users to control v... | Wikipedia - Galaxy AI - Features > AI Assist > Bixby and Bixby Vision | 165 | 766 | null |
Section: Features > Generative Wallpaper and Photo Ambient. Generative Wallpaper and Photo Ambient are Galaxy AI features designed to personalize the Galaxy device’s visual appearance based on user input and environmental context. Generative Wallpaper: Introduced with One UI 6.1, this feature uses on-device generative ... | Wikipedia - Galaxy AI - Features > Generative Wallpaper and Photo Ambient | 162 | 833 | null |
Section: Supported Devices. Galaxy AI debuted with the Galaxy S24 series in January 2024. Samsung has announced that AI features will be free to use on supported devices until the end of 2025. Samsung initially introduced Galaxy AI with the Galaxy S24 series. However, through software updates, the company has expanded ... | Wikipedia - Galaxy AI - Supported Devices | 348 | 1,239 | null |
Article: Game theory. Game theory is the study of mathematical models of strategic interactions. It has applications in many fields of social science, and is used extensively in economics, logic, systems science and computer science. Initially, game theory addressed two-person zero-sum games, in which a participant's g... | Wikipedia - Game theory - Summary | 350 | 1,790 | null |
Section: History > Earliest results. In 1713, a letter attributed to Charles Waldegrave, an active Jacobite and uncle to British diplomat James Waldegrave, analyzed a game called "le her". Waldegrave provided a minimax mixed strategy solution to a two-person version of the card game, and the problem is now known as the... | Wikipedia - Game theory - History > Earliest results | 247 | 1,096 | null |
Section: History > Foundation. The work of John von Neumann established game theory as its own independent field in the early-to-mid 20th century, with von Neumann publishing his paper On the Theory of Games of Strategy in 1928. Von Neumann's original proof used Brouwer's fixed-point theorem on continuous mappings into... | Wikipedia - Game theory - History > Foundation | 343 | 1,690 | null |
In 1950, John Nash developed a criterion for mutual consistency of players' strategies known as the Nash equilibrium, applicable to a wider variety of games than the criterion proposed by von Neumann and Morgenstern. Nash proved that every finite n-player, non-zero-sum (not just two-player zero-sum) non-cooperative gam... | Wikipedia - Game theory - History > Foundation | 192 | 985 | null |
Section: History > Foundation > Prize-winning achievements. In 1965, Reinhard Selten introduced his solution concept of subgame perfect equilibria, which further refined the Nash equilibrium. Later he would introduce trembling hand perfection as well. In 1994 Nash, Selten and Harsanyi became Economics Nobel Laureates f... | Wikipedia - Game theory - History > Foundation > Prize-winning achievements | 350 | 1,790 | null |
Section: Different types of games > Cooperative / non-cooperative. A game is cooperative if the players are able to form binding commitments externally enforced (e.g. through contract law). A game is non-cooperative if players cannot form alliances or if all agreements need to be self-enforcing (e.g. through credible t... | Wikipedia - Game theory - Different types of games > Cooperative / non-cooperative | 232 | 1,260 | null |
Section: Different types of games > Symmetric / asymmetric. A symmetric game is a game where each player earns the same payoff when making the same choice. In other words, the identity of the player does not change the resulting game facing the other player. Many of the commonly studied 2×2 games are symmetric. The sta... | Wikipedia - Game theory - Different types of games > Symmetric / asymmetric | 175 | 873 | null |
Section: Different types of games > Zero-sum / non-zero-sum. Zero-sum games (more generally, constant-sum games) are games in which choices by players can neither increase nor decrease the available resources. In zero-sum games, the total benefit goes to all players in a game, for every combination of strategies, and a... | Wikipedia - Game theory - Different types of games > Zero-sum / non-zero-sum | 278 | 1,300 | null |
Section: Different types of games > Simultaneous / sequential. Simultaneous games are games where both players move simultaneously, or instead the later players are unaware of the earlier players' actions (making them effectively simultaneous). Sequential games (a type of dynamic games) are games where players do not m... | Wikipedia - Game theory - Different types of games > Simultaneous / sequential | 226 | 1,330 | null |
Section: Different types of games > Perfect information and imperfect information. An important subset of sequential games consists of games of perfect information. A game with perfect information means that all players, at every move in the game, know the previous history of the game and the moves previously made by a... | Wikipedia - Game theory - Different types of games > Perfect information and imperfect information | 219 | 1,196 | null |
