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4318 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big%20Dig | Big Dig | h the Inner Belt and the Boston section of I-95.
By 1970, building demolition and land clearances for had been completed along the I-95 right of way through the neighborhoods of Roxbury, Jamaica Plain, the South End and Roslindale, which led to secession threats by Hyde Park, Boston's youngest and southernmost neighbo... | [
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4318 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big%20Dig | Big Dig | t, Governor Francis Sargent put a moratorium on highway construction within the Route 128 corridor, except for the final short stretch of Interstate 93. In 1974, the remainder of the Master Plan was canceled.
With ever-increasing traffic volumes funneled onto I-93 alone, the Central Artery became chronically gridlocke... | [
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4318 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big%20Dig | Big Dig | Corridor linear park, as well as a new right-of-way for the Orange Line subway and Amtrak. Parts of the planned I-695 right-of-way remain unused and under consideration for future mass-transit projects.
The original 1948 Master Plan included a Third Harbor Tunnel plan that was hugely controversial in its own right, be... | [
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4318 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big%20Dig | Big Dig | only north–south traffic, but it also carried east–west traffic. Boston's Logan Airport lies across Boston Harbor in East Boston; and before the Big Dig, the only access to the airport from downtown was through the paired Callahan and Sumner tunnels. Traffic on the major highways from west of Boston—the Massachusetts T... | [
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4318 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big%20Dig | Big Dig | ts, increasing local congestion.
Mass transit
A number of public transportation projects were included as part of an environmental mitigation for the Big Dig. The most expensive was the building of the Phase II Silver Line tunnel under Fort Point Channel, done in coordination with Big Dig construction. Silver Line bus... | [
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4318 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big%20Dig | Big Dig | nes, and to restore the Green Line streetcar service to the Arborway in Jamaica Plain have not been completed. Construction of the extension beyond Lechmere has begun. The Red and Blue subway line connection underwent initial design, but no funding has been designated for the project. The Arborway Line restoration has ... | [
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4318 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big%20Dig | Big Dig | senger train stations in Boston), but this aspect of the project was ultimately dropped by the state transportation administration early in the Dukakis administration. Negotiations with the federal government had led to an agreement to widen some of the lanes in the new harbor tunnel, and accommodating these would requ... | [
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4318 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big%20Dig | Big Dig | the cost of the ventilation system.
Early planning
The project was conceived in the 1970s by the Boston Transportation Planning Review to replace the rusting elevated six-lane Central Artery. The expressway separated downtown from the waterfront, and was increasingly choked with bumper-to-bumper traffic. Business lead... | [
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4318 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big%20Dig | Big Dig | ation) came up with the strategy of tying the two projects together—thereby combining the project that the business community supported with the project that they and the City of Boston supported.
Planning for the Big Dig as a project officially began in 1982, with environmental impact studies starting in 1983. After ... | [
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4318 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big%20Dig | Big Dig | being too expensive. When Congress overrode the veto, the project had its green light and ground was first broken in 1991.
In 1997, the state legislature created the Metropolitan Highway System and transferred responsibility for the Central Artery and Tunnel "CA/T" Project from the Massachusetts Highway Department and... | [
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4318 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big%20Dig | Big Dig | ct, hired a joint venture to provide preliminary designs, manage design consultants and construction contractors, track the project's cost and schedule, advise MTA on project decisions, and (in some instances) act as the MTA's representative. Eventually, MTA combined some of its employees with joint venture employees i... | [
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4318 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big%20Dig | Big Dig | enture had effectively become partners in the project.
Obstacles
In addition to political and financial difficulties, the project received resistance from residents of Boston's historic North End, who in the 1950s had seen 20% of the neighborhood's businesses displaced by development of the Central Artery. In 1993, t... | [
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4318 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big%20Dig | Big Dig | ds of Boston. The NEWCAC Committee's goal included lessening the impact of the Central Artery/Tunnel Project on the community; representing the neighborhoods to government agencies; keeping the community informed; developing a list of priorities of immediate neighborhood concerns; and promoting responsible and appropr... | [
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4318 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big%20Dig | Big Dig | mental and engineering obstacles occurred.
