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Randomness. In common usage, randomness is the apparent or actual lack of definite pattern or predictability in information.[1][2] A random sequence of events, symbols or steps often has no order and does not follow an intelligible pattern or combination. Individual random events are, by definition, unpredictable, but if there is a known probability distribution, the frequency of different outcomes over repeated events (or trials) is predictable.[note 1] For example, when throwing two dice, the outcome of any particular roll is unpredictable, but a sum of 7 will tend to occur twice as often as 4. In this view, randomness is not haphazardness; it is a measure of uncertainty of an outcome. Randomness applies to concepts of chance, probability, and information entropy. The fields of mathematics, probability, and statistics use formal definitions of randomness, typically assuming that there is some objective probability distribution. In statistics, a random variable is an assignment of a numerical value to each possible outcome of an event space. This association facilitates the identification and the calculation of probabilities of the events. Random variables can appear in random sequences. A random process is a sequence of random variables whose outcomes do not follow a deterministic pattern, but follow an evolution described by probability distributions. These and other constructs are extremely useful in probability theory and the various applications of randomness. Randomness is most often used in statistics to signify well-defined statistical properties. Monte Carlo methods, which rely on random input (such as from random number generators or pseudorandom number generators), are important techniques in science, particularly in the field of computational science.[3] By analogy, quasi-Monte Carlo methods use quasi-random number generators. Random selection, when narrowly associated with a simple random sample, is a method of selecting items (often called units) from a population where the probability of choosing a specific item is the proportion of those items in the population. For example, with a bowl containing just 10 red marbles and 90 blue marbles, a random selection mechanism would choose a red marble with probability 1/10. A random selection mechanism that selected 10 marbles from this bowl would not necessarily result in 1 red and 9 blue. In situations where a population consists of items that are distinguishable, a random selection mechanism requires equal probabilities for any item to be chosen. That is, if the selection process is such that each member of a population, say research subjects, has the same probability of being chosen, then we can say the selection process is random.[2]
Archipelago (disambiguation). An archipelago is a landform which consists of a chain or cluster of islands. Archipelago(s) may also refer to:
Backgammon. Backgammon is a two-player board game played with counters and dice on tables boards. It is the most widespread Western member of the large family of tables games, whose ancestors date back at least 1,600 years. The earliest record of backgammon itself dates to 17th-century England, being descended from the 16th-century game of Irish.[2] Backgammon is a two-player game of contrary movement in which each player has fifteen pieces known traditionally as men (short for tablemen), but increasingly known as checkers in the United States in recent decades.[citation needed] The backgammon table pieces move along twenty-four points according to the roll of two dice. The objective of the game is to move the fifteen pieces around the board and be first to bear off, i.e., remove them from the board. The achievement of this while the opponent is still a long way behind results in a triple win known as a backgammon, hence the name of the game. Backgammon involves a combination of strategy and luck from rolling of the dice. While the dice may determine the outcome of a single game, the better player will accumulate the better record over a series of many games. With each roll of the dice, players must choose from numerous options for moving their pieces and anticipate possible counter-moves by the opponent. The optional use of a doubling cube allows players to raise the stakes during the game. The earliest specific reference to backgammon was in a letter dated 1635, when it was emerging as a variant of the popular medieval Anglo-Scottish game of Irish; the latter was described as a better game.[3] By the 19th century, however, backgammon had spread to Europe, where it rapidly superseded other tables games like Trictrac in popularity, and also to America, where the doubling cube was introduced. In other parts of the world, different tables games such as Nard or Nardy are better known. Backgammon is a recent member of the large family of tables games that date back to ancient times. Its equipment is similar or identical to earlier tables games that have been depicted for centuries in art, leading to the mistaken belief that backgammon itself is much older.
Tokugawa Ieyasu. Tokugawa Ieyasu[a][b] (born Matsudaira Takechiyo;[c][d] January 31, 1543 – June 1, 1616) was the founder and first shōgun of the Tokugawa shogunate of Japan, which ruled from 1603 until the Meiji Restoration in 1868. He was the third of the three Great Unifiers of Japan, along with his former lord Oda Nobunaga and fellow Oda subordinate Toyotomi Hideyoshi. The son of a minor daimyo, Ieyasu once lived as a hostage under daimyo Imagawa Yoshimoto on behalf of his father. He later succeeded as daimyo after his fathers death, serving as ally, vassal, and general of the Oda clan,[5] and building up his strength under Oda Nobunaga.[6] After Oda Nobunagas death, Ieyasu was briefly a rival of Toyotomi Hideyoshi, before declaring his allegiance to Toyotomi and fighting on his behalf. Under Toyotomi, Ieyasu was relocated to the Kanto plains in eastern Japan, away from the Toyotomi power base in Osaka. He built his castle in the fishing village of Edo (now Tokyo). He became the most powerful daimyo and the most senior officer under the Toyotomi regime. Ieyasu preserved his strength during Toyotomis failed attempts to conquer Korea. After Hideyoshis death and the Battle of Sekigahara, Ieyasu seized power in 1600.[5] He received appointment as shōgun in 1603, and voluntarily resigned from his position in 1605, although he still held the de facto control of government until his death in 1616. He implemented a set of careful rules known as the bakuhan system. This system used precisely graded rewards and punishments to encourage (or compel) the daimyo and samurai to live in peace with each other under the Tokugawa Shogunate.[5][6] Tokugawa Ieyasu was born in Okazaki Castle on the 26th day of the twelfth month of the eleventh year of Tenbun, according to the Japanese calendar, January 31, 1543 according to the Western calendar. Originally named Matsudaira Takechiyo (松平竹千代), he was the son of Matsudaira Hirotada (松平広忠), the daimyo of Mikawa of the Matsudaira clan, and Odai no Kata (於大の方; Lady Odai), the daughter of a neighbouring samurai lord, Mizuno Tadamasa (水野忠政). His mother and father were step-siblings. They were 17 and 15 years old, respectively, when Takechiyo was born.[7]
Island chain strategy. The island chain strategy is a strategic maritime containment plan first conceived by American foreign policy statesman John Foster Dulles in 1951, during the Korean War.[1] It proposed surrounding the Soviet Union and China with naval bases in the West Pacific to project power and restrict sea access.[2] The island chain concept did not become a major theme in American foreign policy during the Cold War, but after the dissolution of the Soviet Union has remained a major focus of both American and Chinese geopolitical and military analysts to this day. For the United States, the island chain strategy is a significant part of the force projection of the U.S. military in the Far East. For China, the concept is integral to its maritime security and fears of strategic encirclement by U.S. armed forces. For both sides, the island chain strategy emphasizes the geographical and strategic importance of Taiwan.[3] The first island chain is the first string of major Pacific archipelagos out from the East Asian continental mainland coast. It is principally composed of the Kuril Islands, the Japanese archipelago, the Ryukyu Islands, Taiwan (Formosa), the northern Philippines, and Borneo, hence extending all the way from the Kamchatka Peninsula in the northeast to the Malay Peninsula in the southwest. The first island chain forms one of three island chain doctrines within the island chain strategy in the U.S. foreign policy.[4][5] It is considered a strategic military barrier to accessing the wider Pacific Ocean given the relative shallowness of waters to the west of the first island chain, which has important implications for submarine detection.[6] The second island chain, also called the second island cloud by Earl Hancock Ellis,[8] has two different interpretations, but the version most commonly used refers to the island chain which is formed by Japans Bonin Islands and Volcano Islands, in addition to the Mariana Islands (most notably Guam, an unincorporated American overseas territory with a heavily fortified military base), western Caroline Islands (Yap and Palau), and extends to Western New Guinea.[1] The chain serves as the eastern maritime boundary of the Philippine Sea.[citation needed]
Arpeggio. An arpeggio (Italian: [arˈpeddʒo]) is a type of chord in which the notes that compose a chord are individually sounded in a progressive rising or descending order. Arpeggios on keyboard instruments may be called rolled chords. Arpeggios may include all notes of a scale or a partial set of notes from a scale, but must contain notes of at least three pitches (two-pitch sequences are known as trills or tremolos). Arpeggios may sound notes within a single octave or span multiple octaves, and the notes may be sustained and overlap or be heard separately. An arpeggio for the chord of C major going up two octaves would be the notes (C, E, G, C, E, G, C). In musical notation, a very rapid arpeggiated chord may be written with a wavy vertical line in front of the chord. Typically these are read as to be played from the lowest to highest note, though composers may specify a high to low sequence by adding an arrow pointing down. Arpeggios enable composers writing for monophonic instruments that play one note at a time (such as the trumpet) to voice chords and chord progressions in musical pieces. Arpeggios are also used to help create rhythmic interest, or as melodic ornamentation in the lead or accompaniment.
A cappella. Music performed a cappella (/ˌɑː kəˈpɛlə/ AH kə-PEL-ə, UK also /ˌæ kəˈpɛlə/ AK ə-PEL-ə, Italian: [a kkapˈpɛlla];[1] lit. in [the style of] the chapel), less commonly spelled acapella in English,[2] is music performed by a singer or a singing group without instrumental accompaniment. The term a cappella was originally intended to differentiate between Renaissance polyphonic and Baroque concertato musical styles. In the 19th century, a renewed interest in Renaissance polyphony, coupled with an ignorance of the fact that vocal parts were often doubled by instrumentalists, led to the term coming to mean unaccompanied vocal music.[1] The term is also used, rarely, as a synonym for alla breve.[3] Research suggests that singing and vocables may have been what early humans used to communicate before the invention of language.[4] The earliest piece of sheet music is thought to have originated from times as early as 2000 BC,[5] while the earliest that has survived in its entirety is from the first century AD: a piece from Greece called the Seikilos epitaph.[5] A cappella music was originally used in religious music, especially church music as well as anasheed and zemirot. Gregorian chant is an example of a cappella singing, as is the majority of secular vocal music from the Renaissance. The madrigal, up until its development in the early Baroque into an instrumentally accompanied form, is also usually in a cappella form. The Psalms note that some early songs were accompanied by string instruments, though Jewish and Early Christian music was largely a cappella;[6] the use of instruments has subsequently increased within both of these religions as well as in Islam. The polyphony of Christian (predominantly Catholic) a cappella music began to develop in Europe around the 9th century AD with the practice of organum, reaching its height between the 14th and 16th centuries with compositions by composers of the Franco-Flemish school (such as Guillaume Du Fay, Johannes Ockeghem, and Josquin des Prez).[7] The early a cappella polyphonies were sometimes doubled with other instruments, which were often wind or string instruments, or organs. By the 16th century, a cappella polyphony had further developed, but gradually, the cantata began to take the place of a cappella forms.[7] Sixteenth-century a cappella polyphony, nonetheless, continued to influence church composers throughout this period and to the present day. Recent evidence has shown that some of the early pieces by Palestrina, such as those written for the Sistine Chapel, were intended to be accompanied by an organ doubling for some or all of the voices.[7]
Go (game). Go is an abstract strategy board game for two players in which the aim is to fence off more territory than the opponent. The game was invented in China more than 2,500 years ago and is believed to be the oldest board game continuously played to the present day.[1][2][3][4][5] A 2016 survey by the International Go Federations 75 member nations found that there are over 46 million people worldwide who know how to play Go, and over 20 million current players, the majority of whom live in East Asia.[6] The playing pieces are called stones. One player uses the white stones and the other black stones. The players take turns placing their stones on the vacant intersections (points) on the board. Once placed, stones may not be moved, but captured stones are immediately removed from the board. A single stone (or connected group of stones) is captured when surrounded by the opponents stones on all orthogonally adjacent points.[7] The game proceeds until neither player wishes to make another move. When a game concludes, the winner is determined by counting each players surrounded territory along with captured stones and komi (points added to the score of the player with the white stones as compensation for playing second).[8] Games may also end by resignation.[9] The standard Go board has a 19×19 grid of lines, containing 361 points. Beginners often play on smaller 9×9 or 13×13 boards,[10] and archaeological evidence shows that the game was played in earlier centuries on a board with a 17×17 grid. The 19×19 board had become standard by the time the game reached Korea in the 5th century CE and Japan in the 7th century CE.[11] Go was considered one of the four essential arts of the cultured aristocratic Chinese scholars in antiquity. The earliest written reference to the game is generally recognized as the historical annal Zuo Zhuan[12][13] (c. 4th century BCE).[14]
Periodical literature. Periodical literature (singularly called a periodical publication or simply a periodical) consists of published works that appear in new releases on a regular schedule (issues or numbers, often numerically divided into annual volumes). The most familiar example of periodical literature is the newspaper, but the magazine and the academic journal are also periodicals, as are some modern websites, e-journals, and other electronic-only publications produced recurrently on a schedule. Periodical publications cover a wide variety of topics, from academic, technical, and trade, to general-interest subjects such as leisure and entertainment. Articles within a periodical are usually organized around a single main subject or theme and include a title, date of publication, author(s), and brief summary of the article. A periodical typically contains an editorial section that comments on subjects of interest to its readers. Other common features are reviews of recently published books and films, columns that express the authors opinions about various topics, and advertisements. A periodical is a serial publication. A book series is also a serial publication, but is not typically called a periodical. An encyclopedia or dictionary is also a book, and might be called a serial publication if it is published in many different editions over time. A periodical series, such as a journal series, is a sequence of journals having certain characteristics in common that are formally identified together as a group (see academic journal series). Periodicals are typically published and referenced by volume and issue (also known as issue number or number). Volume typically refers to the number of years the publication has been circulated, and issue refers to how many times that periodical has been published during that year. For example, the April 2011 publication of a monthly magazine first published in 2002 would be listed as, volume 10, issue 4. Roman numerals are sometimes used in reference to the volume number.[1]
Eiger. The Eiger (Swiss Standard German pronunciation: [ˈaɪɡər] ⓘ) is a 3,967-metre (13,015 ft) mountain of the Bernese Alps, overlooking Grindelwald and Lauterbrunnen in the Bernese Oberland of Switzerland, just north of the main watershed and border with Valais. It is the easternmost peak of a ridge crest that extends across the Mönch to the Jungfrau at 4,158 m (13,642 ft), constituting one of the most emblematic sights of the Swiss Alps. While the northern side of the mountain rises more than 3,000 m (10,000 ft) above the two valleys of Grindelwald and Lauterbrunnen, the southern side faces the large glaciers of the Jungfrau-Aletsch area, the most glaciated region in the Alps. The most notable feature of the Eiger is its nearly 1,800-metre-high (5,900 ft) north face of rock and ice, named Eiger-Nordwand, Eigerwand or just Nordwand, which is the biggest north face in the Alps.[3] This substantial face towers over the resort of Kleine Scheidegg at its base, on the eponymous pass connecting the two valleys. The first ascent of the Eiger was made by Swiss guides Christian Almer and Peter Bohren and Irishman Charles Barrington, who climbed the west flank on August 11, 1858. The north face, the last problem of the Alps, considered amongst the most challenging and dangerous ascents, was first climbed in 1938 by an Austrian-German expedition.[4] The Eiger has been highly publicized for the many tragedies involving climbing expeditions. Since 1935, at least 64 climbers have died attempting the north face, earning it the German nickname Mordwand, literally murder(ous) wall—a pun on its correct title of Nordwand (North Wall).[5] Although the summit of the Eiger can be reached by experienced climbers only, a railway tunnel runs inside the mountain, and two internal stations provide easy access to viewing-windows carved into the rock face. They are both part of the Jungfrau Railway line, running from Kleine Scheidegg to the Jungfraujoch, between the Mönch and the Jungfrau, at the highest railway station in Europe. The two stations within the Eiger are Eigerwand (behind the north face) and Eismeer (behind the south face), at around 3,000 metres. The Eigerwand station has not been regularly served since 2016. The first mention of Eiger, appearing as mons Egere, was found in a property sale document of 1252, but there is no clear indication of how exactly the peak gained its name.[6] The three mountains of the ridge are commonly referred to as the Virgin (German: Jungfrau – translates to virgin or maiden), the Monk (Mönch), and the Ogre (Eiger; the standard German word for ogre is Oger). The Eiger is located above the Lauterbrunnen Valley to the west and Grindelwald to the north in the Bernese Oberland region of the canton of Bern.[7] It forms a renowned mountain range of the Bernese Alps together with its two companions: the Jungfrau (4,158 m (13,642 ft)) about 5.6 kilometres (3.5 mi) southwest of it and the Mönch (4,107 m (13,474 ft)) about in the middle of them.[8] The nearest settlements are Grindelwald, Lauterbrunnen (795 m (2,608 ft)) and Wengen (1,274 m (4,180 ft)). The Eiger has three faces: north (or more precisely NNW), east (or more precisely ESE), and west (or more precisely WSW). The northeastern ridge from the summit to the Ostegg (lit.: eastern corner, 2,709 m (8,888 ft)), called Mittellegi, is the longest on the Eiger. The north face overlooks the gently rising Alpine meadow between Grindelwald (943 m (3,094 ft)) and Kleine Scheidegg (2,061 m (6,762 ft)), a mountain railways junction and a pass, which can be reached from both sides, Grindelwald and Lauterbrunnen/Wengen – by foot or train.[7]
Roman type. In Latin script typography, roman is one of the three main kinds of historical type, alongside blackletter and italic. Sometimes called normal or regular, it is distinct from these two for its upright style (relative to the calligraphy-inspired italic) and its simplicity (relative to blackletter). During the early Renaissance, roman (in the form of Antiqua) and italic type were used separately. Today, roman and italic type are mixed, and most typefaces are composed of both an upright roman style and an associated italic or oblique style. Roman type was modelled from a European scribal manuscript style of the 15th century, based on the pairing of inscriptional capitals used in ancient Rome with Carolingian minuscules. Early roman typefaces show a variety of designs, for instance resembling what would now be considered blackletter.[5][6][7] Printers and typefounders such as Nicolas Jenson and Aldus Manutius in Venice and later Robert Estienne in France codified the modern characteristics of Roman type, for instance an h with a nearly straight right leg, serifs on the outside of the capital M and N, and e with level cross stroke, by the 1530s.[8][9] Popular roman typefaces include Bembo, Baskerville, Caslon, Jenson, Times New Roman and Garamond.
