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4329 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backgammon | Backgammon | tabase containing precomputed equities for all possible bearoff positions. There are 54,263 bearoff positions for each side. This means there are 542632 total bearoff positions (~3 billion positions). In 1981 Hugh Sconyers wrote a computer program that solved all positions with 9 checkers or less for both sides. In th... | [
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4329 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backgammon | Backgammon | e contains the exact answers to ~12 billion bearoff situations.
Computer-versus-computer competitions are also held at Computer Olympiad events.
History
Mesopotamia and The Middle East
The history of tables games can be traced back nearly 5,000 years to its origins in Persia. the world's oldest set of dice relatable... | [
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4329 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backgammon | Backgammon | e. Various other board games spanning from the 10th to 7th centuries BCE have been found throughout modern day Iraq, Syria, Israel, Egypt and western Iran. In the modern Middle East, backgammon is a common feature of coffeehouses. Today the game in various forms continues to be commonly played in Iran, Iraq, Lebanon, E... | [
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4329 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backgammon | Backgammon | or Byzantine variant of the game. It is also commonly referred to by shesh besh (shesh meaning six in Hebrew, Aramaic and Northwest Semitic, and besh meaning five in Turkish), amongst Arabs as well as by some Kurdish, Persian and Turkish speakers. Shesh besh is commonly used to refer to when a player scores a 5 and 6 a... | [
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4329 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backgammon | Backgammon | old archaeological site of Shahr-e Sukhteh, The Burnt City, an ebony board was found along with artifacts including two dice and 60 counters, with the playing fields represented by the coils of a serpent. The rules of this game, like others found in Egypt, have yet to be deciphered. It is, however, made from ebony, a ... | [
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4329 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backgammon | Backgammon | i credits Burzoe with the invention of the tables game nard in the 6th century. He describes an encounter between Burzoe and a Raja visiting from India. The Raja introduces the game of chess, and Burzoe demonstrates nard, played with dice made from ivory and teak. Today, Nard is the name for the Persian version of back... | [
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4329 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backgammon | Backgammon | back to 300–500 AD in the Babylonian Talmud, although others believe the Talmud references the Greek race game Kubeia.
Iranologist Touraj Daryaee, Chair of Persian Studies at U.C. Irvine, on the first written mention of earlier variants of backgammon—writes:
Armenia
Backgammon or nardi () is very popular among Armen... | [
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4329 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backgammon | Backgammon | ll fifteen checkers placed in one line on the 24-point and on the 11-point. The two players move their checkers in opposing directions, from the 24-point towards the 1-point, or home board. In long nardi, one checker by itself can block a point. There is no hitting in long nardi. The objective of the game is bearing al... | [
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4329 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backgammon | Backgammon | rly identical to backgammon. It is described in an epigram of Byzantine Emperor Zeno (AD 476–491). The board was the same, with 24 points, 12 on each side. Like today, each player had 15 checkers and used cubical dice with sides numbered one to six. The object of the game, to be the first to bear off all of one's check... | [
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4329 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backgammon | Backgammon | (three rather than two) and the starting of all pieces off the board (with them entering in the same way that pieces on the bar enter in modern backgammon). The name is still used for backgammon in Greece, where it is frequently played in town plateias and cafes. The epigram of Zeno describes a particularly bad dice ... | [
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4329 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backgammon | Backgammon | efore in danger of being put outside the board by an incoming opponent checker. Zeno threw the three dice with which the game was played and obtained 2, 5 and 6. As in backgammon, Zeno could not move to a space occupied by two opponent (black) pieces. The white and black checkers were so distributed on the points that ... | [
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4329 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backgammon | Backgammon | o's time is believed to be a direct descendant of the earlier Roman Ludus duodecim scriptorum ('Game of twelve lines') with the board's middle row of points removed, and only the two outer rows remaining. used a board with three rows of 12 points each, with the 15 checkers being moved in opposing directions by the two... | [
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4329 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backgammon | Backgammon | ame Kubeia. The earliest known mention of the game is in Ovid's Ars Amatoria ('The Art of Love'), written between 1 BC and 8 AD. In Roman times, this game was also known as alea, and a likely apocryphal Latin story linked this name, and the game, to a Trojan soldier named Alea.
Egypt
Race board games involving dice ha... | [
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4329 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backgammon | Backgammon | to 3500 BC. Though using a board that is quite different from backgammon, it may be a predecessor.