The downtown area through which the tunnels were to be dug was largely land fill, and included existing Red Line and Blue Line subway tunnels as well as innumerable pipes and utility lines that would have to be replaced or moved. Tunnel workers encountered many unexpected geol... | [
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4318 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big%20Dig | Big Dig | m state environmental agencies in 1991, after satisfying concerns including release of toxins by the excavation and the possibility of disrupting the homes of millions of rats, causing them to roam the streets of Boston in search of new housing. By the time the federal environmental clearances were delivered in 1994, t... | [
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4318 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big%20Dig | Big Dig | c flow required a number of state-of-the-art construction techniques. Because the old elevated highway (which remained in operation throughout the construction process) rested on pylons located throughout the designated dig area, engineers first utilized slurry wall techniques to create concrete walls upon which the h... | [
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4318 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big%20Dig | Big Dig | under South Station's seven railway tracks, which carried over 40,000 commuters and 400 trains per day. To avoid multiple relocations of train lines while the tunneling advanced, as had been initially planned, a specially designed jack was constructed to support the ground and tracks to allow the excavation to take pla... | [
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4318 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big%20Dig | Big Dig | project undertaken beneath railway lines anywhere in the world. The ground freezing enabled safer, more efficient excavation, and also assisted in environmental issues, as less contaminated fill needed to be exported than if a traditional cut-and-cover method had been applied.
Other challenges included existing subwa... | [
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4318 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big%20Dig | Big Dig | port the tunnels' weight, without interrupting rail service.
Construction phase
The project was managed by the Massachusetts Turnpike Authority, with the Big Dig and the Turnpike's Boston Extension from the 1960s being financially and legally joined by the legislature as the Metropolitan Highway System. Design and co... | [
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4318 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big%20Dig | Big Dig | n and construction of the Big Dig was broken up into dozens of smaller subprojects with well-defined interfaces between contractors. Major heavy-construction contractors on the project included Jay Cashman, Modern Continental, Obayashi Corporation, Perini Corporation, Peter Kiewit Sons' Incorporated, J. F. White, and t... | [
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4318 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big%20Dig | Big Dig | en a source of major controversy throughout the design phase of the project. Many environmental advocates preferred a river crossing entirely in tunnels, but this, along with 27 other plans, was rejected as too costly. Finally, with a deadline looming to begin construction on a separate project that would connect the T... | [
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4318 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big%20Dig | Big Dig | ad the drawback of requiring highway ramps stacked up as high as immediately adjacent to the Charles River.
The city of Cambridge objected to the visual impact of the chosen Charles River crossing design. The city sued to revoke the project's environmental certificate and forced the project planners to redesign the r... | [
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4318 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big%20Dig | Big Dig | nd construction began on the Leonard P. Zakim Bunker Hill Memorial Bridge. The bridge employed an asymmetrical design and a hybrid of steel and concrete was used to construct it. The distinctive bridge is supported by two forked towers connected to the span by cables and girders. It was the first bridge in the country ... | [
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4318 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big%20Dig | Big Dig |
Meanwhile, construction continued on the Tobin Bridge approach. By the time all parties agreed on the I-93 design, construction of the Tobin connector (today known as the "City Square Tunnel" for a Charlestown area it bypasses) was far along, significantly adding to the cost of constructing the US Route 1 interchange... | [
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4318 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big%20Dig | Big Dig | tore the surface of Spectacle Island in the Boston Harbor Islands National Recreation Area.
The Storrow Drive Connector, a companion bridge to the Zakim, began carrying traffic from I-93 to Storrow Drive in 1999. The project had been under consideration for years, but was opposed by the wealthy residents of the Beacon... | [
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4318 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big%20Dig | Big Dig | pair of ramps that had been constructed for Interstate 695, enabling the mainline I-93 to carry more traffic that would have used I-695 under the original Master Plan.