Taylor & Francis. Taylor & Francis Group is an international company originating in the United Kingdom that publishes books and academic journals. Its parts include Taylor & Francis, CRC Press, Routledge, F1000 Research and Dovepress.[6] It is a division of Informa, a United Kingdom-based publisher and conference company.[7] The company was founded in 1852 when William Francis joined Richard Taylor in his publishing business. Taylor had founded his company in 1798. Their subjects covered agriculture, chemistry, education, engineering, geography, law, mathematics, medicine, and social sciences.[8] Publications included the Philosophical Magazine. Franciss son, Richard Taunton Francis (1883–1930), was sole partner in the firm from 1917 to 1930.[9] In 1965, Taylor & Francis launched Wykeham Publications and began book publishing. T&F acquired Hemisphere Publishing in 1988, and the company was renamed Taylor & Francis Group to reflect the growing number of imprints. Taylor & Francis left the printing business in 1990, to concentrate on publishing. In 1998 it went public on the London Stock Exchange and in the same year bought its academic publishing rival Routledge for £90 million.[10] Acquisition of other publishers has remained a core part of the groups business strategy.[10] It merged with Informa in 2004 to create a new company called T&F Informa, since renamed back to Informa.[10] Following the merger, T&F closed the historic Routledge office at New Fetter Lane in London, and moved to its current headquarters in Milton Park, Oxfordshire.[11]
Matterhorn. The Matterhorn[note 3] is a mountain of the Alps, straddling the main watershed and border between Switzerland and Italy.[note 4] It is a large, near-symmetric pyramidal peak in the extended Monte Rosa area of the Pennine Alps, whose summit is 4,478 metres (14,692 ft) above sea level, making it one of the highest summits in the Alps and Europe.[note 5] Sometimes referred to as the Mountain of Mountains (German: Berg der Berge),[5] it has become an indelible emblem of the Alps and stands as the most photographed mountain in the world.[6] The Matterhorn has four faces, each roughly oriented toward one of the four cardinal points. Three of these (north, east, and west) are on the Swiss side of the border and watershed, while the south face lies on the Italian side.[7][8] These four steep faces, rising above the surrounding glaciers, are separated by the Hörnli, Furggen, Zmutt, and Leone (Lion) ridges. The mountain overlooks the Swiss town of Zermatt, in the canton of Valais, to the northeast, and the Italian town of Breuil-Cervinia in the Aosta Valley to the south. Just east of the Matterhorn is Theodul Pass, the main passage between the two valleys on its north and south sides, which has been a trade route since the Roman era. The Matterhorn was studied by Horace-Bénédict de Saussure in the late 18th century; this was followed by other renowned naturalists and artists, such as John Ruskin, in the 19th century. It remained unclimbed after most of the other great Alpine peaks had been attained and became the subject of an international competition for the summit. The first ascent of the Matterhorn was in 1865 from Zermatt by a party led by Edward Whymper, but during the descent, a sudden fall claimed the lives of four of the seven climbers. This disaster, later portrayed in several films, marked the end of the golden age of alpinism.[9] The north face was not climbed until 1931 and is among the three biggest north faces of the Alps, known as The Trilogy. The west face, the highest of the Matterhorns four faces, was completely climbed only in 1962. It is estimated that over 500 alpinists have died on the Matterhorn, making it one of the deadliest peaks in the world.[10] The Matterhorn is mainly composed of gneisses (originally fragments of the African plate before the Alpine orogeny) from the Dent Blanche nappe, lying over ophiolites and sedimentary rocks of the Penninic nappes. The mountains current shape is the result of cirque erosion due to multiple glaciers diverging from the peak, such as the Matterhorn Glacier at the base of the north face. Since the end of the 19th century, when railways were built in the area, the mountain has attracted increasing numbers of visitors and climbers. Each year, numerous mountaineers try to climb the Matterhorn from the Hörnli Hut via the northeast Hörnli ridge, the most popular route to the summit. Many trekkers also undertake the 10-day-long circuit around the mountain. The Matterhorn has been part of the Swiss Federal Inventory of Natural Monuments since 1983. The name Matterhorn derives from the German words Matte (meadow) and Horn (horn),[11] and is often translated as the peak of the meadows.[2] In the Schalbetter map, printed by Sebastian Münster in 1545, the valley is labelled Mattertal, but the mountain has the Latin name Mons Silvius as well as the German name Augstalberg, in concord with the Aosta Valley (German Augstal). The 1548 map by Johannes Stumpf gives only Mons Silvius.
Indonesian archipelago. The Indonesian archipelago (Indonesian: Kepulauan Indonesia) is a large collection of over 17,000 to 18,000 islands[6][7] located between the Indian and Pacific Oceans in Southeast Asia and Oceania.[8] It is the worlds largest archipelago,[9] with five main islands—Sumatra, Java, Borneo (shared with Malaysia and Brunei), Sulawesi, and New Guinea (shared with Papua New Guinea). Indonesia is famous for its biodiversity, unique animals and ecosystems that range from tropical rainforests to volcanoes, making it one of the most biodiverse countries in the world.[10][11] The cultural heritage of the Indonesian archipelago reflects a profound diversity, encompassing hundreds of distinct ethnic groups and languages. Its strategic location and natural resources have long made Indonesia an important trading center and a major player in regional and global affairs. Influenced by Hindu, Buddhist, Islamic, and European colonial cultures, Indonesia gained independence in 1945. The Indonesian archipelago consists of about 6,000 inhabited islands, with many others that are uninhabited.[3] These islands range from densely populated Java—often regarded as the economic and cultural heart of Indonesia, home to numerous candi (temples), including Borobudur, the world’s largest Buddhist temple—to small, remote islands. Bali is known as a tourist destination, famous for its nature and culture making it one of the most popular tourist destinations in the world, Sumatra with its natural resources and strategic position on the Malacca Strait, and Komodo with its unique lizards. The Maluku Islands, or Rem-pah Islands, have an important history in the world spice trade.[12] The term Indonesian Archipelago, derived from the Greek Indos meaning India referring to the Indian subcontinent and nesos meaning island, literally translating to Indian Archipelago.[13] The Indonesian archipelago is the largest archipelago in the world, consisting of large islands such as Sumatra, Java, Kalimantan, Sulawesi, and Papua, as well as 17,000 to 18,000 medium-sized and small islands spread across the Indian Ocean and Pacific Ocean. Within the Indonesian archipelago, the “Sunda Islands” form an important subgroup, divided into the Greater Sunda Islands -islands in the western part of Indonesia such as Sumatra, Java, Borneo (Kalimantan), and Sulawesi - known for their large size and dense population and the Lesser Sunda Islands, which extend eastward from Bali and are characterized by smaller islands such as Lombok, Sumbawa, Flores, and Timor, each of which has a distinct ecology. The term Nusantara, often an alternative name for the Indonesian archipelago, comes from Old Javanese,[14][15] which emphasizes unity as a maritime nation with diverse cultures and vast landscapes. The term is closely associated with the Majapahit era in Java, a period characterized by extensive maritime dominance in the region, which matched the boundaries of present-day Indonesia. Majapahits influence extended through trade networks, maritime routes and the influence of a shared cultural heritage that shaped its identity.[16]
Tabletop game. Tabletop games or tabletops are games that are normally played on a table or other flat surface, such as board games, card games, dice games, miniature wargames, tabletop role-playing games, or tile-based games.[1][2] Tabletop games can be classified according to the general form, or equipment utilized:[3] Games like chess and draughts are examples of games belonging to the board game category. Other games, however, use various attributes and cannot be classified unambiguously (e.g. Monopoly and many modern eurogames utilize a board as well as dice and cards). For several of these categories there are sub-categories and even sub-sub-categories or genres. For instance, German-style board games, board wargames, and roll-and-move games are all types of board games that differ markedly in style and general interest.
Iisalmi. Iisalmi (Finnish: [ˈiːsɑlmi]; Swedish: Idensalmi)[5] is a town and municipality in the region of Northern Savonia in Finland. It is located 87 kilometres (54 mi) north of Kuopio and south of Kajaani. The municipality has a population of 20,330 (30 June 2025),[2] which makes it the second largest of the five towns in Northern Savonia in population, only Kuopio being larger. It covers an area of 872.20 square kilometres (336.76 sq mi) of which 109.22 km2 (42.17 sq mi) is water.[1] The population density is 26.65 inhabitants per square kilometre (69.0/sq mi). The municipality is unilingually Finnish. In the 2010s, Iisalmi is known as an export industry town,[6][7] as well as a significant study town in the region.[8] Iisalmi traces its roots back to 1627, when the parish of Iisalmi was formed around the local church.[9] The towns old wooden church, Gustav Adolf Church, was consecrated in 1780.[10] In the 18th century, when Finland was under Swedish control, Sweden was frequently at war with Imperial Russia, and the area of Koljonvirta in Iisalmi was a battlefield on which one of the greatest Swedish victories (and the last Swedish victory on Finnish soil) occurred. However, Sweden lost its last war with Russia and had to surrender Finland to the Russian Empire in 1809.
Glossary of board games. This glossary of board games explains commonly used terms in board games, in alphabetical order. For a list of board games, see List of board games; for terms specific to chess, see Glossary of chess; for terms specific to chess problems, see Glossary of chess problems.
Summit (disambiguation). A summit is the highest point of a mountain, hill, road, or railway. Summit may also refer to:
East Sea (Chinese literature). The East Sea (simplified Chinese: 东海; traditional Chinese: 東海; pinyin: Dōng Hǎi), one of the Four Seas, is identified as the body of water east of the mainland according to ancient Chinese geography. In Chinese literature, the Four Seas are a metaphor for the boundaries of China.[1] It contains modern day East China Sea as well as the Yellow Sea and Bohai Sea. In Chinese mythology, East Sea is the domain of Ao Guang, the Donghai Longwang (東海龍王), or the Dragon King of the Eastern Sea, who is responsible for controlling its storms and tides. Supposedly, the Dragon King resides in a large Dragon Palace, the Donghai Longgong (東海龍宮), located at its bottom. In the Classic of Mountains and Seas（《山海经》）, the Dragon King of the East China Sea is the god of the rain department, but it maintains a greater special freedom, and human rainfall is completed by the dragon King of other rivers, lakes and Wells, and rarely needs the East Sea Dragon King to rain himself. The power of maritime jurisdiction is owned by the dragon King, and the Heavenly Court is generally autonomous. Ruling the sea of the East China Sea, dominating rain, thunder, floods, tides, tsunamis, etc. In China, the eastern Wei is respected, and according to the Zhouyi《周易》, the East is Yang, so it is natural that the Dragon King of the East China Sea ranks first. This article related to Chinese mythology is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
Imja Tse. Imja Tse, better known as Island Peak, is a mountain in Sagarmatha National Park in the Himalayas of eastern Nepal. The peak was named Island Peak in 1953 by members of the British Mount Everest expedition because it appears as an island in a sea of ice when viewed from Dingboche.[4] The peak was later renamed in 1983 to Imja Tse but Island Peak remains the popular choice.[5] The peak is actually an extension of the ridge coming down off the south end of Lhotse Shar. The southwest summit of Imja Tse was first climbed in 1953 as part of a training exercise by a British expedition that went on to summit Mount Everest. The team that climbed Imja Tse comprised Tenzing Norgay, Charles Evans, Alfred Gregory, Charles Wylie and seven other Sherpas. The main summit was first climbed in 1956 by Hans-Rudolf Von Gunten and two unknown Sherpas, members of a Swiss team that went on to make the second ascent of Everest and the first ascent of Lhotse.[6][7] To climb Island Peak, one has the option of starting from a base camp at 5,087 metres (16,690 ft) called Pareshaya Gyab and starting the climb between 2 and 3 A.M. Another popular option is to ascend to High Camp at around 5,600 metres (18,400 ft) to reduce the amount of effort and time needed for summit day. However, an adequate water supply and concerns about sleeping at a higher altitude may dictate starting from base camp. Base camp to high camp is basically a hike but just above high camp, some rocky steps require moderate scrambling up through a broad open gully. At the top of the gully, glacier travel begins and proceeds up a steep snow and ice slope. From here, fixed ropes may be set up by the guides for the strenuous ascent of nearly 100 metres (330 ft) to the summit ridge. The climb to the summit is somewhat difficult due to steep climbing. On top, while Mount Everest is a mere ten kilometres away to the north, the view is blocked by the massive wall of Lhotse, towering 2,300 m (7,500 ft) above the summit. A substantial crevasse along most of the headwall leading to the summit ridge has sometimes caused teams to turn back. In April 2009, the Nepal Mountaineering Association tasked the Nepal Mountaineering Instructors Association with installing stairs (ladders) at the crevasse.[8] As of the 2016 fall climbing season, a 5-metre high fixed aluminum ladder is being used to cross the crevasse.
Sea of Japan naming dispute. A dispute exists over the international name for the body of water which is bordered by Japan, Korea (North and South) and Russia. In 1992, objections to the name Sea of Japan were first raised by North Korea and South Korea at the Sixth United Nations Conference on the Standardization of Geographical Names.[1] The Japanese government supports the exclusive use of the name Sea of Japan (Japanese: 日本海, Hepburn: Nihon-kai), while South Korea supports the alternative name East Sea (Korean: 동해; Hanja: 東海), and North Korea supports the name Korean East Sea (조선동해; 朝鮮東海). Currently, most international maps and documents use either the name Sea of Japan (or equivalent translation) by itself, or include both the name Sea of Japan and East Sea, often with East Sea listed in parentheses or otherwise marked as a secondary name. The International Hydrographic Organization (IHO) adopted the name “Japan Sea” in 1929 publication “Limits of Oceans and Seas (S-23)”, and maintained it in subsequent editions in 1939 and 1953. The primary reasons for this adoption was that Japan was an emerging global power with significant international influence, while Korea was under Japanese colonial rule (1910-1945) and Korean War (1950-1953). South Korea has challenged this since gaining independence, arguing they had no opportunity to participate in the naming process. Their diplomatic efforts have led the IHO to acknowledge the dispute. The attempt to publish a new edition of Limits of Oceans and Seas has been delayed for decades because of the inability to resolve this naming dispute. [2][3][4][5] In 2020, the IHO has moved toward a new standard (S-130), which uses numerical identifiers for sea areas instead of sea area names in S-23.[6] The involved countries (especially Japan and South Korea) have advanced a variety of arguments to support their preferred name(s). Many of the arguments revolve around determining when the name Sea of Japan became the common name. South Korea argues that historically the more common name was East Sea, Sea of Korea, or another similar variant. South Korea further argues that the name Sea of Japan did not become common until Korea was under Japanese rule, at which time it had no ability to influence international affairs. Japan argues that the name Sea of Japan has been the most common international name since at least the beginning of the 19th century, long before its annexation of Korea, and it was in use during its period of isolation when Japan had little to no contact with foreign nations.[6] Both sides have conducted studies of antiquarian maps, but the two countries have produced divergent research results. Additional arguments have been raised regarding the underlying geography of the sea as well as potential problems regarding the ambiguity of one name or the other. Both sides in the dispute have put forward a number of arguments to support their claims.