Turkey (Ottoman Empire)
Backgammon, which is known as "tavla", from Byzantine Greek , is a very popular game in Turkey, and it is customary to call the dice rolls their Persian number names, with local spellings: (1), ... | [
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4329 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backgammon | Backgammon | variants. The usual tavla is also known as , meaning boys''' or men's tavla. The other variant, , meaning girls' tavla, is a game that depends only on the dice and involves no strategy. Another variant, , meaning soldiers' tavla, has the pieces thrown on the board randomly. Players try to flip their pieces over the op... | [
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4329 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backgammon | Backgammon | alled Tavli (Byzantine Greek: ) is described in an epigram of the Byzantine Emperor Zeno (AD 476–481). The games of Tavli most commonly played are:
Portes: Set-up and rules the same as backgammon, except that backgammons count as gammons (2 points) and there is no doubling cube.
Plakoto: A game where one checker can ... | [
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4329 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backgammon | Backgammon | tly till the 6-6. If a dice throw cannot be fulfilled in any way, his opponent takes the turn for the remaining moves of that throw.
Asodio: Also known as Acey-deucey, where all checkers are off the board, and players enter by rolling either doubles or acey-deucey.
These games are played one after another, in matches... | [
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4329 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backgammon | Backgammon | r the opening move). Players use the same pair of dice in turns. After the first game, the winner of the previous game starts first. Each game counts as 1 point, if the opponent has borne off at least 1 stone, otherwise 2 points (gammon/backgammon). There is no doubling cube.
East Asia
Backgammon was popular in China... | [
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4329 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backgammon | Backgammon | s xiangqi (Chinese chess).
In Japan, ban-sugoroku is thought to have been brought from China in the 6th century, and is mentioned in Genji monogatari. As a gambling game, it was made illegal several times. In the early Edo era, a new and fast gambling game called Chō-han appeared and sugoroku quickly dwindled. By the ... | [
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4329 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backgammon | Backgammon | es of Tables'), predecessors of modern backgammon, first appeared in France during the 11th century and became a favorite pastime of gamblers. In 1254, Louis IX issued a decree prohibiting his court officials and subjects from playing. Tables games were played in Germany in the 12th century, and had reached Iceland by ... | [
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4329 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backgammon | Backgammon | ss. By the 17th century, table games had spread to Sweden. A wooden board and checkers were recovered from the wreck of the Vasa among the belongings of the ship's officers. Backgammon appears widely in paintings of this period, mainly those of Dutch and German painters, such as Van Ostade, Jan Steen, Hieronymus Bosch,... | [
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4329 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backgammon | Backgammon | the lower right). Others include Hell (Bosch) and Interior of an Inn by Jan Steen.
Great Britain
Backgammon's predecessor was the tables game of Irish which was popular at the Scottish court of James IV and considered "the more serious and solid game" when Backgammon began to emerge in the first half of the 17th cent... | [
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4329 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backgammon | Backgammon | e English clergy. Edmond Hoyle published A Short Treatise on the Game of Back-Gammon in 1753; this described rules and strategy for the game and was bound together with a similar text on whist.
In English, the word "backgammon" is most likely derived from "back" and , meaning "game" or "play". The earliest mention of ... | [
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4329 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backgammon | Backgammon | eported that the "old name for backgammon used by Shakespeare and others" was Tables.
United States
The most recent major development in backgammon was the addition of the doubling cube. It was first introduced in the 1920s in New York City among members of gaming clubs in the Lower East Side. The cube required player... | [
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4329 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backgammon | Backgammon | n the 20th and 21st centuries.
The popularity of backgammon surged in the mid-1960s, in part due to the charisma of Prince Alexis Obolensky who became known as "The Father of Modern Backgammon". "Obe", as he was called by friends, co-founded the International Backgammon Association, which published a set of official r... | [
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4329 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backgammon | Backgammon | 64, which attracted royalty, celebrities and the press. The game became a huge fad and was played on college campuses, in discothèques and at country clubs; stockbrokers and bankers began playing at conservative men's clubs. People young and old all across the country dusted off their boards and checkers. Cigarette, li... | [
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4329 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backgammon | Backgammon | d Championship promoted in Las Vegas in 1967.