When construction began, the project cost, including the Charles River crossing, was estimated at $5.8 billion. Eventual cost overruns were so high th... | [
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4318 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big%20Dig | Big Dig | eventually passed $15 billion. Interest brought this cost to $21.93 billion.
Engineering methods and details
Several unusual engineering challenges arose during the project, requiring unusual solutions and methods to address them.
At the beginning of the project, engineers had to figure out the safest way to build ... | [
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4318 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big%20Dig | Big Dig | t onto the new braces.
Final phases
On January 18, 2003, the opening ceremony was held for the I-90 Connector Tunnel, extending the Massachusetts Turnpike (Interstate 90) east into the Ted Williams Tunnel, and onwards to Boston Logan International Airport. The Ted Williams tunnel had been completed and was in limited... | [
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4318 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big%20Dig | Big Dig | g the elevated Interstate 93 underground, was completed in two stages: northbound lanes opened on March 29, 2003 and southbound lanes (in a temporary configuration) on December 20, 2003. A tunnel underneath Leverett Circle connecting eastbound Storrow Drive to I-93 North and the Tobin Bridge opened December 19, 2004, e... | [
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4318 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big%20Dig | Big Dig | y the end of December 2004, 95% of the Big Dig was completed. Major construction remained on the surface, including construction of final ramp configurations in the North End and in the South Bay interchange, and reconstruction of the surface streets.
The final ramp downtown—exit 16A (formerly 20B) from I-93 south to ... | [
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4318 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big%20Dig | Big Dig | atives from Massachusetts who pushed to have the Big Dig funded by the federal government.
Coordinated projects
The Commonwealth of Massachusetts was required under the Federal Clean Air Act to mitigate air pollution generated by the highway improvements. Secretary of Transportation Fred Salvucci signed an agreement w... | [
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4318 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big%20Dig | Big Dig | include:
Restoration of three Old Colony Commuter Rail lines
Expansion of Framingham Line to serve Worcester full-time
Restoration of the Newburyport/Rockport Line
Six-car trains on the MBTA Blue Line, requiring platform lengthening, station modernization, and all new train cars
MBTA Silver Line service to the So... | [
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4318 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big%20Dig | Big Dig | Design of the Red-Blue Connector at Charles Street (under petition to remove from list)
Some projects, such as restoration of Green Line "E" Arborway service, were removed from the list of mitigation projects and replaced with other projects with similar air-quality improvements.
Surface treatments
Some surface trea... | [
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4318 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big%20Dig | Big Dig | to the Charles River Basin, including the construction of North Point Park in Cambridge and Paul Revere Park in Charlestown. The North Bank Bridge, providing pedestrian and bicycle connectivity between the parks, was not funded until the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009. Nashua Street Park on the Boston ... | [
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4318 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big%20Dig | Big Dig | d Recreation to complete five projects. Another incomplete but required project is the South Bank Bridge over the MBTA Commuter Rail tracks at North Station (connecting Nashua Street Park to the proposed South Bank Park, which is currently a parking lot under the Zakim Bridge at the Charles River locks).
Improvements ... | [
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4318 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big%20Dig | Big Dig | e Park (constructed in 2015 by the Charles River Conservancy), rehabilitation of historic operations buildings for the Charles River Dam and lock, a maintenance facility, and a planned pedestrian walkway across the Charles River next to the MBTA Commuter Rail drawbridge at North Station (connecting Nashua Street Park a... | [
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4318 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big%20Dig | Big Dig | ements as part of its three-phase expansion at North Point. Remaining funding may be used to construct the North Point Inlet pedestrian bridge, and a pedestrian walkway over Leverett Circle. Before being replaced with surface access during the reconstruction of the Science Park MBTA Green Line station, Leverett Circle ... | [
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4318 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big%20Dig | Big Dig | ply with Americans with Disabilities Act requirements and allow easy travel by wheelchair or bicycle over the busy intersection.
Public art
While not a legally mandated requirement, public art was part of the urban design planning process (and later design development work) through the Artery Arts Program. The intent... | [
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4318 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big%20Dig | Big Dig | pe elements, and bridges). As overall project costs increased, the Artery Arts Program was seen as a potential liability, even though there was support and interest from the public and professional arts organizations in the area.
