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Upon arrival in Mexico, however, she felt immediately alienated by the various panels discuss- ing what she characterized as First World concerns: sexual liberation and the fight to achieve equality.46 The specific issues facing women from less industrialized economies and rural areas were being marginalized.
Against ... | INTL LAW | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/9781003036708_webpdf.pdf | https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/oa-edit/10.4324/9781003036708/women-un-dan-plesch-rebecca-adami |
Feminism, inequality, and the conference 95 The tensions within the NGO Tribune came to a head regarding the absence of a representative of the Tribune at the UN Conference. | INTL LAW | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/9781003036708_webpdf.pdf | https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/oa-edit/10.4324/9781003036708/women-un-dan-plesch-rebecca-adami |
Growing frustrated at the inability of the Tribune to directly impact upon the proceedings of the UN Con- ference, the feminist caucus—lead by Friedan—restyled themselves the “United Women of the Tribune” and began holding private meetings and organizing to have petitions delivered to the UN conference.47 While certain... | INTL LAW | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/9781003036708_webpdf.pdf | https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/oa-edit/10.4324/9781003036708/women-un-dan-plesch-rebecca-adami |
While certainly attempting to appear cosmopolitan, the United Women of the Tribune quickly became associated with US feminists.
Rival groups established themselves to contest the usurpation of the Tribune’s voice. | INTL LAW | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/9781003036708_webpdf.pdf | https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/oa-edit/10.4324/9781003036708/women-un-dan-plesch-rebecca-adami |
These included the Coalition of Latin American Women (who rejected universalism, seeking to establish a distinctly Latin American Voice) and the Women Against Imperialism (a Marxist group that included Domitila amongst its members).49 These disagree- ments were exploited by mainstream media commentators who emphasized ... | INTL LAW | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/9781003036708_webpdf.pdf | https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/oa-edit/10.4324/9781003036708/women-un-dan-plesch-rebecca-adami |
Both Conferences concluded amicably.
The juxtaposed viewpoints of the East and West, and the now vocal perspectives of the Global South, remained in conflict, but divisive episodes that took place were enlarged to obscure the genuine achievement that the Conference represented.
Further, Western feminists were slow to... | INTL LAW | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/9781003036708_webpdf.pdf | https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/oa-edit/10.4324/9781003036708/women-un-dan-plesch-rebecca-adami |
In a highly dismissive survey of the proceedings, Whitaker described the Global South as being so singularly intent upon wealth redistribution, that feminists had to wonder whether “the Third World position did not reflect a disdain or hostility by their countries and their male-dominated governments for the goals of t... | INTL LAW | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/9781003036708_webpdf.pdf | https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/oa-edit/10.4324/9781003036708/women-un-dan-plesch-rebecca-adami |
If anything, the recognition of the unique concerns of Third World Women merely reinforces the conviction that Western women “have led the way” in the fight for equality.52 The world plan of action The adoption of the World Plan of Action was a tortuous process. | INTL LAW | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/9781003036708_webpdf.pdf | https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/oa-edit/10.4324/9781003036708/women-un-dan-plesch-rebecca-adami |
While drafts of the World Plan had already been composed by a UN Consultative Commit- tee based on principles of equality embodied in various Treaties, it remained a 96 Aoife O’Donoghue and Adam Rowe difficult task to gain agreement.53 During the Conference the Drafting Committee heard over a hundred speeches detailing... | INTL LAW | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/9781003036708_webpdf.pdf | https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/oa-edit/10.4324/9781003036708/women-un-dan-plesch-rebecca-adami |
The volume and variety are unsurprising given the hitherto inattention to women’s issues and the inaudibility of women from the Global South that had been the norm up to this point.54 In the final 24-hour sessions, the fatigued Conference demurred in debating these proposals and unanimously accepted the World Plan of A... | INTL LAW | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/9781003036708_webpdf.pdf | https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/oa-edit/10.4324/9781003036708/women-un-dan-plesch-rebecca-adami |
It passed by 89 votes to 2, with 19 abstentions.
Revealingly, the US was included in the number of States voting directly against the proposal.