Most recently, the United States Backgammon Federation (USBGF) was organized in 2009 to repopularize the game in the United States. Board and committee members include many of the top players, tournament directors and writers in the worldwide backgammon community. The USBG... | [
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4329 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backgammon | Backgammon |
Table games
TD-Gammon
Footnotes
References
Further reading
Fiske, Willard (1905). Chess in Iceland and in Icelandic Literature: with Historical Notes on Other Table-Games. Florence: The Florentine Typographical Society.
Forgeng, Jeff, Dorothy Johnston and David Cram (2003). Francis Willughby's Book of Games. Fa... | [
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4329 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backgammon | Backgammon | Samuel Pepys. Vol. 9. London and NY: Croscup.
External links
UK Backgammon Federation
US Backgammon Federation
Danish Backgammon Federation
Backgammon World Championship - Monte Carlo
Traditional board games
Articles containing video clips
17th-century board games
British board games | [
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4331 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book%20of%20Joshua | Book of Joshua | The Book of Joshua ( ) is the sixth book in the Hebrew Bible and the Christian Old Testament, and is the first book of the Deuteronomistic history, the story of Israel from the conquest of Canaan to the Babylonian exile. It tells of the campaigns of the Israelites in central, southern and northern Canaan, the destructi... | [
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4331 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book%20of%20Joshua | Book of Joshua | y Joshua warning of the need for faithful observance of the Law (torah) revealed to Moses.
Almost all scholars agree that the Book of Joshua holds little historical value for early Israel and most likely reflects a much later period. The earliest parts of the book are possibly chapters 2–11, the story of the conquest;... | [
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4331 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book%20of%20Joshua | Book of Joshua | of Jerusalem to the Neo-Babylonian Empire in 586 BCE, and possibly not until after the return from the Babylonian exile in 539 BCE.
Contents
Structure
I. Transfer of leadership to Joshua (1:1–18)
A. God's commission to Joshua (1:1–9)
B. Joshua's instructions to the people (1:10–18)
II. Entrance into and conquest of ... | [
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4331 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book%20of%20Joshua | Book of Joshua | 5:2–15)
B. Victory over Canaan (6:1–12:24)
1. Destruction of Jericho (6)
2. Failure and success at Ai (7:1–8:29)
3. Renewal of the covenant at Mount Ebal (8:30–35)
4. Other campaigns in central Canaan. The Gibeonite Deception (9:1–27)
5. Campaigns in southern Canaan (10:1–43)
6. Campaigns in northern Canaan (11:1–15)
7... | [
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4331 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book%20of%20Joshua | Book of Joshua | llotments (13:8–19:51)
1. Eastern tribes (13:8–33)
2. Western tribes (14:1–19:51)
C. Cities of refuge and levitical cities (20:1–21:42)
D. Summary of conquest (21:43–45)
E. De-commissioning of the eastern tribes (22:1–34)
IV. Conclusion (23:1–24:33)
A. Joshua's farewell address (23:1–16)
B. Covenant at Shechem (24:1–28... | [
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4331 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book%20of%20Joshua | Book of Joshua | t of three important moments in Joshua marked with major speeches and reflections by the main characters; here first God, and then Joshua, make speeches about the goal of conquest of the Promised Land; in chapter 12, the narrator looks back on the conquest; and in chapter 23 Joshua gives a speech about what must be don... | [
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4331 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book%20of%20Joshua | Book of Joshua | mes of the book: the crossing of the Jordan River and conquest of the land, its distribution, and the imperative need for obedience to the Law. Joshua's own immediate obedience is seen in his speeches to the Israelite commanders and to the Transjordanian tribes, and the Transjordanians' affirmation of Joshua's leadersh... | [
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4331 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book%20of%20Joshua | Book of Joshua | To avoid repeating failed attempts by Moses to have notable men of Israel predict the success rate of entry into Canaan mentioned in the book of Numbers, Joshua tasks two regular men with entering Jericho as spies. They arrive at Rahab's house and spend the night. The king of Jericho, having heard of possible Israelite... | [
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4331 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book%20of%20Joshua | Book of Joshua | aith in God to the men and acknowledges her belief that Canaan was divinely reserved for the Israelites from the beginning. Because of Rahab's actions, the Israelites are able to enter Canaan.
The Israelites cross the Jordan River through a miraculous intervention of God and the Ark of the Covenant and are circumcised... | [
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4331 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book%20of%20Joshua | Book of Joshua | . The conquest begins with the battle of Jericho, followed by Ai (central Canaan), after which Joshua builds an altar to Yahweh at Mount Ebal in northern Canaan and renews the Covenant in a ceremony with elements of a divine land-grant ceremony, similar to ceremonies known from Mesopotamia.