Section: Different types of games > Bayesian game. One of the assumptions of the Nash equilibrium is that every player has correct beliefs about the actions of the other players. However, there are many situations in game theory where participants do not fully understand the characteristics of their opponents. Negotiat... | Wikipedia - Game theory - Different types of games > Bayesian game | 338 | 1,711 | null |
Section: Different types of games > Combinatorial games. Games in which the difficulty of finding an optimal strategy stems from the multiplicity of possible moves are called combinatorial games. Examples include chess and Go. Games that involve imperfect information may also have a strong combinatorial character, for ... | Wikipedia - Game theory - Different types of games > Combinatorial games | 311 | 1,686 | null |
Section: Different types of games > Differential games. Differential games such as the continuous pursuit and evasion game are continuous games where the evolution of the players' state variables is governed by differential equations. The problem of finding an optimal strategy in a differential game is closely related ... | Wikipedia - Game theory - Different types of games > Differential games | 170 | 966 | null |
Section: Different types of games > Evolutionary game theory. Evolutionary game theory studies players who adjust their strategies over time according to rules that are not necessarily rational or farsighted. In general, the evolution of strategies over time according to such rules is modeled as a Markov chain with a s... | Wikipedia - Game theory - Different types of games > Evolutionary game theory | 168 | 931 | null |
Section: Different types of games > Stochastic outcomes (and relation to other fields). Individual decision problems with stochastic outcomes are sometimes considered "one-player games". They may be modeled using similar tools within the related disciplines of decision theory, operations research, and areas of artifici... | Wikipedia - Game theory - Different types of games > Stochastic outcomes (and relation to other fields) | 296 | 1,517 | null |
The minimax approach may be advantageous where stochastic models of uncertainty are not available, but may also be overestimating extremely unlikely (but costly) events, dramatically swaying the strategy in such scenarios if it is assumed that an adversary can force such an event to happen. (See Black swan theory for m... | Wikipedia - Game theory - Different types of games > Stochastic outcomes (and relation to other fields) | 156 | 781 | null |
Section: Representation of games. The games studied in game theory are well-defined mathematical objects. To be fully defined, a game must specify the following elements: the players of the game, the information and actions available to each player at each decision point, and the payoffs for each outcome. (Eric Rasmuse... | Wikipedia - Game theory - Representation of games | 191 | 979 | null |
Section: Representation of games > Extensive form. The extensive form can be used to formalize games with a time sequencing of moves. Extensive form games can be visualized using game trees (as pictured here). Here each vertex (or node) represents a point of choice for a player. The player is specified by a number list... | Wikipedia - Game theory - Representation of games > Extensive form | 318 | 1,500 | null |
Once Player 2 has made their choice, the game is considered finished and each player gets their respective payoff, represented in the image as two numbers, where the first number represents Player 1's payoff, and the second number represents Player 2's payoff. Suppose that Player 1 chooses U and then Player 2 chooses A... | Wikipedia - Game theory - Representation of games > Extensive form | 215 | 1,031 | null |
Section: Representation of games > Normal form. The normal (or strategic form) game is usually represented by a matrix which shows the players, strategies, and payoffs (see the example to the right). More generally it can be represented by any function that associates a payoff for each player with every possible combin... | Wikipedia - Game theory - Representation of games > Normal form | 275 | 1,342 | null |
Section: General and applied uses. As a method of applied mathematics, game theory has been used to study a wide variety of human and animal behaviors. It was initially developed in economics to understand a large collection of economic behaviors, including behaviors of firms, markets, and consumers. The first use of g... | Wikipedia - Game theory - General and applied uses | 337 | 1,700 | null |