Nonetheless, the influences of Western feminism within the document remain evident. | INTL LAW | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/9781003036708_webpdf.pdf | https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/oa-edit/10.4324/9781003036708/women-un-dan-plesch-rebecca-adami |
The Declaration stresses “that women and men of all countries should have equal rights and duties and that it is the task of all States to create the necessary conditions for the attainment and the exercise thereof;”57 and asserts the principle that “[e]quality between women and men means equality in their dignity and ... | INTL LAW | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/9781003036708_webpdf.pdf | https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/oa-edit/10.4324/9781003036708/women-un-dan-plesch-rebecca-adami |
With respect to the latter, at principle 14, the Dec- laration asserts that: [t]he issue of inequality, as it affects the vast majority of women in the world, is closely linked with the problem of under-development, which exists as a result not only of unsuitable international structures but also of a profoundly unjust... | INTL LAW | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/9781003036708_webpdf.pdf | https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/oa-edit/10.4324/9781003036708/women-un-dan-plesch-rebecca-adami |
should eliminate colonialism, neo-colonialism, imperialism, foreign domination and occupation, Zionism, apartheid, racial discrimination, the acquisition of land by force and the recognition of such acquisition.”65 The inclusion of such a pro- gramme is justified on the grounds that “such practices inflict incalculable... | INTL LAW | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/9781003036708_webpdf.pdf | https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/oa-edit/10.4324/9781003036708/women-un-dan-plesch-rebecca-adami |
The introduction to the plan includes refer- ences to the need for the elimination of “the last vestiges of alien and colonial domination, foreign occupation, racial discrimination, apartheid and neo-colo- nialism in all its forms”69 and the inequalities within development. | INTL LAW | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/9781003036708_webpdf.pdf | https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/oa-edit/10.4324/9781003036708/women-un-dan-plesch-rebecca-adami |
Its stresses the point that women subsisting in regimes—such as apartheid—struggle “tire- lessly for the recovery of the most elementary rights of the human person.”70 Likewise, the need for the protection of state sovereignty is highlighted, and the “inadmissibility of acquisition or attempts to acquire territory by f... | INTL LAW | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/9781003036708_webpdf.pdf | https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/oa-edit/10.4324/9781003036708/women-un-dan-plesch-rebecca-adami |
Clear provision as to how these goals are to be realized was not given concrete expression. | INTL LAW | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/9781003036708_webpdf.pdf | https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/oa-edit/10.4324/9781003036708/women-un-dan-plesch-rebecca-adami |
There are suggestions that States should ensure that women “are equitably represented among the principal delegates to all international bodies, conferences and com- mittees”72 and that the UN should focus upon the “preparation of international conventions, declarations, and formal recommendations, and the development ... | INTL LAW | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/9781003036708_webpdf.pdf | https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/oa-edit/10.4324/9781003036708/women-un-dan-plesch-rebecca-adami |
The national development goals that the Plan does set are, in contrast, much more precise and technical. | INTL LAW | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/9781003036708_webpdf.pdf | https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/oa-edit/10.4324/9781003036708/women-un-dan-plesch-rebecca-adami |
For example, the plan envisages that in the next five-year period there should be achieved as a minimum: i “Marked increase in literacy and civic education of women, especially in rural areas.”74 ii “Equal access at every level of education, compulsory primary school edu- cation and the measures necessary to prevent sc... | INTL LAW | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/9781003036708_webpdf.pdf | https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/oa-edit/10.4324/9781003036708/women-un-dan-plesch-rebecca-adami |
As one commentator described it, the Plan merely had “hortatory” force but after its adoption by the UN General Assembly the possibility of it morphing into soft law and becoming the basis of further legal and policy reform became extant.
The Plan of Action also scheduled a further conference to be held at Copenhagen ... | INTL LAW | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/9781003036708_webpdf.pdf | https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/oa-edit/10.4324/9781003036708/women-un-dan-plesch-rebecca-adami |
Outcome Following the Conference, the General Assembly endorsed the World Plan of Action proclaiming 1976–1985 as the United Nations Decade for Women.78 This was followed by additional conferences in Copenhagen in 1980 and Nairobi in 1985, though both conferences confirmed the lack of progress that had been made since ... | INTL LAW | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/9781003036708_webpdf.pdf | https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/oa-edit/10.4324/9781003036708/women-un-dan-plesch-rebecca-adami |
This institution would progress through several evolutions and now forms part of UN Women.
The United Nations Development Fund for Women, though also evolving through several forms, would also emerge from the Decade for Women. | INTL LAW | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/9781003036708_webpdf.pdf | https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/oa-edit/10.4324/9781003036708/women-un-dan-plesch-rebecca-adami |
There were also significant non-UN events and Conferences that eschewed UN structures, such as the International Tribunal on Crimes against Women.79 The Beijing Conference rivals Mexico in importance and significance and while it too had controversies and disagreements the established space to spe- cifically discuss is... | INTL LAW | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/9781003036708_webpdf.pdf | https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/oa-edit/10.4324/9781003036708/women-un-dan-plesch-rebecca-adami |
The 1975 Conference suc- ceeded in forefronting that complexity and what was reported as an argumen- tative space was actually the first proper opportunity for women of the Global South to articulate their priorities within the formalised UN space. | INTL LAW | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/9781003036708_webpdf.pdf | https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/oa-edit/10.4324/9781003036708/women-un-dan-plesch-rebecca-adami |
It would now be inconceivable that women of the Global North would dominate agendas and podiums, and while there is still a very long road ahead for Western feminism to finally cede space and end attempts to represent all women Mexico represented a first break in that (misguided) attempt to speak for all women.
The Me... | INTL LAW | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/9781003036708_webpdf.pdf | https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/oa-edit/10.4324/9781003036708/women-un-dan-plesch-rebecca-adami |
The New International Economic Order in particular drew attention to the post- colonial realities of many women’s lives, and while women in the Global South maintain their campaigns to be heard, to be participants, to set agenda, and to write policy and law, Mexico City ruptured a settled description of women’s issues ... | INTL LAW | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/9781003036708_webpdf.pdf | https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/oa-edit/10.4324/9781003036708/women-un-dan-plesch-rebecca-adami |
Even within the UN secretariat, women’s equality remains an outstanding goal.