The narrative then switches... | [
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4331 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book%20of%20Joshua | Book of Joshua | ving them instead. An alliance of Amorite kingdoms headed by the Canaanite king of Jerusalem attacks the Gibeonites but they are defeated with Yahweh's miraculous help of stopping the Sun and the Moon, and hurling down large hailstones (Joshua 10:10–14). The enemy kings were eventually hanged on trees. The Deuteronomis... | [
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4331 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book%20of%20Joshua | Book of Joshua | practice of the 8th century BCE.
With the south conquered the narrative moves to the northern campaign. A powerful multi-national (or more accurately, multi-ethnic) coalition headed by the king of Hazor, the most important northern city, is defeated with Yahweh's help. Hazor itself is then captured and destroyed. Chap... | [
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4331 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book%20of%20Joshua | Book of Joshua | l. The land then "had rest from war" (Joshua 11:23, repeated at 14:15). Chapter 12 lists the vanquished kings on both sides of the Jordan River: the two kings who ruled east of the Jordan who were defeated under Moses' leadership (Joshua 12:1–6; cf. Numbers 21), and the 31 kings on the west of the Jordan who were defea... | [
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4331 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book%20of%20Joshua | Book of Joshua | one; (etc.; Joshua 12:10–11).
Division of the land (chapters 13–22)
Having described how the Israelites and Joshua have carried out the first of their God's commands, the narrative now turns to the second: to "put the people in possession of the land." Joshua is "old, advanced (or stricken) in years" by this time.
... | [
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4331 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book%20of%20Joshua | Book of Joshua | ssary for the tribes to receive their grants before they allocate parts of it to others. The Transjordanian tribes are dismissed, affirming their loyalty to Yahweh.
The book reaffirms Moses' allocation of land east of the Jordan to the tribes of Reuben and Gad and the half-tribe of Manasseh, and then describes how Jos... | [
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4331 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book%20of%20Joshua | Book of Joshua | distribution process. The description serves a theological function to show how the promise of the land was realized in the biblical narrative; its origins are unclear, but the descriptions may reflect geographical relations among the places named.
The wording of Joshua 18:1-4 suggests that the tribes of Reuben, Gad,... | [
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4331 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book%20of%20Joshua | Book of Joshua | organising the allocation to the tribes of Simeon, Benjamin, Asher, Naphtali, Zebulun, Issachar and Dan. Subsequently, 48 cities with their surrounding lands were allocated to the Tribe of Levi.
Omitted in the Masoretic Text, but present in the Septuagint, is a statement that:
By the end of chapter 21, the narrative... | [
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4331 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book%20of%20Joshua | Book of Joshua | orized to return home to Gilead (here used in the widest sense for the whole Transjordan district), having faithfully 'kept the charge' of supporting the tribes occupying Canaan. They are granted "riches… with very much livestock, with silver, with gold, with bronze, with iron, and with very much clothing" as a reward... | [
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4331 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book%20of%20Joshua | Book of Joshua | m of Yahweh's great works for them, and of the need to love Yahweh The Israelites are told – just as Joshua himself had been told – that they must comply with "all that is written in the Book of the Law of Moses", neither "turn[ing] aside from it to the right hand or to the left" (i.e. by adding to the law, or diminish... | [
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4331 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book%20of%20Joshua | Book of Joshua | ith "Terah, the father of Abraham and Nahor, [who] lived beyond the Euphrates River and worshiped other gods." He invited the Israelites to choose between serving the Lord who had delivered them from Egypt, or the gods which their ancestors had served on the other side of the Euphrates, or the gods of the Amorites in w... | [
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4331 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book%20of%20Joshua | Book of Joshua | nctuary of the Lord" in Shechem. The oak is associated with the Oak of Moreh where Abram had set up camp during his travels in this area. Thus "Joshua made a covenant with the people", literally "cut a covenant", a phrase common to the Hebrew, Greek, and Latin languages. It derives from the custom of sacrifice, in whic... | [
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4331 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book%20of%20Joshua | Book of Joshua | The Book of Joshua closes with three concluding items (referred to in the Jerusalem Bible as "Two Additions"):
The death of Joshua and his burial at Timnath-serah
The burial of the bones of Joseph at Shechem
The death of Eleazar and his burial in land belonging to Phinehas in the mountains of Ephraim.
