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Ground Floor. Ground Floor is an American sitcom created by Bill Lawrence and Greg Malins, that aired on TBS for two seasons, from November 14, 2013, through February 10, 2015.[1] The series stars Skylar Astin, Briga Heelan, Rory Scovel and John C. McGinley and followed Brody, a successful banker who falls for Jenny, an intelligent maintenance supervisor who works in the same building. Following earlier reports, the show was cancelled on February 13, 2015,[2] despite positive reviews. Ground Floor follows Brody (Skylar Astin), a young and successful banker at Remington Trust, who after a one-night stand with Jenny (Briga Heelan) discovers that she works in maintenance for his building. From there, they deal with their growing feelings for each other, much to the annoyance of their co-workers, while trying to find a balance between their vastly different work environments. TBS ordered a pilot for Ground Floor on February 21, 2013. The series was created by Bill Lawrence and Greg Malins, with Lawrence serving as executive producer alongside Jeff Astrof and Jeff Ingold, and the production companies Warner Bros. Television and Doozer.[4]
List of minor planets: 2001–3000. The following is a partial list of minor planets, running from minor-planet number 2001 through 3000, inclusive. The primary data for this and other partial lists is based on JPLs Small-Body Orbital Elements[1] and data available from the Minor Planet Center.[2][3] Critical list information is also provided by the MPC,[2][3] unless otherwise specified from Lowell Observatory.[4] A detailed description of the tables columns and additional sources are given on the main page including a complete list of every page in this series, and a statistical break-up on the dynamical classification of minor planets. Also see the summary list of all named bodies in numerical and alphabetical order, and the corresponding naming citations for the number range of this particular list. New namings may only be added to this list after official publication, as the preannouncement of names is condemned by the Working Group for Small Bodies Nomenclature of the International Astronomical Union.
Kitazawa Rakuten. Kitazawa Yasuji (北澤保次; 20 July 1876 – 25 August 1955), better known by the pen name Kitazawa Rakuten (北澤楽天), was a Japanese manga artist and nihonga artist. He drew many editorial cartoons and comic strips during the years from the late Meiji era through the early Shōwa era. He is considered by many historians to be the founding father of modern manga because his work was an inspiration to many younger manga artists and animators. He was the first professional cartoonist in Japan, and the first to use the term manga in its modern sense.[1] Kitazawa was born in 1876 in the Kita Adachi district of Ōmiya in Saitama Prefecture. He studied western-style painting under Ōno Yukihiko and Nihonga under Inoue Shunzui. He joined the English-language magazine Box of Curios in 1895, and started drawing cartoons under Frank Arthur Nankivell, an Australian artist who later emigrated to America and became a popular cartoonist for Puck magazine. In 1899, Kitazawa moved to Jiji Shimpo, a daily newspaper founded by Yukichi Fukuzawa. From January 1902, he contributed to Jiji Manga, a comics page that appeared in the Sunday edition. His comics for this page were inspired by American comic strips such as Katzenjammer Kids, Yellow Kid, and the work of Frederick Burr Opper.
Manga (disambiguation). Manga are comics or graphic novels originating from Japan. Manga may also refer to:
Amuse Inc.. Amuse Inc. (株式会社アミューズ, Kabushikigaisha Amyūzu)[5] is a Japanese entertainment company that provides artist management services. The artists include idols,[6] musicians, and more. Amuse produces TV and radio programs, commercial films, and movies. Other interests are in publication, music software, and patent agent businesses. The private Amuse Museum, located in Asakusa, Tokyo, was owned by the company. It featured ukiyo-e and textile displays. Amuse Inc. was created in 1978 when it signed with the rock band Southern All Stars. Soon after in 1981, the company created its movie production and distribution subsidiary Amuse Cinema City Inc. and produced Morning Moon Wa Sozatsu Ni (starring Shin Kishida) that same year, followed by Aiko 16 sai (1983). In 1983, Amuse signed with the actress Yasuko Tomita. The next year, the firm opened its subsidiary in the United States.[7] Amuse Video Inc. was created in 1990 as the video software production and sales subsidiary of the company. In 1995, Amuse established Ayers Inc. through a joint venture with Bandai, and opened its first movie theater. In 2000, Amuse opened its Korean subsidiary, Amuse Korea Inc. On 20 September 2001, Amuse was listed on the Osaka Securities Exchange. Its distributed film The Pianist won the Palme dOr at the 2002 Cannes Film Festival.[7] In 2004, Amuse opened its e-commerce site, Ambra. In 2007, it established its music label Taishita in joint venture with Victor Entertainment. In 2008, the group invested in Brussels Co. Ltd., a company that develops Belgian beer bars; and also formed the A-Sketch label in joint venture with KDDI Corporation. In 2009, the group launched its subsidiary Amuse Edutainment Inc. In 2012, Amuse Singapore was created. Amuse intended to give a second life to J-pop by promoting the bands Flumpool and Weaver.[8] In 2013, it produced and distributed the movie The Eternal Zero. In 2015, Amuse France Inc. was created.[7]
Manhua. Manhua (traditional Chinese: 漫畫; simplified Chinese: 漫画; pinyin: mànhuà) are Chinese-language comics produced in Greater China. Chinese comics and narrated illustrations have existed in China throughout its history. They are usually graphic and can be written for a myriad of genres, including romance, fantasy, historical, thrillers, paranormal and horror. The storylines are varied but could include tropes and plotlines common to Asian culture and settings. The first major manhua magazine, Shanghai Sketch, first published in 1928. During the early 20th century, political manhua were printed as propaganda during times of political upheaval. At the start of the 21st century, Chinese cartoonists began to publish manhua through social media and microblogging websites. The word manhua was originally an 18th-century term used in Chinese literati painting. It became popular in Japan as manga in the late 19th century. Feng Zikai reintroduced the word to Chinese, in the modern sense, with his 1925 series of political cartoons entitled Zikai Manhua in the Wenxue Zhoubao (Literature Weekly).[1][2] While terms other than manhua had existed before, this particular publication took precedence over the many other descriptions for cartoon art that were used previously and manhua came to be associated with all Chinese comic materials.[3]
The New York Times. The New York Times (NYT)[b] is an American daily newspaper based in New York City. The New York Times covers domestic, national, and international news, and publishes opinion pieces, investigative reports, and reviews. As one of the longest-running newspapers in the United States, the Times serves as one of the countrys newspapers of record. As of August 2025[update], The New York Times had 11.88 million total and 11.3 million online subscribers, both by significant margins the highest numbers for any newspaper in the United States; the total also included 580,000 print subscribers. The New York Times is published by the New York Times Company; since 1896, the company has been chaired by the Ochs-Sulzberger family, whose current chairman and the papers publisher is A. G. Sulzberger. The Times is headquartered at The New York Times Building in Midtown Manhattan. The Times was founded as the conservative New-York Daily Times in 1851, and came to national recognition in the 1870s with its aggressive coverage of corrupt politician Boss Tweed. Following the Panic of 1893, Chattanooga Times publisher Adolph Ochs gained a controlling interest in the company. In 1935, Ochs was succeeded by his son-in-law, Arthur Hays Sulzberger, who began a push into European news. Sulzbergers son Arthur Ochs Sulzberger became publisher in 1963, adapting to a changing newspaper industry and introducing radical changes. The New York Times was involved in the landmark 1964 U.S. Supreme Court case New York Times Co. v. Sullivan, which restricted the ability of public officials to sue the media for defamation. In 1971, The New York Times published the Pentagon Papers, an internal Department of Defense document detailing the United Statess historical involvement in the Vietnam War, despite pushback from then-president Richard Nixon. In the landmark decision New York Times Co. v. United States (1971), the Supreme Court ruled that the First Amendment guaranteed the right to publish the Pentagon Papers. In the 1980s, the Times began a two-decade progression to digital technology and launched nytimes.com in 1996. In the 21st century, it shifted its publication online amid the global decline of newspapers. Currently, the Times maintains several regional bureaus staffed with journalists across six continents. It has expanded to several other publications, including The New York Times Magazine, The New York Times International Edition, and The New York Times Book Review. In addition, the paper has produced several television series, podcasts—including The Daily—and games through The New York Times Games.
Manhwa. Manhwa (Korean: 만화; Hanja: 漫畵; Korean pronunciation: [manβʷa]) is the general Korean term for comics and print cartoons. Outside Korea, the term usually refers to Korean comics.[1] Modern Manhwa has extended its reach to many other countries. These comics have branched outside of Korea by access to Webtoons and have created an impact that has resulted in some movie, drama and television show adaptations. The author or artist of a manhwa is called a manhwaga (만화가; 漫畫家). They take on the task of creating a comic that fits a certain format. Manhwa is read in the same direction as English books, horizontally and from left to right, because Korean is normally written and read horizontally. It can also be written and read vertically from right to left, top to bottom.[2] Webtoons tend to be structured differently in the way they are meant for scrolling where manga is meant to be looked at page by page. Manhwa, unlike their manga counterpart, is often in color when posted on the internet, but in black & white when in a printed format.[3]
List of manga publishers. This article lists publishers of manga in various markets worldwide.
State-owned enterprise. A state-owned enterprise (SOE) is a business entity created or owned by a national or local government, either through an executive order or legislation. SOEs aim to generate profit for the government, prevent private sector monopolies, provide goods at lower prices, implement government policies, or serve remote areas where private businesses are scarce. The government typically holds full or majority ownership and oversees operations. SOEs have a distinct legal structure, with financial and developmental goals, like making services more accessible while earning profit (such as a state railway).[1] They can be considered as government-affiliated entities designed to meet commercial and state capitalist objectives.[2][3] The terminology around the term state-owned enterprise is murky. All three words in the term are challenged and subject to interpretation. First, it is debatable what the term state implies (e.g., it is unclear whether municipally owned corporations and enterprises held by regional public bodies are considered state-owned). Next, it is contestable under what circumstances a SOE qualifies as owned by a state (SOEs can be fully owned or partially owned; it is difficult to determine categorically what level of state ownership would qualify an entity to be considered as state-owned since governments can also own regular stock, without implying any special interference). Finally, the term enterprise is challenged, as it implies statutes in private law which may not always be present, and so the term corporations is frequently used instead.[4][5] Thus, SOEs are known under many other terms: state-owned company, state-owned entity, state enterprise, publicly owned corporation, government business enterprise, government-owned company, government controlled company, government controlled enterprise, government-owned corporation, government-sponsored enterprise, commercial government agency, state-privatised industry public sector undertaking, or parastatal, among others. In some Commonwealth realms, ownership by The Crown is highlighted in the predominant local terminology, with SOEs in Canada referred to as a Crown corporation, and in New Zealand as a Crown entity.[citation needed] The term government-linked company (GLC) is sometimes used, for example in Malaysia,[6] to refer to private or public (listed on a stock exchange) corporate entities in which the government acquires a stake using a holding company. The two main definitions of GLCs are dependent on the proportion of the corporate entity a government owns. One definition[citation needed] purports that a company is classified as a GLC if a government owns an effective controlling interest (more than 50%), while the second definition[citation needed] suggests that any corporate entity that has a government as a shareholder is a GLC. The act of turning a part of government bureaucracy into a SOE is called corporatization.[7][8][9]
Social media. Social media are new media technologies that facilitate the creation, sharing and aggregation of content (such as ideas, interests, and other forms of expression) amongst virtual communities and networks.[1][2] Common features include:[2] The term social in regard to media suggests platforms enable communal activity. Social media enhances and extends human networks.[6] Users access social media through web-based apps or custom apps on mobile devices. These interactive platforms allow individuals, communities, businesses, and organizations to share, co-create, discuss, participate in, and modify user-generated or self-curated content.[7][5][1] Social media is used to document memories, learn, and form friendships.[8] They may be used to promote people, companies, products, and ideas.[8] Social media can be used to consume, publish, or share news. Social media platforms can be categorized based on their primary function. Popular social media platforms with over 100 million registered users include Twitter, Facebook, WeChat, ShareChat, Instagram, Pinterest, QZone, Weibo, VK, Tumblr, Baidu Tieba, Threads and LinkedIn. Depending on interpretation, other popular platforms that are sometimes referred to as social media services include YouTube, Letterboxd, QQ, Quora, Telegram, WhatsApp, Signal, LINE, Snapchat, Viber, Reddit, Discord, and TikTok. Wikis are examples of collaborative content creation.
Fairfield County, Connecticut. Fairfield County is a county in the southwestern corner of the U.S. state of Connecticut. It is the most populous county in the state and was also its fastest-growing from 2010 to 2020. As of the 2020 census, the countys population was 957,419,[1] representing 26.6% of Connecticuts overall population. The closest to the center of the New York metropolitan area, the county contains four of the states seven largest cities—Bridgeport (first), Stamford (second), Norwalk (sixth) and Danbury (seventh)—whose combined population of 433,368 is nearly half the countys total population. The United States Office of Management and Budget has designated Fairfield County as the Bridgeport–Stamford–Norwalk metropolitan statistical area.[2] The United States Census Bureau ranked the metropolitan area as the 59th most populous metropolitan statistical area of the United States in 2019. The U.S. Office of Management and Budget has further designated the metropolitan statistical area as a component of the more extensive New York–Newark–Bridgeport, NY–NJ–CT–PA combined statistical area,[2] the most populous combined statistical area and primary statistical area of the United States.[3] As is the case with all eight of Connecticuts counties, there is no county government and no county seat. As an area, it is only a geographical point of reference. In Connecticut, the cities and towns are responsible for all local governmental activities including fire and rescue, schools, and snow removal; in a few cases, neighboring towns will share certain resources. The last county seat was Bridgeport, which had served this role from 1853 until 1960.[4] On June 6, 2022, the U.S. Census Bureau formally recognized Connecticuts nine councils of governments as county equivalents instead of the states eight counties. Connecticuts eight historical counties continue to exist in name only, and are no longer considered for statistical purposes.[5] Fairfield Countys Gold Coast helped rank it sixth in the U.S. in per-capita personal income by the Bureau of Economic Analysis in 2005,[6] contributing substantially to Connecticut being one of the most affluent states in the U.S.[7] Other communities are more densely populated and economically diverse than the affluent areas for which the county is better known.
Literary magazine. A literary magazine is a periodical devoted to literature in a broad sense. Literary magazines usually publish short stories, poetry, and essays, along with literary criticism, book reviews, biographical profiles of authors, interviews and letters. Literary magazines are often called literary journals, or little magazines, terms intended to contrast them with larger, commercial magazines.[1] Nouvelles de la république des lettres is regarded as the first literary magazine; it was established by Pierre Bayle in France in 1684.[2] Literary magazines became common in the early part of the 19th century, mirroring an overall rise in the number of books, magazines, and scholarly journals being published at that time. In Great Britain, critics Francis Jeffrey, Henry Brougham and Sydney Smith founded the Edinburgh Review in 1802. Other British reviews of this period included the Westminster Review (1824), The Spectator (1828), and Athenaeum (1828). In the United States, early journals included the Philadelphia Literary Magazine (1803–1808), the Monthly Anthology (1803–11), which became the North American Review, the Yale Review (founded in 1819), The Yankee (1828–1829) The Knickerbocker (1833–1865), Dial (1840–44) and the New Orleans–based De Bows Review (1846–80). Several prominent literary magazines were published in Charleston, South Carolina, including The Southern Review (1828–32) and Russells Magazine (1857–60).[3] The most prominent Canadian literary magazine of the 19th century was the Montreal-based Literary Garland.[4] The North American Review, founded in 1815, is the oldest American literary magazine. However, it had its publication suspended during World War II, and the Yale Review (founded in 1819) did not; thus the Yale journal is the oldest literary magazine in continuous publication. Begun in 1889, Poet Lore is considered the oldest journal dedicated to poetry.[5] By the end of the century, literary magazines had become an important feature of intellectual life in many parts of the world. One of the most notable 19th century literary magazines of the Arabic-speaking world was Al-Urwah al-Wuthqa.[6] Among the literary magazines that began in the early part of the 20th century is Poetry magazine. Founded in 1912, it published T. S. Eliots first poem, The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock. Another was The Bellman, which began publishing in 1906 and ended in 1919, was edited by William Crowell Edgar and was based in Minneapolis, Minnesota.[7] Other important early-20th century literary magazines include The Times Literary Supplement (1902), Southwest Review (1915), Virginia Quarterly Review (1925), World Literature Today (founded in 1927 as Books Abroad before assuming its present name in 1977), Southern Review (1935), and New Letters (1935). The Sewanee Review, although founded in 1892, achieved prominence largely thanks to Allen Tate, who became editor in 1944.[8] Two of the most influential—though radically different—journals of the last half of the 20th century were The Kenyon Review (KR) and the Partisan Review. The Kenyon Review, edited by John Crowe Ransom, espoused the so-called New Criticism. Its platform was avowedly unpolitical. Although Ransom came from the South and published authors from that region, KR also published many New York–based and international authors. The Partisan Review was first associated with the American Communist Party and the John Reed Club; however, it soon broke ranks with the party. Nevertheless, politics remained central to its character, while it also published significant literature and criticism.
Anguillan company law. Anguillan company law is primarily codified in three principal statutes: The Companies Act is generally reserved for companies engaged in business physically in Anguilla, and companies formed under it are generally referred to as either CACs (an acronym for Companies Act Companies) or ABCs (an acronym for Anguillan Business Company). The other two statutes relate to the incorporation of non-resident companies as part of the Territorys financial services industry. Companies incorporated under International Business Companies Act are called International Business Companies (or, more usually, IBCs). IBCs represent the largest number of companies in Anguilla.[2] Companies incorporated under Limited Liability Companies Act are called Limited Liability Companies, and are also commonly referred to by their three-letter acronym, LLCs.[3] In practice, all companies formed in Anguilla are ordinarily incorporated by a trust company. Because all companies are required to have a licensed registered agent, and only trust companies are so licensed, in practice they control the incorporation procedure. Technically any person may incorporate an IBC or a CAC by subscribing and filing the Articles of Incorporation,[4] but as all IBCs and CACs are required by law to maintain a registered agent at all times,[5] in practice the registered agent will invariable deal with the incorporation procedure.[6] Similarly any person may form an LLC by subscribing the Articles of Formation,[7] but because all LLCs are required at all times to have a registered agent,[8] this process is usually undertaken by that agent.