The UN and NGO level are also not the sole avenues of activism and change.
Mexico City in 1975 was a critical moment where women infiltrated and created their own agendas and set-in motion a (slow) process of change. | INTL LAW | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/9781003036708_webpdf.pdf | https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/oa-edit/10.4324/9781003036708/women-un-dan-plesch-rebecca-adami |
The UN did not create, nor has it supported, feminism to any great extent, and UN activities “are not substitutes for women’s movements nor should they be expected to be so” or indeed advocated as such.84 Such events are also, without funding and support, inaccessible to those women who face the hardest challenges.
No... | INTL LAW | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/9781003036708_webpdf.pdf | https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/oa-edit/10.4324/9781003036708/women-un-dan-plesch-rebecca-adami |
Notes 1 Jean H. Quataert, Benita Roth ‘Human Rights, Global Conferences, and the Making of Postwar Transnational Feminisms’ (2012) Journal of Women’s History 11, 15.
2 For an overview of media strategies and depictions of women in the media in this context see Jocelyn Olcott ‘Empires of Information: Media Strategies f... | INTL LAW | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/9781003036708_webpdf.pdf | https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/oa-edit/10.4324/9781003036708/women-un-dan-plesch-rebecca-adami |
4 Helen McCarthy, Women of the World: The Rise of the Female Diplomat (Bloomsbury, 2014).
5 Jill Liddington, The Road to Greenham Common: Feminism and Anti-militarism in Britain Since 1820 (Syracuse University Press, 1989).
6 Constitution of the International Labour Organisation Constitution under Article 9.3 on staf... | INTL LAW | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/9781003036708_webpdf.pdf | https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/oa-edit/10.4324/9781003036708/women-un-dan-plesch-rebecca-adami |
Each delegate may be accompanied by advis- ers, who shall not exceed two in number for each item on the agenda of the meeting.
When questions specially affecting women are to be considered by the Conference, one at least of the advisers should be a woman.’ 100 Aoife O’Donoghue and Adam Rowe 7 Margaret E Galey, ‘Foreru... | INTL LAW | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/9781003036708_webpdf.pdf | https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/oa-edit/10.4324/9781003036708/women-un-dan-plesch-rebecca-adami |
8 Margaret E Galey, ‘Forerunners in Womens Quest for Partnership’ in Anne Winslow (ed), Women, Politics, and the United Nations (Greenwood Publishing Group, 1995) 5.
9 Sandi E Cooper, ‘Peace as a Human Right, The Invasion of Women into the World of High International Politics’ (2002) 14 Journal of Women’s History 9, 1... | INTL LAW | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/9781003036708_webpdf.pdf | https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/oa-edit/10.4324/9781003036708/women-un-dan-plesch-rebecca-adami |
11 ibid 9–10.
12 Jean H. Quataert, Benita Roth ‘Human Rights, Global Conferences, and the Making of Postwar Transnational Feminisms’ (2012) Journal of Women’s History 11, 16.
13 Gayatri Spivak ‘Can the Subaltern Speak?’ in Rosalind C Morris (Ed) Can the Subaltern Speak?
: Reflections on the History of an Idea (Colum... | INTL LAW | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/9781003036708_webpdf.pdf | https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/oa-edit/10.4324/9781003036708/women-un-dan-plesch-rebecca-adami |
15 Jocelyn Olcot, International Women’s Year: The Greatest Consciousness-Raising Event in History (OUP, 2017) 19.
16 United Nations International Years https://www.un.org/en/sections/observances/inter- national-years/index.html 17 Commission on the Status of Women: Report on the Twenty-Fourth Session UN doc.
E/CN.6/L... | INTL LAW | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/9781003036708_webpdf.pdf | https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/oa-edit/10.4324/9781003036708/women-un-dan-plesch-rebecca-adami |
E/CN.6/L.644, 29 February 1972, 157, 185.
18 The inclusion of development and peace followed sustained wrangling regarding extending the purview of what was a women’s’ issue beyond the traditional boundary of liberal rights.
See: United Nations General Assembly Resolution 3010 (XXVII) A/ RES/27/3010 (XXVII) 18 Decemb... | INTL LAW | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/9781003036708_webpdf.pdf | https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/oa-edit/10.4324/9781003036708/women-un-dan-plesch-rebecca-adami |
E/CN.6/L.659.
Olcott (n 2) 44.
23 General Assembly Resolution A/RES/3277(XXIX) Consultative Committee for the Conference of the International Women’s Year 10th December 1974.