Summit (meeting). A summit meeting (or just summit) is an international meeting of heads of state or government, usually with considerable media exposure, tight security, and a prearranged agenda. Notable summit meetings include those of Franklin D. Roosevelt, Winston Churchill, and Joseph Stalin during World War II. However, the term summit was not commonly used for such meetings until the Geneva Summit (1955).[1] During the Cold War, when American presidents joined with Soviet or Chinese counterparts for one-on-one meetings, the media labelled the event as a summit. The post–Cold War era has produced an increase in the number of summit events. Nowadays, international summits are the most common expression for global governance.[2] Summit diplomacy not only fosters interpersonal trust between leaders but also reinforces system trust in the state-as-person construct, which is identified as the implicit glue holding the international system together.[3]
Katakana. Katakana (片仮名、カタカナ; IPA: [katakaꜜna, kataꜜkana]) is a Japanese syllabary, one component of the Japanese writing system along with hiragana,[2] kanji and in some cases the Latin script (known as rōmaji). The word katakana means fragmentary kana, as the katakana characters are derived from components or fragments of more complex kanji. Katakana and hiragana are both kana systems. With one or two minor exceptions, each syllable (strictly mora) in the Japanese language is represented by one character or kana in each system. Each kana represents either a vowel such as a (katakana ア); a consonant followed by a vowel such as ka (katakana カ); or n (katakana ン), a nasal sonorant which, depending on the context, sounds like English m, n or ng ([ŋ]) or like the nasal vowels of Portuguese or Galician.[3] In contrast to the hiragana syllabary, which is used for Japanese words not covered by kanji and for grammatical inflections, the katakana syllabary usage is comparable to italics in English; specifically, it is used for transcription of foreign-language words into Japanese and the writing of loan words (collectively gairaigo); for emphasis; to represent onomatopoeia; for technical and scientific terms; and for names of plants, animals, minerals and often Japanese companies. Katakana evolved from Japanese Buddhist monks transliterating Chinese texts into Japanese.[4]
Geomorphology (journal). Geomorphology is a peer-reviewed scientific journal about geomorphology. This article about a journal on geomorphology is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. See tips for writing articles about academic journals. Further suggestions might be found on the articles talk page.
Monopoly (game). Monopoly is a multiplayer economics-themed board game. In the game, players roll two dice (or 1 extra special red die) to move around the game board, buying and trading properties and developing them with houses and hotels. Players collect rent from their opponents and aim to drive them into bankruptcy. Money can also be gained or lost through Chance and Community Chest cards and tax squares. Players receive a salary every time they pass Go and can end up in jail, from which they cannot move until they have met one of three conditions. House rules, hundreds of different editions, many spin-offs, and related media exist. Monopoly has become a part of international popular culture, having been licensed locally in more than 113 countries and printed in more than 46 languages. As of 2015[update], it was estimated that the game had sold 275 million copies worldwide.[6] The properties on the original game board were named after locations in and around Atlantic City, New Jersey. The game is named after the economic concept of a monopoly—the domination of a market by a single entity. The game is derived from The Landlords Game, created in 1903 in the United States by Lizzie Magie, as a way to demonstrate that an economy rewarding individuals is better than one where monopolies hold all the wealth.[1][7] It also served to promote the economic theories of Henry George—in particular, his ideas about taxation.[8] The Landlords Game originally had two sets of rules, one with tax and another on which the current rules are mainly based. Parker Brothers first published Monopoly in 1935. Parker Brothers was eventually absorbed into Hasbro in 1991. The history of Monopoly can be traced back to 1903,[1][9] when American anti-monopolist Lizzie Magie created a game called The Landlords Game that she hoped would explain the single-tax theory of Henry George as laid out in his book Progress and Poverty. She devised the key features of the game. It was intended as an educational tool to illustrate the negative aspects of concentrating land in private monopolies. She took out a patent in 1904. This shows the games characteristic features of a square circuit consisting of corner squares (one the starting point) and a series of intervening spaces where players went round and round until the games goal was reached. The railway stations were hazards, demanding a $5 fine. Players received money after completing each circuit. This design was different from other board games of the time. It is possible, but not definitely known, that she was inspired by a game called Zohn Ahl, played by the Kiowa which had a similar shaped board but different rules, and was described in a book about games in 1898.[10][11] Her game was self-published beginning in 1906.[12][13]
Badlands. Badlands are a type of dry terrain where softer sedimentary rocks and clay-rich soils have been extensively eroded.[1] They are characterized by steep slopes, minimal vegetation, lack of a substantial regolith, and high drainage density.[2] Ravines, gullies, buttes, hoodoos and other such geologic forms are common in badlands. Badlands are found on every continent except Antarctica, being most common where there are unconsolidated sediments. They are often difficult to navigate by foot, and are unsuitable for agriculture. Most are a result of natural processes, but destruction of vegetation by overgrazing or pollution can produce anthropogenic badlands. Badlands are characterized by a distinctive badlands topography.[3][4] This is terrain in which water erosion has cut a very large number of deep drainage channels, separated by short, steep ridges (interfluves).[5] Such a drainage system is said to have a very fine drainage texture,[6] as measured by its drainage density. Drainage density is defined as the total length of drainage channels per unit area of land surface. Badlands have a very high drainage density of 48 to 464 kilometres per square kilometre (77 to 747 miles per square mile).[5] The numerous deep drainage channels and high interfluves creates a stark landscape of hills, gullies, and ravines.[3] In addition to a dense system of drainages and interfluves, badlands often contain buttes and hoodoos. These are formed by resistant beds of sandstone, which form the caprock of the buttes and hoodoos.[4] Badlands arise from a combination of an impermeable but easily eroded ground surface, sparse vegetation, and infrequent but heavy rainfall.[6] The surface bedrock is typically mudrock, sometimes with evaporites, with only occasional beds of more resistant sandstone.[5] Infrequent heavy rains lead to heavy erosional dissection. Where sudden precipitation cannot penetrate impermeable clays, it is channeled into a very dense system of streamlets that erode a dense system of ever-enlarging, coalescing gulleys and ravines. Erosion is enhanced by pelting raindrops that dislodge soft sediments. The presence of bentonite clay further increases erodibility, as can rejuvenation of the drainage system from regional uplift, as occurred at Badlands National Park.[4]
Grove Karl Gilbert. Grove Karl Gilbert (May 6, 1843 – May 1, 1918), known by the abbreviated name G. K. Gilbert in academic literature, was an American geologist. Gilbert was born in Rochester, New York, the youngest of three kids of the painter Grove Sheldon Gilbert, and his wife, Eliza.[1] He graduated from the University of Rochester. During the American Civil War, he was twice listed for the draft, but his name was drawn neither time.[2] In 1871, he joined George M. Wheelers geographical survey as its first geologist. Gilbert joined the Powell Survey of the Rocky Mountain Region in 1874, becoming Powells primary assistant, and stayed with the survey until 1879.[3] During this time he published an important monograph, The Geology of the Henry Mountains (1877). After the U.S. Geological Survey was created in 1879, he was appointed to the position of Senior Geologist and worked for the USGS until his death (including a term as acting director). Gilbert published a study of the former ancient Lake Bonneville in 1890 (the lake existed during the Pleistocene), of which the Great Salt Lake is a remnant. He named it after the army captain Benjamin Bonneville, who had explored the region. The type of river delta that Gilbert described at this location has since become known to geomorphologists as a Gilbert delta.[4]
Shale. Shale is a fine-grained, clastic sedimentary rock formed from mud that is a mix of flakes of clay minerals (hydrous aluminium phyllosilicates, e.g., kaolin, Al2Si2O5(OH)4) and tiny fragments (silt-sized particles) of other minerals, especially quartz and calcite.[1] Shale is characterized by its tendency to split into thin layers (laminae) less than one centimeter in thickness. This property is called fissility.[1] Shale is the most common sedimentary rock.[2] The term shale is sometimes applied more broadly, as essentially a synonym for mudrock, rather than in the narrower sense of clay-rich fissile mudrock.[3] Shale typically exhibits varying degrees of fissility. Because of the parallel orientation of clay mineral flakes in shale, it breaks into thin layers, often splintery and usually parallel to the otherwise indistinguishable bedding planes.[4] Non-fissile rocks of similar composition and particle size (less than 0.0625 mm) are described as mudstones (1/3 to 2/3 silt particles) or claystones (less than 1/3 silt). Rocks with similar particle sizes but with less clay (greater than 2/3 silt) and therefore grittier are siltstones.[4][5] Shales are typically gray in color and are composed of clay minerals and quartz grains. The addition of variable amounts of minor constituents alters the color of the rock. Red, brown and green colors are indicative of ferric oxide (hematite – reds), iron hydroxide (goethite – browns and limonite – yellow), or micaceous minerals (chlorite, biotite and illite – greens).[4] The color shifts from reddish to greenish as iron in the oxidized (ferric) state is converted to iron in the reduced (ferrous) state.[6] Black shale results from the presence of greater than one percent carbonaceous material and indicates a reducing environment.[4] Pale blue to blue-green shales typically are rich in carbonate minerals.[7]
Fremont River. The Fremont River is a 95-mile (153 km) long river in southeastern Utah, United States that flows from the Johnson Valley Reservoir, which is located on the Wasatch Plateau near Fish Lake, southeast through Capitol Reef National Park to the Muddy Creek near Hanksville where the two rivers combine to form the Dirty Devil River, a tributary of the Colorado River.[2][3][4][5] The Johnson Valley Reservoir is fed by Sevenmile Creek (from the north) and Lake Creek (from the southwest). The Fremont River passes through Fremont, Loa, Lyman, Bicknell, Teasdale, and Torrey and provides year-round irrigation for the agricultural lands of Rabbit Valley and Caineville. Then it heads through Hanksville and afterward to its mouth. The Fremont River has a drainage area of 751 square miles (1,950 km2) fed by spring snowmelt off Thousand Lake Mountain, Boulder Mountain, and the northern Henry Mountains. The river is named after John Charles Frémont.[4] It gives its name to the Fremont culture, a Precolumbian archaeological culture. Flow (ft^3/s), by month (1977–2003), at Bicknell gauging station:[1] Media related to Fremont River (Utah) at Wikimedia Commons
Washington (state). Washington, officially the State of Washington,[5] is a state in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States. It is often referred to as Washington state[a] to distinguish it from the national capital,[6] both named after George Washington (the first U.S. president). Washington borders the Pacific Ocean to the west, Oregon to the south, Idaho to the east, and shares an international border with the Canadian province of British Columbia to the north. Olympia is the state capital, and the most populous city is Seattle. Washington is the 18th-largest state, with an area of 71,362 square miles (184,830 km2), and the 13th-most populous state, with a population of just less than 8 million.[2] The majority of Washingtons residents live in the Seattle metropolitan area, the center of transportation, business, and industry on Puget Sound,[7][8] an inlet of the Pacific Ocean consisting of numerous islands, deep fjords and bays carved out by glaciers. The remainder of the state consists of deep temperate rainforests in the west; mountain ranges in the west, center, northeast, and far southeast, and a semi-arid basin region in the east, center, and south, given over to intensive agriculture. Washington is the second most populous state on the West Coast and in the Western United States, after California. Mount Rainier, an active stratovolcano, is the states highest elevation at 14,411 feet (4,392 meters), and is the most topographically prominent mountain in the contiguous U.S. Washington is a leading lumber producer, the largest producer of apples, hops, pears, blueberries, spearmint oil, and sweet cherries in the U.S., and ranks high in the production of apricots, asparagus, dry edible peas, grapes, lentils, peppermint oil, and potatoes.[9][10] Livestock, livestock products, and commercial fishing—particularly of salmon, halibut, and bottomfish—are also significant contributors to the states economy.[11] Washington ranks third in wine production. Manufacturing industries in Washington include aircraft, missiles, shipbuilding, and other transportation equipment, food processing, metals, and metal products, chemicals, and machinery.[12] The state was formed from the western part of the Washington Territory, which was ceded by the British Empire in the Oregon Treaty of 1846. It was admitted to the Union as the 42nd state in 1889. One of the wealthiest and most socially liberal states in the country,[13] Washington consistently ranks among the top states for highest life expectancy and employment rates.[14] It was one of the first states (alongside Colorado) to legalize medicinal and recreational cannabis,[15] was among the first states to introduce same-sex marriage,[16] and permitted legal abortions on request before Roe v. Wade in 1973.[17]
Geography (disambiguation). Geography is the study of Earth and its features, inhabitants, and phenomena. Geography may also refer to:
List of seas on Earth. This is a list of seas of the World Ocean, including marginal seas, areas of water, various gulfs, bights, bays, and straits.[2] In many cases it is a matter of tradition for a body of water to be named a sea or a bay, etc., therefore all these types are listed here. Entities called seas which are not divisions of the World Ocean are not included in this list, nor are ocean gyres. There are several terms used for bulges of ocean that result from indentations of land, which overlap in definition, and which are not consistently differentiated:[12] Many features could be considered to be more than one of these, and all of these terms are used in place names inconsistently; especially bays, gulfs, and bights, which can be very large or very small. This list includes large areas of water no matter the term used in the name. The largest terrestrial seas, in decreasing order of area, are:
Finland. – in Europe (green & dark grey)– in the European Union (green) – [Legend] Finland,[a] officially the Republic of Finland,[b][c] is a Nordic country in Northern Europe. It borders Sweden to the northwest, Norway to the north, and Russia to the east, with the Gulf of Bothnia to the west and the Gulf of Finland to the south, opposite Estonia. Finland has a population of 5.6 million,[13] the majority being ethnic Finns. Its capital and largest city is Helsinki. The official languages are Finnish and Swedish, the mother tongues of 84.1 percent and 5.1 percent of the population, respectively.[1][14] Finlands climate varies from humid continental in the south to boreal in the north. Its land is predominantly covered by boreal forest, with over 180,000 recorded lakes.[15][16] Finland was first settled around 9000 BC after the last Ice Age.[17] During the Stone Age, various cultures emerged, distinguished by different styles of ceramics. The Bronze Age and Iron Ages were marked by contacts with other cultures in Fennoscandia and the Baltic region.[18] From the late 13th century, Finland became part of Sweden following the Northern Crusades. In 1809, as a result of the Finnish War, Finland was captured from Sweden and became an autonomous grand duchy within the Russian Empire. During this period, Finnish art flourished and an independence movement gradually developed. Following the Russian Revolution of 1917, Finland declared its independence. A civil war ensued the following year, with the anticommunist Whites emerging victorious. Finlands status as a republic was confirmed in 1919. During World War II, Finland fought against the Soviet Union in the Winter War and the Continuation War, and later against Nazi Germany in the Lapland War. As a result, it lost parts of its territory to the Soviet Union but retained its independence and democracy. During the Cold War, Finland embraced an official policy of neutrality. After the Cold War, Finland became a member of the European Union in 1995 and the Eurozone in 1999. Following the Russian invasion of Ukraine, Finland joined NATO in 2023.