At the beginning of the highway design process, a temporary arts program was initiated, a... | [
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4318 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big%20Dig | Big Dig | and facades of former West End houses cast into the concrete elevated highway abutment support walls near North Station by artist Sheila Levrant de Bretteville; Harbor Fog, a sensor-activated mist, light and sound sculptural environment by artist Ross Miller in parcel 17; a historical sculpture celebrating the 18th and... | [
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4318 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big%20Dig | Big Dig | under the loop ramps north of the Charles River.
Extensive landscape planting, as well as a maintenance program to support the plantings, was requested by many community members during public meetings.
Impact on traffic
The Big Dig separated the co-mingled traffic from the Massachusetts Turnpike and the Sumner and C... | [
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4318 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big%20Dig | Big Dig | now proceeds directly through the Ted Williams Tunnel to Logan Airport and Route 1A beyond. Traffic between Storrow Drive and the Callahan and Sumner Tunnels still uses a short portion of I-93, but additional lanes and direct connections are provided for this traffic.
The result was a 62% reduction in vehicle hours o... | [
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4318 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big%20Dig | Big Dig | he project was largely complete. The savings for travelers was estimated at $166 million annually in the same 2004–2005 time frame. Travel times on the Central Artery northbound during the afternoon peak hour were reduced 85.6%.
A 2008 Boston Globe report asserted that waiting time for the majority of trips actually i... | [
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4318 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big%20Dig | Big Dig | duced or eliminated (although some trips are now faster). The report states, "Ultimately, many motorists going to and from the suburbs at peak rush hours are spending more time stuck in traffic, not less." The Globe also asserted that their analysis provides a fuller picture of the traffic situation than a state-commis... | [
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4318 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big%20Dig | Big Dig | ing costs. That study did not look at highways outside the Big Dig construction area and did not take into account new congestion elsewhere.
Impact on property values
Towards the end of the Big Dig in 2003, it was estimated that the demolition of the Central Artery highway would cause a $732 million increase in proper... | [
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4318 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big%20Dig | Big Dig | was opened up, which is now a high-rent residential and commercial area called the Seaport District. The development of Seaport alone was estimated to create $7 billion in private investment and 43,000 jobs.
Operations Control Center (OCC)
As part of the project, an elaborate Operations Control Center (OCC) control r... | [
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4318 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big%20Dig | Big Dig | ed by hundreds of cameras, and thousands of sensors monitor traffic speed and density, air quality, water levels, temperatures, equipment status, and other conditions inside the tunnel. The OCC can activate emergency ventilation fans, change electronic display signs, and dispatch service crews when necessary.
Problems... | [
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4318 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big%20Dig | Big Dig | ireproofing systems, and overloaded drainage systems. Many of the leaks were a result of Modern Continental and other subcontractors failing to remove gravel and other debris before pouring concrete. This information was not made public, until engineers at MIT (volunteer students and professors) performed several exper... | [
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4318 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big%20Dig | Big Dig | so forced the Turnpike Authority to release information regarding its non-disclosure of prior leaks. A follow-up reported on "extensive" leaks that were more severe than state authorities had previously acknowledged. The report went on to state that the $14.6 billion tunnel system was riddled with more than 400 leaks. ... | [
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4318 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big%20Dig | Big Dig | aks being investigated was down from 1,000 to 500.
The problem of leaks is further aggravated by the fact that many of them involve corrosive salt water. This is caused by the proximity of Boston Harbor and the Atlantic Ocean, causing a mix of salt and fresh water leaks in the tunnel. The situation is made worse by ro... | [
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4318 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big%20Dig | Big Dig | ne environment. It has been reported that "hundreds of thousands of gallons of salt water are pumped out monthly" in the Big Dig, and a map has been prepared showing "hot spots" where water leakage is especially serious. Salt-accelerated corrosion has caused ceiling light fixtures to fail (see below), but can also caus... | [
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4318 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big%20Dig | Big Dig | tinuously pumped consumes a correspondingly larger amount of electrical power, and will cause the pumps to wear out much sooner than originally estimated.