Section: General and applied uses > Description and modeling. The primary use of game theory is to describe and model how human populations behave. Some scholars believe that by finding the equilibria of games they can predict how actual human populations will behave when confronted with situations analogous to the gam... | Wikipedia - Game theory - General and applied uses > Description and modeling | 332 | 1,793 | null |
Section: General and applied uses > Economics. Game theory is a major method used in mathematical economics and business for modeling competing behaviors of interacting agents. Applications include a wide array of economic phenomena and approaches, such as auctions, bargaining, mergers and acquisitions pricing, fair di... | Wikipedia - Game theory - General and applied uses > Economics | 303 | 1,634 | null |
Section: General and applied uses > Economics > Managerial economics. Game theory also has an extensive use in a specific branch or stream of economics – Managerial Economics. One important usage of it in the field of managerial economics is in analyzing strategic interactions between firms. For example, firms may be c... | Wikipedia - Game theory - General and applied uses > Economics > Managerial economics | 170 | 1,004 | null |
Section: General and applied uses > Business. The Chartered Institute of Procurement & Supply (CIPS) promotes knowledge and use of game theory within the context of business procurement. CIPS and TWS Partners have conducted a series of surveys designed to explore the understanding, awareness and application of game the... | Wikipedia - Game theory - General and applied uses > Business | 179 | 958 | null |
Section: General and applied uses > Project management. Sensible decision-making is critical for the success of projects. In project management, game theory is used to model the decision-making process of players, such as investors, project managers, contractors, sub-contractors, governments and customers. Quite often,... | Wikipedia - Game theory - General and applied uses > Project management | 348 | 1,841 | null |
In each of these scenarios, the required decisions depend on the decisions of other players who, in some way, have competing interests to the interests of the decision-maker, and thus can ideally be modeled using game theory. Piraveenan summarizes that two-player games are predominantly used to model project management... | Wikipedia - Game theory - General and applied uses > Project management | 174 | 850 | null |
Section: General and applied uses > Political science. The application of game theory to political science is focused in the overlapping areas of fair division, political economy, public choice, war bargaining, positive political theory, and social choice theory. In each of these areas, researchers have developed game-... | Wikipedia - Game theory - General and applied uses > Political science | 321 | 1,790 | null |
Coordinating communication among citizens to replace the sovereign is effectively barred, since conspiracy to replace the sovereign is generally punishable as a crime. Thus, in a process that can be modeled by variants of the prisoner's dilemma, during periods of stability no citizen will find it rational to move to re... | Wikipedia - Game theory - General and applied uses > Political science | 350 | 1,758 | null |
Section: General and applied uses > Defence science and technology. Game theory has been used extensively to model decision-making scenarios relevant to defence applications. Most studies that has applied game theory in defence settings are concerned with Command and Control Warfare, and can be further classified into ... | Wikipedia - Game theory - General and applied uses > Defence science and technology | 240 | 1,346 | null |
Section: General and applied uses > Biology. Unlike those in economics, the payoffs for games in biology are often interpreted as corresponding to fitness. In addition, the focus has been less on equilibria that correspond to a notion of rationality and more on ones that would be maintained by evolutionary forces. The ... | Wikipedia - Game theory - General and applied uses > Biology | 309 | 1,595 | null |
Biologists have used the game of chicken to analyze fighting behavior and territoriality. According to Maynard Smith, in the preface to Evolution and the Theory of Games, "paradoxically, it has turned out that game theory is more readily applied to biology than to the field of economic behaviour for which it was origin... | Wikipedia - Game theory - General and applied uses > Biology | 327 | 1,657 | null |
Hamilton's rule explains the evolutionary rationale behind this selection with the equation c < b × r, where the cost c to the altruist must be less than the benefit b to the recipient multiplied by the coefficient of relatedness r. The more closely related two organisms are causes the incidences of altruism to increas... | Wikipedia - Game theory - General and applied uses > Biology | 313 | 1,495 | null |