Carol Edgarian. Carol Louise Edgarian is an American writer, editor, and publisher. Her novels include Rise the Euphrates, Three Stages of Amazement, and Vera. She is the co-founder and editor of the non-profit Narrative Magazine, a digital publisher of fiction, poetry, non-fiction, and art; and founder of Narrative for Schools, whose programs provide free learning and teaching resources for students and educators. Born in New Britain, Connecticut, to first-generation parents, Edgarian grew up in the Hartford area.[1] She attended Phillips Academy in Andover, Massachusetts, where she graduated cum laude, receiving the Kingsbury Prize and the Pamela Weidenman Prize in Art. She received her B.A. in English with from Stanford University.[2] She moved to San Francisco soon after college and, while writing her first novel, Rise the Euphrates, worked as a freelance speechwriter for high tech and retail companies, including Levi Strauss and the Mayfield Fund.[3] Edgarian entered the national literary scene with her debut novel Rise the Euphrates (1994). In its review, The Washington Post cited Rise the Euphrates as “a book whose generosity of spirit, intelligence, humanity, and finally ambition is what literature ought to be and rarely is today—daring, heartbreaking, and affirmative, giving order and sense to our random lives.” The Miami Herald called the novel “a stunning debut” and Mademoiselle magazine called Edgarians writing “so good it can raise the hairs on your neck.” A twentieth-anniversary revised edition of the novel was released in 2015 to mark the centennial of the Armenian Genocide.[4] Edgarians second novel, Three Stages of Amazement (2011) is both a love story and social chronicle of turbulent America set in San Francisco in 2009 during the Great Recession. The novel reached The New York Times Best Seller List in its first week of publication, O Magazine chose it as a Top Pick, and IndieBound selected it as a Pick of the Month. Three Stages of Amazement was called “furiously compelling” by Janet Maslin at The New York Times,[5] “superbly crafted, skillfully plotted” by The Washington Post,[6] and “generous and graceful and true” by O Magazine.[7]
Corporate law. Corporate law (also known as company law or enterprise law) is the body of law governing the rights, relations, and conduct of persons, companies, organizations and businesses. The term refers to the legal practice of law relating to corporations, or to the theory of corporations. Corporate law often describes the law relating to matters which derive directly from the life-cycle of a corporation.[1] It thus encompasses the formation, funding, governance, and death of a corporation. While the minute nature of corporate governance as personified by share ownership, capital market, and business culture rules differ, similar legal characteristics and legal problems exist across many jurisdictions. Corporate law regulates how corporations, investors, shareholders, directors, employees, creditors, and other stakeholders such as consumers, the community, and the environment interact with one another.[1] Whilst the term company or business law is colloquially used interchangeably with corporate law, the term business law mostly refers to wider concepts of commercial law, that is the law relating to commercial and business related purposes and activities. In some cases, this may include matters relating to corporate governance or financial law. When used as a substitute for corporate law, business law means the law relating to the business corporation (or business enterprises), including such activity as raising capital, company formation, and registration with the government. Academics identify four legal characteristics universal to business enterprises. These are: Widely available and user-friendly corporate law enables business participants to possess these four legal characteristics and thus transact as businesses. Thus, corporate law is a response to three endemic opportunism: conflicts between managers and shareholders, between controlling and non-controlling shareholders; and between shareholders and other contractual counterparts (including creditors and employees). A corporation may accurately be called a company; however, a company should not necessarily be called a corporation, which has distinct characteristics. In the United States, a company may or may not be a separate legal entity, and is often used synonymous with firm or business. According to Blacks Law Dictionary, in America a company means a corporation — or, less commonly, an association, partnership or union — that carries on industrial enterprise.[3] Other types of business associations can include partnerships (in the UK governed by the Partnership Act 1890), or trusts (such as a pension fund), or companies limited by guarantee (like some community organizations or charities). Corporate law deals with companies that are incorporated or registered under the corporate or company law of a sovereign state or their sub-national states.
Australian corporate law. Australian corporations law has historically borrowed heavily from UK company law. Its legal structure now consists of a single, national statute, the Corporations Act 2001.[1] The statute is administered by a single national regulatory authority, the Australian Securities & Investments Commission (ASIC).[2] Since provisions in the Act can frequently be traced back to some pioneer legislation in the United Kingdom, reference is frequently made to judgments of courts there. Though other forms are permitted, the main corporate forms in Australia are public and private (in Australia termed proprietary) companies, both of which predominantly have limited liability. Upon Federation in 1901, the Constitution of Australia granted limited powers in relation to corporations to the Australian Parliament. Each State has a residual power in relation to anything not within the Commonwealth power. The main grant of powers to the Commonwealth are as follows:
Romanization (disambiguation). Romanization is the representation in the Latin alphabet of a language normally written in another writing system. Romanization may also refer to:
Stockholm. Stockholm (/ˈstɒkhoʊ(l)m/;[10] Swedish: [ˈstɔ̂kː(h)ɔlm] ⓘ)[11] is the capital and most populous city of Sweden, as well as the largest urban area in the Nordic countries. Approximately 1 million people live in the municipality,[12] with 1.6 million in the urban area,[13] and 2.5 million in the metropolitan area.[12] The city stretches across fourteen islands where Lake Mälaren flows into the Baltic Sea. Outside the city to the east, and along the coast, is the island chain of the Stockholm archipelago. The area has been settled since the Stone Age, in the 6th millennium BC, and was founded as a city in 1252 by Swedish statesman Birger Jarl. The city serves as the county seat of Stockholm County. Stockholm is the cultural, media, political, and economic centre of Sweden. The Stockholm region alone accounts for over a third of the countrys GDP,[14] and is among the top 10 regions in Europe by GDP per capita.[15] Considered a global city,[16] it is the largest in Scandinavia and the main centre for corporate headquarters in the Nordic region.[17] The city is home to some of Europes top-ranking universities, such as the Karolinska Institute (medicine), KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm School of Economics and Stockholm University.[18] It hosts the annual Nobel Prize ceremonies and banquet at the Stockholm Concert Hall and Stockholm City Hall. One of the citys most prized museums, the Vasa Museum, is the most visited museum in Scandinavia.[19] The Stockholm metro, opened in 1950, is well known for the decor of its stations; it has been called the longest art gallery in the world.[20] The city was the host of the 1912 Summer Olympics, and has played host to several other international sports events since.[21] Stockholm is Swedens primary financial centre, one of the largest in Scandinavia, and hosts several of Swedens largest companies. Furthermore, the headquarters of most of Swedens largest banks are in Stockholm. Stockholm is one of Europes major tech centres; the city has sometimes been called Europes innovation hub.[22] The Stockholm region has a GDP of around $180 billion,[23] and Stockholm County has the highest GDP per capita of all counties in Sweden.[24] Stockholm is the seat of the Swedish government and most of its agencies,[25] including the highest courts in the judiciary,[26] and the official residences of the Swedish monarch and the prime minister. The government has its seat in the Rosenbad building, the Riksdag (Swedish parliament) is seated in the Parliament House,[27] and the prime ministers residence is adjacent at the Sager House.[28] Stockholm Palace is the official residence and principal workplace of the Swedish monarch, while Drottningholm Palace in neighbouring Ekerö serves as the Royal Familys private residence.[29]
Fiction. Fiction is any creative work, chiefly any narrative work, portraying individuals, events, or places that are imaginary or in ways that are imaginary.[1][2][3] Fictional portrayals are thus inconsistent with fact, history, or plausibility. In a traditional narrow sense, fiction refers to written narratives in prose – often specifically novels, novellas, and short stories.[4][5] More broadly, however, fiction encompasses imaginary narratives expressed in any medium, including not just writings but also live theatrical performances, films, television programs, radio dramas, comics, role-playing games, and video games. Typically, the fictionality of a work is publicly expressed, so the audience expects a work of fiction to deviate to a greater or lesser degree from the real world, rather than presenting for instance only factually accurate portrayals or characters who are actual people.[6] Because fiction is generally understood as not adhering to the real world, the themes and context of a fictional work, such as if and how it relates to real-world issues or events, are open to interpretation.[7] Since fiction is most long-established in the realm of literature (written narrative fiction), the broad study of the nature, function, and meaning of fiction is called literary theory, and the narrower interpretation of specific fictional texts is called literary criticism (with subsets like film criticism and theatre criticism also now long-established). Aside from real-world connections, some fictional works may depict characters and events within their own context, entirely separate from the known physical universe: an independent fictional universe. The creative art of constructing such an imaginary world is known as worldbuilding.[8] Literary critic James Wood argues that fiction is both artifice and verisimilitude, meaning that it requires both creative inventions as well as some acceptable degree of believability to its audience,[9] a notion often encapsulated in the poet Samuel Taylor Coleridges idea of the audiences willing suspension of disbelief. The effects of experiencing fiction, and the way the audience is changed by the new information they discover, has been studied for centuries. Infinite fictional possibilities themselves signal the impossibility of fully knowing reality, provocatively demonstrating philosophical notions, such as there potentially being no criterion to measure constructs of reality.[10] In contrast to fiction, creators of non-fiction assume responsibility for presenting information (and sometimes opinion) based only in historical and factual reality. Despite the traditional view that fiction and non-fiction are opposites, some works (particularly in the modern era) blur this boundary, particularly works that fall under certain experimental storytelling genres—including some postmodern fiction, autofiction,[11] or creative nonfiction like non-fiction novels and docudramas—as well as the deliberate literary fraud of falsely marketing fiction as nonfiction.[12]
New York Stock Exchange Building. The New York Stock Exchange Building (also NYSE Building) is the headquarters of the New York Stock Exchange (NYSE), located in the Financial District of Lower Manhattan in New York City. It is composed of two connected structures occupying much of the city block bounded by Wall Street, Broad Street, New Street, and Exchange Place. The central section of the block contains the original structure at 18 Broad Street, designed in the Classical Revival style by George B. Post. The northern section contains a 23-story office annex at 11 Wall Street, designed by Trowbridge & Livingston in a similar style. The marble facade of 18 Broad Street contains colonnades facing east toward Broad Street and west toward New Street, both atop two-story podiums. The Broad Street colonnade, an icon of the NYSE, contains a pediment designed by John Quincy Adams Ward and Paul Wayland Bartlett, depicting commerce and industry. The facade of 11 Wall Street is simpler in design but contains architectural details similar to those at 18 Broad Street. Behind the colonnades at 18 Broad Street is the main trading floor, a 72-foot-tall (22 m) rectangular space. An additional trading floor, nicknamed the Garage, is at 11 Wall Street. There are offices and meeting rooms in the upper stories of 18 Broad Street and 11 Wall Street. The NYSE had occupied the site on Broad Street since 1865 but had to expand its previous building several times. The structure at 18 Broad Street was erected between 1901 and 1903. Within two decades, the NYSEs new building had become overcrowded, and the annex at 11 Wall Street was added between 1920 and 1922. Three additional trading floors were added in the late 20th century to accommodate increasing demand, and there were several proposals to move the NYSE elsewhere during that time. With the growing popularity of electronic trading in the 2000s, the three newer trading floors were closed in 2007. The building was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1978 and designated a city landmark by the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission in 1985. The building is also a contributing property to the Wall Street Historic District, a National Register of Historic Places district created in 2007.
Romanised (horse). Romanised (foaled 5 February 2015) is an Irish Thoroughbred racehorse. As a juvenile in 2017 he won one of his four races and finished second in the Solario Stakes. In the following year he recorded an upset victory in the Irish 2,000 Guineas and finished unplaced in his other starts. As a four-year-old he won the Minstrel Stakes and the Prix Jacques Le Marois and was narrowly beaten in a controversial race for the Prix du Moulin. He won a second Minstrel Stakes in 2020. Romanised is a bay horse with a white star and three white socks bred by the Aherne family (mother Monica and her sons Gerry, Mikey and P.J.) at the Prospect Stables in County Tipperary. He was sold when only a week old foal to the bloodstock agent John McCormack.[2] The colt entered the ownership of the Singaporean businessman Charles Ng and was sent into training with Ken Condon at the Osborne Lodge Stable, The Curragh, County Kildare. He was from the eighth crop of foals sired by Holy Roman Emperor, one of the leading European two-year-olds of his generation, who unusually began his stud career as a three-year-old. The best of his other progeny have included Homecoming Queen, Mongolian Khan and Designs On Rome.[3] Romaniseds dam Romantic Venture had a very brief racing career, winning a maiden race on her racecourse debut and finishing unplaced in the Matron Stakes on her only subsequent start.[4] Romantic Venture was a half-sister to Designs of Rome and closely related to Grey Swallow.[5] Romanised was ridden by Shane Foley in all but one of his races as a two-year-old. The colt made his racecourse debut in a maiden race over six furlongs at Navan Racecourse on 24 April and started a 14/1 outsider in an eighteen-runner field. He started slowly but stayed on strongly in the closing stages to win by half a length from the Jessica Harrington-trained Brick By Brick.[6] The colt was then stepped up sharply in class when he was sent to England to contest the Group 2 Coventry Stakes at Royal Ascot and finished seventh, beaten two and a quarter lengths by the winner Rajasinghe after struggling to obtain a clear run in the last quarter mile. On 13 August Romanised was ridden by Pat Smullen when he started the 8/1 fourth choice in the betting for the Group 1 Phoenix Stakes at the Curragh. After being restrained at the rear of the field he made some progress in the closing stages but never looked likely to win and came home sixth behind the Aidan OBrien-trained Sioux Nation. Romanised was then sent to England for a second time for the Group 3 Solario Stakes over seven furlongs at Sandown Park on 2 September and finished second to Masar, beaten two lengths by the winner.
Latinisation. Latinisation or Latinization can refer to:
Sweden. – in Europe (green & dark grey)– in the European Union (green) – [Legend] Sweden,[f] formally the Kingdom of Sweden,[g][h] is a Nordic country located on the Scandinavian Peninsula in Northern Europe. It borders Norway to the west and north, and Finland to the east. At 450,295 square kilometres (173,860 sq mi),[4] Sweden is the largest Nordic country by both area and population, and is the fifth-largest country in Europe. Its capital and largest city is Stockholm. Sweden has a population of 10.6 million, and a low population density of 25.5 inhabitants per square kilometre (66/sq mi); 88% of Swedes reside in urban areas.[14] They are mostly in the central and southern half of the country. Swedens urban areas together cover 1.5% of its land area. Sweden has a diverse climate owing to the length of the country, which ranges from 55°N to 69°N. Sweden has been inhabited since prehistoric times around 12,000 BC. The inhabitants emerged as the Geats (Swedish: Götar) and Swedes (Svear), who formed part of the sea-faring peoples known as the Norsemen. A unified Swedish state was established during the late 10th century. In 1397, Sweden joined Norway and Denmark to form the Scandinavian Kalmar Union,[15] which Sweden left in 1523. When Sweden became involved in the Thirty Years War on the Protestant side, an expansion of its territories began, forming the Swedish Empire, which remained one of the great powers of Europe until the early 18th century. During this era Sweden controlled much of the Baltic Sea. Most of the conquered territories outside the Scandinavian Peninsula were lost during the 18th and 19th centuries. The eastern half of Sweden, present-day Finland, was lost to Imperial Russia in 1809. The last war in which Sweden was directly involved was in 1814, when Sweden by military means forced Norway into a personal union, a union which lasted until 1905. Sweden is a highly developed country ranked fifth in the Human Development Index.[16] It is a constitutional monarchy and a parliamentary democracy, with legislative power vested in the 349-member unicameral Riksdag. It is a unitary state, divided into 21 counties and 290 municipalities. Sweden maintains a Nordic social welfare system that provides universal health care and tertiary education for its citizens. It has the worlds 14th highest GDP per capita and ranks very highly in quality of life, health, education, protection of civil liberties, economic competitiveness, income equality, gender equality and prosperity.[17][18] Sweden joined the European Union on 1 January 1995 and NATO on 7 March 2024. It is also a member of the United Nations, the Schengen Area, the Council of Europe, the Nordic Council, the World Trade Organization and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD).
Romanianization. Romanianization is the series of policies aimed toward ethnic assimilation implemented by the Romanian authorities during the 20th and 21st century. The most noteworthy policies were those aimed at the Hungarian minority in Romania, Jews and as well the Ukrainian minority in Bukovina and Bessarabia.[1][2][3] After the end of World War I, on 1 December 1918, the Romanian National Council (elected representatives of the Romanian population) and soon afterwards, the representatives of the German population had decided to unify with Romania. The decision was contested by the Hungarian minority. The Hungarian–Romanian War of 1918–1919 established Romanian control over Transylvania, while the Treaty of Trianon of 1920 determined the Romanian border with the new Hungarian state. However, Transylvania had a large Hungarian minority of 25.5%, according to the 1920 census. A portion of them fled to Hungary after the union;[4] however, most of them remained in Romania, and by the 1930s, their number increased to 26.7% of the whole Transylvanian population. The increase in the proportion of the Hungarian minority in Transylvania was induced by the immigration of the Hungarians from Hungary and by the significant improvement of living standards of the Hungarian minority in Romania compared with those of the interwar Hungarian population. While Romania included large national minorities, the 1923 Constitution declared the country to be a nation-state, following the French model which was popular in many European nations at that time. After the dissolution of Austria-Hungary, the post-war mass actions undertaken by the Romanian authorities were primarily directed against the Hungarian aristocracy and, at times, the Jews.[5] The takeover did not happen without impacting the cultural and economic life of the Hungarians. While, in accordance with the Agricultural Act of 1921, a number of Hungarian estates and lands were confiscated, the land reform openly favored the Romanians, the national group which used to be the victims of the unjust land allocation systems in place during Hungarian rule. Although Romania won the war, the anti-Hungarian sentiments were not remitted. During the 1930s, in response to Hungarian irredentism, anti-revisionist demonstrations began in Romania,[6] supported by Nationalist newspapers like Universul. After a particularly violent protest in Cluj, Foreign Minister Nicolae Titulescu officially condemned the events in Bucharest newspapers.[7] In August 1940, during World War II, Northern Transylvania was annexed by Hungary as a result of the Second Vienna Award, leaving Southern Transylvania to Romania. After the coup détat of 23 August 1944, Romania left the Axis and joined the Allies, and, as such, fought together with the Soviet Unions Red Army against Nazi Germany and Hungary, regaining Northern Transylvania. During the fall of 1944, after the withdrawal of the Hungarian military forces and administration from Transylvania, the Székely Land was engaged and pillaged by the Romanian Gendarmerie and volunteers. However, on 12 November 1944, the Soviets expelled the returning Romanian authorities from Northern Transylvania with reference to the massacres committed by members of Iuliu Manius so-called Maniu Guard, and the Romanian administration was not allowed to return until the communist-led government of Petru Groza was formed on 6 March 1945.[8] The Hungarian-Romanian conflicts in 1940 and 1944 are still controversial.
Share (finance). In financial markets, a share (sometimes someone can refer to as stock or equity) is a unit of equity ownership in the capital stock of a corporation. It can refer to units of mutual funds, limited partnerships, and real estate investment trusts.[1] Share capital refers to all of the shares of an enterprise. The owner of shares in a company is a shareholder (or stockholder) of the corporation.[2] A share expresses the ownership relationship between the company and the shareholder.[1] The denominated value of a share is its face value, and the total of the face value of issued shares represent the capital of a company,[3] which may not reflect the market value of those shares. The income received from the ownership of shares is a dividend. There are different types of shares such as equity shares, preference shares, deferred shares, redeemable shares, bonus shares, right shares, and employee stock option plan shares. Shares are valued according to the various principles in different markets, but a basic premise is that a share is worth the price at which a transaction would be likely to occur were the shares to be sold. The liquidity of markets is a major consideration as to whether a share is able to be sold at any given time. An actual sale transaction of shares between buyer and seller is usually considered to provide the best prima facie market indicator as to the true value of shares at that particular time. A minority discount is usually applied when valuing a minority shareholding (less than 50%), where ownership of the shares offers limited control over the business if this is held by a majority shareholder. Tax treatment of dividends varies between tax jurisdictions. For instance, in India, dividends are tax free in the hands of the shareholder up to INR 1 million, but the company paying the dividend has to pay dividend distribution tax at 12.5%. There is also the concept of a deemed dividend, which is not tax free. Further, Indian tax laws include provisions to stop dividend stripping.[4][citation needed] Historically, investors were given share certificates as evidence of their ownership of shares. In modern times, certificates are not always given and ownership may be recorded electronically by a system such as CREST or DTCC, a central securities depository.