Substandard materials
Massachusetts State Police searched the offices of Aggregate Industries, the largest concrete supplier for the underground portions of the pro... | [
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4318 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big%20Dig | Big Dig | sue project contractors and others because of poor work on the project. Over 200 complaints were filed by the state of Massachusetts as a result of leaks, cost overruns, quality concerns, and safety violations. In total, the state has sought approximately $100 million from the contractors ($1 for every $141 spent).
I... | [
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4318 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big%20Dig | Big Dig | July 2007, Aggregate Industries settled the case with an agreement to pay $50 million. $42 million of the settlement went to civil cases and $8 million was paid in criminal fines. The company will provide $75 million in insurance for maintenance as well as pay $500,000 toward routine checks on areas suspected to conta... | [
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4318 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big%20Dig | Big Dig | wing month, the remaining four, Robert Prosperi, Mark Blais, Gregory Stevenson, and John Farrar, were found guilty on conspiracy and fraud charges. The four were sentenced to probation and home confinement and Blais and Farrar were additionally sentenced to community service.
Fatal ceiling collapse
A fatal accident r... | [
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4318 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big%20Dig | Big Dig | he two-lane ramp connecting northbound I-93 to eastbound I-90 in South Boston, killing Milena Del Valle, who was a passenger, and injuring her husband, Angel Del Valle, who was driving. Immediately following the fatal ceiling collapse, Governor Mitt Romney ordered a "stem-to-stern" safety audit conducted by the enginee... | [
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4318 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big%20Dig | Big Dig | reatening human life, as has already been seen". The collapse and closure of the tunnel greatly snarled traffic in the city. The resulting traffic jams are cited as contributing to the death of another person, a heart attack victim who died en route to Boston Medical Center when his ambulance was caught in one such tra... | [
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4318 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big%20Dig | Big Dig | st- and westbound lanes reopened in early January 2007. The final piece of the road network, a high occupancy vehicle lane connecting Interstate 93 north to the Ted Williams Tunnel, reopened on June 1, 2007.
On July 10, 2007, after a lengthy investigation, the National Transportation Safety Board found that epoxy glue... | [
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4318 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big%20Dig | Big Dig | he installation was designed for short-term loading, such as wind or earthquake loads, not long-term loading, such as the weight of a panel.
Powers Fasteners, the makers of the adhesive, revised their product specifications on May 15, 2007, to increase the safety factor from 4 to 10 for all of their epoxy products int... | [
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4318 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big%20Dig | Big Dig | h Powers Fasteners that would pay the family $6 million. In December 2008, Powers Fasteners agreed to pay $16 million to the state to settle manslaughter charges.
"Ginsu guardrails"
Public safety workers have called the walkway safety handrails in the Big Dig tunnels "ginsu guardrails," because the squared-off edges o... | [
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4318 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big%20Dig | Big Dig | lans to cover or remove the allegedly dangerous fixtures, but only near curves or exit ramps. This partial removal of hazards has been criticized by a safety specialist, who suggests that the handrails are just as dangerous in straight sections of the tunnel.
Lighting fixtures
In March 2011, it became known that senio... | [
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4318 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big%20Dig | Big Dig | in the northbound tunnel. Assuming it to be simple road debris, the maintenance team picked it up and brought it back to its home facility. The next day, a supervisor passing through the yard realized that the fixture was not road debris but was in fact one of the fixtures used to light the tunnel itself. Further inv... | [
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4318 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big%20Dig | Big Dig | presence of salt water. The electrochemical potential difference between stainless steel and aluminum is in the range of 0.5 to 1.0V, depending on the exact alloys involved, and can cause considerable corrosion within months under unfavorable conditions.
After the discovery of the reason why the fixture had failed, a... | [
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4318 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big%20Dig | Big Dig | ored up with plastic ties. Moving forward with temporary repairs, members of the MassDOT administration team decided not to let the news of the systemic failure and repair of the fixtures be released to the public or to Governor Deval Patrick's administration.