Section: General and applied uses > Computer science and logic. Game theory has come to play an increasingly important role in logic and in computer science. Several logical theories have a basis in game semantics. In addition, computer scientists have used games to model interactive computations. Also, game theory pro... | Wikipedia - Game theory - General and applied uses > Computer science and logic | 295 | 1,618 | null |
Section: General and applied uses > Philosophy. Game theory has been put to several uses in philosophy. Responding to two papers by W.V.O. Quine (1960, 1967), Lewis (1969) used game theory to develop a philosophical account of convention. In so doing, he provided the first analysis of common knowledge and employed it i... | Wikipedia - Game theory - General and applied uses > Philosophy | 340 | 1,632 | null |
In ethics, some (most notably David Gauthier, Gregory Kavka, and Jean Hampton) authors have attempted to pursue Thomas Hobbes' project of deriving morality from self-interest. Since games like the prisoner's dilemma present an apparent conflict between morality and self-interest, explaining why cooperation is required ... | Wikipedia - Game theory - General and applied uses > Philosophy | 195 | 941 | null |
Section: Well known examples of games > Prisoner's dilemma. William Poundstone described the game in his 1993 book Prisoner's Dilemma: Two members of a criminal gang, A and B, are arrested and imprisoned. Each prisoner is in solitary confinement with no means of communication with their partner. The principal charge wo... | Wikipedia - Game theory - Well known examples of games > Prisoner's dilemma | 207 | 1,037 | null |
Section: Well known examples of games > Battle of the sexes. The "battle of the sexes" is a term used to describe the perceived conflict between men and women in various areas of life, such as relationships, careers, and social roles. This conflict is often portrayed in popular culture, such as movies and television sh... | Wikipedia - Game theory - Well known examples of games > Battle of the sexes | 267 | 1,350 | null |
Section: Well known examples of games > Ultimatum game. The ultimatum game is a game that has become a popular instrument of economic experiments. An early description is by Nobel laureate John Harsanyi in 1961. One player, the proposer, is endowed with a sum of money. The proposer is tasked with splitting it with anot... | Wikipedia - Game theory - Well known examples of games > Ultimatum game | 195 | 953 | null |
Section: Well known examples of games > Trust game. The Trust Game is an experiment designed to measure trust in economic decisions. It is also called "the investment game" and is designed to investigate trust and demonstrate its importance rather than "rationality" of self-interest. The game was designed by Berg Joyce... | Wikipedia - Game theory - Well known examples of games > Trust game | 192 | 910 | null |
Section: Well known examples of games > Cournot Competition. The Cournot competition model involves players choosing quantity of a homogenous product to produce independently and simultaneously, where marginal cost can be different for each firm and the firm's payoff is profit. The production costs are public informati... | Wikipedia - Game theory - Well known examples of games > Cournot Competition | 243 | 1,246 | null |
Section: In popular culture. Based on the 1998 book by Sylvia Nasar, the life story of game theorist and mathematician John Nash was turned into the 2001 biopic A Beautiful Mind, starring Russell Crowe as Nash. The 1959 military science fiction novel Starship Troopers by Robert A. Heinlein mentioned "games theory" and ... | Wikipedia - Game theory - In popular culture | 346 | 1,714 | null |
The 2008 novel The Dark Forest by Liu Cixin explores the relationship between extraterrestrial life, humanity, and game theory. Joker, the prime antagonist in the 2008 film The Dark Knight presents game theory concepts—notably the prisoner's dilemma in a scene where he asks passengers in two different ferries to bomb t... | Wikipedia - Game theory - In popular culture | 218 | 1,074 | null |
Article: Gender digital divide. Gender digital divide refers to the inequalities in access to, use of, and participation in digital technologies and the technology sector based on gender. It encompasses disparities in digital skills, internet access, representation in computing and STEM fields, and exposure to gender-b... | Wikipedia - Gender digital divide - Summary | 162 | 951 | null |
Section: Digital skills gap. Women are less likely to know how to operate a smartphone, navigate the internet, use social media and understand how to safeguard information in digital mediums (abilities that underlie life and work tasks and are relevant to people of all ages) worldwide. There is a gap from the lowest sk... | Wikipedia - Gender digital divide - Digital skills gap | 325 | 1,679 | null |