24 Olcott (n 14) 42.
25 General Assembly Resolution A/RES/3281(XXIX) Charter of Economic Rights and Duties of States UN doc.
E/L.1615, 18 No... | INTL LAW | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/9781003036708_webpdf.pdf | https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/oa-edit/10.4324/9781003036708/women-un-dan-plesch-rebecca-adami |
29 Kristen Ghodsee, ‘Revisiting the United Nations Decade for Women: Brief Reflections on Feminism, Capitalism and Cold War Politics in the Early Years of the International Women’s Movement’ (2010) 33 Women’s Studies International Forum 244, Charlotte Bunch ‘Opening Doors for Feminism: UN World Conferences on Women’ (2... | INTL LAW | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/9781003036708_webpdf.pdf | https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/oa-edit/10.4324/9781003036708/women-un-dan-plesch-rebecca-adami |
See https://www.
nytimes.com/1975/06/19/archives/international-womens-year-world-conference- opening-in-mexico.html 34 Judith P Zinsser, ‘From Mexico to Copenhagen to Nairobi: The United Nations Decade for Women, 1975-1985’ (2002)) Journal of World History 139, 140. | INTL LAW | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/9781003036708_webpdf.pdf | https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/oa-edit/10.4324/9781003036708/women-un-dan-plesch-rebecca-adami |
35 Kimberlé Crenshaw, ‘Mapping the Margins: Intersectionality, Identity Politics and Violence Against Women,’ in Kimberlé Crenshaw, Neil Gotanda, Gary Peller, and Feminism, inequality, and the conference 101 Kendall Thomas (eds), Critical Race Theory: The Key Writings that Formed the Movement, ed.
(The New Press, 1995... | INTL LAW | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/9781003036708_webpdf.pdf | https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/oa-edit/10.4324/9781003036708/women-un-dan-plesch-rebecca-adami |
38 S Chatterjee, ‘The Charter of Economic Rights and Duties of States and the New International Economic Order’ (1991) 40 ICLQ 669.
39 S Chowdhury, E M.G.
Denters, P.J.I.M.
de Waart, ‘The Right to Development in International Law’ (Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1992).
40 Diana Apcar of Armenia is recognised as the f... | INTL LAW | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/9781003036708_webpdf.pdf | https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/oa-edit/10.4324/9781003036708/women-un-dan-plesch-rebecca-adami |
41 Ghodsee (n 29) 247.
42 Whitaker (n 28) 173.
For an account of the marginilisation of non-western voices to the development of feminism, see Kristen Ghodsee ‘Research Note: The Historiographical Challenges of Exploring Second World–Third World Alliances in International Women’s Movement’ (2014) 14(2) Global Social ... | INTL LAW | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/9781003036708_webpdf.pdf | https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/oa-edit/10.4324/9781003036708/women-un-dan-plesch-rebecca-adami |
44 ibid 120-121.
45 ibid 126.
46 ibid 140-142.
47 ibid 169.
48 Kent Jones, ‘Green room politics and the WTO’s crisis of representation’ (2009) 9 Progress in Development Studies 349.
49 Olcott (n 14) 171.
50 Olcott (n 2) 2.
51 Olcott (n 14) 187.
52 ibid 180.
53 Though not all had sufficient ratifications to be ... | INTL LAW | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/9781003036708_webpdf.pdf | https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/oa-edit/10.4324/9781003036708/women-un-dan-plesch-rebecca-adami |
54 Gayatri Spivak ‘Can the Subaltern Speak?’ in Rosalind C Morris (ed), Can the Subaltern Speak?
: Reflections on the History of an Idea (Columbia University Press, 2010) 33.
55 UN General Assembly, Implementation of the World Plan of Action adopted by the world Conference of the International Women’s Year, 12 Decemb... | INTL LAW | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/9781003036708_webpdf.pdf | https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/oa-edit/10.4324/9781003036708/women-un-dan-plesch-rebecca-adami |
57 Declaration 3. https://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/beijing/otherconferences/ Mexico/Mexico%20conference%20report%20optimized.pdf 58 ibid 4.
59 ibid 5.
60 ibid.
61 ibid.
62 ibid 6.
63 General Assembly Resolution A/RES/3281(XXIX) Charter of Economic Rights and Duties of States UN doc.
E/L.1615, 18 November 1974.
... | INTL LAW | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/9781003036708_webpdf.pdf | https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/oa-edit/10.4324/9781003036708/women-un-dan-plesch-rebecca-adami |
65 Ibid.
66 ibid 7.
67 ibid.
102 Aoife O’Donoghue and Adam Rowe 68 UN General Assembly, Uniting for peace, 3 November 1950, A/RES/377.
69 UN General Assembly, Implementation of the World Plan of Action adopted by the world Conference of the International Women’s Year, 12 December 1975, A/ RES/3490.
https://www.un.... | INTL LAW | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/9781003036708_webpdf.pdf | https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/oa-edit/10.4324/9781003036708/women-un-dan-plesch-rebecca-adami |
73 ibid.
74 ibid 16.
75 ibid.
76 ibid.
77 ibid 17.
78 UN General Assembly Resolution 3520 World Conference of the International Women’s Year, Hanna Papanek, ‘The Work of Women: Postscript from Mexico City’ 1975 1 Signs 215.
79 Diana E. H. Russell, Nicole Van de Ven Crimes against Women: Proceedings of the Interna... | INTL LAW | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/9781003036708_webpdf.pdf | https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/oa-edit/10.4324/9781003036708/women-un-dan-plesch-rebecca-adami |
80 https://www.unwomen.org/-/media/headquarters/attachments/sections/csw/pfa_e_ final_web.pdf?la=en&vs=1203 81 Marilyn Porter, ‘Transnational Feminisms in a Globalized World: Challenges, Analysis, and Resistance’ (2007) 33 Feminist Studies 43.