, it appeared that all of the 25,000 light fixtures would ... | [
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4318 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big%20Dig | Big Dig | as estimated to take up to 2 years to complete. , replacement of the light fixtures continued.
See also
Massachusetts Turnpike
Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority
Megaproject
Vincent Zarrilli – critic of the Big Dig who proposed the Boston Bypass
Alaskan Way Viaduct replacement tunnel – similar project in ... | [
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4318 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big%20Dig | Big Dig | Kong
Cross City Tunnel – similar project in Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
Dublin Port Tunnel – similar project on a smaller scale in Dublin, Ireland
Gardiner Expressway – an elevated freeway in Toronto with similar future plans
Autopista de Circunvalación M-30, and – similar project along the banks of Manza... | [
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4318 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big%20Dig | Big Dig | er scale in Tokyo, Japan
References
External links
Official site
Project map on page vi of Highway to the Past: The Archaeology of Boston’s Big Dig
Map of Central Artery Project on page 21 of report on Climate Change Vulnerability
List of Massachusetts State Reports on Central Artery Project in Boston
Boston CA/T ... | [
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4318 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big%20Dig | Big Dig | s in Massachusetts
Transport infrastructure completed in 2007
Tunnels completed in 2007
Tunnels in Boston
U.S. Route 1 | [
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4319 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Books%20of%20Chronicles | Books of Chronicles | The Book of Chronicles ( ) is a book in the Hebrew Bible. Chronicles is the final book of the Hebrew Bible, concluding the third section of the Jewish Tanakh, the Ketuvim ("Writings"). It contains a genealogy starting with Adam and a history of ancient Judah and Israel up to the Edict of Cyrus in 539 BCE.
Chronicles i... | [
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4319 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Books%20of%20Chronicles | Books of Chronicles | he plural as the Books of Chronicles, after the Latin name given to the text by Jerome. In Christian Bibles, these books are denoted as 1 Chronicles and 2 Chronicles or First Chronicles and Second Chronicles. They usually follow the two Books of Kings and precede Ezra–Nehemiah, the last history-oriented book of the Ol... | [
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4319 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Books%20of%20Chronicles | Books of Chronicles | first Kingdom of Israel. The bulk of the remainder of 1 Chronicles, after a brief account of Saul in chapter 10, is concerned with the reign of David. The next long section concerns David's son Solomon, and the final part is concerned with the Kingdom of Judah, with occasional references to the second kingdom of Israe... | [
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4319 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Books%20of%20Chronicles | Books of Chronicles | cal to the opening verses of the Book of Ezra, the Persian king Cyrus the Great conquers the Neo-Babylonian Empire, and authorises the restoration of the Temple in Jerusalem and the return of the exiles.
Structure
Originally a single work, Chronicles was divided into two in the Septuagint, a Greek translation produced... | [
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4319 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Books%20of%20Chronicles | Books of Chronicles | and chapters 1–9 of 2 Chronicles); and
the narrative of the divided kingdom, focusing on the Kingdom of Judah, in the remainder of 2 Chronicles.
Within this broad structure there are signs that the author has used various other devices to structure his work, notably through drawing parallels between David and Solomo... | [
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4319 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Books%20of%20Chronicles | Books of Chronicles | e Temple, and reaps the benefits of prosperity and peace).
Biblical commentator C. J. Ball suggests that the division into two books introduced by the translators of the Septuagint "occurs in the most suitable place", namely with the conclusion of David's reign as king and the initiation of Solomon's reign.
1 Chronic... | [
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4319 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Books%20of%20Chronicles | Books of Chronicles | conquered Babylon in 539 BC; this sets the earliest possible date for this passage of the book.
Chronicles appears to be largely the work of a single individual. The writer was probably male, probably a Levite (temple priest), and probably from Jerusalem. He was well-read, a skilled editor, and a sophisticated theolo... | [
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4319 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Books%20of%20Chronicles | Books of Chronicles | ire.