Toronto Stock Exchange. The Toronto Stock Exchange (TSX; French: Bourse de Toronto) is a stock exchange located in Toronto, Ontario, Canada. It is the 10th largest exchange in the world and the third largest in North America based on market capitalization. Based in the EY Tower in Torontos Financial District, the TSX is a wholly owned subsidiary of the TMX Group for the trading of senior equities. The Toronto Stock Exchange likely descended from the Association of Brokers, a group formed by Toronto businessmen on July 26, 1852.[4] No records of the groups transactions have survived. It is however known that on October 25, 1861, twenty-four brokers gathered at the Masonic Hall to create and participate in the Toronto Stock Exchange.[5] Between 1852 and 1870, two other distinct, commodity-orientated, exchanges were founded : the Toronto Exchange in 1854 and the Toronto Stock and Mining Exchange in 1868. Initially the TSE had 13 listings but it grew to 18 in 1868 (a majority of bonds and banks issues). Many banks of Upper Canada failed during 1869, which halted any sort of trading in the city as the market was just too small. A bull market in 1870 boosted investors confidence and eight of the original 24 brokers joined again to re-establish the TSE.[6]: 5 The exchange was incorporated by an act of the Legislative Assembly of Ontario in 1878.[4] The TSE grew continuously in size and in shares traded, save for a three-month period in 1914 when the exchange was shut down for fear of financial panic due to World War I. The day of the Wall Street crash of 1929, Torontos exchange was better connected to New Yorks and received the bad news before Montreals (prior to 1931, exchanges communicated via telephone or by brokers private wires, as they were not yet interconnected by ticker). By the afternoon, its three most popular stocks were down by at least 8%: International Nickel, Hiram Walker & Sons and Brazilian Light & Power. The following day, a record number of 331,000 shares changed hands on the TSE, with an overall loss of value of 20% (in Montreal, 525,000 shares and 25% loss).[6]: 7 Meanwhile, a British Columbia gold rush in the 1890s stimulated the demand for start-up capital but Montreal and Torontos exchanges deemed the ventures too risky. The boom was handled with the Toronto Stock and Mining Exchange, founded in 1896 and which merged with its rival Standard Stock and Mining Exchange in 1899. The SSME, after years of ups and downs, was amalgamated into the Toronto Stock Exchange in 1934. While a durable surge in mining trading was recorded in Toronto (either securities) or other publicly listed assets, in Montreal the volume of the equity-centric market was going down. Toronto found itself a reputation as a financial centre for mining and from 1934, the total trading volume on the TSE surpassed that of Montreals.[6]: 13
Electronic literature. Electronic literature or digital literature is a genre of literature where digital capabilities such as interactivity, multimodality or algorithmic text generation are used aesthetically.[1] Works of electronic literature are usually intended to be read on digital devices, such as computers, tablets, and mobile phones. They cannot be easily printed, or cannot be printed at all, because elements crucial to the work cannot be carried over onto a printed version. The first literary works for computers, created in the 1950s, were computer programs that generated poems or stories, now called generative literature. In the 1960s experimental poets began to explore the new digital medium, and the first early text-based games were created. Interactive fiction became a popular genre in the late 1970s and 1980s, with a thriving online community in the 2000s. In the 1980s and 1990s hypertext fiction begun to be published, first on floppy disks and later on the web. Hypertext fictions are stories where the reader moves from page to page by selecting links. In the 2000s digital poetry became popular, often including animated text, images and interactivity. In the 2010s and 2020s, electronic literature uses social media platforms, with new genres like Instapoetry or Twitterature as well as literary practices like netprov. Although web-based genres like creepypasta and fan fiction are not always thought of as electronic literature (because they usually manifest as linear texts that could be printed out and read on paper), other scholars argue that these are born digital genres that depend on online communities and thus should be included in the field. There is an extensive body of scholarship on electronic literature. In 1999 the Electronic Literature Organization was established, which through annual conferences and other events supports both the publishing and study of electronic literature. One focus of academic study has been the preservation and archiving of works of electronic literature. This is challenging because works become impossible to access or read when the software or hardware they are designed for becomes obsolete. In addition, works of electronic literature are not part of the established publishing industry and so do not have ISBN numbers and are not findable in library catalogues. This has led to the establishment of a number of archives and documentation projects. The literary critic and professor N. Katherine Hayles defines electronic literature as digital born (..) and (usually) meant to be read on a computer,[2] clarifying that this does not include e-books and digitised print literature.
Stock. Stocks (also capital stock, or sometimes interchangeably, shares) consist of all the shares[a] by which ownership of a corporation or company is divided.[1] A single share of the stock means fractional ownership of the corporation in proportion to the total number of shares. This typically entitles the shareholder (stockholder) to that fraction of the companys earnings, proceeds from liquidation of assets (after discharge of all senior claims such as secured and unsecured debt),[3] or voting power, often dividing these up in proportion to the number of like shares each stockholder owns. Not all stock is necessarily equal, as certain classes of stock may be issued, for example, without voting rights, with enhanced voting rights, or with a certain priority to receive profits or liquidation proceeds before or after other classes of shareholders. Stock can be bought and sold privately or on stock exchanges. Transactions of the former are closely overseen by governments and regulatory bodies to prevent fraud, protect investors, and benefit the larger economy. As new shares are issued by a company, the ownership and rights of existing shareholders are diluted in return for cash to sustain or grow the business. Companies can also buy back stock, which often lets investors recoup the initial investment plus capital gains from subsequent rises in stock price. Stock options issued by many companies as part of employee compensation do not represent ownership, but represent the right to buy ownership at a future time at a specified price. This would represent a windfall to the employees if the option were exercised when the market price is higher than the promised price, since if they immediately sold the stock they would keep the difference (minus taxes). Stock bought and sold in private markets fall within the private equity realm of finance. A person who owns a percentage of the stock has the ownership of the corporation proportional to their share. The shares form a stock; the stock of a corporation is partitioned into shares, the total of which are stated at the time of business formation. Additional shares may subsequently be authorized by the existing shareholders and issued by the company. In some jurisdictions, each share of stock has a certain declared par value, which is a nominal accounting value used to represent the equity on the balance sheet of the corporation. In other jurisdictions, however, shares of stock may be issued without associated par value.
Abbreviation. An abbreviation (from Latin brevis short)[1] is a shortened form of a word or phrase, by any method including shortening, contraction, initialism (which includes acronym), or crasis. An abbreviation may be a shortened form of a word, usually ended with a trailing period. For example, the term etc. is the usual abbreviation for the Latin phrase et cetera. A contraction is an abbreviation formed by replacing letters with an apostrophe. Examples include Im for I am and lil for little. An initialism or acronym is an abbreviation consisting of the initial letter of a sequence of words without other punctuation. For example, FBI (/ˌɛf.biːˈaɪ/), USA (/ˌjuː.ɛsˈeɪ/), IBM (/ˌaɪ.biːˈɛm/), BBC (/ˌbiː.biːˈsiː/). When initialism is used as the preferred term, acronym refers more specifically to when the abbreviation is pronounced as a word rather than as separate letters; examples include SWAT and NASA. Initialisms, contractions and crasis share some semantic and phonetic functions, and are connected by the term abbreviation in loose parlance.[2]: p167 In early times, abbreviations may have been common due to the effort involved in writing (many inscriptions were carved in stone) or to provide secrecy via obfuscation.
Telegraphy. Telegraphy is the long-distance transmission of messages where the sender uses symbolic codes, known to the recipient, rather than a physical exchange of an object bearing the message. Thus flag semaphore is a method of telegraphy, whereas pigeon post is not. Ancient signalling systems, although sometimes quite extensive and sophisticated as in China, were generally not capable of transmitting arbitrary text messages. Possible messages were fixed and predetermined, so such systems are thus not true telegraphs. The earliest true telegraph put into widespread use was the Chappe telegraph, an optical telegraph invented by Claude Chappe in the late 18th century. The system was used extensively in France, and European nations occupied by France, during the Napoleonic era. The electric telegraph started to replace the optical telegraph in the mid-19th century. It was first taken up in Britain in the form of the Cooke and Wheatstone telegraph, initially used mostly as an aid to railway signalling. This was quickly followed by a different system developed in the United States by Samuel Morse. The electric telegraph was slower to develop in France due to the established optical telegraph system, but an electrical telegraph was put into use with a code compatible with the Chappe optical telegraph. The Morse system was adopted as the international standard in 1865, using a modified Morse code developed in Germany in 1848.[1] The heliograph is a telegraph system using reflected sunlight for signalling. It was mainly used in areas where the electrical telegraph had not been established and generally used the same code. The most extensive heliograph network established was in Arizona and New Mexico during the Apache Wars. The heliograph was standard military equipment as late as World War II. Wireless telegraphy developed in the early 20th century became important for maritime use, and was a competitor to electrical telegraphy using submarine telegraph cables in international communications. Telegrams became a popular means of sending messages once telegraph prices had fallen sufficiently. Traffic became high enough to spur the development of automated systems—teleprinters and punched tape transmission. These systems led to new telegraph codes, starting with the Baudot code. However, telegrams were never able to compete with the letter post on price, and competition from the telephone, which removed their speed advantage, drove the telegraph into decline from 1920 onwards. The few remaining telegraph applications were largely taken over by alternatives on the internet towards the end of the 20th century.
Tokyo Stock Exchange Building. Tokyo Stock Exchange Building (東京証券取引所ビル, Tōkyō Shōken Torihikijo) is an office building located in Nihonbashi, Chuo, Tokyo, Japan. It houses the headquarters of Tokyo Stock Exchange, but owned by Heiwa Real Estate.[1] The reconstruction of the Tokyo Stock Exchange Building was first discussed in 1971.[2] In March 1981, the basic plan for the new stock exchange building was finalized, with the main building to have 15 floors. [3] On April 8, 1982, construction of the New Market Building began on the site of the old Main Building. [4] The New Market Building was completed on October 31, 1984, and a completion ceremony was held on December 6. On May 13, 1985, the TSE held trading on the trading floor of the New Market Building for the first time. [5] The second phase of construction, the New Main Building on the old Market Building site, had a groundbreaking ceremony held on October 3, 1985 , and was completed on April 30, 1988.[6] The annual rent was 6.62 billion yen when the building was completed, rising to 7.36 billion yen in 1998, but then declined, dropping to 2.7 billion yen in 2016.[7] In 2019, it was raised to 3 billion yen, the first increase in 25 years . [8]
Japan Exchange Group. Japan Exchange Group, Inc. (株式会社日本取引所グループ, Kabushiki-gaisha Nippon Torihikijo Gurūpu; Corporate Number: 9120001098575),[2] abbreviated as JPX or Nippon Torihikijo, is a Japanese financial services company headquartered in Tokyo and Osaka. It is a financial instruments exchange holding company[3] subject to the regulations of the Financial Instruments and Exchange Act enforced by the Financial Services Agency of Japan. It is also monitored by a separate self-regulatory body called Japan Exchange Regulation (JPX-R),[4][5] dedicated to ensuring neutral and effective self-regulation operations defined under the Financial Instruments and Exchange Act.[5][6] The exchange group was formed by the merger of Tokyo Stock Exchange Group, Inc. [ja] and Osaka Securities Exchange Co., Ltd. on January 1, 2013. As a result of this merger and market reorganization, the Tokyo Stock Exchange (TSE) became the sole securities exchange of JPX and the Osaka Exchange (OSE) became the largest derivatives exchange of JPX. JPX owns three licensed financial instruments exchange corporations: Tokyo Stock Exchange, Inc.,[7] Osaka Exchange, Inc.,[8] and Tokyo Commodity Exchange, Inc. (TOCOM).[9] It also has an IT services and research arm, JPX Market Innovation & Research, Inc. (JPXI),[10] and a central clearing counterparty, Japan Securities Clearing Corporation (JSCC).[11] As of July 2024, JPX is the worlds fifth-largest stock exchange operator, behind NYSE, NASDAQ, SSE, and Euronext, exceeding $5.8 trillion in July 2024.[12] The roots of JPX trace back to November 22, 2011, when TSE and OSE decided to merge into one, as a solution to slowing market conditions in Japan.[13] The merger was subsequently approved on July 5, 2012, when the Japan Fair Trade Commission approved the TSE-OSE merger, paving the way for the formation of JPX.[14] On January 1, 2013, JPX was officially launched.[15] The remainder of the merger was realized through a series of changes:
Poetry. Poetry (from the Greek word poiesis, making[note 1]) is a form of literary art that uses aesthetic and often rhythmic[1][2][3] qualities of language to evoke meanings in addition to, or in place of, literal or surface-level meanings. Any particular instance of poetry is called a poem and is written by a poet. Poets use a variety of techniques called poetic devices, such as assonance, alliteration, consonance, euphony and cacophony, onomatopoeia, rhythm (via metre), rhyme schemes (patterns in the type and placement of a phoneme group) and sound symbolism, to produce musical or other artistic effects. They also frequently organize these devices into poetic structures, which may be strict or loose, conventional or invented by the poet. Poetic structures vary dramatically by language and cultural convention, but they often rely on rhythmic metre: patterns of syllable stress or syllable (or mora) weight. They may also use repeating patterns of phonemes, phoneme groups, tones, words, or entire phrases. Poetic structures may even be semantic (e.g. the volta required in a Petrachan sonnet). Most written poems are formatted in verse: a series or stack of lines on a page, which follow the poetic structure. For this reason, verse has also become a synonym (a metonym) for poetry.[note 2] Some poetry types are unique to particular cultures and genres and respond to characteristics of the language in which the poet writes. Readers accustomed to identifying poetry with Dante, Goethe, Mickiewicz, or Rumi may think of it as written in lines based on rhyme and regular meter. There are, however, traditions, such as Biblical poetry and alliterative verse, that use other means to create rhythm and euphony. Other traditions, such as Somali poetry, rely on complex systems of alliteration and metre independent of writing and been described as structurally comparable to ancient Greek and medieval European oral verse.[4] Much modern poetry reflects a critique of poetic tradition,[5] testing the principle of euphony itself or altogether forgoing rhyme or set rhythm.[6][7] In first-person poems, the lyrics are spoken by an I, a character who may be termed the speaker, distinct from the poet (the author). Thus if, for example, a poem asserts, I killed my enemy in Reno, it is the speaker, not the poet, who is the killer (unless this confession is a form of metaphor which needs to be considered in closer context – via close reading). Poetry uses forms and conventions to suggest differential interpretations of words, or to evoke emotive responses. The use of ambiguity, symbolism, irony, and other stylistic elements of poetic diction often leaves a poem open to multiple interpretations. Similarly, figures of speech such as metaphor, simile, and metonymy[8] establish a resonance between otherwise disparate images—a layering of meanings, forming connections previously not perceived. Kindred forms of resonance may exist, between individual verses, in their patterns of rhyme or rhythm. Poetry has a long and varied history, evolving differentially across the globe. It dates back at least to prehistoric times with hunting poetry in Africa and to panegyric and elegiac court poetry of the empires of the Nile, Niger, and Volta River valleys.[9] Some of the earliest written poetry in Africa occurs among the Pyramid Texts written during the 25th century BCE. The earliest surviving Western Asian epic poem, the Epic of Gilgamesh, was written in the Sumerian language. Early poems in the Eurasian continent include folk songs such as the Chinese Shijing, religious hymns (such as the Sanskrit Rigveda, the Zoroastrian Gathas, the Hurrian songs, and the Hebrew Psalms); and retellings of oral epics (such as the Egyptian Story of Sinuhe, Indian epic poetry, and the Homeric epics, the Iliad and the Odyssey). Ancient Greek attempts to define poetry, such as Aristotles Poetics, focused on the uses of speech in rhetoric, drama, song, and comedy. Later attempts concentrated on features such as repetition, verse form, and rhyme, and emphasized aesthetics which distinguish poetry from the format of more objectively-informative, academic, or typical writing, which is known as prose. Poets – as, from the Greek, makers of language – have contributed to the evolution of the linguistic, expressive, and utilitarian qualities of their languages. In an increasingly globalized world, poets often adapt forms, styles, and techniques from diverse cultures and languages. A Western cultural tradition (extending at least from Homer to Rilke) associates the production of poetry with inspiration – often by a Muse (either classical or contemporary), or through other (often canonised) poets work which sets some kind of example or challenge.
Thomas Edison. Thomas Alva Edison (February 11, 1847 – October 18, 1931) was an American inventor and businessman. He developed many devices in fields such as electric power generation, mass communication, sound recording, and motion pictures. These inventions, which include the phonograph, the motion picture camera, and early versions of the electric light bulb, have had a widespread impact on the modern industrialized world. He was one of the first inventors to apply the principles of organized science and teamwork to the process of invention, working with many researchers and employees. He established the first industrial research laboratory.[1] Edison was raised in the American Midwest. Early in his career he worked as a telegraph operator, which inspired some of his earliest inventions. In 1876, he established his first laboratory facility in Menlo Park, New Jersey, where many of his early inventions were developed. He later established a botanical laboratory in Fort Myers, Florida, in collaboration with businessmen Henry Ford and Harvey S. Firestone, and a laboratory in West Orange, New Jersey, that featured the worlds first film studio, the Black Maria. With 1,093 US patents in his name, as well as patents in other countries, Edison is regarded as the most prolific inventor in American history.[2] Edison married twice and fathered six children. He died in 1931 due to complications from diabetes. Thomas Edison was born in 1847 in Milan, Ohio, but grew up in Port Huron, Michigan, after the family moved there in 1854.[3] He was the seventh and last child of Samuel Ogden Edison Jr. (1804–1896, born in Marshalltown, Nova Scotia) and Nancy Matthews Elliott (1810–1871, born in Chenango County, New York).[4][5] His patrilineal family line was Dutch by way of New Jersey;[6] the surname had originally been Edeson.[7] His great-grandfather, loyalist John Edeson, fled New Jersey for Nova Scotia in 1784. The family moved to Middlesex County, Upper Canada, around 1811, and his grandfather, Capt. Samuel Edison Sr. served with the 1st Middlesex Militia during the War of 1812. His father, Samuel Edison Jr. moved to Vienna, Ontario, and fled to Ohio after his involvement in the Rebellion of 1837.[8]
Stock exchange. A stock exchange, securities exchange, or bourse is an exchange where stockbrokers and traders can buy and sell securities, such as shares of stock, bonds and other financial instruments. Stock exchanges may also provide facilities for the issue and redemption of such securities and instruments and capital events including the payment of income and dividends. Securities traded on a stock exchange include stock issued by listed companies, unit trusts, derivatives, pooled investment products and bonds. Stock exchanges often function as continuous auction markets with buyers and sellers consummating transactions via open outcry at a central location such as the floor of the exchange or by using an electronic system to process financial transactions.[2] To be able to trade a security on a particular stock exchange, the security must be listed there. Usually, there is a central location for record keeping, but trade is increasingly less linked to a physical place as modern markets use electronic communication networks, which give them advantages of increased speed and reduced cost of transactions. Trade on an exchange is restricted to brokers who are members of the exchange. In recent years, various other trading venues such as electronic communication networks, alternative trading systems and dark pools have taken much of the trading activity away from traditional stock exchanges.[3] Initial public offerings of stocks and bonds to investors is done in the primary market and subsequent trading is done in the secondary market. A stock exchange is often the most important component of a stock market. Supply and demand in stock markets are driven by various factors that, as in all free markets, affect the price of stocks (see stock valuation). There is usually no obligation for stock to be issued through the stock exchange itself, nor must stock be subsequently traded on an exchange. Such trading may be off-exchange or over-the-counter. This is the usual way that derivatives and bonds are traded. Increasingly, stock exchanges are part of a global securities market. Stock exchanges also serve an economic function in providing liquidity to shareholders in providing an efficient means of disposing of shares. In recent years, as the ease and speed of exchanging stocks over digital platforms has increased, volatility in the day-to-day market has increased, too.
Prose. Prose is language that follows the natural flow or rhythm of speech, ordinary grammatical structures, or, in writing, typical conventions and formatting. Thus, prose ranges from informal speaking to formal academic writing. Prose differs most notably from poetry, which follows some type of intentional, contrived, artistic structure. Poetic structures vary dramatically by language; in English poetry, language is often organized by a rhythmic metre and a rhyme scheme. The ordinary conversational language of a region or community, and many other forms and styles of language usage, fall under prose, a label that can describe both speech and writing. In writing, prose is visually formatted differently than poetry. Poetry is traditionally written in verse: a series of lines on a page, parallel to the way that a person would highlight the structure orally if saying the poem aloud; for example, poetry may end with a rhyme at the end of each line, making the entire work more melodious or memorable. Prose uses writing conventions and formatting that may highlight meaning—for instance, the use of a new paragraph for a new speaker in a novel—but does not follow any special rhythmic or other artistic structure. The word prose first appeared in English in the 14th century. It is derived from the Old French prose, which in turn originates in the Latin expression prosa oratio (literally, straightforward or direct speech).[1] In highly-literate cultures where spoken rhetoric is considered relatively unimportant, definitions of prose may be narrower, including only written language (but including written speech or dialogue). In written languages, spoken and written prose usually differ sharply. Sometimes, these differences are transparent to those using the languages; linguists studying extremely literal transcripts for conversation analysis see them, but ordinary language-users are unaware of them. Academic writing (works of philosophy, history, economics, etc.), journalism, and fiction are usually written in prose (excepting verse novels etc.). Developments in twentieth century literature, including free verse, concrete poetry, and prose poetry, have led to the idea of poetry and prose as two ends on a spectrum rather than firmly distinct from each other. The British poet T. S. Eliot noted, whereas the distinction between verse and prose is clear, the distinction between poetry and prose is obscure.[2] Latin was a major influence on the development of prose in many European countries. Especially important was the great Roman orator Cicero (106–43 BC).[3] It was the lingua franca among literate Europeans until quite recent times, and the great works of Descartes (1596–1650), Francis Bacon (1561–1626), and Baruch Spinoza (1632–1677) were published in Latin. Among the last important books written primarily in Latin prose were the works of Swedenborg (d. 1772), Linnaeus (d. 1778), Euler (d. 1783), Gauss (d. 1855), and Isaac Newton (d. 1727).