There were no Le... | [
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4331 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book%20of%20Joshua | Book of Joshua | jamin: "the situation, 'upon the mountains of Ephraim', is not at variance with this view, as these mountains extended, according to Judges 4:5, etc., far into the territory of Benjamin".
In some manuscripts and editions of the Septuagint, there is an additional verse relating to the apostasy of the Israelites after J... | [
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4331 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book%20of%20Joshua | Book of Joshua | his idea was rejected as untenable by John Calvin (1509–64), and by the time of Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679) it was recognised that the book must have been written much later than the period it depicted. There is now general agreement that it was composed as part of a larger work, the Deuteronomistic history, stretching f... | [
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4331 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book%20of%20Joshua | Book of Joshua | evailing scholarly view is that Joshua is not a factual account of historical events. The apparent setting of Joshua is the 13th century BCE corroborates with the Bronze Age Collapse, which was indeed a time of widespread city-destruction. However, with a few exceptions (Hazor, Lachish), the destroyed cities are not th... | [
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4331 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book%20of%20Joshua | Book of Joshua | i were not occupied in the Near Eastern Late Bronze Age. According to some scholars, the story of the conquest represents the nationalist propaganda of the 8th century BCE kings of Judah and their claims to the territory of the Kingdom of Israel; incorporated into an early form of Joshua written late in the reign of k... | [
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4331 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book%20of%20Joshua | Book of Joshua | nian exile in 538 BCE.
In the 1930s Martin Noth made a sweeping criticism of the usefulness of the Book of Joshua for history. Noth was a student of Albrecht Alt, who emphasized form criticism (whose pioneer had been Hermann Gunkel in the 19th century) and the importance of etiology. Alt and Noth posited a peaceful mo... | [
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4331 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book%20of%20Joshua | Book of Joshua | key to Noth's analysis of the campaigns in Joshua.
Archaeological evidence in the 1930s showed that the city of Ai, an early target for conquest in the putative Joshua account, had existed and been destroyed, but in the 22nd century BCE. Some alternate sites for Ai, such as Khirbet el-Maqatir or Khirbet Nisya, have b... | [
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4331 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book%20of%20Joshua | Book of Joshua | (c. 2100–1550 BCE), not the Late Bronze Age (c. 1550–1200 BCE). Kenyon argued that the early Israelite campaign could not be historically corroborated, but rather explained as an etiology of the location and a representation of the Israelite settlement.
In 1955, G. Ernest Wright discussed the correlation of archaeolog... | [
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4331 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book%20of%20Joshua | Book of Joshua | account is in general correct regarding the nature of the late thirteenth and twelfth-eleventh centuries in the country" (i.e., "a period of tremendous violence"). He gives particular weight to what were then recent digs at Hazor by Yigael Yadin. Archaeologist Amnon Ben-Tor of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, who ... | [
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4331 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book%20of%20Joshua | Book of Joshua | conquest by the Israelites. In 2012, a team led by Ben-Tor and Sharon Zuckerman discovered a scorched palace from the 13th century BC in whose storerooms they found 3,400-year-old ewers holding burned crops; however, Sharon Zuckerman did not agree with Ben-Tor's theory, and claimed that the burning was the result of t... | [
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4331 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book%20of%20Joshua | Book of Joshua | ve priority to its theological message ("what passages teach about God") and be aware of what these would have meant to audiences in the 7th and 6th centuries BCE. Richard Nelson explained that the needs of the centralised monarchy favoured a single story of origins, combining old traditions of an exodus from Egypt, be... | [
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4331 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book%20of%20Joshua | Book of Joshua | e Hasmonean period were found among the Dead Sea Scrolls (4QJosha and 4QJoshb, found in Qumran Cave 4).
The Septuagint (Greek translation) is found in manuscripts such as Washington Manuscript I (5th century CE), and a reduced version of the Septuagint text is found in the illustrated Joshua Roll. The earliest complete... | [
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4331 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book%20of%20Joshua | Book of Joshua | , and their opposites, faithlessness and God's wrath. In the Book of Judges, the Books of Samuel, and the Books of Kings, the Israelites become faithless and God ultimately shows his anger by sending his people into exile. But in Joshua Israel is obedient, Joshua is faithful, and God fulfills his promise and gives them... | [
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4331 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book%20of%20Joshua | Book of Joshua | er, united by covenant in warfare and in worship of Yahweh alone at a single sanctuary, all in obedience to the commands of Moses as found in the Book of Deuteronomy.