Section: Digital skills gap > Root causes. Women and girls who live in patriarchal cultures may struggle more than those who do not to access public ICT facilities. Due to the social challenges these cultures create as well reinforces the struggles and creates an overlap. They may struggle to access these facilities du... | Wikipedia - Gender digital divide - Digital skills gap > Root causes | 337 | 1,729 | null |
Women's contributions, however, have been largely obscured due to how the history is told. Focusing on the infrastructure and hardware of digital technologies development has placed men at the forefront of its history. Post war computer manufacturers sought to commercialize the machines and opened up a new form of labo... | Wikipedia - Gender digital divide - Digital skills gap > Root causes | 321 | 1,784 | null |
Section: Digital skills gap > Access divide versus skills divide. Due to the declining price of connectivity and hardware, skills deficits have exceeded barriers of access as the primary contributor to the gender digital divide. For years, the divide was assumed to be symptomatic of technical challenges. It was thought... | Wikipedia - Gender digital divide - Digital skills gap > Access divide versus skills divide | 342 | 1,744 | null |
When large divides were found between men and women' access to the internet, socioeconomic factors were the cause. Overall, the gender divide has found to be largely insignificant in countries like the United States and in Canada. SSA has one of the widest mobile gender gaps in the world where over 74 million women are... | Wikipedia - Gender digital divide - Digital skills gap > Access divide versus skills divide | 323 | 1,633 | null |
Section: Relationship between digital skills and gender equality > Gender digital divide and COVID-19 > Africa. The COVID-19 pandemic and the measures taken by governments on social distancing and mobility restrictions have contributed to boosting the use of digital technology to bridge some of the physical access gaps... | Wikipedia - Gender digital divide - Relationship between digital skills and gender equality > Gender digital divide and COVID-19 > Africa | 238 | 1,239 | null |
Section: Relationship between digital skills and gender equality > Gender digital divide and COVID-19 > Africa > Gender-responsive digitalization in COVID-19 response. According to a study by FAO, gender-responsive digitalization in COVID-19 response and beyond could include: Improve the availability of sex-disaggregat... | Wikipedia - Gender digital divide - Relationship between digital skills and gender equality > Gender digital divide and COVID-19 > Africa > Gender-responsive digitalization in COVID-19 response | 221 | 1,253 | null |
Section: Benefits of digital empowerment. Helping women and girls develop digital skills means stronger women, stronger families, stronger communities, stronger economies and better technology. Digital skills are recognized to be essential life skills required for full participation in society. The main benefits for ac... | Wikipedia - Gender digital divide - Benefits of digital empowerment | 170 | 972 | null |
Section: Closing the digital skills gender gap. The digital divide has begun at earlier ages as young adults have lived out their childhoods with personal computers. This has made intervention to prevent further gender divides in the digital realm needed in more early education. Increasing girls' and women's digital sk... | Wikipedia - Gender digital divide - Closing the digital skills gender gap | 342 | 1,914 | null |
Create a safe environment for them to share and learn. Be gender-sensitive. Provide them with access and tools for sharing Build partnerships. Provide the right blend of technologies. Ensure sustainability The regulatory role of governments (at local, national, regional, and international levels) is crucial in addressi... | Wikipedia - Gender digital divide - Closing the digital skills gender gap | 350 | 2,095 | null |
Section: Female gendering of AI technologies. Men continue to dominate the technology space, and the disparity serves to perpetuate gender inequalities, as unrecognized bias is replicated and built into algorithms and artificial intelligence (AI). Limited participation of women and girls in the technology sector can st... | Wikipedia - Gender digital divide - Female gendering of AI technologies | 333 | 1,847 | null |
Section: Female gendering of AI technologies > Digital assistants > Feminization of voice assistants. Voice assistants have become central to technology platforms and, in many countries, to day-to-day life. Between 2008 and 2018, the frequency of voice-based internet search queries increased 35 times and account for cl... | Wikipedia - Gender digital divide - Female gendering of AI technologies > Digital assistants > Feminization of voice assistants | 336 | 1,692 | null |
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