82 Hilary Charlesworth, ‘Women as Sherpas: Are Global Summits Useful for Wo... | INTL LAW | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/9781003036708_webpdf.pdf | https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/oa-edit/10.4324/9781003036708/women-un-dan-plesch-rebecca-adami |
84 ibid 213.
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Leiden: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1992. Cooper, Sandi E. “Peace as a human right: The invasion of women into the world of high international politics.” Journal of Women’s History ... | INTL LAW | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/9781003036708_webpdf.pdf | https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/oa-edit/10.4324/9781003036708/women-un-dan-plesch-rebecca-adami |
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McCarthy, Helen.
Women of the World: The Rise of the Female Diplomat.
London: A & C Black, Bloomsbury Publishing, 2014.
Olcott, Jocelyn.
“Empires ... | INTL LAW | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/9781003036708_webpdf.pdf | https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/oa-edit/10.4324/9781003036708/women-un-dan-plesch-rebecca-adami |
4 (2012): 24–48.
Olcott, Jocelyn.
International Women’s Year: The Greatest Consciousness-Raising Event in History.
United States: Oxford University Press, 2017.
O’Donoghue, A.
‘Article 7 of the Covenant of the League of Nations, 1919’ in E Rackley and R Auchmuty Women’s Legal Landmarks.
Bloomsbury, 2018.
Papanek... | INTL LAW | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/9781003036708_webpdf.pdf | https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/oa-edit/10.4324/9781003036708/women-un-dan-plesch-rebecca-adami |
Pietilä, Hilkka, and Beth Peoch.
The Unfinished Story of Women and the United Nations.
United Nations Non-Governmental Liaison Service, 2007.
Porter, Marilyn.
“Transnational feminisms in a globalized world: Challenges, analysis, and resistance.” Feminist Studies, (2007): 43–63.
Quataert, Jean H., and Benita Roth.
... | INTL LAW | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/9781003036708_webpdf.pdf | https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/oa-edit/10.4324/9781003036708/women-un-dan-plesch-rebecca-adami |
4 (2012): 11–23.
Rawalt, Marguerite.
“UN world conference in international women’s year and trib- une-Mexico City, June 19-July 2, 1975.” Women Law Journal 61 (1975): 184.
Russell, Diana EH, and Nicole Van de Ven, eds.
Crimes Against Women: Proceedings of the International Tribunal.
Frog in the Well, 1976.
Spivak... | INTL LAW | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/9781003036708_webpdf.pdf | https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/oa-edit/10.4324/9781003036708/women-un-dan-plesch-rebecca-adami |
Strauss, Hermina.
“The Legal Issues Facing International Women’s Year Conference in Mexico City on June 19, 1975.” Women Law Journal 61 (1975): 66.
Whitaker, Jennifer Seymour.
“Women of the world: Report from Mexico City.” Foreign Affairs 54 (1975): 173.
Zinsser, Judith P. “From Mexico to copenhagen to nairobi: The... | INTL LAW | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/9781003036708_webpdf.pdf | https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/oa-edit/10.4324/9781003036708/women-un-dan-plesch-rebecca-adami |
7 Who wrote CEDAW?
Ellen Chesler Introduction Educated in London in economics and law, Annie Jiagge became the second woman lawyer in the newly independent state of Ghana, and the second woman in Africa to serve as a justice of the courts.
In 1962, she came to New York to rep- resent her country at the United Nations... | INTL LAW | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/9781003036708_webpdf.pdf | https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/oa-edit/10.4324/9781003036708/women-un-dan-plesch-rebecca-adami |
Five years later, as rapporteur for the group, she stayed up one night and crafted together a draft of the Declaration on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, known as DEDAW, a document that would help transform global understanding of the issue of sex discrimination and provide a framework for a binding wo... | INTL LAW | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/9781003036708_webpdf.pdf | https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/oa-edit/10.4324/9781003036708/women-un-dan-plesch-rebecca-adami |
The agreement claimed that discrimination against women is “unjust and constitutes an offence against human dignity.” It established the legal principle of equal protection for women, when only a few countries had done so.
And it demanded that “all appro- priate measures” be taken to abolish prejudice, not just in law... | INTL LAW | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/9781003036708_webpdf.pdf | https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/oa-edit/10.4324/9781003036708/women-un-dan-plesch-rebecca-adami |
It endorsed the document expressing a confidence, radical for its time, that wom- en’s advancement is not just a moral obligation but also a necessary condition to secure global progress: “The full and complete development of a country, the welfare of the world, and the cause of peace require the maximum participation ... | INTL LAW | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/9781003036708_webpdf.pdf | https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/oa-edit/10.4324/9781003036708/women-un-dan-plesch-rebecca-adami |
A graduate of Wellesley College, Shahani, had also earned a doctorate in comparative literature at the Sorbonne, but she then changed course and decided to follow in the tra- dition of her father, a prominent diplomat from the Philippines.
Just a few years later, in 1968, after the tragedy of her husband’s sudden deat... | INTL LAW | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/9781003036708_webpdf.pdf | https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/oa-edit/10.4324/9781003036708/women-un-dan-plesch-rebecca-adami |
In short order, however, she was back, representing her country as a diplomat at the CSW, the organization she had once staffed.