Batuan, Bohol. Batuan, officially the Municipality of Batuan (Cebuano: Lungsod sa Batuan; Tagalog: Bayan ng Batuan), is a municipality in the province of Bohol, Philippines. According to the 2020 census, it has a population of 13,845 people.[5] Batuan covers a total area of 7,908 hectares (19,540 acres) comprising fifteen barangays as per the Municipal Comprehensive Development Plan for 1983–1992. However, a certification of the land area of Batuan, issued by ARED for operations, DENR Regional Office Region No. 7 Cebu City on 26 November 2001 at the instance of the LGU in connection with its Comprehensive Land Use Plan (CLUP) preparation work, showed a land area of only 4,878 hectares (12,050 acres), but that included only eleven barangays and excluded four—Quirino, Aloja, Behind the Clouds and Garcia. Located within the provinces tourist area, Batuan is the gateway to the Chocolate Hills, being only about 3 kilometres (1.9 mi) from the Chocolate Hills complex in Carmen. Batuan celebrates its fiesta on July 25, to honor the town patron Saint James.[6] This interior town used to be a barrio of Bilar during the Spanish regime and was called Lindugon. During the early years of the American regime, this barrio was made into a municipality by Act No. 968 dated Oct 31, 1903 that provided the following: “The Municipality of Batuan shall consist of the territory of the barrio of Batuan in the present Municipality of Bilar, with the seat of the municipal government at the present barrio of Batuan.” (Acts of the Philippine Commission, Vol. XIV. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1904).
Bilar, Bohol. Bilar, officially the Municipality of Bilar (Cebuano: Munisipalidad sa Bilar; Tagalog: Bayan ng Bilar), is a municipality in the province of Bohol, Philippines. According to the 2020 census, it has a population of 18,512 people.[5] Bilar is 42 kilometres (26 mi) from Tagbilaran. Bilar celebrates its fiesta on May 15, to honor the town patron Saint Isidore the Farmer.[6] Bilar is politically subdivided into 19 barangays. Each barangay consists of puroks and some have sitios.
Geo. Geo- is a prefix derived from the Greek word γη or γαια, meaning earth, usually in the sense of ground or land”. GEO or Geo may also refer to:
Sagbayan. Sagbayan, officially the Municipality of Sagbayan (Cebuano: Munisipyo sa Sagbayan; Tagalog: Bayan ng Sagbayan), is a municipality in the province of Bohol, Philippines. According to the 2020 census, it has a population of 24,335 people.[6] Its main attraction is Sagbayan Peak, a tourism site overlooking a scenic valley with an observation platform and childrens playground.[7] While some similar hill formations are visible, it is not within the main Chocolate Hills area. Sagbayan is 74 kilometres (46 mi) from Tagbilaran. Sagbayan celebrates its feast on May 4/August 28, to honor the town patron San Agustin.[8] The name Sagbayan came from the combination of the local words Sag which means nest, and Bay (short of Balay) which means house. Therefore, Sagbayan means a place for making tree-houses.
North Asia. North Asia or Northern Asia (Russian: Северная Азия) is the northern region of Asia, which is defined in geographical terms and consists of three federal districts of Russia: Ural, Siberian, and the Far Eastern. North Asia is bordered by the Arctic Ocean to its north; by Eastern Europe to its west; by Central Asia and East Asia to its south; and by the Pacific Ocean and Northern America to its east. It covers an area of 13,100,000 square kilometres (5,100,000 sq mi), or 8.8% of Earths total land area; and is the largest subregion of Asia by area, occupying approx. 29.4% of Asias land area, but is also the least populated, with a population of around 37 million, accounting for merely 0.74% of Asias population. Topographically, the region is dominated by the Eurasian Plate, except for its eastern part, which lies on the North American, Amurian, and Okhotsk Plates. It is divided by three major plains: the West Siberian Plain, Central Siberian Plateau, and Verhoyansk-Chukotka collision zone. The Uralian orogeny in the west raised Ural Mountains, the informal boundary between Asia and Europe. Tectonic and volcanic activities are frequently occurred in the eastern part of the region as part of the Ring of Fire, evidenced by the formation of island arcs such as the Kuril Islands and ultra-prominent peaks such as Klyuchevskaya Sopka, Kronotsky, and Koryaksky. The central part of North Asia is a large igneous province called the Siberian Traps, formed by a massive eruption which occurred 250 million years ago. The formation of the traps coincided with the Permian–Triassic extinction event. Geographically, North Asia is a subregion of Asia. Historically, it has been home to various East Asian-related ethnic groups from a diverse range of language families, including the Ainu, Chukotko-Kamchatkan, Mongolic, Nivkh, Tungusic, Turkic, Uralic, Yeniseian, Yukaghir, and Eskaleut peoples. However, due to the Russian conquest of Siberia, the entirety of North Asia was colonised and incorporated into Russia. Consequently, some international organisations classify North Asia as part of Eastern Europe along with European Russia, rather than as a part of Asia. European cultural influences, specifically Russian, are predominant in the entire region, due to it experiencing Russian emigration from Europe starting from the 16th century.[2] Slavs and other Indo-Europeans make up the vast majority of North Asias population, and over 85% of the regions population is of European descent,[3][4] whereas the indigenous peoples comprise only about 5% of the North Asian population.[5] The region was first populated by hominins in the Late Pleistocene, approximately 100,000 years ago,[6] and modern humans are confirmed to arrived in the region by 45,000 years ago[7][8] with the first humans in the region having West Eurasian origins.[9] Its Neolithic culture is characterized by characteristic stone production techniques and the presence of pottery of eastern origin.[9] The Bronze Age began during the 3rd millennium BCE,[10] with influences of Indo-Iranian cultures as evidenced by the Andronovo culture. During the 1st millennium BCE, polities such as the Scythians and Xiongnus emerged in the region, who often clashed with its Persian and Chinese neighbors in the south.
East Asia. East Asia is a geocultural region of Asia. It includes China, Japan, Mongolia, North Korea, South Korea, and Taiwan,[2][3] plus two special administrative regions of China, Hong Kong and Macau. The economies of China, Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan are among the worlds largest and most prosperous. East Asia borders North Asia to the north, Southeast Asia to the south, South Asia to the southwest, and Central Asia to the west. To its east is the Pacific Ocean. East Asia, especially Chinese civilization, is regarded as one of the earliest cradles of civilization. Other ancient civilizations in East Asia that still exist as independent countries in the present day include the Japanese, Korean, and Mongolian civilizations. Various other civilizations existed as independent polities in East Asia in the past but have since been absorbed into neighbouring civilizations in the present day, such as Tibet, Manchuria, and Ryukyu (Okinawa), among many others. Taiwan has a relatively young history in the region after the prehistoric era; originally, it was a major site of Austronesian civilisation prior to colonisation by European colonial powers and China from the 17th century onward. For thousands of years, China was the leading civilization in the region, exerting influence on its neighbours.[5][6][7] Historically, societies in East Asia have fallen within the Chinese sphere of influence, and East Asian vocabularies and scripts are often derived from Classical Chinese and Chinese script. The Chinese calendar serves as the root from which many other East Asian calendars are derived. Major religions in East Asia include Buddhism (mostly Mahayana),[8] Confucianism and Neo-Confucianism, Taoism,[9] ancestral worship, and Chinese folk religion in Mainland China, Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan, Shinto in Japan, and Christianity and Musok in Korea.[10][11][12] Tengerism and Tibetan Buddhism are prevalent among Mongols and Tibetans while other religions such as Shamanism are widespread among the indigenous populations of northeastern China such as the Manchus.[13] The major languages in East Asia include Mandarin Chinese, Japanese, and Korean. The major ethnic groups of East Asia include the Han in China and Taiwan, Yamato in Japan, Koreans in North and South Korea, and Mongols in Mongolia. There are 76 officially-recognized minority or indigenous ethnic groups in East Asia; 55 native to mainland China (including Hui, Manchus, Chinese Mongols, Tibetans, Uyghurs, and Zhuang in the frontier regions), 16 native to the island of Taiwan (collectively known as Taiwanese indigenous peoples), one native to the major Japanese island of Hokkaido (the Ainu) and four native to Mongolia (Turkic peoples). The Ryukyuan people are an unrecognized ethnic group indigenous to the Ryukyu Islands in southern Japan, which stretch from Kyushu to Taiwan. There are also several unrecognized indigenous ethnic groups in mainland China and Taiwan. East Asians comprise around 1.7 billion people, making up about 33% of the population in continental Asia and 20% of the global population.[14][needs update] The region is home to major world metropolises such as Beijing–Tianjin, Busan–Daegu–Ulsan–Changwon, Guangzhou, Hong Kong, Osaka–Kyoto–Kobe, Seoul, Shanghai, Shenzhen, Taipei, and Tokyo. Although the coastal and riparian areas of the region form one of the worlds most populated places, the population in Mongolia and Western China, both landlocked areas, is very sparsely distributed, with Mongolia having the lowest population density of a sovereign state. The overall population density of the region is 133 inhabitants per square kilometre (340/sq mi), about three times the world average of 45/km2 (120/sq mi).[when?][citation needed] China was the first region settled in East Asia and was undoubtedly the core of East Asian civilization from where other parts of East Asia were formed. The various other regions in East Asia were selective in the Chinese influences they adopted into their local customs. Historian Ping-ti Ho referred to China as the cradle of Eastern civilization, in parallel with the cradle of Middle Eastern civilization along the Fertile Crescent encompassing Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt[15] as well as the cradle of Western civilization encompassing Ancient Greece.
Carmen, Bohol. Carmen, officially the Municipality of Carmen (Cebuano: Munisipalidad sa Carmen; Tagalog: Bayan ng Carmen), is a municipality in the province of Bohol, Philippines. According to the 2020 census, it has a population of 49,191 people.[5] Carmen celebrates its fiesta on January 17, to honor the town patron Saint Anthony de Abbot.[6] Carmen was originally part of the municipality of Bilar and called Imbaya, after the name of a stream in the settlement.[7] During the Spanish time, it was inhabited by not more than fifty families. In 1868, the people of Carmen petitioned for its independence since its population grew to an unprecedented number. The town of Carmen was founded on 1 March 1869 by final order of Governor General Jose de la Gandara and renamed at the same time in honor of the Lady of Carmel of Spain. In 1874, Carmen had its separate parish with Father Pedro Nolasco San Juan as the first parish priest. Due to the influence of Spanish culture and tradition, all barangays of Carmen have a patron saint as well as a Spanish name, who are celebrated in an annual barangay fiesta. In World War II, Carmen served as the stronghold of the guerrilla resistance movement and the local civil government because of its strategic location.
Hirohito Ōta. Hirohito Ōta (太田宏人, ōta hirohito; April 1, 1970 – 2018) was a Japanese freelance writer and Zen monk. Hirohito was a researcher of Japanese graves and missionary history in South America with a focus on Peru. He was the Japanese editor for the Japanese-language Peru newspaper Peru Shinpō. He graduated from Kokugakuin University with a degree in Shintō studies. He was devoted to the study of Suika Shintō, a branch of Shintō developed by Yamazaki Ansai, religious sociality, and the religious activities of Lafcadio Hearn. Many of his articles dealt with Japanese Peruvians, Japanese Buddhism, and Peruvians in Japan. This article about a Japanese writer, poet, or screenwriter is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
Cebuano language. Cebuano (/sɛˈbwɑːnoʊ/ se-BWAH-noh)[2][3][4] is an Austronesian language spoken in the southern Philippines by Cebuano people and other ethnic groups as a secondary language. It is natively, though informally, called by the generic name Bisayâ (Cebuano pronunciation: [bisəˈjaʔ] ⓘ), or Binisayâ ([bɪniːsəˈjaʔ]) (both terms are translated into English as Visayan, though this should not be confused with other Bisayan languages)[a] and sometimes referred to in English sources as Cebuan (/sɛˈbuːən/ seb-OO-ən). It is spoken by the Visayan ethnolinguistic groups native to the islands of Cebu, Bohol, Siquijor, the eastern half of Negros, the western half of Leyte, the northern coastal areas of Northern Mindanao and the eastern part of Zamboanga del Norte due to Spanish settlements during the 18th century. In modern times, it has also spread to the Davao Region, Cotabato, Camiguin, parts of the Dinagat Islands, and the lowland regions of Caraga, often displacing native languages in those areas (most of which are closely related to it).[5][6] While Tagalog has the largest number of native speakers among the languages of the Philippines today, Cebuano had the largest native-language-speaking population from the 1950s until about the 1980s.[7][failed verification] It is by far the most widely spoken of the Bisayan languages.[8] Cebuano is the lingua franca of Central Visayas, the western parts of Eastern Visayas, some western parts of Palawan, and most parts of Mindanao. The name Cebuano is derived from the island of Cebu, which is the source of Standard Cebuano.[5] Cebuano is also the primary language in Western Leyte—noticeably in Ormoc. Cebuano is assigned the ISO 639-2 three-letter code ceb but not an ISO 639-1 two-letter code. The Commission on the Filipino Language, the Philippine government body charged with developing and promoting the national and regional languages of the country, spells the name of the language in Filipino as Sebwano.
Nepal. Nepal,[a] officially the Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal,[b] is a landlocked country in South Asia. It is mainly situated in the Himalayas, but also includes parts of the Indo-Gangetic Plain. It borders the Tibet Autonomous Region of China to the north, and India to the south, east, and west, while it is narrowly separated from Bangladesh by the Siliguri Corridor, and from Bhutan by the Indian state of Sikkim. Nepal has a diverse geography, including fertile plains, subalpine forested hills, and eight of the worlds ten highest mountains, including Mount Everest, the highest point above mean sea level on Earth.[16] Kathmandu is the nations capital and its largest city. Nepal is a multi-ethnic, multi-lingual, multi-religious, and multi-cultural state, with Nepali as the official language. The name Nepal is first recorded in texts from the Vedic period of the Indian subcontinent, the era in ancient Nepal when Hinduism was founded, the predominant religion of the country. In the middle of the first millennium BC, Gautama Buddha, the founder of Buddhism, was born in Lumbini in southern Nepal. Parts of northern Nepal were intertwined with the culture of Tibet. The centrally located Kathmandu Valley is intertwined with the culture of Indo-Aryans, and was the seat of the prosperous Newar confederacy known as Nepal Mandala. The Himalayan branch of the ancient Silk Road was dominated by the valleys traders. The cosmopolitan region developed distinct traditional art and architecture. By the 18th century, the Gorkha Kingdom achieved the unification of Nepal. The Shah dynasty established the Kingdom of Nepal and later formed an alliance with the British Empire, under its Rana dynasty of premiers. The country was never colonised but served as a buffer state between Imperial China and British India. Parliamentary democracy was introduced in 1951 but was twice suspended by Nepalese monarchs, in 1960 and 2005. The Nepalese Civil War in the 1990s and early 2000s resulted in the establishment of a secular republic in 2008, ending the worlds last Hindu monarchy. The Constitution of Nepal, adopted in 2015, affirms the country as a federal parliamentary republic divided into seven provinces. In September 2025, protests against a social media ban and economic inequality caused riots, resulting in casualties and resignation of the prime minister. Nepals foreign policy focuses on neutrality, sovereignty, and multilateral cooperation. Nepal was admitted to the United Nations in 1955, and friendship treaties were signed with India in 1950 and China in 1960. Nepal hosts the permanent secretariat of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC), of which it is a founding member. Nepal is also a member of the Non-Aligned Movement and the Bay of Bengal Initiative. Nepals foreign relations also emphasize development assistance, trade partnerships, and promoting peace and stability in South Asia. Before the unification of Nepal, the Kathmandu Valley was known as Nepal.[c] The precise origin of the term Nepāl is uncertain. Nepal appears in ancient Indian literary texts dated as far back as the fourth century AD.[18] An absolute chronology can not be established, as even the oldest texts may contain anonymous contributions dating as late as the early modern period. Academic attempts to provide a plausible theory are hindered by the lack of a complete picture of history and insufficient understanding of linguistics or relevant Indo-European and Tibeto-Burman languages.[19]
Hirohito Gotō. Hirohito Gotō (後藤ひろひと, Gotō Hirohito; born February 23, 1969) is a Japanese director, playwright, and actor. Born in Yamagata prefecture, he graduated from Yamagata Prefectural Yamagata East High School and dropped out of Hindi studies from Osaka University of Foreign Studies. In 1987 he joined the theater group Yūkisha. By 1989 he served as the second head of the group and handled nearly all productions. After retiring from Yūkisha in 1996, he worked as a free playwright, and in 1998 created Piper with Kawashita Taiyō of former Gekidan Sotoba Komachi fame. In 2001 he began the Royal Theater. His plays have a reputation for having a unique view of the world as well as for stories of a massive scale. Primary works include Ningen Fūsha (人間風車), Moldman the Bellringer in Dublin (ダブリンの鐘つきカビ人間), and the Big / Bigger / Biggest Biz trilogy. This article about a dramatist or playwright is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
Hirohito Furui. Hirohito Furui (古井弘人, Furui Hirohito) is a Japanese musical arranger and keyboardist in distributors Being Inc., mainly in their label Giza Studio. In years 1999-2013 he was part of Japanese band Garnet Crow as arranger.[1][2][3] In March 2018, he launched his own band project Again, however in June 2019 changed into Alpha under independent label Freestyle.[4] ★ album ☆ single/coupling (along with Makoto Miyoshi)
Cartography of China. Chinese cartography began in the 5th century BC during the Warring States period when cartographers started to make maps of the Earths surface. Its scope extended beyond Chinas borders with the expansion of the Chinese Empire under the Han dynasty. By the 11th century during the Song dynasty highly-accurate maps drawn on grids were produced. During the 15th century, the Ming dynasty admiral Zheng He went on a series of voyages to the South China Sea, Indian Ocean, and beyond and maps for areas outside of China were produced, although world maps covering territories known to the Chinese outside of China existed as early as the Tang dynasty. The study of geography in China begins in the Warring States period (5th century BC). It expands its scope beyond the Chinese homeland with the growth of the Chinese Empire under the Han dynasty and enters a golden age with the Han dynasty invention of the compass as one of the Four Great Inventions. The compass was then used from the 11th century during the Song dynasty, Yuan dynasty, Ming dynasty, and Qing dynasty in the study of geography. One of the most famous explorers in Chinese history was the 15th century admiral Zheng He, known for the Chinese exploration of the Pacific and his treasure voyages. There is an ancient Chinese legend called He Bo Xian Tu (河伯獻圖), which roughly means the River Deity presenting a map. During the mythical Xia dynasty, a river deity gave Yu the Great a stone with a flood map etched on its surface. Yu the Great used the map to help him in taming the flood that threatened to destroy rural agriculture. In general, the development of early Chinese cartography experienced three phrases: primitive map, classical map, and survey map. The primitive maps were simple maps, still steeped in myth and legend. It was not until the Han dynasty that classical maps began to emerge.