Outline of sociology. 1800s: Martineau · Tocqueville · Marx · Spencer · Le Bon · Ward · Pareto · Tönnies · Veblen · Simmel · Durkheim · Addams · Mead · Weber · Du Bois · Mannheim · Elias The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to the discipline of sociology: Sociology is the systematic study of society, human social behavior, and patterns of social relationships, social interaction, and culture. The term sociology was coined in the late 18th century to describe the scientific study of society.[1] It uses a range of methods — from qualitative interviews to quantitative data analysis — to examine how social structures, institutions, and processes shape individual and group life. Sociology encompasses various subfields such as criminology, medical sociology, education, and increasingly, digital sociology, which studies the impact of digital technologies on society. Digital sociology examines the impact of digital technologies on social behavior and institutions, encompassing professional, analytical, critical, and public dimensions.[2] The internet has reshaped social networks and power relations, illustrating the growing importance of digital sociology.[3] Sociologists seek to understand how identities, inequalities, norms, and institutions evolve across time and context. Sociology can be described as all of the following: Sociology
First-person narrative. A first-person narrative (also known as a first-person perspective, voice, point of view, etc.) is a mode of storytelling in which a storyteller recounts events from that storytellers own personal point of view, using first-person grammar such as I, me, my, and myself (also, in plural form, we, us, etc.).[1][2] It must be narrated by a first-person character, such as a protagonist (or other focal character), re-teller, witness,[3] or peripheral character.[4][5] Alternatively, in a visual storytelling medium (such as video, television, or film), the first-person perspective is a graphical perspective rendered through a characters visual field, so the camera is seeing out of a characters eyes. A classic example of a first-person protagonist narrator is Charlotte Brontës Jane Eyre (1847),[1] in which the title character is telling the story in which she herself is also the protagonist:[6] I could not unlove him now, merely because I found that he had ceased to notice me.[7] Srikanta by Bengali writer Sarat Chandra Chattopadhyay[8] is another first-person perspective novel which is often called a masterpiece.[9][10][11] Srikanta, the title character and protagonist of the novel, tells his own story: What memories and thoughts crowd into my mind, as, at the threshold of the afternoon of my wandering life, I sit down to write the story of its morning hours![12] This device allows the audience to see the narrators minds eye view of the fictional universe,[13] but it is limited to the narrators experiences and awareness of the true state of affairs. In some stories, first-person narrators may relay dialogue with other characters or refer to information they heard from the other characters, in order to try to deliver a larger point of view.[6] Other stories may switch the narrator to different characters to introduce a broader perspective. An unreliable narrator is one that has completely lost credibility due to ignorance, poor insight, personal biases, mistakes, dishonesty, etc., which challenges the readers initial assumptions.[14] An example of the telling of a story in the grammatical first person, i.e. from the perspective of I, is Herman Melvilles Moby-Dick, which begins with Call me Ishmael.[15] First-person narration may sometimes include an embedded or implied audience of one or more people.[15] The story may be told by a person directly undergoing the events in the story without being aware of conveying that experience to readers; alternatively, the narrator may be conscious of telling the story to a given audience, perhaps at a given place and time, for a given reason.
Index of sociology articles. 1800s: Martineau · Tocqueville · Marx · Spencer · Le Bon · Ward · Pareto · Tönnies · Veblen · Simmel · Durkheim · Addams · Mead · Weber · Du Bois · Mannheim · Elias This is an index of sociology articles. For a shorter list, see List of basic sociology topics.
The Narrative (album). The Narrative is the debut studio album from the Narrative, released on July 27, 2010, through The Record Collective. The album was produced by Bryan Russell at RedWire Audio. I think one of the nice things about how Suzie and I work when we write is that we just write what comes out. Were not looking to sound like anything or anyone else. We might say, Hey, this part reminds me of this song. Maybe we can take it in that sort of a direction and itd be cool, but we never start out trying to write a song like one that has already been written. In 2008, The Narrative released their debut EP Just Say Yes. The EP received a successful promotion on MTV and MySpace. Recordings of The Narrative began in 2009 while they performing at concerts and especially SXSW and CMJ showcases. The Narrative received a chance to feature the national campaign launched for Propellerhead called Record, used on its recordings. The album was produced by previous producer Bryan Russell.[2] Originally, the album featured 15 songs, including Magazines and Like a Prayer. Magazines was fused with Starving for Attention, and Like a Prayer was never finished and recorded, being out of the track listing. The Narrative was officially released on July 27, 2010. After its release, the album was featured in the front page of Myspace U.S and PureVolume.com declaring them one of the Top Unsigned Bands of 2010.[3]
Autobiography. An autobiography,[a] sometimes informally called an autobio, is a self-written account of ones own life, providing a personal narrative that reflects on the authors experiences, memories, and insights. This genre allows individuals to share their unique perspectives and stories, offering readers a glimpse into the authors personal journey and the historical or cultural context in which they lived. The term autobiography was first used in 1797, but the practice of writing about ones life dates back to antiquity. Early examples include Saint Augustines Confessions (c. 400), which is considered one of the first Western autobiographies. Unlike biographies, which are written by someone else, autobiographies are based on the authors memory and personal interpretation of events, making them inherently subjective. This subjectivity can sometimes lead to inaccuracies or embellishments, as the author may recall events differently or choose to present them in a certain light. Autobiographies can take various forms, including memoirs, spiritual autobiographies, and fictional autobiographies. Memoirs typically focus on specific memories or themes from the authors life, rather than providing a comprehensive account. Spiritual autobiographies, such as Augustines Confessions, detail the authors religious journey and spiritual growth. Fictional autobiographies, on the other hand, are novels written in the first person, presenting a fictional characters life as if it were an autobiography. Throughout history, autobiographies have served different purposes, from self-reflection and justification to historical documentation and personal expression. They have evolved with literary trends and societal changes, reflecting the cultural and historical contexts of their times. Autobiographies remain a popular and accessible form of literature in the 21st century, allowing individuals from all walks of life to share their stories and experiences with a wider audience.
History of sociology. 1800s: Martineau · Tocqueville · Marx · Spencer · Le Bon · Ward · Pareto · Tönnies · Veblen · Simmel · Durkheim · Addams · Mead · Weber · Du Bois · Mannheim · Elias Sociology as a scholarly discipline emerged, primarily out of Enlightenment thought, as a positivist science of society shortly after the French Revolution. Its genesis owed to various key movements in the philosophy of science and the philosophy of knowledge, arising in reaction to such issues as modernity, capitalism, urbanization, rationalization, secularization, colonization and imperialism.[1] During its nascent stages, within the late 19th century, sociological deliberations took particular interest in the emergence of the modern nation state, including its constituent institutions, units of socialization, and its means of surveillance. As such, an emphasis on the concept of modernity, rather than the Enlightenment, often distinguishes sociological discourse from that of classical political philosophy.[1] Likewise, social analysis in a broader sense has origins in the common stock of philosophy, therefore pre-dating the sociological field. Various quantitative social research techniques have become common tools for governments, businesses, and organizations, and have also found use in the other social sciences. Divorced from theoretical explanations of social dynamics, this has given social research a degree of autonomy from the discipline of sociology. Similarly, social science has come to be appropriated as an umbrella term to refer to various disciplines which study humans, interaction, society or culture.[2]
Discourse. 1800s: Martineau · Tocqueville · Marx · Spencer · Le Bon · Ward · Pareto · Tönnies · Veblen · Simmel · Durkheim · Addams · Mead · Weber · Du Bois · Mannheim · Elias Discourse is a generalization of the notion of a conversation to any form of communication.[1] Discourse is a major topic in social theory, with work spanning fields such as sociology, anthropology, continental philosophy, and discourse analysis. Following work by Michel Foucault, these fields view discourse as a system of thought, knowledge, or communication that constructs our world experience. Since control of discourse amounts to control of how the world is perceived, social theory often studies discourse as a window into power. Within theoretical linguistics, discourse is understood more narrowly as linguistic information exchange and was one of the major motivations for the framework of dynamic semantics. In these expressions, denotations are equated with their ability to update a discourse context. In the humanities and social sciences, discourse describes a formal way of thinking that can be expressed through language. Discourse is a social boundary that defines what statements can be said about a topic. Many definitions of discourse are primarily derived from the work of French philosopher Michel Foucault. In sociology, discourse is defined as any practice (found in a wide range of forms) by which individuals imbue reality with meaning.[2] Political science sees discourse as closely linked to politics[3][4] and policy making.[5] Likewise, different theories among various disciplines understand discourse as linked to power and state, insofar as the control of discourses is understood as a hold on reality itself (e.g. if a state controls the media, they control the truth). In essence, discourse is inescapable, since any use of language will have an effect on individual perspectives. In other words, the chosen discourse provides the vocabulary, expressions, or style needed to communicate. For example, two notably distinct discourses can be used about various guerrilla movements, describing them either as freedom fighters or terrorists. In psychology, discourses are embedded in different rhetorical genres and meta-genres that constrain and enable them—language talking about language. This is exemplified in the APAs Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, which tells of the terms that have to be used in speaking about mental health, thereby mediating meanings and dictating practices of professionals in psychology and psychiatry.[6]
Sociology. 1800s: Martineau · Tocqueville · Marx · Spencer · Le Bon · Ward · Pareto · Tönnies · Veblen · Simmel · Durkheim · Addams · Mead · Weber · Du Bois · Mannheim · Elias Sociology is the scientific study of human society that focuses on society, human social behavior, patterns of social relationships, social interaction, and aspects of culture associated with everyday life.[1][2][3] The term sociology was coined in the late 18th century to describe the scientific study of society.[4] Regarded as a part of both the social sciences and humanities, sociology uses various methods of empirical investigation and critical analysis[5]: 3–5 to develop a body of knowledge about social order and social change.[5]: 32–40 Sociological subject matter ranges from micro-level analyses of individual interaction and agency to macro-level analyses of social systems and social structure. Applied sociological research may be applied directly to social policy and welfare, whereas theoretical approaches may focus on the understanding of social processes and phenomenological method.[6] Traditional focuses of sociology include social stratification, social class, social mobility, religion, secularization, law, sexuality, gender, and deviance. Recent studies have added socio-technical aspects of the digital divide as a new focus.[7] Digital sociology examines the impact of digital technologies on social behavior and institutions, encompassing professional, analytical, critical, and public dimensions.[8] The internet has reshaped social networks and power relations, illustrating the growing importance of digital sociology.[9] As all spheres of human activity are affected by the interplay between social structure and individual agency, sociology has gradually expanded its focus to other subjects and institutions, such as health and the institution of medicine; economy; military; punishment and systems of control; the Internet; sociology of education; social capital; and the role of social activity in the development of scientific knowledge. The range of social scientific methods has also expanded, as social researchers draw upon a variety of qualitative and quantitative techniques. The linguistic and cultural turns of the mid-20th century, especially, have led to increasingly interpretative, hermeneutic, and philosophical approaches towards the analysis of society. Conversely, the turn of the 21st century has seen the rise of new analytically, mathematically, and computationally rigorous techniques, such as agent-based modelling and social network analysis.[10][11]
Soft rock. Soft rock (also known as light rock or mellow rock) is a form of rock music that originated in the late 1960s in the United States and the United Kingdom which smoothed over the edges of singer-songwriter and pop rock,[1] relying on simple, melodic songs with big, lush productions. Soft rock was prevalent on the radio throughout the 1970s and eventually metamorphosed into a form of the synthesized music of adult contemporary in the 1980s.[1] Softer sounds in rock music could be heard in mid-1960s songs, such as A Summer Song by Chad & Jeremy (1964) and Here, There and Everywhere[4] by the Beatles and I Love My Dog[5] by Cat Stevens, both from 1966. By 1968, hard rock had been established as a mainstream genre. From the end of the 1960s, it became common to divide mainstream rock music into soft and hard rock,[6] with both emerging as major radio formats in the US.[7] The Bee Gees were considered soft rock in the late 1960s.[8] Major artists of that time included America, Bread,[9][10] Carly Simon, Carole King, Cat Stevens and James Taylor.[11]
Political satire. Political satire is a type of satire that specializes in gaining entertainment from politics. Political satire can also act as a tool for advancing political arguments in conditions where political speech and dissent are banned. Political satire is usually distinguished from political protest or political dissent, as it does not necessarily carry an agenda nor seek to influence the political process. While occasionally it may, it more commonly aims simply to provide entertainment. By its very nature, it rarely offers a constructive view in itself; when it is used as part of protest or dissent, it tends to simply establish the error of matters rather than provide solutions.[1] Because of the exaggerated[2] manner of these parodies, satirical news shows can more effectively sway their audiences to believe specific ideas by overemphasizing the flaws of the critiqued subject.[3] This can be very harmful to the reputation of public figures or organizations since the satire frames them in a comical way.[4] Satire can be traced back throughout history; wherever organized government, or social categories have existed, so has satire.[5] The oldest example that has survived until today is Aristophanes. In his time, satire targeted top politicians, like Cleon,[6] and religion, at the time headed by Zeus. Satire and derision progressively attacked even the fundamental and most sacred facts of faith, leading to an increased doubt towards religion by the general population.[7] The Roman period, for example, gives us the satirical poems and epigrams of Martial. Cynic philosophers often engaged in political satire. Due to the lack of political freedom of speech in many ancient civilizations, covert satire is more common than overt satire in ancient literature of political liberalism. Historically, public opinion in the Athenian democracy was remarkably influenced by the political satire performed by the comic poets at the theatres.[8] Watching or reading satire has since ancient times been considered one of the best ways to understand a culture and a society.[9][10][11]
Experience. Experience refers to conscious events in general, more specifically to perceptions, or to the practical knowledge and familiarity that is produced by these processes. Understood as a conscious event in the widest sense, experience involves a subject to which various items are presented. In this sense, seeing a yellow bird on a branch presents the subject with the objects bird and branch, the relation between them and the property yellow. Unreal items may be included as well, which happens when experiencing hallucinations or dreams. When understood in a more restricted sense, only sensory consciousness counts as experience. In this sense, experience is usually identified with perception and contrasted with other types of conscious events, like thinking or imagining. In a slightly different sense, experience refers not to the conscious events themselves but to the practical knowledge and familiarity they produce. Hence, it is important that direct perceptual contact with the external world is the source of knowledge. So an experienced hiker is someone who has actually lived through many hikes, not someone who merely read many books about hiking. This is associated both with recurrent past acquaintance and the abilities learned through them. Many scholarly debates on the nature of experience focus on experience as a conscious event, either in the wide or the more restricted sense. One important topic in this field is the question of whether all experiences are intentional, i.e. are directed at objects different from themselves. Another debate focuses on the question of whether there are non-conceptual experiences and, if so, what role they could play in justifying beliefs. Some theorists claim that experiences are transparent, meaning that what an experience feels like only depends on the contents presented in this experience. Other theorists reject this claim by pointing out that what matters is not just what is presented but also how it is presented. A great variety of types of experiences is discussed in the academic literature. Perceptual experiences, for example, represent the external world through stimuli registered and transmitted by the senses. The experience of episodic memory, on the other hand, involves reliving a past event one experienced before. In imaginative experience, objects are presented without aiming to show how things actually are. The experience of thinking involves mental representations and the processing of information, in which ideas or propositions are entertained, judged or connected. Pleasure refers to experience that feels good. It is closely related to emotional experience, which has additionally evaluative, physiological and behavioral components. Moods are similar to emotions, with one key difference being that they lack a specific object found in emotions. Conscious desires involve the experience of wanting something. They play a central role in the experience of agency, in which intentions are formed, courses of action are planned, and decisions are taken and realized. Non-ordinary experience refers to rare experiences that significantly differ from the experience in the ordinary waking state, like religious experiences, out-of-body experiences or near-death experiences. Experience is discussed in various disciplines. Phenomenology is the science of the structure and contents of experience. It uses different methods, like epoché or eidetic variation. Sensory experience is of special interest to epistemology. An important traditional discussion in this field concerns whether all knowledge is based on sensory experience, as empiricists claim, or not, as rationalists contend. This is closely related to the role of experience in science, in which experience is said to act as a neutral arbiter between competing theories. In metaphysics, experience is involved in the mind–body problem and the hard problem of consciousness, both of which try to explain the relation between matter and experience. In psychology, some theorists hold that all concepts are learned from experience while others argue that some concepts are innate. According to the Merriam-Webster Dictionary, the definition of the term experience can be stated as a direct observation of or participation in events as a basis of knowledge.[1] The term experience is associated with a variety of closely related meanings, which is why various different definitions of it are found in the academic literature.[2] Experience is often understood as a conscious event. This is sometimes restricted to certain types of consciousness, like perception or sensation, through which the subject attains knowledge of the world.[3] But in a wider sense, experience includes other types of conscious events besides perception and sensation.[4][5] This is the case, for example, for the experience of thinking or the experience of dreaming.[6] In a different sense, experience refers not to conscious events themselves but to the knowledge and practical familiarity they bring with them.[3][7][8] According to this meaning, a person with job experience or an experienced hiker is someone who has a good practical familiarity in the respective field. In this sense, experience refers not to a conscious process but to the result of this process.[2]
Indie pop. Indie pop (also typeset as indie-pop or indiepop) is a music genre and subculture[2] that combines guitar pop with a DIY ethic[5] in opposition to the style and tone of mainstream pop music.[6] It originated from British post-punk[7] in the late 1970s and subsequently generated a thriving fanzine, label, and club and gig circuit. Compared to its counterpart, indie rock, the genre is more melodic, less abrasive, and relatively angst-free.[8] In later years, the definition of indie pop has bifurcated to also mean bands from unrelated DIY scenes/movements with pop leanings.[7] Subgenres include chamber pop and twee pop.[8] Indie pop is defined by its DIY ethos, upbeat melodies, and an overarching sense of authenticity. It primarily takes influences from post-punk, jangle pop, and its counterpart, indie rock. While sharing overarching similarities, indie pop is more melodic, simplistic, and accessible, eschewing the more abrasive and conventional aspects of indie rock.[2] Music journalist Nitsuh Abebe noted in Pitchfork that: Indie pop is not just indie that is pop. Not too many people realize this, or really care either way. But you can be sure indie pops fans know it. They have their own names for themselves ... the music they listen to ... their own canon of legendary bands ... and legendary labels ... their own pop stars ... their own zines ... websites ... mailing lists ... aesthetics ... festivals ... iconography ... fashion accessories ... and in-jokes ... in short, their own culture.[2] Music critic Simon Reynolds says that indie pop defines itself against charting pop.[6] Abebe explains:
Mockumentary. A mockumentary (a portmanteau of mock and documentary) is a type of film or television show depicting fictional events, but presented as a documentary.[1] Mockumentaries are often used to analyze or comment on current events and issues in a satirical way by using a fictional setting, or to parody the documentary form itself.[2] The term originated in the 1960s but was popularized in the mid-1990s when This Is Spinal Tap director Rob Reiner used it in interviews to describe that film.[3][4][5] While mockumentaries are comedic, pseudo-documentaries are their dramatic equivalents. However, pseudo-documentary should not be confused with docudrama, a fictional genre in which dramatic techniques are combined with documentary elements to depict real events. Nor should either of those be confused with docufiction, a genre in which documentaries are contaminated with fictional elements.[6] Mockumentaries are often presented as historical documentaries, with B roll and talking heads discussing past events, or as cinéma vérité pieces following people as they go through various events. Examples emerged during the 1950s when archival film footage became available.[2] A very early example was a short piece on the Swiss spaghetti harvest that appeared as an April Fools prank on the British television program Panorama in 1957.[citation needed] Mockumentaries can be partly or wholly improvised.