She soon landed as chair of the body and became a rising star in the UN system.
The CSW had been asked to create a binding human rights instrument elaborat- ing on the declaration.
Shahani... | INTL LAW | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/9781003036708_webpdf.pdf | https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/oa-edit/10.4324/9781003036708/women-un-dan-plesch-rebecca-adami |
105 negotiation, produced the Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Dis- crimination against Women (CEDAW), an international bill of rights for women, which was adopted by the General Assembly in 1978 and formally signed by member states in 1980.4 The convention enjoys a robust and diverse commentary, but it la... | INTL LAW | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/9781003036708_webpdf.pdf | https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/oa-edit/10.4324/9781003036708/women-un-dan-plesch-rebecca-adami |
The archives are tragically sparse.
An early proposal to fund a formal historical records office at the UN foundered on opposition from Americans concerned about costs and from Soviets worried about objectivity.
Formal standards were never created for preserving the background correspondence and documentation that wo... | INTL LAW | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/9781003036708_webpdf.pdf | https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/oa-edit/10.4324/9781003036708/women-un-dan-plesch-rebecca-adami |
In the case of CEDAW, moreover, this institutional fail- ure was compounded when the UN Division for the Advancement of Women, having moved to UN headquarters in Vienna during the late 1970s at the time CEDAW was negotiated, later returned to New York, and boxes of its records were unaccountably lost in transit.6 Only ... | INTL LAW | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/9781003036708_webpdf.pdf | https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/oa-edit/10.4324/9781003036708/women-un-dan-plesch-rebecca-adami |
The late American human rights activist and scholar, Arvonne Fraser, first wrote briefly on the sub- ject.7 The Dutch legal scholar Lars Rehof later mined incomplete records of the final CEDAW negotiating sessions available in the UN Library in Geneva for a Travaux Preparatoire. | INTL LAW | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/9781003036708_webpdf.pdf | https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/oa-edit/10.4324/9781003036708/women-un-dan-plesch-rebecca-adami |
To the extent possible, Rehof identifies various state party contributions to the long and intense debate over the document’s evolving structure and language and concludes that the animating principles and substan- tive approaches of the 1967 declaration and of the earliest CEDAW draft fun- damentally shaped the outcom... | INTL LAW | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/9781003036708_webpdf.pdf | https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/oa-edit/10.4324/9781003036708/women-un-dan-plesch-rebecca-adami |
It establishes necessary his- torical context and then zeroes in on the biographies of the two women identified as principal architects of the declaration and the convention respectively, Annie Jiagge and Leticia Shahani.
Passing reference is made to others, such as Princess Ashraf Pahlavi, who energized and financed ... | INTL LAW | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/9781003036708_webpdf.pdf | https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/oa-edit/10.4324/9781003036708/women-un-dan-plesch-rebecca-adami |
The contributions of other important diplomats and civil society advocates from Western Europe, the Americas, and the Soviet bloc are mentioned only briefly.
Within the confines of a single chapter, I offer only a snapshot of events that deserve an even richer portrait.
Getting to a declaration on women’s rights As t... | INTL LAW | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/9781003036708_webpdf.pdf | https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/oa-edit/10.4324/9781003036708/women-un-dan-plesch-rebecca-adami |
The 106 Ellen Chesler need for a more robust approach became clear, as did the recognition that formal principles of political and civil equality would not be sufficient to address the economic obstacles facing women or to liberate them from patterns of discrimi- nation with deep social and cultural roots.
In 1963, at... | INTL LAW | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/9781003036708_webpdf.pdf | https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/oa-edit/10.4324/9781003036708/women-un-dan-plesch-rebecca-adami |
Drafting began at the commission’s next scheduled meeting in Tehran in 1965, and a final document reached the General Assembly two years later.9 Twenty-three countries comprised the CSW membership at this time.
The budget constrained body convened bi-annually in these years, and occasionally met abroad where a local h... | INTL LAW | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/9781003036708_webpdf.pdf | https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/oa-edit/10.4324/9781003036708/women-un-dan-plesch-rebecca-adami |
Princess Ashraf Pahlavi, twin sister of the Shah, presided as chair that year, representing the Iranian govern- ment, which had launched its “White Revolution” two years before, a program of social and economic reforms that promised to increase literacy, reform land ownership, grant long demanded worker’s rights, and e... | INTL LAW | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/9781003036708_webpdf.pdf | https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/oa-edit/10.4324/9781003036708/women-un-dan-plesch-rebecca-adami |
Contempt for this effort from the Ayatollah Khomeini, who likened women’s voting to prostitution, was a principal factor in his expulsion from the country and fuelled the opposition movement he led from exile for the next 15 years. | INTL LAW | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/9781003036708_webpdf.pdf | https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/oa-edit/10.4324/9781003036708/women-un-dan-plesch-rebecca-adami |
Rising tensions in Iran cast their shadow on the CSW proceedings, but in an ominous forewarning of the conservative religious alliance that would burden the UN women’s agenda far into the future, opposition to the CSW agenda also came from Catholic countries like Mexico, even as its repre- sentative, Marina Lavelle Urb... | INTL LAW | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/9781003036708_webpdf.pdf | https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/oa-edit/10.4324/9781003036708/women-un-dan-plesch-rebecca-adami |
But differences arose quickly within the group over basic questions of legal philosophy and reach, including what should have been straightforward—the question of equal protection under the law. | INTL LAW | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/9781003036708_webpdf.pdf | https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/oa-edit/10.4324/9781003036708/women-un-dan-plesch-rebecca-adami |
Inscribed in the UN charter and in the UDHR, that basic equality principle was again front and center in the two overall UN human rights conventions that had been ham- mered out over many years—the International Covenant on Civil and Polit- ical Rights (ICCPR), and the International Convention on Economic, Social and C... | INTL LAW | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/9781003036708_webpdf.pdf | https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/oa-edit/10.4324/9781003036708/women-un-dan-plesch-rebecca-adami |
How would the formal claim of legal equality address the special burdens of women struggling to balance obli- gations of work and family?