Geology. Geology is a branch of natural science concerned with the Earth and other astronomical bodies, the rocks of which they are composed, and the processes by which they change over time.[1] The name comes from Ancient Greek γῆ (gê) earth and λoγία (-logía) study of, discourse.[2][3] Modern geology significantly overlaps all other Earth sciences, including hydrology. It is integrated with Earth system science and planetary science. Geology describes the structure of the Earth on and beneath its surface and the processes that have shaped that structure. Geologists study the mineralogical composition of rocks in order to get insight into their history of formation. Geology determines the relative ages of rocks found at a given location; geochemistry (a branch of geology) determines their absolute ages.[4] By combining various petrological, crystallographic, and paleontological tools, geologists are able to chronicle the geological history of the Earth as a whole. One aspect is to demonstrate the age of the Earth. Geology provides evidence for plate tectonics, the evolutionary history of life, and the Earths past climates. Geologists broadly study the properties and processes of Earth and other terrestrial planets. Geologists use a wide variety of methods to understand the Earths structure and evolution, including fieldwork, rock description, geophysical techniques, chemical analysis, physical experiments, and numerical modelling. In practical terms, geology is important for mineral and hydrocarbon exploration and exploitation, evaluating water resources, understanding natural hazards, remediating environmental problems, and providing insights into past climate change. Geology is a major academic discipline, and it is central to geological engineering and plays an important role in geotechnical engineering. The majority of geological data comes from research on solid Earth materials. Meteorites and other extraterrestrial natural materials are also studied by geological methods. Minerals are naturally occurring elements and compounds with a definite homogeneous chemical composition and an ordered atomic arrangement.
History of geography. The History of geography includes many histories of geography which have differed over time and between different cultural and political groups. In more recent developments, geography has become a distinct academic discipline. Geography derives from the Greek γεωγραφία – geographia,[1] literally Earth-writing, that is, description or writing about the Earth. The first person to use the word geography was Eratosthenes (276–194 BC). However, there is evidence for recognizable practices of geography, such as cartography, prior to the use of the term. The known world of Ancient Egypt saw the Nile as the center, and the world as based upon the river. Various oasis were known to the east and west, and were considered locations of various gods (e.g. Siwa, for Amon). To the South lay the Kushitic region, known as far as the 4th cataract. Punt was a region south along the shores of the Red Sea. Various Asiatic peoples were known as Retenu, Kanaan, Que, Harranu, or Khatti (Hittites). At various times especially in the Late Bronze Age Egyptians had diplomatic and trade relationships with Babylonia and Elam. The Mediterranean was called the Great Green and was believed to be part of a world encircling ocean. Europe was unknown although may have become part of the Egyptian world view in Phoenician times. To the west of Asia lay the realms of Keftiu, possibly Crete, and Mycenae (thought to be part of a chain of islands, that joined Cyprus, Crete, Sicily and later perhaps Sardinia, Corsica and the Balearics to Africa).[2] The oldest known world maps date back to ancient Babylon from the 9th century BC.[3] The best known Babylonian world map, however, is the Imago Mundi of 600 BC.[4] The map as reconstructed by Eckhard Unger shows Babylon on the Euphrates, surrounded by a circular landmass showing Assyria, Urartu[5] and several cities, in turn surrounded by a bitter river (Oceanus), with seven islands arranged around it so as to form a seven-pointed star. The accompanying text mentions seven outer regions beyond the encircling ocean. The descriptions of five of them have survived.[6] In contrast to the Imago Mundi, an earlier Babylonian world map dating back to the 9th century BC depicted Babylon as being further north from the center of the world, though it is not certain what that center was supposed to represent.[3]
Emperor Fushimi. Emperor Fushimi (伏見天皇, Fushimi-tennō; 10 May 1265 – 8 October 1317) was the 92nd emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession. His reign spanned the years from 1287 through 1298.[1] Before his ascension to the Chrysanthemum Throne, his personal name (his imina) was Hirohito-shinnō (熈仁親王).[2] Although the Roman-alphabet spelling of the name of this 13th-century emperor is the same as the personal name of the 20th century Emperor Shōwa, the kanji are different: He was the second son of Emperor Go-Fukakusa. They were from the Jimyōin-tō line. His name comes from the palace of the Jimyōin-tō.
Terrain (disambiguation). Terrain is the vertical and horizontal dimension of land surface. Terrain may also refer to:
Outline (list). An outline, also called a hierarchical outline, is a list arranged to show hierarchical relationships and is a type of tree structure. An outline is used[1] to present the main points (in sentences) or topics (terms) of a given subject. Each item in an outline may be divided into additional sub-items. If an organizational level in an outline is to be sub-divided, it shall have at least two subcategories, although one subcategory is acceptable on the third and fourth levels, as advised by major style manuals in current use.[2][3][4][5][6] An outline may be used as a drafting tool of a document, or as a summary of the content of a document or of the knowledge in an entire field. It is not to be confused with the general context of the term outline, which is a summary or overview of a subject presented verbally or written in prose[7] (for example, The Outline of History is not an outline of the type presented below). The outlines described in this article are lists, and come in several varieties. A sentence outline is a tool for composing a document, such as an essay, a paper, a book, or even an encyclopedia. It is a list used to organize the facts or points to be covered, and their order of presentation, by section. Topic outlines list the subtopics of a subject, arranged in levels, and while they can be used to plan a composition, they are most often used as a summary, such as in the form of a table of contents or the topic list in a college courses syllabus. Outlines are further differentiated by the index prefixing used, or lack thereof. Many outlines include a numerical or alphanumerical prefix preceding each entry in the outline, to provide a specific path for each item, to aid in referring to and discussing the entries listed. An alphanumerical outline uses alternating letters and numbers to identify entries. A decimal outline uses only numbers as prefixes. An outline without prefixes is called a bare outline. Specialized applications of outlines also exist. A reverse outline is a list of sentences or topics that is created from an existing work, as a revision tool; it may show the gaps in the documents coverage so that they may be filled, and may help in rearranging sentences or topics to improve the structure and flow of the work. An integrated outline is a composition tool for writing scholastic works, in which the sources, and the writers notes from the sources, are integrated into the outline for ease of reference during the writing process. A software program designed for processing outlines is called an outliner.
National Geophysical Data Center. The United States National Geophysical Data Center (NGDC) provided scientific stewardship, products and services for geophysical data describing the solid earth, marine, and solar-terrestrial environment, as well as earth observations from space. It was established in 1965 as part of the new Environmental Science Services Administration until that organization became the National Oceanic & Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) in 1970. In 2015, NGDC was merged with the National Climatic Data Center (NCDC) and the National Oceanographic Data Center (NODC) into the National Centers for Environmental Information (NCEI).[1] Since 1972 the NGDC was located in Boulder, Colorado as a part of the US Department of Commerce (USDOC), National Oceanic & Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), National Environmental Satellite, Data and Information Service (NESDIS).[2] NGDCs data holdings contained more than 300 digital and analog databases, with over 37 terabytes of unique digital records plus paper, film, slides and microfilm in 2003.[3] As technology advanced, so did the search for more efficient ways of preserving these data. This data is now maintained by the NCEI. NGDC worked closely with contributors of scientific data to prepare documented, reliable data sets. They welcomed cooperative projects with other government agencies, nonprofit organizations, and universities, and encourage data exchange. NGDCs data users included:
Academic discipline. An academic discipline or academic field is a subdivision of knowledge that is taught and researched at the college or university level. Disciplines are defined (in part) and recognized by the academic journals in which research is published, and the learned societies and academic departments or faculties within colleges and universities to which their practitioners belong. Academic disciplines are conventionally divided into the humanities (including philosophy, language, art and cultural studies), the scientific disciplines (such as physics, chemistry, and biology); and the formal sciences like mathematics and computer science.[citation needed] The social sciences are sometimes considered a fourth category.[citation needed] It is also known as a field of study, field of inquiry, research field and branch of knowledge.[citation needed] The different terms are used in different countries and fields. Individuals associated with academic disciplines are commonly referred to as experts or specialists. Others, who may have studied liberal arts or systems theory rather than concentrating in a specific academic discipline, are classified as generalists.[citation needed] While each academic discipline is a more or less focused practice, scholarly approaches such as multidisciplinarity/interdisciplinarity, transdisciplinarity, and cross-disciplinarity integrate aspects from multiple disciplines, thereby addressing any problems that may arise from narrow concentration within specialized fields of study.[citation needed] For example, professionals may encounter trouble communicating across academic disciplines because of differences in jargon, specified concepts, or methodology.[citation needed] Some researchers believe that academic disciplines may, in the future, be replaced by what is known as Mode 2[1] or post-academic science,[2] which involves the acquisition of cross-disciplinary knowledge through the collaboration of specialists from various academic disciplines.[citation needed] The University of Paris in 1231 consisted of four faculties: Theology, Medicine, Canon Law and Arts.[3] Educational institutions originally used the term discipline to catalog and archive the new and expanding body of information produced by the scholarly community. Disciplinary designations originated in German universities during the beginning of the nineteenth century.[citation needed]
Bathymetry. Bathymetry[1][2] is the study of underwater depth of ocean floors (seabed topography), river floors, or lake floors. In other words, bathymetry is the underwater equivalent to hypsometry or topography. The first recorded evidence of water depth measurements are from Ancient Egypt over 3000 years ago.[3] Bathymetry has various uses including the production of bathymetric charts to guide vessels and identify underwater hazards, the study of marine life near the floor of water bodies, coastline analysis and ocean dynamics, including predicting currents and tides.[4] Bathymetric charts (not to be confused with hydrographic charts), are typically produced to support safety of surface or sub-surface navigation, and usually show seafloor relief or terrain as contour lines (called depth contours or isobaths) and selected depths (soundings), and typically also provide surface navigational information. Bathymetric maps (a more general term where navigational safety is not a concern) may also use a digital terrain model and artificial illumination techniques to illustrate the depths being portrayed. The global bathymetry is sometimes combined with topography data to yield a global relief model. Paleobathymetry is the study of past underwater depths. Synonyms include seafloor mapping, seabed mapping, seafloor imaging and seabed imaging. Bathymetric measurements are conducted with various methods, from depth sounding, sonar and lidar techniques, to buoys and satellite altimetry. Various methods have advantages and disadvantages and the specific method used depends upon the scale of the area under study, financial means, desired measurement accuracy, and additional variables. Despite modern computer-based research, the ocean seabed in many locations is less measured than the topography of Mars.[5] Seabed topography (ocean topography or marine topography) refers to the shape of the land (topography) when it interfaces with the ocean. These shapes are obvious along coastlines, but they occur also in significant ways underwater. The effectiveness of marine habitats is partially defined by these shapes, including the way they interact with and shape ocean currents, and the way sunlight diminishes when these landforms occupy increasing depths. Tidal networks depend on the balance between sedimentary processes and hydrodynamics however, anthropogenic influences can impact the natural system more than any physical driver.[6] Marine topographies include coastal and oceanic landforms ranging from coastal estuaries and shorelines to continental shelves and coral reefs. Further out in the open ocean, they include underwater and deep sea features such as ocean rises and seamounts. The submerged surface has mountainous features, including a globe-spanning mid-ocean ridge system, as well as undersea volcanoes,[7] oceanic trenches, submarine canyons, oceanic plateaus and abyssal plains.