Jewish and Christian tradition identified this author as the 5th-century BC figure Ezra, who gives his name to the Book of Ezra; Ezra is also believed to have written both Chronicles and Ezra–Nehemiah. Later critics, skeptical of the long-maintained tradition, preferred to call the author "the Chronicler". Howeve... | [
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4319 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Books%20of%20Chronicles | Books of Chronicles | icles and Ezra-Nehemiah. Professor Emeritus Menahem Haran of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem explains, "the overall unity of the Chronistic Work is … demonstrated by a common ideology, the uniformity of legal, cultic and historical conceptions and specific style, all of which reflect one opus."
One of the most stri... | [
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4319 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Books%20of%20Chronicles | Books of Chronicles | y modern printers, often appeared at the end of a scroll to facilitate the reader's passing on to the correct second book-scroll after completing the first. This scribal device was employed in works that exceeded the scope of a single scroll and had to be continued on another scroll.
The latter half of the 20th centur... | [
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4319 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Books%20of%20Chronicles | Books of Chronicles | now regard it as improbable that the author of Chronicles was also the author of the narrative portions of Ezra–Nehemiah. These critics suggest that Chronicles was probably composed between 400 and 250 BC, with the period 350–300 BC the most likely. This timeframe is achieved by estimates made based on genealogies app... | [
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4319 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Books%20of%20Chronicles | Books of Chronicles | Masoretic Text. This has persuaded many supporters of the Septuagint's reading to place Anani's likely date of birth a century later than what had been largely accepted for two millennia.
Sources
Much of the content of Chronicles is a repetition of material from other books of the Bible, from Genesis to Kings, and so ... | [
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4319 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Books%20of%20Chronicles | Books of Chronicles | x, and that books such as Genesis and Samuel should be regarded as contemporary with Chronicles, drawing on much of the same material, rather than a source for it. Despite much discussion of this issue, no agreement has been reached.
Genre
The translators who created the Greek version of the Jewish Bible (the Septuagi... | [
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4319 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Books%20of%20Chronicles | Books of Chronicles | of Genesis-Kings has been copied almost without change. Some modern scholars proposed that Chronicles is a midrash, or traditional Jewish commentary, on Genesis-Kings, but again this is not entirely accurate since the author or authors do not comment on the older books so much as use them to create a new work. Recent s... | [
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4319 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Books%20of%20Chronicles | Books of Chronicles | the generally accepted message the author wished to give to his audience was a theological reflection, not a "history of Israel":
God is active in history, and especially the history of Israel. The faithfulness or sins of individual kings are immediately rewarded or punished by God. (This is in contrast to the theolo... | [
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4319 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Books%20of%20Chronicles | Books of Chronicles | he genealogies, gradually narrowing the focus from all mankind to a single family, the Israelites, the descendants of Jacob. "True" Israel is those who continue to worship Yahweh at the Temple in Jerusalem (in the southern Kingdom of Judah), with the result that the history of the historical Kingdom of Israel is almost... | [
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4319 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Books%20of%20Chronicles | Books of Chronicles | e Covenant to Jerusalem, his founding of an eternal royal dynasty, and his preparations for the construction of the Temple.
God chose a site in Jerusalem as the location for the Temple, the place where God should be worshiped. More time and space are spent on the construction of the Temple and its rituals of worship ... | [
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4319 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Books%20of%20Chronicles | Books of Chronicles | aders.
God remains active in Israel. The past is used to legitimize the author's present: this is seen most clearly in the detailed attention he gives to the Temple built by Solomon, but also in the genealogy and lineages, which connect his own generation to the distant past and thus make the claim that the present is... | [
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0.012027696... |
4319 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Books%20of%20Chronicles | Books of Chronicles | on [with Rashi's commentary] at Chabad.org
Divrei Hayamim II – Chronicles II (Judaica Press) translation [with Rashi's commentary] at Chabad.org
1 Chronicles at Biblegateway
2 Chronicles at Biblegateway
1 Chronicles at Bible-Book.org
2 Chronicles at Bible-Book.org
Introductions
Tuell, S., 1 & 2 Chronicles
Audiobo... | [
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4320 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary%20search%20tree | Binary search tree | In computer science, a binary search tree (BST), also called an ordered or sorted binary tree, is a rooted binary tree data structure whose internal nodes each store a key greater than all the keys in the node's left subtree and less than those in its right subtree. The time complexity of operations on the binary searc... | [
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4320 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary%20search%20tree | Binary search tree | ets and lookup tables. Since the nodes in a BST are laid out in such a way that each comparison skips about half of the remaining tree, the lookup performance is proportional to that of binary logarithm.