What would its impact be on developed countries where protective labor laws had already established minimum wages, maximum hours, and other ostensible safeguards for women workers?
... | INTL LAW | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/9781003036708_webpdf.pdf | https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/oa-edit/10.4324/9781003036708/women-un-dan-plesch-rebecca-adami |
Further work was put off until the next scheduled CSW meeting in 1967.
Members of an expanded drafting committee were then invited to present alternative texts in writing, with the intent of avoiding further protracted discussion.
Official pro- ceedings were limited to up or down votes on proposed amendments.
Who wr... | INTL LAW | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/9781003036708_webpdf.pdf | https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/oa-edit/10.4324/9781003036708/women-un-dan-plesch-rebecca-adami |
Who wrote CEDAW?
107 In this manner, for example, a proposal was made to water down the document by suggesting that it “modify,” rather than “abolish” discriminatory laws, but the stronger language prevailed.
Where differences could not be resolved—as in how exactly to define what constitutes “discrimination” against... | INTL LAW | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/9781003036708_webpdf.pdf | https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/oa-edit/10.4324/9781003036708/women-un-dan-plesch-rebecca-adami |
In one of history’s great ironies, Afghanistan’s delegate introduced the idea that “temporary special measures” could compen- sate for historic patterns of discrimination without violating the larger equality principle, therein introducing the concept that has since inspired national affirm- ative action policies that ... | INTL LAW | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/9781003036708_webpdf.pdf | https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/oa-edit/10.4324/9781003036708/women-un-dan-plesch-rebecca-adami |
Absent agreement, the matter was tabled, as was another disputed question—whether to condemn the practice of female genital cutting as a rights violation.12 Credit for sorting through differences over content and language, and for put- ting forward a coherent and straightforward final text, went to CSW rapporteur, Anni... | INTL LAW | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/9781003036708_webpdf.pdf | https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/oa-edit/10.4324/9781003036708/women-un-dan-plesch-rebecca-adami |
There is no equivocation over the basic tenets of the agreement: to “abolish” discrimination; to establish a strict legal standard of equal protec- tion; to educate public opinion; and to “direct national aspirations” to eliminate prejudice.
The document reprises earlier CSW actions from the 1950s on suffrage, the rig... | INTL LAW | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/9781003036708_webpdf.pdf | https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/oa-edit/10.4324/9781003036708/women-un-dan-plesch-rebecca-adami |
Claiming no prejudice to the “unity and harmony of the family, which remains the basic unit of society,” for example, Article 6 spells out women’s rights in the home to include equality in legal capacity, property and inheritance, child custody, and freedom of move- ment.
Article 8 addresses prostitution and trafficki... | INTL LAW | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/9781003036708_webpdf.pdf | https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/oa-edit/10.4324/9781003036708/women-un-dan-plesch-rebecca-adami |
Article 10 addresses the principle of non-discrimination in employment and enu- merates specific recommendations, such as equal pay for equal work, paid mater- nity leave, and childcare, creating an ambitious public policy framework.13 Who was Annie Jiagge?
Annie Ruth Baeta Jiagge was born in 1918, in Lome, Togoland, ... | INTL LAW | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/9781003036708_webpdf.pdf | https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/oa-edit/10.4324/9781003036708/women-un-dan-plesch-rebecca-adami |
Her mother was a schoolteacher, her father, a minister of the Presbyterian Church, educated in Germany, which had ceded the colony to France.
As a girl demonstrating consid- erable educational promise, she was sent to live with her maternal grandmother in Accra, the capital of neighboring British Togoland, now Ghana, ... | INTL LAW | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/9781003036708_webpdf.pdf | https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/oa-edit/10.4324/9781003036708/women-un-dan-plesch-rebecca-adami |
Widowed as a young woman, the grandmother, Barbara Sedode, had become a wealthy and influential merchant, trading local agricultural products for European imports.
The young Jiagge at age 15 entered Achimota College, an elite secondary institution, from which she graduated four years later with a teaching certificate,... | INTL LAW | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/9781003036708_webpdf.pdf | https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/oa-edit/10.4324/9781003036708/women-un-dan-plesch-rebecca-adami |
She soon became head of the school, but with longstanding aspirations to continue her education, and with loans secured by her mother, she left for London in 1946, after the war in Europe ended, having been admitted to the London School of Economics and Political Science.