Biographical film. A biographical film or biopic (/ˈbaɪoʊˌpɪk/)[1] is a film that dramatizes the life of an actual person or group of people. Such films show the life of a historical person and the central characters real name is used.[2] They differ from docudrama films and historical drama films in that they attempt to comprehensively tell a single persons life story or at least the most historically important years of their lives.[3] Biopic scholars include George F. Custen of the College of Staten Island and Dennis P. Bingham of Indiana University–Purdue University Indianapolis. Custen, in Bio/Pics: How Hollywood Constructed Public History (1992), regards the genre as having died with the Hollywood studio era, and in particular, Darryl F. Zanuck.[4] On the other hand, Binghams 2010 study Whose Lives Are They Anyway? The Biopic as Contemporary Film Genre[5] shows how it perpetuates as a codified genre using many of the same tropes used in the studio era that has followed a similar trajectory as that shown by Rick Altman in his study, Film/Genre.[6] Bingham also addresses the male biopic and the female biopic as distinct genres from each other, the former generally dealing with great accomplishments, the latter generally dealing with female victimization. Ellen Cheshires Bio-Pics: a life in pictures (2014) examines British/American films from the 1990s and 2000s. Each chapter reviews key films linked by profession and concludes with further viewing list.[7] Christopher Robé has also written on the gender norms that underlie the biopic in his article, Taking Hollywood Back in the 2009 issue of Cinema Journal.[8] Roger Ebert defended The Hurricane and distortions in biographical films in general, stating those who seek the truth about a man from the film of his life might as well seek it from his loving grandmother. ... The Hurricane is not a documentary but a parable.[9] Casting can be controversial for biographical films. Casting is often a balance between similarity in looks and ability to portray the characteristics of the person. Anthony Hopkins felt that he should not have played Richard Nixon in Nixon because of a lack of resemblance between the two.[citation needed] The casting of John Wayne as Genghis Khan in The Conqueror was objected to because of the American Wayne being cast as the Mongol warlord. Egyptian critics criticized the casting of Louis Gossett Jr., an African American actor, as Egyptian president Anwar Sadat in the 1983 TV miniseries Sadat.[10] Also, some objected to the casting of Jennifer Lopez in Selena because she is a New York City native of Puerto Rican descent while Selena was Mexican American.[11] Because the figures portrayed are actual people, whose actions and characteristics are known to the public (or at least historically documented), biopic roles are considered some of the most demanding of actors and actresses.[citation needed] Warren Beatty, Faye Dunaway, Ben Kingsley, Johnny Depp, Jim Carrey, Jamie Foxx, Robert Downey Jr., Brad Pitt, Emma Thompson, Tom Hanks, Eddie Redmayne, and Cillian Murphy all gained new-found respect as dramatic actors after starring in biopics:[citation needed] Beatty and Dunaway as Clyde Barrow and Bonnie Parker in Bonnie and Clyde (1967), Kingsley as Mahatma Gandhi in Gandhi (1982), Depp as Ed Wood in Ed Wood (1994), Carrey as Andy Kaufman in Man on the Moon (1999), Downey as Charlie Chaplin in Chaplin (1992) and as Lewis Strauss in Oppenheimer (2023), Foxx as Ray Charles in Ray (2004), Thompson and Hanks as P. L. Travers and Walt Disney in Saving Mr. Banks (2013), Redmayne as Stephen Hawking in The Theory of Everything (2014), and Murphy as J. Robert Oppenheimer in Oppenheimer (2023).
Satires (Horace). The Satires (Latin: Saturae or Sermones) is a collection of satirical poems written in Latin dactylic hexameters by the Roman poet Horace. Published probably in 35 BC and at the latest, by 33 BC,[1][2] the first book of Satires represents Horaces first published work. It established him as one of the great poetic talents of the Augustan Age.[citation needed] The second book was published in 30 BC as a sequel.[3] In the first book of his Sermones (Latin for conversations) or Saturae (Latin for miscellaneous poems), Horace combines Greek philosophy with Roman good sense to convince his readers of the futility and silliness of their ambitions and desires. As an alternative, he proposes a life that is based on the Greek philosophical ideals of autarkeia (Greek for inner self-sufficiency) and metriotes (Greek for moderation or sticking to the Just Mean).[4] In 1.6.110–131, Horace illustrates what he means by describing a typical day in his own simple, but contented life. The second book also addresses the fundamental question of Greek Hellenistic philosophy, the search for a happy and contented life. In contrast to book I, however, many of this books poems are dialogues in which the poet allows a series of pseudo-philosophers, such as the bankrupt art-dealer turned Stoic philosopher Damasippus, the peasant Ofellus, the mythical seer Teiresias, and the poets own slave, Davus, to espouse their philosophy of life, in satiric contrast to that of the narrator.[5] Although the Satires are sometimes considered to be inferior to the Odes, they have been received positively in recent decades.[6] In the Middle Ages, they were very popular and quoted more frequently than the Odes.
Religious satire. Religious satire is a form of satire that refers to religious beliefs and can take the form of texts, plays, films, and parody.[6] From the earliest times, at least since the plays of Aristophanes, religion has been one of the three primary topics of literary satire, along with politics and sex.[7][8][9] Satire which targets the clergy is a type of political satire, while religious satire is that which targets religious beliefs.[6] Religious satire is also sometimes called philosophical satire, and is thought to be the result of agnosticism or atheism. Notable works of religious satire surfaced during the Renaissance, with works by Geoffrey Chaucer, Erasmus and Albrecht Dürer. Religious satire has been criticised and at times censored to avoid offence, for example the film Life of Brian was initially banned in Ireland, Norway, some states of the US, and some towns and councils of the United Kingdom. This potential for censorship often leads to debates on the issue of freedom of speech such as in the case of the Religious Hatred Bill in January 2006. Critics of the original version of the Bill (such as comedian Rowan Atkinson) feared that satirists could be prosecuted. Religious satire has been criticised by those who feel that sincerely held religious views should not be subject to ridicule. In some cases religious satire has been censored – for example, Molières play Tartuffe was banned in 1664. The film Life of Brian was initially banned in Ireland, Norway, some states of the US, and some towns and councils of the United Kingdom.[18] In an interesting case of life mirroring art, activist groups who protested the film during its release bore striking similarities to some bands of religious zealots within the film itself.[19] Like much religious satire, the intent of the film has been misinterpreted and distorted by protesters. According to the Pythons, Life of Brian is not a critique of religion so much as an indictment of the hysteria and bureaucratic excess that often surrounds it.[20]
Satires (Juvenal). The Satires (Latin: Saturae) are a collection of satirical poems by the Latin author Juvenal written between 100–127 A.D. The Satires address perceived threats to society, such as socially ascendant foreigners, infidelity, and the extreme excesses of the Roman aristocracy. Juvenals audience was highly educated, and his dense poems are laced with historical and mythological allusions. The first book of Satires probably dates to 100 AD.[1]: 226 The fifth book likely dates to a point after 127, because of a reference to the Roman consul Lucius Aemilius Juncus in Satire 15. Between these two books, Juvenal wrote seven additional satires that are organized in three books. Satire 6 was written shortly after the first book and serves as a companion piece.[2]: 1f [3]: 284 The Roman satire genre featured a wide-ranging discussion of social mores in dactylic hexameter. Quintilian noted how many genres Rome borrowed from Greece but concluded, Satire, on the other hand, is all our own.[4] The other great satirist of Rome was Horace. John Dryden summed up the difference in their approach, Horace meant to make his reader laugh...Juvenal always intends to move your indignation.[5]: I.97f
Society. A society (/səˈsaɪəti/) is a group of individuals involved in persistent social interaction or a large social group sharing the same spatial or social territory, typically subject to the same political authority and dominant cultural expectations. Societies are characterized by patterns of relationships (social relations) between individuals who share a distinctive culture and institutions; a given society may be described as the sum total of such relationships among its constituent members. Human social structures are complex and highly cooperative, featuring the specialization of labor via social roles. Societies construct roles and other patterns of behavior by deeming certain actions or concepts acceptable or unacceptable—these expectations around behavior within a given society are known as societal norms. So far as it is collaborative, a society can enable its members to benefit in ways that would otherwise be difficult on an individual basis. Societies vary based on level of technology and type of economic activity. Larger societies with larger food surpluses often exhibit stratification or dominance patterns. Societies can have many different forms of government, various ways of understanding kinship, and different gender roles. Human behavior varies immensely between different societies; humans shape society, but society in turn shapes human beings. The term society often refers to a large group of people in an ordered community, in a country or several similar countries, or the state of being with other people, as in they lived in medieval society.[1] The term dates back to at least 1513 and comes from the 12th-century French societe (modern French société) meaning company.[2] Societe was in turn derived from the Latin word societas (fellowship, alliance, association), which in turn was derived from the noun socius (comrade, friend, ally).[2]
Editor-in-chief. An editor-in-chief (EIC), also known as lead editor, chief editor, executive editor, or simply editor is a publications editorial leader who has final responsibility for its operations and policies.[1][2][3] The editor-in-chief heads all departments of the organization and is held accountable for delegating tasks to staff members and managing them. The term is often used at newspapers, magazines, yearbooks, and television news programs. The editor-in-chief is commonly the link between the publisher or proprietor and the editorial staff. Typical responsibilities of editors-in-chief include:[1] The term is also applied to academic journals, where the editor-in-chief gives the ultimate decision whether a submitted manuscript will be published. This decision is made by the editor-in-chief after seeking input from reviewers selected on the basis of relevant expertise. For larger journals, the decision is often upon the recommendation of one of several associate editors who each have responsibility for a fraction of the submitted manuscripts.[8][9]
Satyr. In Greek mythology, a satyr[a] (Ancient Greek: σάτυρος, romanized: sátyros, pronounced [sátyros]), also known as a silenus[b] or silenos (Ancient Greek: σειληνός, romanized: seilēnós [seːlɛːnós]), and sileni (plural), is a male nature spirit with ears and a tail resembling those of a horse, as well as a permanent, exaggerated erection. Early artistic representations sometimes include horse-like legs, but, by the sixth century BC, they were more often represented with human legs.[4] Comically hideous, they have mane-like hair, bestial faces, and snub noses and they always are shown naked. Satyrs were characterized by their ribaldry and were known as lovers of wine, music, dancing, and women. They were companions of the god Dionysus and were believed to inhabit remote locales, such as woodlands, mountains, and pastures. They often attempted to seduce or rape nymphs and mortal women alike, usually with little success. They are sometimes shown masturbating or engaging in bestiality. In classical Athens, satyrs made up the chorus in a genre of play known as a satyr play, which was a parody of tragedy and known for its bawdy and obscene humor. The only complete surviving play of this genre is Cyclops by Euripides, although a significant portion of Sophocless Ichneutae has also survived. In mythology, the satyr Marsyas is said to have challenged the god Apollo to a musical contest and been flayed alive for his hubris. Although superficially ridiculous, satyrs were also thought to possess useful knowledge, if they could be coaxed into revealing it. The satyr Silenus was the tutor of the young Dionysus and a story from Ionia told of a silenos who gave sound advice when captured. Over the course of Greek history, satyrs gradually became portrayed as more human and less bestial. They also began to acquire goat-like characteristics in some depictions as a result of conflation with the Pans, plural forms of the god Pan with the legs and horns of goats. The Romans identified satyrs with their native nature spirits, fauns. Eventually the distinction between the two was lost entirely. Since the Renaissance, satyrs have been most often represented with the legs and horns of goats. Representations of satyrs cavorting with nymphs have been common in western art, with many famous artists creating works on the theme. Since the beginning of the twentieth century, satyrs have generally lost much of their characteristic obscenity, becoming more tame and domestic figures. They commonly appear in works of fantasy and childrens literature, in which they are most often referred to as fauns. The etymology of the term satyr (Ancient Greek: σάτυρος, romanized: sátyros) is unclear, and several different etymologies have been proposed for it,[5] including a possible Pre-Greek origin.[6] Some scholars have linked the second part of name to the root of the Greek word θηρίον, thēríon, meaning wild animal.[5] This proposal may be supported by the fact that at one point Euripides refers to satyrs as theres.[5] Another proposed etymology derives the name from an ancient Peloponnesian word meaning the full ones, alluding to their permanent state of sexual arousal.[5] Eric Partridge suggested that the name may be related to the root sat-, meaning to sow, which has also been proposed as the root of the name of the Roman god Saturn.[5] Satyrs are usually indistinguishable from sileni, whose iconography is virtually identical.[7][8][9] According to Brewers Dictionary of Phrase and Fable, the name satyr is sometimes derogatorily applied to a brutish or lustful man.[10] The term satyriasis refers to a medical condition in males characterized by excessive sexual desire.[10][11] It is the male equivalent of nymphomania.[11]
Long Island. Long Island is a densely populated continental island in southeastern New York state, extending into the Atlantic Ocean. It constitutes a significant share of the New York metropolitan area in both population and land area. The island extends from New York Harbor 118 miles (190 km) eastward into the ocean with a maximum north–south width of 23 miles (37 km).[2][3] With a land area of 1,401 square miles (3,630 km2), it is the largest island in the contiguous United States.[4] Long Island is divided among four counties, with Kings (Brooklyn), Queens, and Nassau counties occupying its western third and Suffolk County its eastern two-thirds. To what extent Brooklyn and Queens are considered with Long Island is a matter of debate. Geographically, both Kings and Queens county are located on the Island, but some argue they are culturally separate from Long Island.[5] Long Island may refer both to the main island and the surrounding outer barrier islands. To its west, Long Island is separated from Manhattan Island and the Bronx by the East River tidal estuary. North of the island is Long Island Sound, across which lie Westchester County, New York, and the state of Connecticut. Across the Block Island Sound to the northeast is the state of Rhode Island. Block Island, which is part of Rhode Island, and numerous smaller islands extend farther into the Atlantic Ocean. To the extreme southwest, Long Island, at Brooklyn, is separated from Staten Island and the state of New Jersey by Upper New York Bay, The Narrows, and Lower New York Bay. With a population of 8,063,232 residents as of the 2020 U.S. census, Long Island constitutes 40% of the states population.[6][7][8][9][10] Long Island is the most populous island in any U.S. state or territory, the third-most populous island in the Americas after Hispaniola and Cuba, and the 18th-most populous island in the world ahead of Ireland, Jamaica, and Hokkaidō. Its population density is 5,859.5 inhabitants per square mile (2,262.4/km2). Long Island is culturally and ethnically diverse, featuring some of the wealthiest and most expensive neighborhoods in the world near the shorelines, as well as a variety of working-class areas in all four counties. As of 2022, Kings, Queens, Nassau, and Suffolk counties collectively had a gross domestic product of approximately $600 billion.[11] Median household income on the island significantly exceeds $100,000, and the median home price is approximately $600,000, with Nassau County approximating $700,000. Among residents over the age of 25, 42.6% hold a college degree or higher educational degree.[12] Unemployment on Long Island stays consistently below 4%. Biotechnology companies, engineering, and scientific research play a significant role in Long Islands economy,[13] including research facilities at Brookhaven National Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Stony Brook University, New York Institute of Technology, Plum Island Animal Disease Center, the New York University Tandon School of Engineering, the Zucker School of Medicine, and the Feinstein Institutes for Medical Research.
Outline of academic disciplines. An academic discipline or field of study is a branch of study, taught and researched as part of higher education. A scholars discipline is commonly defined by the university faculties and learned societies to which they belong and the academic journals in which they publish research. Disciplines vary between well-established ones in almost all universities with well-defined rosters of journals and conferences and nascent ones supported by only a few universities and publications. A discipline may have branches, which are often called sub-disciplines. The following outline provides an overview of and topical guide to academic disciplines. In each case, an entry at the highest level of the hierarchy (e.g., Humanities) is a group of broadly similar disciplines; an entry at the next highest level (e.g., Music) is a discipline having some degree of autonomy and being the fundamental identity felt by its scholars. Lower levels of the hierarchy are sub-disciplines that do generally not have any role in the tite of the universitys governance. Also regarded as a Social science Linguistics listed in Social science
Henry Mayhew. Henry Mayhew (25 November 1812 – 25 July 1887) was an English journalist, playwright, and advocate of reform. He was one of the co-founders of the satirical magazine Punch in 1841, and was the magazines joint editor, with Mark Lemon, in its early days. He is also known for his work as a social researcher, publishing an extensive series of newspaper articles in the Morning Chronicle that was later compiled into the three-volume book London Labour and the London Poor (1851), a groundbreaking and influential survey of the citys poor. He was born in London, the thirteenth of 17 children to Joshua Mayhew. He was educated at Westminster School before running away from his studies to the sea.[1] He then served with the East India Company as a midshipman on a ship bound for Calcutta. He returned after several years, in 1829, becoming a trainee lawyer in Wales.[2] He left this career to become a freelance journalist. He contributed to The Thief, a readers digest, followed quickly by founding a weekly comic journal – Figaro in London (1831–1839). Mayhew reputedly fled his creditors and holed up at the Erwood Inn, a small public house in the village of Erwood, south of Builth Wells in Wales. In 1835, Mayhew found himself in a state of debt and, along with a fellow writer, escaped to Paris to avoid his creditors.[2] He spent his time writing and in the company of other writers including William Thackeray and Douglas Jerrold. Mayhew spent over 10 years in Paris, returning to England in the 1850s, whereupon he was involved in several literary adventures, mostly the writing of plays. Two of his plays – The Wandering Minstrel (1834) and But, However (1842) – were successful, whilst his early work Figaro in London was less successful.[3] On 17 July 1841, Mayhew cofounded Punch magazine. At its founding, the magazine was jointly edited by Mayhew and Mark Lemon. The two men hired a group of writers and illustrators to aid them. These included Douglas Jerrold, Angus Reach, John Leech, Richard Doyle, and Shirley Brooks. Initially, the magazine was subtitled The London Charivari, referencing the satirical humour magazine published in France under the title Le Charivari (a work Mayhew read often whilst in Paris). Reflecting their satirical and humorous intent, the two editors took for their name and masthead the anarchic glove puppet Mr. Punch.