God and Israel
The Book of Joshua takes forward Deuteronomy's theme of Israel as a single people worshipping Yahweh in the land God has given them. Ya... | [
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4331 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book%20of%20Joshua | Book of Joshua | el, not because the Israelites show superior fighting ability. The potential disunity of Israel is a constant theme, the greatest threat of disunity coming from the tribes east of the Jordan. Chapter 22:19 even hints that the land across the Jordan is unclean and that the tribes who live there have secondary status.
L... | [
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4331 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book%20of%20Joshua | Book of Joshua | Joshua and Caleb had trusted in God. The land is Yahweh's to give or withhold, and the fact that he has promised it to Israel gives Israel an inalienable right to take it. For exilic and post-exilic readers, the land was both the sign of Yahweh's faithfulness and Israel's unfaithfulness, as well as the centre of their ... | [
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4331 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book%20of%20Joshua | Book of Joshua | es out a systematic campaign against the civilians of Canaan — men, women and children — that amounts to genocide." In doing this he is carrying out herem as commanded by Yahweh in Deuteronomy 20:17: "You shall not leave alive anything that breathes". The purpose is to drive out and dispossess the Canaanites, with the ... | [
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4331 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book%20of%20Joshua | Book of Joshua | land," while their continued survival "explores the themes of disobedience and penalty and looks forward to the story told in Judges and Kings." The divine call for massacre at Jericho and elsewhere can be explained in terms of cultural norms (Israel was not the only Iron Age state to practice herem) and theology (a me... | [
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4331 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book%20of%20Joshua | Book of Joshua | le to the hearts and minds of contemporary readers and believers."
Obedience
Obedience versus disobedience is a constant theme of the work. Obedience ties in the Jordan crossing, the defeat of Jericho and Ai, circumcision and Passover, and the public display and reading of the Law. Disobedience appears in the story ... | [
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4331 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book%20of%20Joshua | Book of Joshua | f the story) to obey the most important command of all, to worship Yahweh and no other gods. Joshua thus illustrates the central Deuteronomistic message, that obedience leads to success and disobedience to ruin.
Moses, Joshua and Josiah
The Deuteronomistic history draws parallels in proper leadership between Moses, J... | [
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4331 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book%20of%20Joshua | Book of Joshua | enant-renewal ceremony led by Joshua was the prerogative of the kings of Judah. God's command to Joshua to meditate on the "book of the law" day and night parallels the description of Josiah in 2 Kings 23:25 as a king uniquely concerned with the study of the law. The two figures had identical territorial goals; Josiah ... | [
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4331 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book%20of%20Joshua | Book of Joshua | spies to scout out the land near Jericho, just as Moses sent spies from the wilderness to scout out the Promised Land
Joshua led the Israelites out of the wilderness into the Promised Land, crossing the Jordan River as if on dry ground, just as Moses led the Israelites out of Egypt through the Red Sea, which they cross... | [
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4331 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book%20of%20Joshua | Book of Joshua | is reminiscent of the divine revelation to Moses in the burning bush
Joshua successfully intercedes on behalf of the Israelites when Yahweh is angry for their failure to fully observe the "ban" (herem), just as Moses frequently persuaded God not to punish the people
Joshua and the Israelites were able to defeat the peo... | [
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4331 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book%20of%20Joshua | Book of Joshua | d
Joshua is "old, advanced in years" at the time when the Israelites can begin to settle on the promised land, just as Moses was old when he died having seen, but not entered, the Promised Land
Joshua served as the mediator of the renewed covenant between Yahweh and Israel at Shechem, just as Moses was the mediator of ... | [
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4331 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book%20of%20Joshua | Book of Joshua | ived to be 120 and Joshua lived to be 110.