The doors of the institution were opened for t... | INTL LAW | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/9781003036708_webpdf.pdf | https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/oa-edit/10.4324/9781003036708/women-un-dan-plesch-rebecca-adami |
Jiagge later recalled that she had struggled to succeed as a woman of colour in that setting.
Whenever she complained, however, her male friends would strengthen her resolve by encouraging her to quit and study fashion in Paris instead.
She persevered, earned a bachelor’s degree in 1949, and was called to the Bar at ... | INTL LAW | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/9781003036708_webpdf.pdf | https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/oa-edit/10.4324/9781003036708/women-un-dan-plesch-rebecca-adami |
Alone in London, Jiagge found a welcoming community at the Young Women’s Christian Association (YWCA), an institution to which she remained devoted for the remainder of her life and long credited with having shaped her thinking about the injustices suffered by women and girls. | INTL LAW | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/9781003036708_webpdf.pdf | https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/oa-edit/10.4324/9781003036708/women-un-dan-plesch-rebecca-adami |
She travelled through continental Europe, the Middle East, and India during college and in the years thereafter, as a member of the executive board of the international YWCA, which also became an important civil society partner on women’s issues in the early years of the UN.
Back in Ghana as a young barrister, Jiagge ... | INTL LAW | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/9781003036708_webpdf.pdf | https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/oa-edit/10.4324/9781003036708/women-un-dan-plesch-rebecca-adami |
Through her campaign to raise awareness of this widespread problem, and to secure government support for a hostel, she met Kwame Nkrumah, who would soon become president of Ghana, the first British colony in Africa to gain independence in 1957.
Like her, he had attended Achimota College but then went to the United Sta... | INTL LAW | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/9781003036708_webpdf.pdf | https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/oa-edit/10.4324/9781003036708/women-un-dan-plesch-rebecca-adami |
In 1953, at age 35, still eager for a family of her own, Annie Baeta married Fred Jiagge, a local businessman, whom she had known years earlier at Achi- mota.
Unable to conceive a child of their own, they adopted a son and, as had been her grandmother’s custom, also raised several girls from rural villages in their ho... | INTL LAW | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/9781003036708_webpdf.pdf | https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/oa-edit/10.4324/9781003036708/women-un-dan-plesch-rebecca-adami |
Seeking more manageable hours than her demanding legal practice allowed, Jiagge joined Ghana’s courts as a magistrate that year; became a circuit court judge in 1959, a High Court judge in 1961, and a member of the Court of Appeal, then the highest court in the land, in 1969, where she presided as president from 1980 u... | INTL LAW | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/9781003036708_webpdf.pdf | https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/oa-edit/10.4324/9781003036708/women-un-dan-plesch-rebecca-adami |
Family and faith remained a central part of her life.14 In recent years, a body of scholarship has emerged examining the role of women in the shaping of African nationalism. | INTL LAW | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/9781003036708_webpdf.pdf | https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/oa-edit/10.4324/9781003036708/women-un-dan-plesch-rebecca-adami |
The biographical elements of Jiagge’s life follow the principal contours of this work, which generally holds that Europeans tried but did not fully succeed in introducing gender hierarchies into many African societies long distinguished by a tradition of complementarity between men and women in many facets of life that... | INTL LAW | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/9781003036708_webpdf.pdf | https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/oa-edit/10.4324/9781003036708/women-un-dan-plesch-rebecca-adami |
This was especially true among elites, where authority in the family was commonly shared by husband and wife.
Jiagge’s family replicated this model.
Who wrote CEDAW?
109 Kwame Nkrumah rose to power in the 1950s with broad-based support across socio-economic classes and trades—those educated and those not—but also wi... | INTL LAW | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/9781003036708_webpdf.pdf | https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/oa-edit/10.4324/9781003036708/women-un-dan-plesch-rebecca-adami |
One historian describes women as “the backbone” of Nkrumah’s revolu- tion.
Having gained the right to vote under British rule, women became active in political parties in the run up to independence and were invited to stand for local office. | INTL LAW | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/9781003036708_webpdf.pdf | https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/oa-edit/10.4324/9781003036708/women-un-dan-plesch-rebecca-adami |
In the first years after independence, ten women were also elected to the new national parliament, which debated social issues such as banning nudity, outlawing bigamy, and bringing marriage under civil rather than customary law.15 Nkrumah sought to make Ghana the model for a modern Pan-Africanism that also attracted p... | INTL LAW | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/9781003036708_webpdf.pdf | https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/oa-edit/10.4324/9781003036708/women-un-dan-plesch-rebecca-adami |
The utopian vision set forth there incorporated egalitarian eco- nomic and social principles across class, cultural, and gender lines and put Ghana on a path that Nkrumah defined as non-aligned socialism.16 Ghanaian historian, Adwoa Opong, says this gathering inspired the Ghana Organization of Women, then the country’s... | INTL LAW | https://docs-lawep.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/9781003036708_webpdf.pdf | https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/oa-edit/10.4324/9781003036708/women-un-dan-plesch-rebecca-adami |
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