Punch. Punch commonly refers to: Punch may also refer to:
Puck (magazine). Puck was the first successful humor magazine in the United States of colorful cartoons, caricatures and political satire of the issues of the day. It was founded in 1876 as a German-language publication by Joseph Keppler, an Austrian immigrant cartoonist.[1] Pucks first English-language edition was published in 1877, covering issues like New York Citys Tammany Hall, presidential politics, and social issues of the late 19th century to the early 20th century. Puckish means childishly mischievous. This led Shakespeares Puck character (from A Midsummer Nights Dream) to be recast as a charming near-naked boy and used as the title of the magazine. Puck was the first magazine to carry illustrated advertising and the first to successfully adopt full-color lithography printing for a weekly publication.[2] Puck was published from 1876 until 1918.[1][3] After working with Leslies Illustrated Weekly in New York – a well-established magazine at the time – Keppler created a satirical magazine called Puck,. The weekly magazine was founded by Keppler in St. Louis, Missouri. Keppler had begun publishing German-language periodicals in 1869, though they failed. In 1871,[4] he attempted another cartoon weekly, Puck, which lasted until August 1872.[5] Then in 1876, he again began publishing Puck in German. Interested backers wanted Puck in English so he published it in both languages for 15 years until he ceased the German version.[3] In 1877, after gaining wide support for an English version of Puck, Keppler published its first issue in English. The first English edition was 16 pages long and was sold for 16 cents.[3]
Satire. Satire is a genre of the visual, literary, and performing arts, usually in the form of fiction and less frequently non-fiction, in which vices, follies, abuses, and shortcomings are held up to ridicule, often with the intent of exposing or shaming the perceived flaws of individuals, corporations, government, or society itself into improvement.[1] Although satire is usually meant to be humorous, its greater purpose is often constructive social criticism, using wit to draw attention to both particular and wider issues in society. Satire may also poke fun at popular themes in art and film. A prominent feature of satire is strong irony or sarcasm—in satire, irony is militant, according to literary critic Northrop Frye—[2] but parody, burlesque, exaggeration,[3] juxtaposition, comparison, analogy, and double entendre are all frequently used in satirical speech and writing. This militant irony or sarcasm often professes to approve of (or at least accept as natural) the very things the satirist wishes to question. Satire is found in many artistic forms of expression, including internet memes, literature, plays, commentary, music, film and television shows, and media such as lyrics. The word satire comes from the Latin word satur and the subsequent phrase lanx satura. Satur meant full, but the juxtaposition with lanx shifted the meaning to miscellany or medley: the expression lanx satura literally means a full dish of various kinds of fruits.[4] The use of the word lanx in this phrase, however, is disputed by B.L. Ullman.[5]
Counties of Albania. Counties (Albanian: qarqe or qarqet), also sometimes known as prefectures (prefektura or prefekturat), are the first-level administrative subdivisions of Albania, replacing the earlier districts. Since 2000, there have been 12 counties. Since 2015, they have been divided into 61 municipalities, 373 communes, and 2,972 villages. Since its Declaration of Independence from the Ottoman Empire in 1912, Albania has reorganized its domestic administrative divisions 21 times. The primary division until mid-2000 was into districts (rrathë or rrathët), whose number, size, and importance varied over time.[1] They were organized into groups comprising 12 counties beginning in 1991.[1] The current status of the counties[2] is based on the 1998 constitution and was implemented on 31 July 2000.[3] The former districts were abolished entirely and replaced with urban municipalities (bashki or bashkitë) and rural municipalities (komuna or komunat), which further oversaw villages (fshatra or fshatrat) in the countryside. This was revised in 2014, so that the 2015 local elections divided the counties into municipalities (bashki or bashkitë) at the regional level and administrative units (njësi administrative or njësitë administrative) for local government.
Ebenezer Landells. Ebenezer Landells (Newcastle 13 April 1808 – 1 October 1860 London) was a British wood-engraver, illustrator, and magazine proprietor. Born in Newcastle, Landells was apprenticed to the wood-engraver Thomas Bewick. In 1829 he moved to London,[1] and before long managed to start his own engraving workshop. After attempting a short-lived fashion journal, Cosmorama, he joined with the journalist Henry Mayhew and the printer William Last to found Punch in 1841. Initial difficulties forced Landells to sell his one-third share to the publishers Bradbury & Evans; after the new owners replaced Landells with Joseph Swain as chief engraver, Landells responded with a pamphlet entitled A Word with Punch (1847). Herbert Ingram consulted Landells about launching his weekly Illustrated London News in 1842: after a commission to sketch Queen Victorias first visit to Scotland that year, Landells became the papers first artistic correspondent and continued to supply prints for the newspaper until his death. Landells was also involved in several other magazines: the less successful Illuminated Magazine (1843–45), Great Gun (1844, in imitation of Punch), the Ladys Newspaper (1847–63, then incorporated into the Queen), Diogenes (1853, another attempt to imitate Punch), and the Illustrated Inventor. Responding to the growth in the childrens book market, he wrote and illustrated several books for children: Boys Own Toy-Maker (1858), Girls Own Toy-Maker (1859), and Illustrated Paper Model Maker (1860).
Lezhë County. Lezhë County (Albanian: Qarku i Lezhës) is one of the 12 counties of Albania. The population as of 2021 was 120,678,[3] in an area of 1,620 km².[4] Its capital is the city Lezhë. Until 2000, Lezhë County was subdivided into three districts: Kurbin, Lezhë, and Mirditë. Since the 2015 local government reform, the county consists of the following 3 municipalities: Kurbin, Lezhë and Mirditë.[5] Before 2015, it consisted of the following 21 municipalities: The municipalities consist of about 175 towns and villages in total. See Villages of Lezhë County for a structured list. As of the 2023 census, this county has 99,384 inhabitants. Ethnic groups in the county as of the 2011 census include:[4] Between the 2011 and 2023 censuses in Lezhë, the religious landscape showed some shifts. The Sunni Muslim population increased its share from 14.8% to 17.5%, and Bektashi Muslims also saw a rise from 0.3% to 0.6%. The Catholic Christian population, which remained the dominant group, increased from 72.3% to 74.4%. Orthodox Christians rose from 0.1% to 0.4%. Evangelical Christians increased from 0.0% to 0.2%.
Fukuoka Tower. Fukuoka Tower (福岡タワー, Fukuoka Tawā) is a 234-metre (768 ft) tall tower located in the Momochihama area of Fukuoka, Japan. It is the tallest seaside tower in Japan. The highest observation deck at 123 metres has a 360° view of the surrounding area, being most visited at sunset.[1] Fukuoka Tower was finished in 1989, taking a total of 14 months to build at a cost of ¥6 billion (roughly equivalent US$45 million in 1989). It was designed by Nikken Sekkei and constructed on a reclaimed land out of Hakata Bay.[2] Fukuoka Tower has a triangular cross-section which is covered with 8000 half-mirrors, giving it the appearance of a skyscraper.[3] Because of this, it has been given the nickname Mirror Sail. The half-mirrors reflect the sky when viewed from outside the structure, while also allowing visitors to see outside when riding elevators to the top. The space between the base and the observation decks is hollow and thus unoccupied. There are three observation decks: one at 116 metres, a café/lounge deck at 120 metres, and the highest at 123 metres above the ground. Above this level rises a 111-metre television mast. The underground weight of Fukuoka Tower is 25,000 tons. Its weight above ground, by contrast, is only 3,500 tons. The tower is designed to withstand magnitude 7 earthquakes and wind speeds up to 65 m/s (145 miles per hour (233 km/h)). The strongest recorded earthquake in the area has been magnitude 6 and the strongest winds 49 m/s (110 miles per hour (180 km/h)). The tower is located at 2-3-26 Momochihama, Sawara-ku, Fukuoka.[2] The tower appears in the Japanese film Godzilla vs. SpaceGodzilla (1994). In a battle between the titular monsters, SpaceGodzilla uses the tower to absorb energy before Godzilla destroys the tower after the foundation is weakened by the mech MOGUERA.[4] 33°35′35.7″N 130°21′5.3″E / 33.593250°N 130.351472°E / 33.593250; 130.351472
Villages of Albania. Albania has 2,972 villages (Albanian: fshatra or fshatrat) as of 2016.[1] Albania has reformed its domestic administrative divisions 21 times since its Declaration of Independence from the Ottoman Empire in 1912. Following the most recent reorganization, enacted in 2014 and carried out in June 2015, Albanias 12 counties were entirely divided into 61 municipalities for regional government and 373 administrative units for local government. These administrative units, communes, and towns now oversee most government at the village level. The Albanian Institute of Statistics stopped providing comprehensive population data for villages after the 1989 census, and as of now the administrative units comprise the lowest official level of division in Albania.
Devil. A devil is the mythical personification of evil as it is conceived in various cultures and religious traditions.[1] It is seen as the objectification of a hostile and destructive force.[2] Jeffrey Burton Russell states that the different conceptions of the devil can be summed up as 1) a principle of evil independent from God, 2) an aspect of God, 3) a created being turning evil (a fallen angel) or 4) a symbol of human evil.[3]: 23 Each tradition, culture, and religion with a devil in its mythos offers a different lens on manifestations of evil.[4] The history of these perspectives intertwines with theology, mythology, psychiatry, art, and literature, developing independently within each of the traditions.[5] It occurs historically in many contexts and cultures, and is given many different names—Satan (Judaism), Lucifer (Christianity), Beelzebub (Judeo-Christian), Mephistopheles (German), Iblis (Islam)—and attributes: it is portrayed as blue, black, or red; it is portrayed as having horns on its head, and without horns, and so on.[6][7] The Modern English word devil derives from the Middle English devel, from the Old English dēofol, that in turn represents an early Germanic borrowing of the Latin diabolus. This in turn was borrowed from the Greek διάβολος diábolos, slanderer,[8] from διαβάλλειν diabállein, to slander from διά diá, across, through and βάλλειν bállein, to hurl, probably akin to the Sanskrit gurate, he lifts up.[9] In his book The Devil: Perceptions of Evil from Antiquity to Primitive Christianity, Jeffrey Burton Russell discusses various meanings and difficulties that are encountered when using the term devil. He does not claim to define the word in a general sense, but he describes the limited use that he intends for the word in his book—limited in order to minimize this difficulty and for the sake of clarity. In this book Russell uses the word devil as the personification of evil found in a variety of cultures, as opposed to the word Satan, which he reserves specifically for the figure in the Abrahamic religions.[10]
Kyushu. Kyūshū (九州, Kyūshū; pronounced [kʲɯꜜː.ɕɯː] ⓘ, lit. Nine Provinces) is the third-largest and most southerly of Japans four main islands.[3][4] In the past, it has been known as Kyūkoku (九国, Nine Countries), Chinzei (鎮西, West of the Pacified Area) and Tsukushi-no-shima (筑紫島, Island of Tsukushi). The historical regional name Saikaidō (西海道; lit. West Sea Circuit) referred to Kyushu and its surrounding islands. Kyushu has a land area of 36,782 square kilometres (14,202 sq mi) and a population of 14,311,224 in 2018.[5] There is a theory that Kyushu was in ancient times home to its own independent dynasty, where a unique, southern-influenced culture and tradition distinct from that of Honshu flourished.[6][7] In the 8th-century Taihō Code reforms, Dazaifu was established as a special administrative term for the region.[8] The island is mountainous, and Japans most active volcano, Mount Aso at 1,591 metres (5,220 ft), is on Kyūshū. There are many other signs of tectonic activity, including numerous areas of hot springs. The most famous of these are in Beppu, on the east shore, and around Mt. Aso in central Kyūshū. The island is separated from Honshu by the Kanmon Straits. Being the nearest island to the Asian continent,[9] historically it is the gateway to Japan.[10] The total area is 36,782.37 km2 (14,201.75 sq mi) which makes it the 37th largest island in the world.[1] It is slightly larger than Taiwans total area of 35,808 km2 (13,826 sq mi).[5] The highest elevation is 1791 meters (5876 feet) on Mount Kujū.[11]
Mizuho PayPay Dome Fukuoka. Mizuho PayPay Dome Fukuoka (みずほPayPayドーム福岡, Mizuho Peipei Dōmu Fukuoka), officially the Fukuoka Dome (福岡ドーム, Fukuoka Dōmu) is a domed baseball field located in Chūō-ku, Fukuoka, Japan. Home to the Fukuoka SoftBank Hawks, the 40,000 seat stadium was built in 1993 and was originally named Fukuoka Dome.[1][2] It is Japans first stadium built with a retractable roof, and was the only baseball stadium in Japan with one until the opening of Es Con Field Hokkaido in 2023. It is the largest primary home stadium in the Pacific League. Fukuoka Dome is the home stadium of Fukuoka SoftBank Hawks and, together with Hilton Fukuoka Sea Hawk Hotel, is part of the Hawks Town entertainment complex.[3] It is located near Momochi Beach, and a 15 minute walk from Tōjinmachi Station, a part of the Fukuoka City Subway system. In 2003 Colony Capital purchased the stadium with accompanying hotels from Daiei, in the process Colony assumed ¥60 billion in debts with the properties along with a ¥15 billion capital infusion for renovations.[4] After the sale of the stadiums primary tenant, the Fukuoka SoftBank Hawks, from supermarket chain Daiei to multinational technology investment company SoftBank on January 28, 2005, Yahoo! Japan, one of SoftBanks subsidiaries, acquired the stadiums naming rights, and thus renamed it Fukuoka Yahoo! Japan Dome (福岡Yahoo! JAPANドーム, Fukuoka Yafū Japan Dōmu) or abbreviated as Yahoo Dome (ヤフードーム, Yafū Dōmu).[3] At the same time, SoftBank agreed to lease the rights to the Fukuoka Dome for 4.8 billion yen per year for 20 years.[5] In 2006, the stadium received an upgrade to its mono-color main scoreboard Hawks Vision. Sharing the same nickname as its predecessor and measured at 10 m (32.76 ft) high and 53 m (173.86 ft) wide, it was one of the largest high-definition electronic scoreboards at the time, equivalent to a 2,123-inch wide-screen display. In 2010, with further addition of two 5.7 m (120.65 ft) × 33 m (108.27 ft) displays, the stadium boasted the largest total viewing area of HD display in all baseball stadia (total area 905.2sqm or 9,743.49sqft).[6]
Academic publishing. Academic publishing is the subfield of publishing which distributes academic research and scholarship. Most academic work is published in academic journal articles, books or theses. The part of academic written output that is not formally published but merely printed up or posted on the Internet is often called grey literature. Most scientific and scholarly journals, and many academic and scholarly books, though not all, are based on some form of peer review or editorial refereeing to qualify texts for publication. Peer review quality and selectivity standards vary greatly from journal to journal, publisher to publisher, and field to field. Most established academic disciplines have their own journals and other outlets for publication, although many academic journals are somewhat interdisciplinary, and publish work from several distinct fields or subfields. There is also a tendency for existing journals to divide into specialized sections as the field itself becomes more specialized. Along with the variation in review and publication procedures, the kinds of publications that are accepted as contributions to knowledge or research differ greatly among fields and subfields. In the sciences, the desire for statistically significant results leads to publication bias.[1] Academic publishing is undergoing major changes as it makes the transition from the print to the electronic format. Business models are different in the electronic environment. Since the early 1990s, licensing of electronic resources, particularly journals, has been very common. An important trend, particularly with respect to journals in the sciences, is open access via the Internet. In open access publishing, a journal article is made available free for all on the web by the publisher at the time of publication. Both open and closed journals are sometimes funded by the author paying an article processing charge, thereby shifting some fees from the reader to the researcher or their funder. Many open or closed journals fund their operations without such fees and others use them in predatory publishing. The Internet has facilitated open access self-archiving, in which authors themselves make a copy of their published articles available free for all on the web.[2][3] Some important results in mathematics have been published only on arXiv.[4][5][6] The Journal des sçavans (later spelled Journal des savants), established by Denis de Sallo, was the earliest academic journal published in Europe. Its content included obituaries of famous men, church history, and legal reports.[7] The first issue appeared as a twelve-page quarto pamphlet[8] on Monday, 5 January 1665,[9] shortly before the first appearance of the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, on 6 March 1665.[10]
Ohio State University. The Ohio State University (Ohio State or OSU) is a public land-grant research university in Columbus, Ohio, United States. A member of the University System of Ohio, it was founded in 1870. It is one of the largest universities by enrollment in the United States, with nearly 50,000 undergraduate students and nearly 15,000 graduate students. The university consists of sixteen colleges and offers over 400 degree programs at the undergraduate and graduate levels.[7] It is classified among R1: Doctoral Universities – Very high research activity. As of 2024,[update] the university has an endowment of $7.9 billion. Its athletic teams compete in NCAA Division I as the Ohio State Buckeyes as a member of the Big Ten Conference for the majority of fielded sports. It is a member of the Association of American Universities. Past and present alumni and faculty include 6 Nobel Prize laureates, 9 Rhodes Scholars, 7 Churchill Scholars, 1 Fields Medalist, 7 Pulitzer Prize winners, 64 Goldwater scholars, 1 Costa Rican president, 1 U.S. vice president, 7 U.S. senators, 15 U.S. representatives, and 104 Olympic medalists. The proposal of a manufacturing and agriculture university in central Ohio was initially met in the 1870s with hostility from the states agricultural interests, and with competition for resources from Ohio University, which was chartered by the Northwest Ordinance and Miami University.[8] Championed by the Republican governor Rutherford B. Hayes, the Ohio State University was founded in 1870 as a land-grant university under the Morrill Act of 1862 as the Ohio Agricultural and Mechanical College.[8]
Municipalities of Albania. Municipalities (Albanian: bashki or bashkitë) are the second-level administrative divisions of Albania, below the counties and above the communes. Since the most recent administrative reforms in 2014, Albania has 61 municipalities. Municipalities are considered the basic administrative division of Albania.[1] Since its Declaration of Independence from the Ottoman Empire in 1912, Albania has reorganized internal administration 21 times. From independence until the year 2000, regional government was organized into regions (rrethë) of varying numbers, size, and importance. They were consolidated into groups comprising 12 counties in 1991. Following the 1998 constitutional reforms, the 36 regions of the time were abolished entirely and replaced by the larger counties and two kinds of municipalities: urban municipalities (bashki) and rural ones (komuna).[2] In 2014, this was revised to reduce the number of urban municipalities to 61 and extended their jurisdiction over the surrounding countryside to create regional administrations,[3] while using the communes—renamed administrative units (njësitë administrative)—as a third-level division for local government. This first took effect in the 2015 local elections.
River mouth. A river mouth is where a river flows into a larger body of water, such as another river, a lake/reservoir, a bay/gulf, a sea, or an ocean.[1] At the river mouth, sediments are often deposited due to the slowing of the current, reducing the carrying capacity of the water.[1] The water from a river can enter the receiving body in a variety of different ways.[1] The motion of a river is influenced by the relative density of the river compared to the receiving water, the rotation of the Earth, and any ambient motion in the receiving water, such as tides or seiches.[2] If the river water has a higher density than the surface of the receiving water, the river water will plunge below the surface. The river water will then either form an underflow or an interflow within the lake. However, if the river water is lighter than the receiving water, as is typically the case when fresh river water flows into the sea, the river water will float along the surface of the receiving water as an overflow. Alongside these advective transports, inflowing water will also diffuse.[1] At the mouth of a river, the change in flow conditions can cause the river to drop any sediment it is carrying. This sediment deposition can generate a variety of landforms, such as deltas, sand bars, spits, and tie channels.[3] Landforms at the river mouth drastically alter the geomorphology and ecosystem. Along coasts, sand bars and similar landforms act as barriers, sheltering sensitive ecosystems that are enriched by nutrients deposited from the river.[4] However, the damming of rivers can starve the river of sand and nutrients, creating a deficit at the rivers mouth.[4] As river mouths are the site of large-scale sediment deposition and allow for easy travel and ports, many towns and cities are founded there. Many places in the United Kingdom take their names from their positions at the mouths of rivers, such as Plymouth (i.e. mouth of the Plym River), Sidmouth (i.e. mouth of the Sid River), and Great Yarmouth (i.e. mouth of the Yare River). In Celtic, the corresponding terms are Aber or Inver, from which come numerous place names such as Aberdeen, Abercrombie, and Abernethy, as well as Inverness, Inverkip, and Inveraray.