The performance of a binary search tree is dependent on the order of insertion of the nodes into the tree; several ... | [
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4320 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary%20search%20tree | Binary search tree | mplexities perform better than an unsorted array, which would require linear search time.
The complexity analysis of BST shows that, on average, the insert, delete and search takes for nodes. In the worst case, they degrade to that of a singly linked list: .
History
The binary search tree algorithm was discovered ... | [
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4320 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary%20search%20tree | Binary search tree | labeled data in magnetic tapes.
Definition
A binary search tree, also known as ordered binary search tree, is a variation of rooted binary tree in which the nodes are arranged in an order. The nodes of the tree store a key (and optionally, an associated value), and each has two distinguished sub-trees, commonly denote... | [
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4320 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary%20search%20tree | Binary search tree | in the right sub-tree.
BST requires an order relation by which every node of the tree is comparable with every other node in the sense of total order. Binary search trees are also efficacious in sorting algorithms and search algorithms. However, the search complexity of a BST depends upon the order in which the nodes... | [
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4320 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary%20search%20tree | Binary search tree | has the same worst-case complexity as a linked list. Binary search trees are also a fundamental data structure used in construction of abstract data structures such as sets, multisets, and associative arrays.
Operations
Binary search trees support three main operations: lookup (checking whether a key is present), ins... | [
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4320 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary%20search%20tree | Binary search tree | d-only operations are traversal, verification, etc.
Searching
Searching in a binary search tree for a specific key can be programmed recursively or iteratively.
Searching begins by examining the root node. If the tree is , the key being searched for does not exist in the tree. Otherwise, if the key equals that of the... | [
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4320 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary%20search%20tree | Binary search tree | t of the root, the search proceeds by examining the right subtree. This process is repeated until the key is found or the remaining subtree is . If the searched key is not found after a subtree is reached, then the key is not present in the tree.
Recursive search
The following pseudocode implements the BST search pro... | [
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4320 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary%20search%20tree | Binary search tree | while loop. On most machines, the iterative version is found to be more efficient.
Since the search may proceed till some leaf node, the running time complexity of BST search is where is the height of the tree. However, the worst case for BST search is where is the total number of nodes in the BST, because an unb... | [
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4320 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary%20search%20tree | Binary search tree | redecessor of is crucial. Assuming all the keys of the BST are distinct, the successor of a node in BST is the node with the smallest key greater than 's key. On the other hand, the predecessor of a node in BST is the node with the largest key smaller than 's key. Following is pseudocode for finding the successor an... | [
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4320 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary%20search%20tree | Binary search tree | cessor of nodes. Following is the pseudocode for the operations.
Insertion
Operations such as insertion and deletion cause the BST representation to change dynamically. The data structure must be modified in such a way that the properties of BST continue to hold. New nodes are inserted as leaf nodes in the BST. Follow... | [
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4320 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary%20search%20tree | Binary search tree | auses the pointers to be updated. If is , the BST is empty, thus is inserted as the root node of the binary search tree , if it isn't , insertion proceeds by comparing the keys to that of on the lines 15-19 and the node is inserted accordingly.
Deletion
Deletion of a node, say , from a binary search tree should a... | [
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4320 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary%20search%20tree | Binary search tree | t or right child of 's parent depending on the position of within the BST, as shown in fig. 2 part (a) and part (b), and as a result, gets removed from the tree.
If has both a left and right child, the successor of (let it be ) takes the position of in the tree. This depends on the position of within the BST:
I... | [
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