Moral and political interpretations
The Book of Joshua deals with the conquest of the Land of Israel and its settlement, which are politically charged issues in Israeli society. In her article "The Rise and Fall of the Book of Joshua in Public Education in the Light of Ideo... | [
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4331 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book%20of%20Joshua | Book of Joshua | s, often extreme, moving from narrow-minded admiration, through embarrassment and thunderous silence to a bitter and poignant critique. The changes in the status of the Book of Joshua, she shows, are the manifestations of the ongoing dialogue that Israeli society has with its cultural heritage, with its history, with t... | [
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4331 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book%20of%20Joshua | Book of Joshua | ainst a common enemy, the Arabs. He met with politicians and scholars such as Biblical scholar Shemaryahu Talmon to discuss Joshua's supposed conquests and later published a book of the meeting transcripts; in a lecture at Ben-Gurion's home, archaeologist Yigael Yadin argued for the historicity of the Israelite militar... | [
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4331 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book%20of%20Joshua | Book of Joshua | tate of Israel) as a "miraculous" clearing of the land based on Joshua, and the Bible as a mandate for the expulsion of the Palestinians.
The biblical narrative of conquest has been used as an apparatus of critique against Zionism. For example, Michael Prior criticizes the use of the campaign in Joshua to favor "colon... | [
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4331 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book%20of%20Joshua | Book of Joshua | e morally. A related moral condemnation can be seen in "The political sacralization of imperial genocide: contextualizing Timothy Dwight's The Conquest of Canaan" by Bill Templer. This kind of critique is not new; Jonathan Boyarin notes how Frederick W. Turner blamed Israel's monotheism for the very idea of genocide, ... | [
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4331 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book%20of%20Joshua | Book of Joshua | hua in the curricula, as opposed to the secondaryness of humane and universal principles found in the Books of the Prophets. Her attempt to change the Bible study program was unsuccessful.
See also
The Bible Unearthed
"The Bible's Buried Secrets"
Ed (biblical reference)
Transjordan (Bible)
Yom HaAliyah
Referenc... | [
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4331 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book%20of%20Joshua | Book of Joshua | (Judaica Press) translation with Rashi's commentary at chabad.org
Christian translations
Online Bible at GospelHall.org
Joshua at Wikisource (Authorised King James Version)
Various versions
7th-century BC books
6th-century BC books
Nevi'im
Phoenicians in the Hebrew Bible
Historical books | [
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4332 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book%20of%20Ezra | Book of Ezra | The Book of Ezra is a book of the Hebrew Bible; which formerly included the Book of Nehemiah in a single book, commonly distinguished in scholarship as Ezra–Nehemiah. The two became separated with the first printed rabbinic bibles of the early 16th century, following late medieval Latin Christian tradition. Composed in... | [
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4332 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book%20of%20Ezra | Book of Ezra | les in the first year of Cyrus the Great (538 BC) and the completion and dedication of the new Temple in Jerusalem in the sixth year of Darius I (515 BC), the second telling of the subsequent mission of Ezra to Jerusalem and his struggle to purify the Jews from marriage with non-Jews. Together with the Book of Nehemiah... | [
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4332 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book%20of%20Ezra | Book of Ezra | n a leader from the Jewish community to carry out a mission; three successive leaders carry out three such missions, the first rebuilding the Temple, the second purifying the Jewish community, and the third sealing the holy city itself behind a wall. (This last mission, that of Nehemiah, is not part of the Book of Ezra... | [
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4332 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book%20of%20Ezra | Book of Ezra | and edited for several centuries before being accepted as scriptural in the early Christian era.
Summary
The Book of Ezra consists of ten chapters: chapters 1–6, covering the period from the Cyrus the Great to the dedication of the Second Temple, are told in the third person; chapters 7–10, dealing with the mission o... | [
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4332 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book%20of%20Ezra | Book of Ezra | 4:17–22, 5:7–17, 6:3–5, 6:6–12, 7:12–26)
Chapters 1–6 (documents included in the text in italics)
1. Decree of Cyrus, first version: Cyrus, inspired by God, returns the Temple vessels to Sheshbazzar, "prince of Judah", and directs the Israelites to return to Jerusalem with him and rebuild the Temple.
2. 42,360 exile... | [
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4332 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book%20of%20Ezra | Book of Ezra | riest and Zerubbabel build the altar and celebrate the Feast of Tabernacles. In the second year the foundations of the Temple are laid and the dedication takes place with great rejoicing.
4. Letter of the Samaritans to Artaxerxes, and reply of Artaxerxes: The "enemies of Judah and Benjamin" offer to help with the rebu... | [
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4332 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book%20of%20Ezra | Book of Ezra | and the king orders the work to stop. "Thus the work on the house of God in Jerusalem came to a standstill until the second year of the reign of Darius king of Persia."