Devon. Devon (/ˈdɛvən/ DEV-ən; historically also known as Devonshire /-ʃɪər, -ʃər/ -⁠sheer, -⁠shər) is a ceremonial county in South West England. It is bordered by the Bristol Channel to the north, Somerset and Dorset to the east, the English Channel to the south, and Cornwall to the west. The city of Plymouth is the largest settlement, and the city of Exeter is the county town. The county has an area of 2,590 sq mi (6,700 km2) and a population of 1,194,166. The largest settlements after Plymouth (264,695) are the city of Exeter (130,709) and the seaside resorts of Torquay and Paignton, which have a combined population of 115,410.[6] They all are located along the south coast, which is the most populous part of the county; Barnstaple (31,275) and Tiverton (22,291) are the largest towns in the north and centre respectively. For local government purposes Devon comprises a non-metropolitan county, with eight districts, and the unitary authority areas of Plymouth and Torbay. Devon County Council and Torbay Council collaborate through a combined county authority. Devon has a varied geography. It contains Dartmoor and part of Exmoor, two upland moors which are the source of most of the countys rivers, including the Taw, Dart, and Exe. The longest river in the county is the Tamar, which forms most of the border with Cornwall and rises in Devons northwest hills. The southeast coast is part of the Jurassic Coast World Heritage Site, and characterised by tall cliffs which reveal the Triassic, Jurassic and Cretaceous geology of the region. The county gives its name to the Devonian geologic period, which includes the slates and sandstones of the north coast. Dartmoor and Exmoor have been designated national parks, and the county also contains, in whole or in part, five national landscapes. In the Iron Age, Roman and the Sub-Roman periods, the county was the home of the Dumnonii Celtic Britons. The Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain resulted in the partial assimilation of Dumnonia into the kingdom of Wessex in the eighth and ninth centuries, and the western boundary with Cornwall was set at the Tamar by king Æthelstan in 936.
Broadhembury. Broadhembury is a village and civil parish in the East Devon district of Devon, England, 5 miles (8 km) north-west of Honiton.[1] The civil parish includes the hamlets of Kerswell, Dulford, Crammer Barton, Colliton and Luton, all to the west of the village. According to the 2001 census the civil parish had a population of 654. Broadhembury is part of the electoral ward of Tale Vale. The total population of this ward at the 2011 Census was 2,514.[2] It is within the Blackdown Hills Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty. Broadhembury is set in the centre of a horseshoe of the hills of Hembury Fort and North Hill, which rise to 1000 feet and create a sheltered valley. Hembury Fort, a prehistoric hill fort dating from 3000 BC, was also used by the Romans.[1] After the departure of the Romans, this area of Devon was sparsely occupied by the Celtic people. In those years Hembury Fort was called Handria. With the arrival of the Saxons, little wattle churches were built and the villagers lived in little cells or wooden huts. The Saxons brought the plough and cultivated the holdings. At the time of the Norman conquest of England in 1066, the population density of Broadhembury was 9 per square mile. During the Black Death of 1364, the population was affected, with two priests dying of it.
English literature. English literature is a form of literature written in the English language from the English-speaking world. The English language has developed over more than 1,400 years.[1] The earliest forms of English, a set of Anglo-Frisian dialects brought to Great Britain by Anglo-Saxon settlers in the fifth century, are called Old English. Beowulf is the most famous work in Old English. Despite being set in Scandinavia, it has achieved national epic status in England. However, following the Norman Conquest of England in 1066, the written form of the Anglo-Saxon language became less common. Under the influence of the new aristocracy, French became the standard language of courts, parliament, and polite society.[2] The English spoken after the Normans came is known as Middle English. This form of English lasted until the 1470s, when the Chancery Standard (late Middle English), a London-based form of English, became widespread. Geoffrey Chaucer, author of The Canterbury Tales, was a significant figure developing the legitimacy of vernacular Middle English at a time when the dominant literary languages in England were still French and Latin. The invention of the printing press by Johannes Gutenberg in 1439 also helped to standardise the language, as did the King James Bible (1611),[3] and the Great Vowel Shift.[4] Poet and playwright William Shakespeare is widely regarded as the greatest writer in the English language and one of the worlds greatest dramatists.[5][6][7] His plays have been translated into every primary living language and are performed more often than those of any other playwright.[8] In the nineteenth century, Sir Walter Scotts historical romances inspired a generation of European painters, composers, and writers.[9] The English language spread throughout the world with the development of the British Empire between the late 16th and early 18th centuries. At its height, it was the largest empire in history.[10] By 1913, the British Empire held sway over 412 million people, 23% of the world population at the time.[11] During the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, these colonies and the US started to produce their significant literary traditions in English. Cumulatively, from 1907 to the present, writers from Great Britain, Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland, the US, and former British colonies have received the Nobel Prize in Literature for works in English: more than in any other language. Old English literature, or Anglo-Saxon literature, encompasses the surviving literature written in Old English in Anglo-Saxon England, in the period after the settlement of the Saxons and other Germanic tribes in England (Jutes and the Angles) c. 450, after the withdrawal of the Romans, and ending soon after the Norman Conquest in 1066.[12] These works include genres such as epic poetry, hagiography, sermons, Bible translations, legal works, chronicles and riddles.[13] In all there are about 400 surviving manuscripts from the period.[13]
River Otter, Devon. The River Otter is a river that rises in the Blackdown Hills just inside the county of Somerset, England near Otterford, then flows south through East Devon.[3] It enters the English Channel at the western end of Lyme Bay, part of the Jurassic Coast, a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The Permian and Triassic sandstone aquifer in the Otter Valley is one of Devons largest groundwater sources, supplying drinking water to 200,000 people. The rivers source is north of Otterford, where a stream feeds the Otterhead Lakes: ST225152 and then through Churchstanton before entering Devon. The river flows through a predominantly rural area, with small cattle, sheep and dairy farms. The largest town in the Otter Valley is Honiton. Tourism and leisure play important roles in the economy.[4] For much of its length, the river flows through two Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty (AONBs) – the Blackdown Hills National Landscape (to the north of Honiton) and East Devon National Landscape (to the south of Ottery St Mary). The river passes through or by Upottery, Rawridge, Monkton, Honiton, Alfington, Ottery St Mary, Tipton St John, Newton Poppleford and Otterton. It then reaches the Otter Estuary to the east of Budleigh Salterton.[2]
Quyi. Quyi (melodious art) and shuochang yishu (speaking and singing art) are umbrella terms for over 300 regional genres of traditional Chinese oral performing arts.[1] Quyi is distinguished from xiqu (Chinese opera) by its emphasis on narration, as opposed to acting, although they share many elements including the same traditional stories. Quyi artists generally wear no to little makeup. Musical instruments like drums, wooden clappers, pipa, yangqin, or sanxian are commonly seen in quyi, as are hand fans.[2] While the storytelling art concept has been around for centuries, the narrative art concept was mostly recognized in the 1920s. Only after 1949 with the founding of the Peoples Republic of China did the term quyi become widely used. Prior to this, it was just classified as shuochang yishu.[1] This is one of the art category that gained momentum since the New Culture Movement. With the exception of the Cultural Revolution period, a great number of stories written for this art are preserved.[1] The story is usually told by a small number of people. The most standard number is one or two, sometimes extending to four or more. Quyi is often accompanied by clappers, drums, or stringed instruments, with the presenter wearing costumes at times. Unlike Chinese operas which has a fixed style for costume, quyi costumes vary depending on the era of the story plot. Costumes range from dynastic period hanfu to the more modern qipao or even suits. The language used is usually associated with the spoken dialect of the local area. Sometimes it uses rhymed verse, sometimes in prose, and sometimes a combination. A lot of body movements may be used in the portrayal of the characters in the story. Each person may play multiple roles for multiple characters in the story.[1] It is also this local and regional feel for the art that some would classify it as Chinese folk art. Outside of mainland China, this entertainment form is also found in Taiwan.
A Folk Tale. A Folk Tale (Danish: Et Folkesagn) is a ballet in three acts, created in 1854 for the Royal Danish Ballet by the Danish ballet master and choreographer August Bournonville to the music of Johan Peter Emilius Hartmann and Niels W. Gade. The first performance took place on 20 March 1854. Set in the Middle Ages, the ballet tells the story of a changeling living among the trolls and elves. Bournonville declared the ballet The most complete and best of all my choreographic works.[1] At the beginning of the 1850s, Svend Grundtvig initiated a systematic recording of Danish folklore - the stories were told and written down in every little village in Denmark – but Bournonville did not credit Grundtvig as his source of inspiration, even though today Grundtvig is probably considered to be the person who made the most effort to preserve the wealth of Danish national folk tradition. Bournonville found his inspiration in a collection of national Danish songs (Nationalmelodier) published by the philologist R. Nyerup and the composer A.P. Berggren in J.M. Thieles collection of Danish folk legends (Danske Folkesagn) published in four volumes between 1818 and 1823. Bournonville also found inspiration in the tales collected by the Grimm brothers in Germany. The Romantic artists had a passion for the national and the past. The early part of the 19th century was a difficult time both politically and economically for Denmark, and this naturally generated a glorification of times past. The emergent bourgeoisie needed to consolidate its cultural status and found motifs for this in national folklore. The economic growth in a rapidly expanding Copenhagen had to some extent overshadowed spiritual development. Artists interpreted their contemporary society in a purely materialistic light. Oehlenschlägers poem about The Golden Horns (Guldhornene) is probably the most famous example of this issue but Hans Christian Andersens fairytale The Bell (Klokken) depicted the materialistic fixation of the period with humour, irony and gravity. In the chapter about A Folk Tale in My Theatre Life (Mit Teaterliv), Bournonville makes his attitude to the present and the past clear: he indicates that our practical and rather unpoetic times (which seem about to precipitate a period of literary and artistic crop failure on the very lands that were once the richest soil of the imagination) art has fallen by the wayside. The poetic past has been replaced by a hypercritical present, as Bournonville himself writes, and it is the duty of the artist to restore the spiritual, the poetry.
Chinese literature. The history of Chinese literature[1] extends thousands of years, and begins with the earliest recorded inscriptions, court archives, building to the major works of philosophy and history written during the Axial Age. The Han (202 BC – 220 AD) and Tang (618–907 AD) dynasties were considered golden ages of poetry, while the Song (960–1279) and Yuan (1271–1368) were notable for their lyrics (ci), essays, dramas, and plays. During the Ming and Qing, mature novels were written in written vernacular Chinese, an evolution from the preeminence of Literary Chinese patterned off the language of the Chinese classics. The introduction of widespread woodblock printing during the Tang and the invention of movable type printing by Bi Sheng (990–1051) during the Song rapidly spread written knowledge throughout China. Around the turn of the 20th century, the author Lu Xun (1881–1936) is considered an influential voice of vernacular Chinese literature. Formation of the earliest layer of Chinese literature was influenced by oral traditions of different social and professional provenance: cult and lay musical practices (Shijing),[2] divination (Yi jing, Guicang and Lianshan), astronomy, ritual (Etiquette and Ceremonial), exorcism, etc. An attempt at tracing the genealogy of Chinese literature to religious spells and incantations (the six zhu 六祝, as presented in the Da zhu chapter of the Rites of Zhou) was made by Liu Shipei.[3] There is a wealth of early Chinese literature dating from the Hundred Schools of Thought that occurred during the Eastern Zhou dynasty (770–256 BC). The most important of these include the Classics of Confucianism, of Daoism, of Mohism, of Legalism, as well as works of military science and Chinese history. Note that, except for the books of poems and songs, most of this literature is philosophical and didactic; there is little in the way of fiction. However, these texts maintained their significance through both their ideas and their prose style.
Folk Tale (album). Folk Tale is an album by Irish folk singer Christy Moore, released in 2011 by Sony Music.[1][2] This 2010s folk album-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
Pinyin. Hanyu Pinyin, or simply pinyin, officially the Chinese Phonetic Alphabet, is the most common romanization system for Standard Chinese. Hanyu (simplified Chinese: 汉语; traditional Chinese: 漢語) literally means Han language—that is, the Chinese language—while pinyin literally means spelled sounds. Pinyin is the official romanization system used in China, Singapore, and Taiwan, and by the United Nations. Its use has become common when transliterating Standard Chinese mostly regardless of region, though it is less ubiquitous in Taiwan. It is used to teach Standard Chinese, normally written with Chinese characters, to students in mainland China and Singapore. Pinyin is also used by various input methods on computers and to categorize entries in some Chinese dictionaries. In pinyin, each Chinese syllable is spelled in terms of an optional initial and a final, each of which is represented by one or more letters. Initials are initial consonants, whereas finals are all possible combinations of medials (semivowels coming before the vowel), a nucleus vowel, and coda (final vowel or consonant). Diacritics are used to indicate the four tones found in Standard Chinese, though these are often omitted in various contexts, such as when spelling Chinese names in non-Chinese texts. Hanyu Pinyin was developed in the 1950s by a group of Chinese linguists including Wang Li, Lu Zhiwei, Li Jinxi, Luo Changpei and, particularly, Zhou Youguang, who has been called the father of pinyin. They based their work in part on earlier romanization systems. The system was originally promulgated at the Fifth Session of the 1st National Peoples Congress in 1958, and has seen several rounds of revisions since. The International Organization for Standardization propagated Hanyu Pinyin as ISO 7098 in 1982, and the United Nations began using it in 1986. Taiwan adopted Hanyu Pinyin as its official romanization system in 2009, replacing Tongyong Pinyin. Matteo Ricci, a Jesuit missionary in China, wrote the first book that used the Latin alphabet to write Chinese, entitled Xizi Qiji (Hsi-tzŭ Chi-chi; 西字奇蹟; Miracle of Western Letters) and published in Beijing in 1605.[1] Twenty years later, fellow Jesuit Nicolas Trigault published Aid to the Eyes and Ears of Western Literati (西儒耳目資; Xīrú ěrmù zī; Hsi ju erh mu tzŭ)) in Hangzhou.[2] Neither book had any influence among the contemporary Chinese literati, and the romanizations they introduced primarily were useful for Westerners.[3]
Oral literature. Oral literature, orature, or folk literature is a genre of literature that is spoken or sung in contrast to that which is written, though much oral literature has been transcribed.[1] There is no standard definition, as anthropologists have used varying descriptions for oral literature or folk literature. A broad conceptualization refers to it as literature characterized by oral transmission and the absence of any fixed form. It includes the stories, legends, and history passed through generations in a spoken form.[2] Pre-literate societies, by definition, have no written literature, but may possess rich and varied oral traditions—such as folk epics, folk narratives (including fairy tales and fables), folk drama, proverbs and folksongs—that effectively constitute an oral literature. Even when these are collected and published by scholars such as folklorists and paremiographers, the result is still often referred to as oral literature. The different genres of oral literature pose classification challenges to scholars because of cultural dynamism in the modern digital age.[3] Literate societies may continue an oral tradition — particularly within the family (for example bedtime stories) or informal social structures. The telling of urban legends may be considered an example of oral literature, as can jokes and also oral poetry including slam poetry which has been a televised feature on Russell Simmons Def Poetry; performance poetry is a genre of poetry that consciously shuns the written form.[4] Furthermore, traditions demonstrating persistent orality can continue to thrive primarily through spoken or sung performance even within literate societies, adapting to new contexts and media. For example, Bhojpuri folk song traditions, carried by the Indian diaspora to places like Mauritius and Trinidad, demonstrate resilience and adaptation not primarily through print, but through continued performance in various settings (from weddings to public fêtes and carnivals) and circulation across multiple platforms, including commercial recordings, radio, film, and digital media like YouTube. This process often involves linguistic and musical creolisation (e.g., the development of Chutney music blending Bhojpuri elements with English lyrics and Caribbean rhythms) and the creation of what some scholars term soft texts—where familiar fragments, melodies, or evocative words maintain cultural resonance even as the original forms evolve.[5] Oral literatures forms a generally more fundamental component of culture, but operates in many ways as one might expect literature to do. The Ugandan scholar Pio Zirimu introduced the term orature in an attempt to avoid an oxymoron, but oral literature remains more common both in academic and popular writing.[6] The Encyclopaedia of African Literature, edited by Simon Gikandi (Routledge, 2003), gives this definition: Orature means something passed on through the spoken word, and because it is based on the spoken language it comes to life only in a living community. Where community life fades away, orality loses its function and dies. It needs people in a living social setting: it needs life itself. In Songs and Politics in Eastern Africa, edited by Kimani Njogu and Hervé Maupeu (2007), it is stated (page 204) that Zirimu, who coined the term, defines orature as the use of utterance as an aesthetic means of expression (as quoted by Ngũgĩ wa Thiongo, 1988). According to the book Defining New Idioms and Alternative Forms of Expression, edited by Eckhard Breitinger (Rodopi, 1996, page 78): This means that any oral society had to develop means to make the spoken word last, at least for a while. We tend to regard all the genres of orature as belonging to the homogeneous complex of folklore.
Folktales (album). Folktales is the second studio album released by the rock and roll jam band The Big Wu. This 2000 rock album–related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
Chinese opera. Traditional Chinese opera (traditional Chinese: 戲曲; simplified Chinese: 戏曲; pinyin: xìqǔ; Jyutping: hei3 kuk1), or Xiqu, is a form of musical theatre in China with roots going back to the early periods in China. It is an amalgamation of various art forms that existed in ancient China, and evolved gradually over more than a thousand years, reaching its mature form in the 13th century, during the Song dynasty (960–1279 AD). Early forms of Chinese theater are simple; however, over time, various art forms such as music, song and dance, martial arts, acrobatics, costume and make-up art, as well as literary art forms were incorporated to form traditional Chinese opera. Performers had to practice for many years to gain an understanding of the roles. Exaggerated features and colors made it easier for the audience to identify the roles portrayed by the performers.[1][2][3][4] There are over a hundred regional branches of traditional Chinese opera today. In the 20th century, the Peking opera emerged in popularity and has come to be known as the national theatre of China,[5] but other genres like Yue opera, Cantonese opera, Yu opera, kunqu, qinqiang, Huangmei opera, pingju, and Sichuan opera are also performed regularly before dedicated fans. Their differences are mainly found in the music and topolect; the stories are often shared and borrowed.[6] With few exceptions (such as revolutionary operas and to some extent Shanghai operas) the vast majority of Chinese operas (including Taiwanese operas) are set in China before the 17th century, whether they are traditional or newly written. For centuries, Chinese opera was the main form of entertainment for both urban and rural residents in China as well as the Chinese diaspora. Its popularity declined sharply in the second half of the 20th century as a result of both political and market factors. Language policies discouraging topolects in Taiwan and Singapore, official hostility against rural religious festivals in China, and de-Sinicization in Taiwan have all been blamed for the decline of various forms in different times, but overall the two major culprits were Cultural Revolution — which saw traditional culture systematically erased, innumerable theatre professionals viciously persecuted, and younger generation raised with far lesser exposure to Chinese opera – and modernization, with its immense social impact and imported values that Chinese opera has largely failed to counter.[7] The total number of regional genres was determined to be more than 350 in 1957,[8] but in the 21st century the Chinese government could only identify 162 forms for its intangible cultural heritage list, with many of them in immediate danger of disappearing.[9] For young people, Chinese opera is no longer part of the everyday popular music culture, but it remains an attraction for many older people who find in it, among other things, a national or regional identity.