Terrane. In geology, a terrane (/təˈreɪn, ˈtɛreɪn/;[1][2] in full, a tectonostratigraphic terrane) is a crust fragment formed on a tectonic plate (or broken off from it) and accreted or sutured to crust lying on another plate. The crustal block or fragment preserves its distinctive geologic history, which is different from the surrounding areas—hence the term exotic terrane. The suture zone between a terrane and the crust it attaches to is usually identifiable as a fault. A sedimentary deposit that buries the contact of the terrane with adjacent rock is called an overlap formation. An igneous intrusion that has intruded and obscured the contact of a terrane with adjacent rock is called a stitching pluton. There is also an older usage of the term terrane, which described a series of related rock formations or an area with a preponderance of a particular rock or rock group. A tectonostratigraphic terrane did not necessarily originate as an independent microplate, since it may not contain the full thickness of the lithosphere. It is a piece of crust that has been transported laterally, usually as part of a larger plate, and is relatively buoyant due to thickness or low density. When the plate of which it was a part subducted under another plate, the terrane failed to subduct, detached from its transporting plate, and accreted onto the overriding plate. Therefore, the terrane transferred from one plate to the other. Typically, accreting terranes are portions of continental crust which have rifted off another continental mass and been transported surrounded by oceanic crust, or they are old island arcs formed at some distant subduction zones. A tectonostratigraphic terrane is a fault-bounded package of rocks of at least regional extent characterized by a geologic history that differs from that of neighboring terranes. The essential characteristic of these terranes is that the present spatial relations are incompatible with the inferred geologic histories. Where terranes that lie next to each other possess strata of the same age, they are considered separate terranes only if it can be demonstrated that the geologic evolutions are different and incompatible. There must be an absence of intermediate lithofacies that could link the strata. The concept of tectonostratigraphic terrane developed from studies in the 1970s of the complicated Pacific Cordilleran orogenic margin of North America, a complex and diverse geological potpourri that was difficult to explain until the new science of plate tectonics illuminated the ability of crustal fragments to drift thousands of miles from their origin and attach themselves, crumpled, to an exotic shore. Such terranes were dubbed accreted terranes by geologists. Geologist J. N. Carney writes:
Natural science. Natural science or empirical science is a branch of science concerned with the description, understanding, and prediction of natural phenomena, based on empirical evidence from observation and experimentation.[1] Mechanisms such as peer review and reproducibility of findings are used to try to ensure the validity of scientific advances. Natural science can be divided into two main branches: life science and physical science. Life science is alternatively known as biology. Physical science is subdivided into physics, astronomy, Earth science, and chemistry. These branches of natural science may be further divided into more specialized branches, also known as fields. As empirical sciences, natural sciences use tools from the formal sciences, such as mathematics and logic, converting information about nature into measurements that can be explained as clear statements of the laws of nature.[2] Modern natural science succeeded more classical approaches to natural philosophy. Galileo Galilei, Johannes Kepler, René Descartes, Francis Bacon, and Isaac Newton debated the benefits of a more mathematical as against a more experimental method in investigating nature. Still, philosophical perspectives, conjectures, and presuppositions, often overlooked, remain necessary in natural science.[3] Systematic data collection, including discovery science, succeeded natural history, which emerged in the 16th century by describing and classifying plants, animals, minerals, and so on.[4] Today, natural history suggests observational descriptions aimed at popular audiences.[5] Philosophers of science have suggested several criteria, including Karl Poppers controversial falsifiability criterion, to help them differentiate scientific endeavors from non-scientific ones.[6][7] Validity, accuracy, and quality control, such as peer review and reproducibility of findings, are amongst the most respected criteria in todays global scientific community.[8][9]
Nereid (moon). Nereid, or Neptune II, is the third-largest moon of Neptune. It has the most eccentric orbit of all known moons in the Solar System.[4] It was the second moon of Neptune to be discovered, by Gerard Kuiper in 1949. Nereid was discovered on 1 May 1949 by Gerard P. Kuiper using photographic plates taken with the 82-inch telescope at the McDonald Observatory. He proposed the name in the report of his discovery. It is named after the Nereids, sea-nymphs of Greek mythology and attendants of the god Neptune.[1] It was the second moon of Neptune to be discovered, and the last before the arrival of Voyager 2 (not counting a single observation of an occultation by Larissa in 1981).[8] Nereid is third-largest of Neptunes satellites, and has a mean radius of about 180 kilometres (110 mi), similar to Saturns moon Mimas.[5] It is by far the largest normal irregular satellite known,[9] having about two-thirds the mass of all irregular moons combined.[10] (Triton is much larger, but is very unusual for an irregular satellite.) Nereid also accounts for about 98% of the mass of Neptunes entire irregular satellite system altogether (excluding Triton), which is similar to the situation of Phoebe at Saturn (the second-largest normal irregular moon in the Solar System).[10] The shape of Nereid is unknown.[11] Since 1987 some photometric observations of Nereid have detected large (by ~1 magnitude) variations of its brightness, which can happen over years and months, but sometimes even over a few days. They persist even after a correction for distance and phase effects. On the other hand, not all astronomers who have observed Nereid have noticed such variations. This means that they may be quite chaotic. To date, there is no credible explanation of the variations, but if they exist, they are likely related to the rotation of Nereid. Nereids rotation could be either in the state of forced precession or even chaotic rotation (like Hyperion) due to its highly elliptical orbit. In 2016, extended observations with the Kepler space telescope showed only low-amplitude variations (0.033 magnitudes). Thermal modeling based on infrared observations from the Spitzer and Herschel space telescopes suggests that Nereid is only moderately elongated with a maximum aspect ratio of 1.3:1, which disfavors forced precession of the rotation.[5] The thermal model also indicates that the surface roughness of Nereid is very high, likely similar to the Saturnian moon Hyperion.[5]
Landscape (disambiguation). Landscape refers to the visible features of an area of land (usually rural), or a pictorial representation of an area of countryside. Landscape may also refer to:
Index of geography articles. This page is a list of geography topics. Geography is the study of the world and of the distribution of life on the earth, including human life and the effects of human activity. Geography research addresses both the questions of where, as well as why, geographical phenomena occur. Geography is a diverse field that seeks to understand the world and all of its human and natural complexities—not merely where objects are, but how they came to be, and how they have changed since then.
Altimeter. An altimeter or an altitude meter is an instrument used to measure the altitude of an object above a fixed level.[1] The measurement of altitude is called altimetry, which is related to the term bathymetry, the measurement of depth under water. In 1931, the US Army Air corps and General Electric together tested a sonic altimeter for aircraft, which was considered more reliable and accurate than one that relied on air pressure when heavy fog or rain was present. The new altimeter used a series of high-pitched sounds like those made by a bat to measure the distance from the aircraft to the surface, which on return to the aircraft was converted to feet shown on a gauge inside the aircraft cockpit.[2] A radar altimeter measures altitude more directly, using the time taken for a radio signal to reflect from the surface back to the aircraft. Alternatively, Frequency Modulated Continuous-wave radar can be used. The greater the frequency shift the further the distance travelled. This method can achieve much better accuracy than the pulsed radar for the same outlay and radar altimeters that use frequency modulation are industry standard. The radar altimeter is used to measure height above ground level during landing in commercial and military aircraft. Radar altimeters are also a component of terrain avoidance warning systems, warning the pilot if the aircraft is flying too low, or if there is rising terrain ahead. Radar altimeter technology is also used in terrain-following radar allowing combat aircraft to fly at very low height above the terrain. After extensive research and experimentation, it has been shown that phase radio-altimeters are most suitable for ground effect vehicles, as compared to laser, isotropic or ultrasonic altimeters.[3] Lidar technology is used to help navigate the helicopter Ingenuity on its record-setting flights over the terrain of Mars by means of a downward-facing Lidar altimeter.[4]
Islets of Ksamil. The Islets of Ksamil (Albanian: Ishujt e Ksamilit or Ishujt e Tetranisit), consist of four rocky islets located in the direct proximity to the Ionian Sea in Southern Albania. The village of Ksamil, after whom the islets are named, is located to the east of the islets. Furthermore, the islands are situated within the boundaries of the Butrint National Park.[2] The islets lie to the extreme south of the Albanian Riviera along the Ionian Sea. They are remote and can only be accessed by boat. The combined areas of the four islands is only 8.9 hectares (22.0 acres).[3] The two outer islands are connected by a narrow strip of sand. In terms of geology, the islands have been shaped into its current form over the Jurassic period, with its disjunction of the mainland due to the water activity.[1] The islets fall phytogeographically within the Illyrian deciduous forests terrestrial ecoregion of the Palearctic Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub biome. The vegetation of the islands includes many communities of a Mediterranean type, while the most important habitats include the Mediolitoral and Infralitoral zone.[1] The seagrasses along the coast are dominated by posidonia oceanica, halophila stipulacea and cymodocea nodosa.[1] Posidonia oceanica is mostly abundant in the shallow waters and can extend more down to more than 30 metres in the depth. The forested land area is mostly covered by species such as holly oak, common alder, elm, bay laurel and myrtle.[4] The marine waters are rich in cetacean diversities including such as short-beaked common dolphin and common bottlenose dolphin.[1]
Geophysical definition of planet. The International Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS) is the internationally recognized body charged with fostering agreement on nomenclature and classification across geoscientific disciplines. However, they have yet to create a formal definition of the term planet.[1] As a result, there are various geophysical definitions in use among professional geophysicists, planetary scientists, and other professionals in the geosciences. Many professionals opt to use one of several of these geophysical definitions instead of the definition voted on by the International Astronomical Union, the dominant organization for setting planetary nomenclature.[2] Some geoscientists adhere to the formal definition of a planet that was proposed by the International Astronomical Union (IAU) in August 2006.[3] According to IAU definition of planet, a planet is an astronomical object orbiting the Sun that is massive enough to be rounded by its own gravity, and has cleared the neighbourhood around its orbit.[4] Another widely accepted geophysical definition of a planet includes that which was put forth by planetary scientists Alan Stern and Harold Levison in 2002. The pair proposed the following rules to determine whether an object in space satisfies the definition for a planetary body.[5] A planetary body is defined as any body in space that satisfies the following testable upper and lower bound criteria on its mass: If isolated from external perturbations (e.g., dynamical and thermal), the body must: They explain their reasoning by noting that this definition delineates the evolutionary stages and primary features of planets more clearly. Specifically, they claim that the hallmark of planethood is, the collective behavior of the bodys mass to overpower mechanical strength and flow into an equilibrium ellipsoid whose shape is dominated by its own gravity and that the definition allows for an early period during which gravity may not yet have fully manifested itself to be the dominant force.
Lëkurësi Castle. Lëkurësi Castle (Albanian: Kalaja e Lëkurësit) is a ruined castle near Sarandë, southern Albania. The castle is on a strategic hill point overlooking the town of Sarandë, southeast of the town centre. From here one can control the whole town as well as the islands of Ksamil.[1] The Lëkurësi castle is located around 1 km southeast of Saranda. It is almost square in shape, and has two round towers at opposite corners, where its loopholes are also found. The best preserved parts of the castle are its southern and eastern sides. The castle offers control over Saranda, Butrint and the Straits of Corfu.[2] Lëkurësi Castle was built in 1537 by Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent of the Ottoman Empire. It was built in order to defend against the Venetians. It held a garrison of 220 soldiers as well. The region traditionally belonged to the southern part of the region of Himara. At the end of the 18th century, the castle was attacked by Ali Pasha of Ioannina and the surrounding habitation raided.[3][4][5] On the western slope of the hill there was a village named Lëkurës until the 19th century. It seems that it had a larger population than Saranda.[2] 39°51′57″N 20°01′32″E / 39.8659°N 20.02567°E / 39.8659; 20.02567
Prairie. Prairies are ecosystems considered part of the temperate grasslands, savannas, and shrublands biome by ecologists, based on similar temperate climates, moderate rainfall, and a composition of grasses, herbs, and shrubs, rather than trees, as the dominant vegetation type. Temperate grassland regions include the Pampas of Argentina, Brazil and Uruguay, and the steppe of Romania, Ukraine, Russia, and Kazakhstan. Lands typically referred to as prairie (a French loan word) tend to be in North America. The term encompasses the lower and mid-latitude of the area referred to as the Interior Plains of Canada, the United States, and Mexico. It includes all of the Great Plains as well as the wetter, hillier land to the east. From west to east, generally the drier expanse of shortgrass prairie gives way to mixed grass prairie and ultimately the richer and wetter soils of the tallgrass prairie. In the U.S., the area is constituted by most or all of the states, from north to south, of North Dakota, South Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas, and Oklahoma, and sizable parts of the states of Montana, Wyoming, Colorado, New Mexico, Texas in the west, and to the east, Minnesota, Wisconsin, Iowa, Missouri, Illinois, and Indiana. The Palouse of Washington and the Central Valley of California are also prairies. The Canadian Prairies occupy vast areas of Manitoba, Saskatchewan, and Alberta. Prairies may contain various lush flora and fauna, often contain rich soil maintained by biodiversity, with a temperate climate and a varied view.[1][2][3] According to Theodore Roosevelt: We have taken into our language the word prairie, because when our backwoodsmen first reached the land [in the Midwest] and saw the great natural meadows of long grass—sights unknown to the gloomy forests wherein they had always dwelt—they knew not what to call them, and borrowed the term already in use among the French inhabitants.[4] Prairie (pronounced [pʁɛʁi]) is the French word for meadow, formed ultimately from the Latin root word pratum (which has the same meaning).[5]
Branches of science. The branches of science, also referred to as sciences, scientific fields or scientific disciplines, are commonly divided into three major groups: Scientific knowledge must be grounded in observable phenomena and must be capable of being verified by other researchers working under the same conditions.[2] Natural, social, and formal science make up the basic sciences, which form the basis of interdisciplinarity - and applied sciences such as engineering and medicine. Specialized scientific disciplines that exist in multiple categories may include parts of other scientific disciplines but often possess their own terminologies and expertises.[3] The formal sciences are the branches of science that are concerned with formal systems, such as logic, mathematics, theoretical computer science, information theory, systems theory, decision theory, statistics.
Proteus (moon). Proteus (/ˈproʊtiəs/ PROH-tee-əs), also known as Neptune VIII, is the second-largest Neptunian moon, and Neptunes largest inner satellite. Discovered by Voyager 2 in 1989, it is named after Proteus, the shape-changing sea god of Greek mythology.[11] Proteus orbits Neptune in a nearly equatorial orbit at a distance of about 4.75 times the radius of Neptunes equator.[3] Despite being a predominantly icy body more than 400 km (250 mi) in diameter, Proteuss shape deviates significantly from an ellipsoid.[6] It is shaped more like an irregular polyhedron with several slightly concave facets and relief as high as 20 km (12 mi). Its surface is dark, neutral in color, and heavily cratered.[12] Proteuss largest crater is Pharos, which is more than 230 km (140 mi) in diameter. There are also a number of scarps, grooves, and valleys related to large craters. Proteus is probably not an original body that formed with Neptune. It could have accreted later from the debris formed when the largest Neptunian satellite, Triton, was captured.[13] Proteus was discovered from the images taken by the Voyager 2 space probe two months before its Neptune flyby in August 1989. Proteus was discovered 40 years after the discovery of Neptunes moon Nereid in 1949.[14] Upon discovery, Proteus received the temporary provisional designation S/1989 N 1.[15] Stephen P. Synnott and Bradford A. Smith announced its discovery on July 7, 1989, speaking only of 17 frames taken over 21 days, which gives a discovery date of sometime before June 16.[16]
Butrint National Park. Butrint National Park (Albanian: Parku Kombëtar i Butrintit) is a national park in Vlorë County, southern Albania. It is located 18 kilometres (11 mi) south of Sarandë. The park encompasses 9,424 hectares (94.24 km2) of hilly terrain with freshwater lakes, wetlands, salt marshes, open plains, reed beds and islands. The parks significance for conservation is reflected in the large number of species with over 1,200 different animals and plants. Its mandate includes the protection of the lake and lagoon of Butrint, the natural channel of Vivari, the islands of Ksamil and as well the archaeological site, that provides valuable remains of ancient civilisations. Butrint is strategically located in the eastern part of the Strait of Corfu in the extreme south of the country. It sprawls across a peninsula that is surrounded by Lake Butrint and Vivari Channel. The channel connects the lake to the Ionian Sea through a narrow sandy bar. Located in the direct proximity to the sea, the park experiences mild Mediterranean climate. This means that the winters are mild and the summers are hot and dry.[2] The archaeological heritage of Butrint is one of the most important archaeological sites in the country, containing different artefacts and structures, dating from the Iron Age up until the Middle Ages. Numerous monuments are still extant including the city walls, a late-antique baptistery, a great basilica, Roman theatre and two castles. The ancient city is situated within a natural woodland with a complex of ecosystems which depends on the nearby lake and channel. Nevertheless, it is this combination of cultural monuments and natural environment which makes Butrint such a unique place. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) has listed the park as Category II. In 1992, the archaeological site joined the UNESCO list of World Heritage Sites. The lagoon has been further recognized as a wetland of international importance by designation under the Ramsar Convention.[3] Nevertheless, Lake Butrint is an Important Bird and Plant Area, because it abundant to significant bird and plant species of international importance.[4][5] The Butrint National Park was established with ordinance number 82 on 2 March 2000 in order to preserve the natural ecosystems and landscapes along with their plant and animal communities and habitats and the cultural heritage as well.[6] The parks territory was expanded several times until it reached its current area, recently in 2005.[7] It is managed by a directorate subordinated to the Ministry of Environment of Albania based in Sarandë. The park became an important centre of cultural management and a great example how to manage this heritage. With the support of Albanian institutions, Butrint Foundation, World Bank and UNESCO, the situation was improved to the point, that UNESCO removed the site from the World Heritage Sites in Danger list in 2005. The park was founded by the Ministry of Culture in partnership with UNESCO, ICCROM and ICOMOS. The underlying intention was to create a sustainable cultural heritage resource involving local communities and national institutions to serve as a model for other parks around the country.
Badlands National Park. Badlands National Park (Lakota: Makȟóšiča[3]) is a national park of the United States in southwestern South Dakota. The park protects 242,756 acres (379.3 sq mi; 982.4 km2)[1] of sharply eroded buttes and pinnacles, along with the largest undisturbed mixed grass prairie in the United States. The National Park Service manages the park, with the South Unit being co-managed with the Oglala Lakota tribe.[4] Located within the White River drainage, the Badlands Wilderness protects 64,144 acres (100.2 sq mi; 259.6 km2) of the parks North Unit as a designated wilderness area,[5] and is one site where the black-footed ferret, one of the most endangered mammals in the world, was reintroduced to the wild.[6] The South Unit, or Stronghold District,[4] includes sites of 1890s Ghost Dances,[7] a former United States Air Force bomb and gunnery range,[8] and Red Shirt Table, the parks highest point at 3,340 feet (1,020 m).[9] Authorized as Badlands National Monument on March 4, 1929, it was not established until January 25, 1939. Badlands was redesignated a national park on November 10, 1978.[10] Under the Mission 66 plan, the Ben Reifel Visitor Center was constructed for the monument in 1957–58. The park also administers the nearby Minuteman Missile National Historic Site. The movies Dances with Wolves (1990) and Thunderheart (1992) were partially filmed in Badlands National Park.[11] This national park was originally a reservation of the Oglala Sioux Indians and spans the southern unit of the park. The area around Stronghold Table was originally Sioux territory, and is revered as a ceremonial sacred site rather than a place to live.