5. Tattenai's letter to Darius: Through the exhortations of the prophets Haggai and Zechariah, Zerubbabel and Joshua recommence the building of the Te... | [
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4332 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book%20of%20Ezra | Book of Ezra | Decree of Cyrus, second version, and decree of Darius: Darius finds the decree, directs Tattenai not to disturb the Jews in their work, and exempts them from tribute and supplies everything necessary for the offerings. The Temple is finished in the month of Adar in the sixth year of Darius, and the Israelites assemble ... | [
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4332 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book%20of%20Ezra | Book of Ezra | h regard to the Law of your God" and to "appoint magistrates and judges to administer justice to all the people of Trans-Euphrates—all who know the laws of your God." Artaxerxes gives Ezra much gold and directs all Persian officials to aid him.
8. Ezra gathers a large body of returnees and much gold and silver and pre... | [
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4332 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book%20of%20Ezra | Book of Ezra | distribute the gold and silver and offer sacrifices to God.
9. Ezra is informed that some of the Jews already in Jerusalem have married non-Jewish women. Ezra is appalled at this proof of sin, and prays to God: "O God of Israel, you are righteous! We are left this day as a remnant. Here we are before you in our guilt,... | [
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4332 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book%20of%20Ezra | Book of Ezra | storical background
In the early 6th century BC, the Kingdom of Judah rebelled against the Neo-Babylonian Empire and was destroyed. As a result, the royal court, the priests, the prophets and scribes were taken into captivity in the city of Babylon. There a profound intellectual revolution took place, the exiles blam... | [
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4332 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book%20of%20Ezra | Book of Ezra | w the rapid rise of Persia, previously an unimportant kingdom in present-day southern Iran, to a position of great power, and in 539 BC Cyrus II, the Persian ruler, conquered Babylon.
It is difficult to describe the parties and politics of Judea in this period because of the lack of historical sources, but there seem ... | [
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4332 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book%20of%20Ezra | Book of Ezra | up, "people of the land", who seem to be local opposition against the returnees building the Temple in Jerusalem.
The following table is a guide to major events in the region during the period covered by the Book of Ezra:
Texts
Ezra–Nehemiah
The single Hebrew book Ezra–Nehemiah, with title "Ezra", was translated in... | [
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4332 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book%20of%20Ezra | Book of Ezra | Origen, who remarked that the Hebrew 'book of Ezra' might then be considered a 'double' book. Jerome, writing in the early 5th century, noted that this duplication had since been adopted by Greek and Latin Christians. Jerome himself rejected the duplication in his Vulgate translation of the Bible into Latin from the ... | [
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4332 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book%20of%20Ezra | Book of Ezra | the Ezra and Nehemiah sections of Ezra-Nehemiah as two distinct books, then called the first and second books of Ezra; and this becomes standard in the Paris Bibles of the 13th century. It was not until 1516/17, in the first printed Rabbinic Bible of Daniel Bomberg that the separation was introduced generally in Hebrew... | [
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4332 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book%20of%20Ezra | Book of Ezra | of Ezra 4. 1 Esdras (3 Esdras in the Vulgate) was considered apocryphal by Jerome.
Date, structure and composition
Date
Koresh of Ezra 1:1 is called "king of Persia", which title was introduced not by Cyrus the Great but by his grandson and probable namesake Xerxes (486–465 BC).
Scholars are divided over the chro... | [
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4332 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book%20of%20Ezra | Book of Ezra | taxerxes' twentieth year. If this was Artaxerxes I (465–424 BC), then Ezra arrived in 458 and Nehemiah in 445 BC. Nehemiah 8–9, in which the two (possibly by editorial error) appear together, supports this scenario.
Structure
The contents of Ezra–Nehemiah are structured in a theological rather than chronological order... | [
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4332 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book%20of%20Ezra | Book of Ezra |
The narrative follows a repeating pattern in which the God of Israel "stirs up" the king of Persia to commission a Jewish leader (Zerubbabel, Ezra, Nehemiah) to undertake a mission; the leader completes his mission in the face of opposition; and success is marked by a great assembly. The tasks of the three leaders are... | [
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4332 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book%20of%20Ezra | Book of Ezra | (Nehemiah). The pattern is completed with a final coda in which Nehemiah restores the belief of Yahweh. This concern with a schematic pattern-making, rather than with history in the modern sense of a factual account of events in the order in which they occurred, explains the origin of the many problems which surround ... | [
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... |
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