Western India. Goa: Gujarat: Maharashtra: Western India is a loosely defined region of India consisting of western states of Republic of India. The Ministry of Home Affairs in its Western Zonal Council Administrative division includes the states of Goa, Gujarat, and Maharashtra along with the Union territory of Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu,[1] while the Ministry of Culture and some historians also include the state of Rajasthan.[2][3] The Geological Survey of India includes Maharashtra but excludes Rajasthan[4] whereas Ministry of Minority Affairs includes Karnataka but excludes Rajasthan.[5]
Tale-e Rudbar. Tale-e Rudbar (Persian: طالع رودبار, also Romanized as Ţāle‘-e Rūdbār and Ţāle‘ Rūdbār)[1] is a village in Rastupey Rural District, in the Central District of Savadkuh County, Mazandaran Province, Iran. At the 2016 census, its population was 72, in 25 families,[2] down from 86 people in 2006.[3] This Savadkuh County location article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
Ratnagiri district. Ratnagiri district (Marathi pronunciation: [ɾət̪n̪aːɡiɾiː]) is a district in the state of Maharashtra, India.[1] The administrative headquarter of the district is located in the town of Ratnagiri.[1] The district is 11.34% urban.[2] The district is bounded by the Arabian Sea to the west, Sindhudurg district to the south, Raigad district to the north and Satara, Sangli and Kolhapur districts to the east.[1] This district is part of Konkan division.[1] From pre-Christian times until 1312, the area – like the entire region – was ruled by various Buddhist and Hindu rulers. The first state known by name was the Mauryan Empire, the last non-Muslim dynasty was the Yadavas of Devagiri. After decades of military clashes with Muslim rulers in northern India, the region was occupied by Muslim armies between 1312 and 1470. From 1500 on there was fierce fighting for rule on the coast between the Muslim rulers and the Portuguese. After that, various Muslim dynasties ruled until 1658 (Sultanate of Delhi, Bahmani, Deccan Sultanates and the Mughals). From 1658, most of the area became part of the Maratha Empire. After the defeat of the Marathas against the British in 1818, Ratnagiri area became an administrative region of the Bombay Presidency. With the independence of India in 1947 and the reorganization of the country, it became part of the new Bombay State in 1950. In 1948 the district grew through the incorporation of the Sawantwadi princely state. In 1960, Bombay State was divided and the area became part of the newly created state of Maharashtra. In 1981 the district was divided and the southern part of the district became Sindhudurg district.[3][4][5] An outstanding feature of the geography of the district is its uneven or hill landscape ,with about 45% of the area covered by hills.The Sahyadri hill range runs for 180km. According to the 2011 census Ratnagiri district has a population of 1,615,069,[8] roughly equal to the nation of Guinea-Bissau[9] or the US state of Idaho.[10] This gives it a ranking of 311th in India (out of a total of 640).[8] The district has a population density of 196 inhabitants per square kilometre (510/sq mi) .[8] Its population growth rate over the decade 2001-2011 was -4.96%.[8] Ratnagiri has a sex ratio of 1123 females for every 1000 males,[8] and a literacy rate of 82.43%. 16.33% of the population lives in urban areas. Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes make up 4.15% and 1.26% of the population respectively.[8]
2011 census of India. The 2011 census of India or the 15th Indian census was conducted in two phases, house listing and population enumeration. The House listing phase began on 1 April 2010 and involved the collection of information about all buildings. Information for National Population Register (NPR) was also collected in the first phase, which will be used to issue a 12-digit unique identification number to all registered Indian residents by Unique Identification Authority of India. The second population enumeration phase was conducted between 9 and 28 February 2011. Census has been conducted in India since 1872 and 2011 marks the first time biometric information was collected. According to the provisional reports released on 31 March 2011, the Indian population increased to 1.21 billion with a decadal growth of 17.70%.[2] Adult literacy rate increased to 74.04% with a decadal growth of 9.21%. The motto of the census was Our Census, Our Future. Spread across 28 states[a] and 8 union territories, the census covered 640 districts, 5,924 sub-districts, 7,935 towns and more than 600,000 villages. A total of 2.7 million officials visited households in 7,935 towns and 600,000 villages, classifying the population according to gender, religion, education and occupation.[3] The cost of the exercise was approximately ₹2,200 crore (US$260 million)[4] – this comes to less than US$0.50 per person, well below the estimated world average of US$4.60 per person.[3] Information on castes was included in the census following demands from several ruling coalition leaders including Lalu Prasad Yadav, and Mulayam Singh Yadav supported by opposition parties Bharatiya Janata Party, Shiromani Akali Dal, Shiv Sena and All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam.[5] Information on caste was last collected during the British Raj in 1931. During the early census, people often exaggerated their caste status to garner social status and it is expected that people downgrade it now in the expectation of gaining government benefits.[6] Earlier, there was speculation that there would be a caste-based census conducted in 2011, the first time in 80 years (last was in 1931), to find the exact population of the Other Backward Classes (OBCs) in India.[7][8][9][10] This was later accepted and the Socio Economic and Caste Census 2011 was conducted whose first findings were revealed on 3 July 2015 by Union Finance Minister Arun Jaitley.[11] Mandal Commission report of 1980 quoted OBC population at 52%, though National Sample Survey Organisation (NSSO) survey of 2006 quoted OBC population at 41%.[12] There is only one other instance of a caste count in post-independence India. It was conducted in Kerala in 1968 by the Government of Kerala under E. M. S. Namboodiripad to assess the social and economic backwardness of various lower castes. The census was termed Socio-Economic Survey of 1968 and the results were published in the Gazetteer of Kerala, 1971.[13]
Village. A village is a human settlement or a residential community, larger than a hamlet but smaller than a town[1][2][3][4] with a population typically ranging from a few hundred to a few thousand.[citation needed] Although villages are often located in rural areas, the term urban village is also applied to certain urban neighborhoods. Villages are normally permanent, with fixed dwellings; however, transient villages can occur. Further, the dwellings of a village are fairly close to one another, not scattered broadly over the landscape, as a dispersed settlement. In the past, villages were a usual form of community for societies that practiced subsistence agriculture and also for some non-agricultural societies. In Great Britain, a hamlet earned the right to be called a village when it built a church.[5] In many cultures, towns and cities were few, with only a small proportion of the population living in them. The Industrial Revolution attracted people in larger numbers to work in mills and factories; the concentration of people caused many villages to grow into towns and cities. This also enabled specialization of labor and crafts and the development of many trades. The trend of urbanization continues but not always in connection with industrialization. Historically, homes were situated together for sociability and defence, and land surrounding the living quarters was farmed. Traditional fishing villages were based on artisan fishing and located adjacent to fishing grounds. In toponomastic terminology, the names of individual villages are called Comonyms (from Ancient Greek κώμη / village and ὄνυμα / name, [cf. ὄνομα]).[6] From Middle English village, from Old French village, from Latin villāticus, ultimately from Latin villa (English villa).[7]
Chinese language. Chinese (spoken: simplified Chinese: 汉语; traditional Chinese: 漢語; pinyin: Hànyǔ,[a] written: 中文; Zhōngwén[b]) is a group of languages[f] spoken natively by the ethnic Han Chinese majority and many minority ethnic groups in China, as well as by various communities of the Chinese diaspora. Approximately 1.39 billion people, or 17% of the global population, speak a variety of Chinese as their first language.[1] The Chinese languages form the Sinitic branch of the Sino-Tibetan language family. The spoken varieties of Chinese are usually considered by native speakers to be dialects of a single language. However, their lack of mutual intelligibility means they are sometimes considered to be separate languages in a family.[g] Investigation of the historical relationships among the varieties of Chinese is ongoing. Currently, most classifications posit 7 to 13 main regional groups based on phonetic developments from Middle Chinese, of which the most spoken by far is Mandarin with 66%, or around 800 million speakers, followed by Min (75 million, e.g. Southern Min), Wu (74 million, e.g. Shanghainese), and Yue (68 million, e.g. Cantonese).[4] These branches are unintelligible to each other, and many of their subgroups are unintelligible with the other varieties within the same branch (e.g. Southern Min). There are, however, transitional areas where varieties from different branches share enough features for some limited intelligibility, including New Xiang with Southwestern Mandarin, Xuanzhou Wu Chinese with Lower Yangtze Mandarin, Jin with Central Plains Mandarin and certain divergent dialects of Hakka with Gan. All varieties of Chinese are tonal at least to some degree, and are largely analytic. The earliest attested written Chinese consists of the oracle bone inscriptions created during the Shang dynasty c. 1250 BCE. The phonetic categories of Old Chinese can be reconstructed from the rhymes of ancient poetry. During the Northern and Southern period, Middle Chinese went through several sound changes and split into several varieties following prolonged geographic and political separation. The Qieyun, a rhyme dictionary, recorded a compromise between the pronunciations of different regions. The royal courts of the Ming and early Qing dynasties operated using a koiné language known as Guanhua, based on the Nanjing dialect of Mandarin. Standard Chinese is an official language of both the Peoples Republic of China and the Republic of China (Taiwan), one of the four official languages of Singapore, and one of the six official languages of the United Nations. Standard Chinese is based on the Beijing dialect of Mandarin and was first officially adopted in the 1930s. The language is written primarily using a logography of Chinese characters, largely shared by readers who may otherwise speak mutually unintelligible varieties. Since the 1950s, the use of simplified characters has been promoted by the government of the Peoples Republic of China, with Singapore officially adopting them in 1976. Traditional characters are used in Taiwan, Hong Kong, Macau, and among Chinese-speaking communities overseas.
Folktales (film). Folktales is a 2025 documentary film, directed and produced by Heidi Ewing and Rachel Grady. It follows teenagers at a folk high school in Norway, where they must rely on each other and a pack of sled dogs as they grow. It had its world premiere at the 2025 Sundance Film Festival on January 25, 2025, and was released in the United States on July 25, 2025, by Magnolia Pictures. Teenagers at a folk high school in Norway, where they must rely on each other and a pack of sled dogs as they grow. Heidi Ewing and Rachel Grady wanted to make a documentary revolving around Folk high school in Norway, feeling the process was cinematic.[3] The two visited five schools before settling on Pasvik Folk High School, with production commencing during the school year from August to May.[4][5][6] It had its world premiere at the 2025 Sundance Film Festival on January 25, 2025.[7] In April 2025, Magnolia Pictures acquired distribution rights to the film, and released it on July 25, 2025.[8]
Protein Data Bank. The Protein Data Bank (PDB)[1] is a database for the three-dimensional structural data of large biological molecules such as proteins and nucleic acids, which is overseen by the Worldwide Protein Data Bank (wwPDB). This structural data is obtained and deposited by biologists and biochemists worldwide through the use of experimental methodologies such as X-ray crystallography, NMR spectroscopy, and, increasingly, cryogenic electron microscopy. All submitted data are reviewed by expert biocurators and, once approved, are made freely available on the Internet under the CC0 Public Domain Dedication.[2] Global access to the data is provided by the websites of the wwPDB member organizations (PDBe,[3] PDBj,[4] RCSB PDB,[5] BMRB[6] and the EMDB[7]). The PDB is a key in areas of structural biology, such as structural genomics. Most major scientific journals and some funding agencies now require scientists to submit their structure data to the PDB. Many other databases use protein structures deposited in the PDB. For example, SCOP and CATH classify protein structures, while PDBsum provides a graphic overview of PDB entries using information from other sources, such as Gene Ontology.[8][9] Two forces converged to initiate the PDB: a small but growing collection of sets of protein structure data determined by X-ray diffraction; and the newly available (1968) molecular graphics display, the Brookhaven RAster Display (BRAD), to visualize these protein structures in 3-D. In 1969, with the sponsorship of Walter Hamilton at the Brookhaven National Laboratory, Edgar Meyer (Texas A&M University) began to write software to store atomic coordinate files in a common format to make them available for geometric and graphical evaluation. By 1971, one of Meyers programs, SEARCH, enabled researchers to remotely access information from the database to study protein structures offline.[10] SEARCH was instrumental in enabling networking, thus marking the functional beginning of the PDB. The Protein Data Bank was announced in October 1971 in Nature New Biology[11] as a joint venture between Cambridge Crystallographic Data Centre, UK and Brookhaven National Laboratory, US. Upon Hamiltons death in 1973, Tom Koetzle took over direction of the PDB for the subsequent 20 years. In January 1994, Joel Sussman of Israels Weizmann Institute of Science was appointed head of the PDB. In October 1998,[12] the PDB was transferred to the Research Collaboratory for Structural Bioinformatics (RCSB);[13] the transfer was completed in June 1999. The new director was Helen M. Berman of Rutgers University (one of the managing institutions of the RCSB, the other being the San Diego Supercomputer Center at UC San Diego).[14] In 2003, with the formation of the wwPDB, the PDB became an international organization. The founding members are PDBe (Europe),[3] RCSB (US), and PDBj (Japan).[4] The Biological Magnetic Resonance Data Bank (BMRB)[6] joined in 2006. The Electron Microscopy Data Bank (EMDB)[15] joined in 2021. Each of the five members of wwPDB can act as deposition, data processing and distribution centers for PDB data. The data processing refers to the fact that wwPDB staff review and annotate each submitted entry.[16] The data are then automatically checked for plausibility (the source code[17] for this validation software has been made available to the public at no charge).
List of sovereign states. The following is a list providing an overview of sovereign states around the world with information on their status and recognition of their sovereignty. The 205 listed states can be divided into three categories based on membership within the United Nations System: 193 UN member states,[1] two UN General Assembly non-member observer states, and ten other states. The sovereignty dispute column indicates states having undisputed sovereignty (189 states, of which there are 188 UN member states and one UN General Assembly non-member observer state), states having disputed sovereignty (14 states, of which there are five UN member states, one UN General Assembly non-member observer state, and eight de facto states), and states having a special political status (two states, both in free association with New Zealand). Compiling a list such as this can be complicated and controversial, as there is no definition that is binding on all the members of the community of nations concerning the criteria for statehood. For more information on the criteria used to determine the contents of this list, please see the criteria for inclusion section below. The list is intended to include entities that have been recognised as having de facto status as sovereign states, and inclusion should not be seen as an endorsement of any specific claim to statehood in legal terms.
National Center for Biotechnology Information. The National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI)[1][2] is part of the National Library of Medicine (NLM), a branch of the National Institutes of Health (NIH). It is approved and funded by the government of the United States. The NCBI is located in Bethesda, Maryland, and was founded in 1988 through legislation sponsored by US Congressman Claude Pepper. The NCBI houses a series of databases relevant to biotechnology and biomedicine and is an important resource for bioinformatics tools and services. Major databases include GenBank for DNA sequences and PubMed, a bibliographic database for biomedical literature. Other databases include the NCBI Epigenomics database. All these databases are available online through the Entrez search engine. NCBI was directed by David Lipman,[2] one of the original authors of the BLAST sequence alignment program[3] and a widely respected figure in bioinformatics. NCBI had responsibility for making available the GenBank DNA sequence database since 1992.[4] GenBank coordinates with individual laboratories and other sequence databases, such as those of the European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL) and the DNA Data Bank of Japan (DDBJ).[4] Since 1992, NCBI has grown to provide other databases in addition to GenBank. NCBI provides the Gene database, Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man, the Molecular Modeling Database (3D protein structures), dbSNP (a database of single-nucleotide polymorphisms), the Reference Sequence Collection, a map of the human genome, and a taxonomy browser, and coordinates with the National Cancer Institute to provide the Cancer Genome Anatomy Project. The NCBI assigns a unique identifier (taxonomy ID number) to each species of organism.[5]
UniProt. UniProt is a freely accessible database of protein sequence and functional information, many entries being derived from genome sequencing projects. It contains a large amount of information about the biological function of proteins derived from the research literature. It is maintained by the UniProt consortium, which consists of several European bioinformatics organisations and a foundation from Washington, DC, USA. The UniProt consortium comprises the European Bioinformatics Institute (EBI), the Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics (SIB), and the Protein Information Resource (PIR). EBI, located at the Wellcome Trust Genome Campus in Hinxton, UK, hosts a large resource of bioinformatics databases and services. SIB, located in Geneva, Switzerland, maintains the ExPASy (Expert Protein Analysis System) servers that are a central resource for proteomics tools and databases. PIR, hosted by the National Biomedical Research Foundation (NBRF) at the Georgetown University Medical Center in Washington, DC, US, is heir to the oldest protein sequence database, Margaret Dayhoffs Atlas of Protein Sequence and Structure, first published in 1965.[2] In 2002, EBI, SIB, and PIR joined forces as the UniProt consortium.[3] Each consortium member is heavily involved in protein database maintenance and annotation. Until recently, EBI and SIB together produced the Swiss-Prot and TrEMBL databases, while PIR produced the Protein Sequence Database (PIR-PSD).[4][5][6] These databases coexisted with differing protein sequence coverage and annotation priorities. Swiss-Prot was created in 1986 by Amos Bairoch during his PhD and developed by the Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics and subsequently developed by Rolf Apweiler at the European Bioinformatics Institute.[7][8][9] Swiss-Prot aimed to provide reliable protein sequences associated with a high level of annotation (such as the description of the function of a protein, its domain structure, post-translational modifications, variants, etc.), a minimal level of redundancy and high level of integration with other databases. Recognizing that sequence data were being generated at a pace exceeding Swiss-Prots ability to keep up, TrEMBL (Translated EMBL Nucleotide Sequence Data Library) was created to provide automated annotations for those proteins not in Swiss-Prot. Meanwhile, PIR maintained the PIR-PSD and related databases, including iProClass, a database of protein sequences and curated families. The consortium members pooled their overlapping resources and expertise, and launched UniProt in December 2003.[10]
Provinces of Iran. Iran is subdivided into thirty-one provinces (Persian: استان Ostân), which are the first-level administrative divisions of the country. Each province is governed from a local centre, usually the largest local city, which is called the capital (Persian: مرکز, Markaz) of the province. The provincial authority is headed by a governor-general (Persian: استاندار Ostândâr), who is appointed by the Minister of the Interior subject to approval of the cabinet. The provinces are subdivided into counties, districts (bakhsh) and villages.[1] Iran has held its modern territory since the Treaty of Paris in 1857. Prior to 1937, Iran had maintained its feudal administrative divisional structure, dating back to the time the modern state was centralized by the Safavid dynasty in the 16th century, although the boundaries, roles, and rulers changed often. On the eve of the Persian Constitutional Revolution in 1905, Iran was composed of Tehran, being directly ruled by the monarch; four eyalats (Persian: ایالات elâyât pl., ایالت elayat sin.), ruled by Qajar princes; and various velayats (Persian: ولایات velâyât pl., ولایت velayat sin.). Nomadic tribal confederations, such as the Bakhtiari people and Qashqai people, were largely independent of the domestic administrative divisions and were autonomous. With the Constitutional Revolution, and the formation of the first National Consultative Assembly, Irans administrative subdivisions were legally defined in 1907.[2] Any change in the boundaries of eyalats, velayats, or their respective sub-districts was banned by the Iranian constitution, except with the passage of a new law by the assembly. Per the 1907 law, the following were defined:[2] ماده ۲ ــ ایالت قسمتی از مملکت است که دارای حکومت مرکزی و ولایات حاکم‌نشین جزء است و فعلاً منحصر به چهار ایالت است: آذربایجان، کرمان و بلوچستان، فارس، خراسان
Grothendiecks Tôhoku paper. The article Sur quelques points dalgèbre homologique by Alexander Grothendieck,[1] now often referred to as the Tôhoku paper,[2] was published in 1957 in the Tôhoku Mathematical Journal. It revolutionized the subject of homological algebra, a purely algebraic aspect of algebraic topology.[3] It removed the need to distinguish the cases of modules over a ring and sheaves of abelian groups over a topological space.[4] Material in the paper dates from Grothendiecks year at the University of Kansas in 1955–6. Research there allowed him to put homological algebra on an axiomatic basis, by introducing the abelian category concept.[5][6] A textbook treatment of homological algebra, Cartan–Eilenberg after the authors Henri Cartan and Samuel Eilenberg, appeared in 1956. Grothendiecks work was largely independent of it. His abelian category concept had at least partially been anticipated by others.[7] David Buchsbaum in his doctoral thesis written under Eilenberg had introduced a notion of exact category close to the abelian category concept (needing only direct sums to be identical); and had formulated the idea of enough injectives.[8] The Tôhoku paper contains an argument to prove that a Grothendieck category (a particular type of abelian category, the name coming later) has enough injectives; the author indicated that the proof was of a standard type.[9] In showing by this means that categories of sheaves of abelian groups admitted injective resolutions, Grothendieck went beyond the theory available in Cartan–Eilenberg, to prove the existence of a cohomology theory in generality.[10] After the Gabriel–Popescu theorem of 1964, it was known that every Grothendieck category is a quotient category of a module category.[11] The Tôhoku paper also introduced the Grothendieck spectral sequence associated to the composition of derived functors.[12] In further reconsideration of the foundations of homological algebra, Grothendieck introduced and developed with Jean-Louis Verdier the derived category concept.[13] The initial motivation, as announced by Grothendieck at the 1958 International Congress of Mathematicians, was to formulate results on coherent duality, now going under the name Grothendieck duality.[14]

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