Dysnomia (moon). Dysnomia, formal designation (136199) Eris I, is the only known moon of the dwarf planet Eris and is the second-largest known moon of a dwarf planet, after Pluto I Charon. It was discovered in September 2005 by Mike Brown and the Laser Guide Star Adaptive Optics (LGSAO) team at the W. M. Keck Observatory. It carried the provisional designation of S/2005 (2003 UB313) 1 until it was officially named Dysnomia (from the Ancient Greek word Δυσνομία meaning anarchy/lawlessness) in September 2006, after the daughter of the Greek goddess Eris.[6] With an estimated diameter of 615+60−50 km, Dysnomia spans 24% to 29% of Eriss diameter. It is significantly less massive than Eris, with a density consistent with it being mainly composed of ice.[3]: 8 In stark contrast to Eriss highly-reflective icy surface, Dysnomia has a very dark surface that reflects 5% of incoming visible light,[3] resembling typical trans-Neptunian objects around Dysnomias size.[7] These physical properties indicate Dysnomia likely formed from a large impact on Eris, in a similar manner to other binary dwarf planet systems like Pluto and Orcus, and the Earth–Moon system. In 2005, the adaptive optics team at the Keck telescopes in Hawaii carried out observations of the four brightest Kuiper belt objects (Pluto, Makemake, Haumea, and Eris), using the newly commissioned laser guide star adaptive optics system. Observations taken on 10 September 2005, revealed a moon in orbit around Eris, provisionally designated S/2005 (2003 UB313) 1. In keeping with the Xena nickname that was already in use for Eris, the moon was nicknamed Gabrielle by its discoverers, after Xenas sidekick.[8][9] Submillimeter-wavelength observations of the Eris–Dysnomia systems thermal emissions by the Atacama Large Millimeter Array (ALMA) in 2015 first showed that Dysnomia had a large diameter and a very low albedo, with the initial estimate being 700±115 km.[7] Further observations by ALMA in 2018 refined Dysnomias diameter to 615+60−50 km (24% to 29% of Eriss diameter) and an albedo of 0.05±0.01.[3] Of the known moons of dwarf planets, only Charon is larger, making Dysnomia the second-largest moon of a dwarf planet.[10] Dysnomias low albedo significantly contrasts with Eriss extremely high albedo of 0.96; its surface has been described to be darker than coal,[10] which is a typical characteristic seen in trans-Neptunian objects around Dysnomias size.[7]
Russia. Russia,[b] or the Russian Federation,[c] is a country spanning Eastern Europe and North Asia. It is the largest country in the world, and extends across eleven time zones, sharing land borders with fourteen countries.[d] With over 140 million people, Russia is the most populous country in Europe and the ninth-most populous in the world. It is a highly urbanised country, with sixteen of its urban areas having more than 1 million inhabitants. Moscow, the most populous metropolitan area in Europe, is the capital and largest city of Russia, while Saint Petersburg is its second-largest city and cultural centre. Human settlement on the territory of modern Russia dates back to the Lower Paleolithic. The East Slavs emerged as a recognised group in Europe between the 3rd and 8th centuries AD. The first East Slavic state, Kievan Rus, arose in the 9th century, and in 988, it adopted Orthodox Christianity from the Byzantine Empire. Kievan Rus ultimately disintegrated; the Grand Duchy of Moscow led the unification of Russian lands, leading to the proclamation of the Tsardom of Russia in 1547. By the early 18th century, Russia had vastly expanded through conquest, annexation, and the efforts of Russian explorers, developing into the Russian Empire, which remains the third-largest empire in history. However, with the Russian Revolution in 1917, Russias monarchic rule was abolished and eventually replaced by the Russian SFSR—the worlds first constitutionally socialist state. Following the Russian Civil War, the Russian SFSR established the Soviet Union with three other Soviet republics, within which it was the largest and principal constituent. The Soviet Union underwent rapid industrialisation in the 1930s, amidst the deaths of millions under Joseph Stalins rule, and later played a decisive role for the Allies in World War II by leading large-scale efforts on the Eastern Front. With the onset of the Cold War, it competed with the United States for ideological dominance and international influence. The Soviet era of the 20th century saw some of the most significant Russian technological achievements, including the first human-made satellite and the first human expedition into outer space. In 1991, the Russian SFSR emerged from the dissolution of the Soviet Union as the Russian Federation. Following the 1993 Russian constitutional crisis, the Soviet system of government was abolished and a new constitution was adopted, which established a federal semi-presidential system. Since the turn of the century, Russias political system has been dominated by Vladimir Putin, under whom the country has experienced democratic backsliding and become an authoritarian dictatorship. Russia has been militarily involved in a number of conflicts in former Soviet states and other countries, including its war with Georgia in 2008 and its war with Ukraine since 2014. The latter has involved the internationally unrecognised annexations of Ukrainian territory, including Crimea in 2014 and four other regions in 2022, during an ongoing invasion. Russia is generally considered a great power and is a regional power, possessing the largest stockpile of nuclear weapons and having the third-highest military expenditure in the world. It has a high-income economy, which is the eleventh-largest in the world by nominal GDP and fourth-largest by PPP, relying on its vast mineral and energy resources, which rank as the second-largest in the world for oil and natural gas production. However, Russia ranks very low in international measurements of democracy, human rights and freedom of the press, and also has high levels of perceived corruption. It is a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council; a member state of the G20, SCO, BRICS, APEC, OSCE, and WTO; and the leading member state of post-Soviet organisations such as CIS, CSTO, and EAEU. Russia is home to 32 UNESCO World Heritage Sites.
Rainforest. Rainforests are forests characterized by a closed and continuous tree canopy, moisture-dependent vegetation, the presence of epiphytes and lianas and the absence of wildfire. Rainforests can be generally classified as tropical rainforests or temperate rainforests, but other types have been described. Estimates vary from 40% to 75% of all biotic species being indigenous to the rainforests.[1] There may be many millions of species of plants, insects and microorganisms still undiscovered in tropical rainforests. Tropical rainforests have been called the jewels of the Earth and the worlds largest pharmacy, because over one quarter of natural medicines have been discovered there.[2] Rainforests as well as endemic rainforest species are rapidly disappearing due to deforestation, the resulting habitat loss and pollution of the atmosphere.[3] Rainforests are characterized by a closed and continuous tree canopy, high humidity, the presence of moisture-dependent vegetation, a moist layer of leaf litter, the presence of epiphytes and lianas and the absence of wildfire. The largest areas of rainforest are tropical or temperate rainforests, but other vegetation associations including subtropical rainforest, littoral rainforest, cloud forest, vine thicket and even dry rainforest have been described.[4][5][6][7][8]
Historical geography. Historical geography is the branch of geography that studies the ways in which geographic phenomena have changed over time.[1] In its modern form, it is a synthesizing discipline which shares both topical and methodological similarities with history, anthropology, ecology, geology, environmental studies, literary studies, and other fields.[2][3] Although the majority of work in historical geography is considered human geography, the field also encompasses studies of geographic change which are not primarily anthropogenic.[4] Historical geography is often a major component of school and university curricula in geography and social studies.[5] Current research in historical geography is being performed by scholars in more than forty countries.[6] This sub-branch of human geography is closely related to history, environmental history, and historical ecology.[7] Historical geography seeks to determine how cultural features of various societies across the planet emerged and evolved by understanding their interaction with their local environment and surroundings.[8][9] More recent studies make use of non-traditional methods, such as botany and archeology.[10][4] In its early days, historical geography was difficult to define as a subject. A textbook from the 1950s cites a previous definition as an unsound attempt by geographers to explain history.[11] Its author, J. B. Mitchell, came down firmly on the side of geography: the historical geographer is a geographer first last and all the time. By 1975 the first number of the Journal of Historical Geography [12] had widened the discipline to a broader audience: the writings of scholars of any disciplinary provenance who have something to say about matters of geographical interest relating to past time.[12]
South Dakota. South Dakota (/dəˈkoʊtə/ ⓘ;[9] Siouan languages: Dakȟóta itókaga, pronounced [daˈkˣota iˈtokaga]) is a double landlocked state in the North Central region of the United States. It is also part of the Great Plains. South Dakota is named after the Dakota Sioux tribe, which comprises a large portion of the population—with nine reservations in the state—and has historically dominated the territory.[10] South Dakota is the 17th-largest by area, the fifth-least populous, and the fifth-least densely populated of the 50 United States. Pierre is the state capital, and Sioux Falls, with a population of about 213,900,[11] is South Dakotas most populous city.[12] The state is bisected by the Missouri River, dividing it into two geographically and socially distinct halves known as East River and West River.[13] South Dakota is bordered by North Dakota to the north, Minnesota to the east, Iowa to the southeast, Nebraska to the south, Wyoming to the west, and Montana to the northwest. Humans have inhabited the area for several millennia, with the Sioux becoming dominant by the early 19th century. In the late 19th century, European-American settlement intensified after a gold rush in the Black Hills and the construction of railroads from the east. Encroaching miners and settlers triggered a number of Indian wars, ending with the Wounded Knee Massacre in 1890. As the southern part of the former Dakota Territory, South Dakota became a state on November 2, 1889, simultaneously with North Dakota. They are the 39th and 40th states admitted to the union; President Benjamin Harrison shuffled the statehood papers before signing them so that no one could tell which became a state first.[14] Major events in the 20th century included the Dust Bowl and Great Depression, increased federal spending during the 1940s and 1950s for agriculture and defense, and an industrialization of agriculture that has reduced family farming. Eastern South Dakota is home to most of its population, and a variety of crops grow in the areas fertile soil. West of the Missouri River, ranching is the predominant agricultural activity, and the economy is more dependent on tourism and defense spending. Most of the Native American reservations are in West River. The Black Hills, a group of low pine-covered mountains sacred to the Sioux, is in the southwest part of the state, and contains Mount Rushmore, a major tourist destination. South Dakota has a temperate continental climate, with four distinct seasons and precipitation levels ranging from moderate in the east to semiarid in the west. The states ecology features species typical of a North American grassland biome. Several Democrats represented South Dakota for multiple terms in both chambers of Congress, but the state government is largely controlled by the Republican Party, whose nominees have won the state in each of the last 14 presidential elections. Historically dominated by an agricultural economy and a rural lifestyle, South Dakota has recently sought to diversify its economy to attract and retain residents. South Dakotas history and rural character still strongly influence its culture.
Omotesandō. Omotesandō (表参道) is a zelkova tree-lined avenue located in Shibuya and Minato, Tokyo, stretching from the Meiji Shrine entrance to Aoyama-dōri (Aoyama Street), where Omotesandō Station can be found. Omotesandō was originally created in the Taishō era (1912–1926) as the frontal (表, Omote) approach (参道, Sandō) to Meiji Shrine, which is dedicated to the deified spirits of Emperor Meiji and his wife, Empress Shōken.[1][2] Omotesandō is known as one of the foremost architectural showcase streets in the world, featuring a multitude of fashion flagship stores within a short distance of each other. These include the Louis Vuitton store (Jun Aoki, 2002), Tods (Toyo Ito, 2004), Dior (SANAA, 2004), Omotesandō Hills (Tadao Ando, 2005) and Gyre (MVRDV, 2007), amongst others. Omotesandō is the main vehicle and pedestrian thoroughfare for Harajuku and Aoyama. The area features many international brand boutiques, such as Louis Vuitton, Alexander McQueen and Gucci, as well as fast fashion retailers such as Gap, Evisu, H&M and Zara. In his book Luxury Brand Management, luxury brand manager Michel Chevalier cites Omotesandō as one of the best locations in Tokyo for a luxury goods store.[3] Omotesandō is also home to the Kiddyland toy store, Laforet, and the Oriental Bazaar. Omotesandōs side streets, known as Ura-Harajuku, feature a range of smaller cafes, bars, restaurants, and boutique stores.
Central European Time. Central European Time (CET) is a standard time observed in Central as well as parts of Western and Southeast Europe, which is one hour ahead of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC). The time offset from UTC can be written as UTC+01:00. It covers most of continental Europe and it has been adopted by several African countries where it is known under various other names. CET is also known as Middle European Time (MET, German: MEZ) and by colloquial names that reference major European cities such as Amsterdam Time, Berlin Time, Brussels Time, Budapest Time, Madrid Time, Paris Time, Stockholm Time, Rome Time, Prague time, Warsaw Time or Romance Standard Time (RST). The 15th meridian east is the central axis per UTC+01:00 in the world system of time zones. As of 2023, all member states of the European Union observe summer time (daylight saving time), from the last Sunday in March to the last Sunday in October. States within the CET area switch to Central European Summer Time (CEST, UTC+02:00) for the summer.[1] The next change to CET is scheduled for midnight of 25 October 2025. In Africa, UTC+01:00 is called West Africa Time (WAT), where it is used by several countries, year round.[2] Algeria, Morocco, and Tunisia also refer to it as Central European Time.[3]
Kita-Aoyama. Kita-Aoyama (北青山, Kitaaoyama) is a district of Minato, Tokyo, Japan. Minato City Board of Education operates public elementary and junior high schools. Kita-Aoyama 1-2-chōme and 3-chōme 1-4-ban are zoned to Aoyama Elementary School (青山小学校). 3-chōme 5-15-ban are zoned to Seinan Elementary School (青南小学校). All of Kita Aoyama is zoned to Aoyama Junior High School (青山中学校)[4] This Tokyo location article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
Geography and cartography in the medieval Islamic world. Medieval Islamic geography and cartography refer to the study of geography and cartography in the Muslim world during the Islamic Golden Age (variously dated between the 8th century and 16th century). Muslim scholars made advances to the map-making traditions of earlier cultures,[1] explorers and merchants learned in their travels across the Old World (Afro-Eurasia).[1] Islamic geography had three major fields: exploration and navigation, physical geography, and cartography and mathematical geography.[1] Islamic geography reached its apex with Muhammad al-Idrisi in the 12th century. Islamic geography began in the 8th century, influenced by Hellenistic geography,[2] combined with what explorers and merchants learned in their travels across the Old World (Afro-Eurasia).[1] Muslim scholars engaged in extensive exploration and navigation during the 9th-12th centuries, including journeys across the Muslim world, in addition to regions such as China, Southeast Asia and Southern Africa.[1] Various Islamic scholars contributed to the development of geography and cartography, with the most notable including Al-Khwārizmī, Abū Zayd al-Balkhī (founder of the Balkhi school), Al-Masudi, Abu Rayhan Biruni and Muhammad al-Idrisi. Islamic geography was patronized by the Abbasid caliphs of Baghdad. An important influence in the development of cartography was the patronage of the Abbasid caliph al-Mamun, who reigned from 813 to 833. He commissioned several geographers to perform an arc measurement, determining the distance on Earth that corresponds to one degree of latitude along a meridian (al-Mamuns arc measurement). Thus his patronage resulted in the refinement of the definition of the Arabic mile (mīl in Arabic) in comparison to the stadion used in the Hellenistic world. These efforts also enabled Muslims to calculate the circumference of the Earth. Al-Mamun also commanded the production of a large map of the world, which has not survived,[3]: 61–63 though it is known that its map projection type was based on Marinus of Tyre rather than Ptolemy.[4]: 193 Islamic cartographers inherited Ptolemys Almagest and Geography in the 9th century. These works stimulated an interest in geography (particularly gazetteers) but were not slavishly followed.[5] Instead, Arabian and Persian cartography followed Al-Khwārizmī in adopting a rectangular projection, shifting Ptolemys Prime Meridian several degrees eastward, and modifying many of Ptolemys geographical coordinates.
Planetary surface. A planetary surface is where the solid or liquid material of certain types of astronomical objects contacts the atmosphere or outer space. Planetary surfaces are found on solid objects of planetary mass, including terrestrial planets (including Earth), dwarf planets, natural satellites, planetesimals and many other small Solar System bodies (SSSBs).[1][2][3] The study of planetary surfaces is a field of planetary geology known as surface geology, but also a focus on a number of fields including planetary cartography, topography, geomorphology, atmospheric sciences, and astronomy. Land (or ground) is the term given to non-liquid planetary surfaces. The term landing is used to describe the collision of an object with a planetary surface and is usually at a velocity in which the object can remain intact and remain attached. In differentiated bodies, the surface is where the crust meets the planetary boundary layer. Anything below this is regarded as being sub-surface or sub-marine. Most bodies more massive than super-Earths, including stars and giant planets, as well as smaller gas dwarfs, transition contiguously between phases, including gas, liquid, and solid. As such, they are generally regarded as lacking surfaces. Planetary surfaces and surface life are of particular interest to humans as it is the primary habitat of the species, which has evolved to move over land and breathe air. Human space exploration and space colonization therefore focuses heavily on them. Humans have only directly explored the surface of Earth and the Moon. The vast distances and complexities of space makes direct exploration of even near-Earth objects dangerous and expensive. As such, all other exploration has been indirect via space probes. Indirect observations by flyby or orbit currently provide insufficient information to confirm the composition and properties of planetary surfaces. Much of what is known is from the use of techniques such as astronomical spectroscopy and sample return. Lander spacecraft have explored the surfaces of planets Mars and Venus. Mars is the only other planet to have had its surface explored by a mobile surface probe (rover). Titan is the only non-planetary object of planetary mass to have been explored by lander. Landers have explored several smaller bodies including 433 Eros (2001), 25143 Itokawa (2005), Tempel 1 (2005), 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko (2014), 162173 Ryugu (2018) and 101955 Bennu (2020). Surface samples have been collected from the Moon (returned 1969), 25143 Itokawa (returned 2010), 162173 Ryugu and 101955 Bennu. Planetary surfaces are found throughout the Solar System, from the inner terrestrial planets, to the asteroid belt, the natural satellites of the giant planets and beyond to the Trans-Neptunian objects. Surface conditions, temperatures and terrain vary significantly due to a number of factors including Albedo often generated by the surfaces itself. Measures of surface conditions include surface area, surface gravity, surface temperature and surface pressure. Surface stability may be affected by erosion through Aeolian processes, hydrology, subduction, volcanism, sediment or seismic activity. Some surfaces are dynamic while others remain unchanged for millions of years.
Dryland (disambiguation). Drylands are ecoregions marked by aridity and low or unpredictable precipitation. Dry land is a figure of speech describing the parts of earth that are not ocean. Dryland, drylands, dry land, or dry lands may also refer to:
Land (disambiguation). Land is the solid surface of the Earth that is not covered by water. Land, lands, The Land, or the Lands may also refer to:
Ksamil. Ksamil (Albanian: Ksamili, Greek: Εξαμίλι) is a village and a former municipality in the riviera of Southern Albania, and part of Butrint National Park. At the 2015 local government reform it became a subdivision of the municipality of Sarandë.[2] The population as of the 2023 census is 2,731,[1] while according to the Civil Offices it was 9,137 in 2018.[3] The municipal unit consists of the villages Ksamil and Manastir. During the communist era, the coastal village of Ksamil was built[4] in 1966 and is located south of Sarandë off the road to Butrint. In 1992, the village of Ksamil was inhabited by a mixed population of Muslim Albanians (1,125), Greeks (520) and Orthodox Albanians (210).[4] According to official estimates (2014), the population of the commune of Ksamil numbered 9,215,[3] of whom 4,207 were Greeks, seven Aromanians, and the rest Albanians.[6] Ksamil is one of the most frequented coastal resorts by both domestic and foreign tourists. Ksamil Beach and Albanias Ionian Coast further north were included in the Guardians 20 of the best bargain beach holidays for 2013.[7] The main attractions are the nearby Ksamil Islands. The Caribbean white sand beaches in Ksamil gave the town great tourism boost. Albanians from Kosovo and other Albanian-speaking areas visited Ksamil in recent years, but more and more international tourists are visiting the beach. This leads, for example, to new hotel facilities, but also to more expensive prices. Other activities are the Blue Eye in Muzinë, the Butrint National Park, Saranda and as well some other minor beaches that lie north to Ksamil.
UTC+01:00. UTC+01:00 is an identifier for a time offset from UTC of +01:00. In ISO 8601, the associated time would be written as 2019-02-07T23:28:34+01:00. It indicates a point of time meaning Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) plus one hour. It is synonym with British Summer Time (BST). This time is used in: Principal cities: Berlin, Budapest, Frankfurt, Munich, Hamburg, Cologne, Düsseldorf, Stuttgart, Leipzig, Dortmund, Essen, Bremen, Hanover, Mainz, Rome, Milan, Naples, Venice, Florence, Palermo, Turin, Genoa, Vatican City, San Marino, Paris, Marseille, Bordeaux, Nantes, Lyon, Lille, Montpellier, Toulouse, Strasbourg, Nice, Monaco, Madrid, Barcelona, Valencia, Seville, Málaga, Bilbao, A Coruña, Granada, Andorra, Vienna, Salzburg, Innsbruck, Zürich, Geneva, Bern, Bellinzona, Lausanne, Lucerne, St. Gallen, Brussels, Antwerp, Amsterdam, Rotterdam, Luxembourg, Valletta, Copenhagen, Stockholm, Oslo, Warsaw, Prague, Zagreb, Tirana, Sarajevo, Pristina, Podgorica, Skopje, Belgrade, Bratislava, Ljubljana, Vaduz, Schaan, Serravalle, Dogana, Monte Carlo, Monaco-Ville, Monaco, Westside, St. Pauls Bay, Malmö. Principal cities: London, Birmingham, Manchester, Edinburgh, Liverpool, Bristol, Belfast, Glasgow, Cardiff, Dublin, Cork, Limerick, Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Lisbon, Porto, Braga, Tórshavn Principal cities: Lagos, Abuja, Kinshasa, Algiers, Tunis, Rabat, Casablanca, Tangier, Marrakesh, Yaoundé, Fez, Douala, Malabo, Bata, Libreville, Niamey, Tangier, NDjamena, Bangui, Porto-Novo, Cotonou, Luanda, Laayoune
Yoshihito (name). Yosihito (Nihon-shiki) Yoshihito is a masculine Japanese given name. Yoshihito can be written using different combinations of kanji characters. Here are some examples: The name can also be written in hiragana よしひと or katakana ヨシヒト.
Akasaka Palace. Akasaka Palace (赤坂離宮, Akasaka Rikyū) is a state guest house (迎賓館, geihinkan) of the government of Japan. Other state guesthouses of the government include the Kyoto State Guest House. The palace was originally built as the Imperial Palace for the Crown Prince (東宮御所, Tōgū Gosho) in 1909. Today the palace is designated by the government of Japan as an official accommodation for visiting state dignitaries. Located in the Moto-Akasaka, Minato, Tokyo, the building took on its present function in 1974, having previously been an imperial detached palace. In 2009 the palace was designated as a National Treasure of Japan.[1] The buildings address is Tokyo, Minato-ku, Moto-Akasaka-chome No. 1. The building has 15,000 square metres (160,000 sq ft) of floor space, and together with a smaller structure in the Japanese style, occupies a 117,000-square-metre (1,260,000 sq ft) site. The main building is a Neo-Baroque style Western building,[2] resembling in particular the Hofburg Palace. It is one of largest buildings constructed during the Meiji period.[1]
Tōgū Palace. In Japan, the Tōgū Palace (東宮, Tōgū; lit. East Palace) traditionally does not refer to a single location, but to any residence of the imperial crown prince. As Prince Akishino, the current heir presumptive, is not a direct male descendant of the Emperor and not an imperial crown prince himself, there is currently no Tōgū Palace in Japan and there will not be one until there is another imperial crown prince. The palace where then-crown Prince Naruhito resided before his ascension to the Chrysantheum throne on 1 May 2019 was called Tōgū Palace,[1] but changed its name to Akasaka Palace (赤坂御所, Akasaka-gosho) when Naruhito became emperor. The Emperor used this palace as his primary residence until he moved to the Fukiage Palace of the Imperial Palace[2] in September 2021. Similarly, Akihito lived in this same palace when Hirohito died. Between his accession to the throne in 1989 and his moving to the Fukiage Palace in December 1993 the palace was also called Akasaka Palace. The Akasaka Palace is located in the Akasaka Estate in Moto-Akasaka and is not accessible to the public. The site of the palace used to house the Ōmiya Palace (大宮御所, Ōmiya-gosho), the residence of Empress Teimei, the consort of Emperor Taishō. After her death at the palace in 1951, the site was converted to the crown princes residence. A reinforced-concrete building, designed by Yoshirō Taniguchi was achieved in 1960. It saw the first wave of expansion works in 1978. A Japanese Garden was added in 1994 for the arrival of the crown princess Masako. Additional renewal works took place in 1997 (installation of an elevator for wheelchair users, barrier-free design, seismic reinforcement). Works for a kids area took place in 2001 as Masako was pregnant.
History of cartography. Maps have been one of the most important human inventions, allowing humans to explain and navigate their way. When and how the earliest maps were made is unclear, but maps of local terrain are believed to have been independently invented by many cultures. The earliest putative maps include cave paintings and etchings on tusk and stone. Maps were produced extensively by ancient Babylon, Greece, Rome, China, and India. The earliest maps ignored the curvature of Earths surface, both because the shape of the Earth was unknown and because the curvature is not important across the small areas being mapped. However, since the age of Classical Greece, maps of large regions, and especially of the world, have used projection from a model globe to control how the inevitable distortion gets apportioned on the map. Modern methods of transportation, the use of surveillance aircraft, and more recently the availability of satellite imagery have made documentation of many areas possible that were previously inaccessible. Free online services such as Google Earth have made accurate maps of the world more accessible than ever before. The English term cartography is modern, borrowed from the French cartographie in the 1840s, itself based on Middle Latin carta map.
Aoyama Gakuin University. Aoyama Gakuin University (Japanese: 青山学院大学, Hepburn: Aoyama Gakuin Daigaku; AGU) is a private Christian university in Shibuya, Tokyo, Japan. Originally established in 1874 by missionaries from the Methodist Episcopal Church, it was reconfigured in its current form in 1949 as tertiary component of the Aoyama Gakuin. The universitys undergraduate and graduate programs include courses on literature, law, economics, business, international politics, economics, communication, science, engineering and cultural studies. The university graduate programs include international management, law and professional accounting. Aoyama Gakuin University participates in Hakone Ekiden, an annual university relay race between Tokyo and Hakone in Japan. Recently they won the races in 2015, 2016, 2017, 2018, 2020, 2022, and 2024. The main campus, located in Omotesando in central Tokyo, is complemented by the Sagamihara Campus in Kanagawa Prefecture. The latter houses the College of Science and Sports. The university has graduated around 180,000 students and employs over 1,600 full and part-time faculty members. Aoyama Gakuin University is accredited by the British University Association and is a member of the British Association of Private College and Universities. The university maintains a number of active international exchange programs for students and faculty. Many of the students and faculty have attended universities and research institutes abroad, while the institution itself has attracted numerous outstanding scholars and students from around the world to its campuses.[according to whom?]
Hayama Imperial Villa. Hayama Imperial Villa (葉山御用邸, Hayama Goyōtei), located in the town of Hayama, Kanagawa Prefecture, Japan is a residence owned by the Japanese Imperial Family, and used on infrequent intervals as an informal winter retreat.[1] The Imperial Family of Japan previously had residences in several locations within Kanagawa Prefecture: The Hayama Imperial Villa was acquired by the Imperial Household Agency in 1894. It is located on the east bank of Sagami Bay in central Miura Peninsula, just south of Kamakura. The villa was a favorite of Emperor Taishō and he often visited to convalesce from his illnesses and to escape from the stresses of his official duties in Tokyo. Emperor Taishō died at the Hayama Imperial Villa in December 1926. The villa was subsequently used by Emperor Shōwa, who also built a marine biology laboratory on its grounds. Research from the laboratory has resulted in a number of technical monographs. The Imperial Family traditionally uses the Hayama residence in February–March, the season when few tourists visit the area. The villa was burned down in 1971 in an act of arson and was rebuilt as a one-story building of western architectural design. A portion of the grounds was donated to the town of Hayama at that time, and is now the Hayama Shiosai Park, with a traditional Japanese garden and teahouse, and a small museum displaying part of Emperor Hirohito’s collection of marine specimens from Sagami Bay. 35°15′40.5″N 139°34′41.4″E / 35.261250°N 139.578167°E / 35.261250; 139.578167
Point Reyes National Seashore. Point Reyes National Seashore is a 71,028-acre (287.44 km2) park preserve located on the Point Reyes Peninsula in Marin County, California. As a national seashore, it is maintained by the US National Park Service as an important nature preserve. No other park in the world hosts breeding hoofed megafauna (elk) and marine megafauna (elephant and other seals). Some existing agricultural uses are allowed to continue within the park. Clem Miller, a US Congressman from Marin County, wrote and introduced the bill for the establishment of Point Reyes National Seashore in 1962 to protect the peninsula from development which was proposed at the time for the slopes above Drakes Bay.[4] About half of the national seashore is protected as wilderness. The Native American Coast Miwok lived in the area for thousands of years, in villages of seventy five to several hundred people. The Coast Miwok developed an economy of hunting, gathering, and fishing, utilizing the seashore as a source of year-round food such as crab, clams, and oysters. Drip nets and woven surf nets were used for fishing, while bow and arrows were used for hunting deer, quail, and rabbits.[5] Francis Drake and his crew aboard the Golden Hind were likely the first Europeans to discover what is today Point Reyes National Park, when they likely camped in the area in 1579. Drake claimed the land for Elizabeth I before setting sail to complete his circumnavigation of the world. Spanish ships making the voyage between Manila and Acapulco likely passed by Point Reyes during the late 1500s, including the captain Sebastião Rodrigues Soromenho in 1595, whose ship was wrecked by a storm in Drakes Bay. On January 6, 1603, Captain Sebastián Vizcaíno sighted the headlands and named it Point of the Kings, or la Punta de los Reyes, in honor of Three Kings Day.[6] The Point Reyes peninsula is a well defined area, geologically separated from the rest of Marin County and almost all of the continental United States by a rift zone of the San Andreas Fault.[7] The northern half of the fault is sunk below sea level and forms Tomales Bay and the southern half lies along Olema Creek. The peninsula is part of the Salinian Block which rises as Inverness Ridge before dropping to the fault zone.[8] East of the fault is the Franciscan Complex which has a different soil and flora composition.
Takanawa (disambiguation). Takanawa (Japanese: 高縄 or 高輪) may refer to the following places:
Tissots indicatrix. In cartography, a Tissots indicatrix (Tissot indicatrix, Tissots ellipse, Tissot ellipse, ellipse of distortion) (plural: Tissots indicatrices) is a mathematical contrivance presented by French mathematician Nicolas Auguste Tissot in 1859 and 1871 to characterize local distortions due to map projection. It is the geometry that results from projecting a circle of infinitesimal radius from a curved geometric model, such as a globe, onto a map. Tissot proved that the resulting diagram is an ellipse whose axes indicate the two principal directions along which scale is maximal and minimal at that point on the map. A single indicatrix describes the distortion at a single point. Because distortion varies across a map, generally Tissots indicatrices are placed across a map to illustrate the spatial change in distortion. A common scheme places them at each intersection of displayed meridians and parallels. These schematics are important in the study of map projections, both to illustrate distortion and to provide the basis for the calculations that represent the magnitude of distortion precisely at each point. Because the infinitesimal circles represented by the ellipses on the map all have the same area on the underlying curved geometric model, the distortion imposed by the map projection is evident. There is a one-to-one correspondence between the Tissot indicatrix and the metric tensor of the map projection coordinate conversion.[1] Tissots theory was developed in the context of cartographic analysis. Generally the geometric model represents the Earth, and comes in the form of a sphere or ellipsoid. Tissots indicatrices illustrate linear, angular, and areal distortions of maps:
Polyhedral map projection. A polyhedral map projection is a map projection based on a spherical polyhedron. Typically, the polyhedron is overlaid on the globe, and each face of the polyhedron is transformed to a polygon or other shape in the plane. The best-known polyhedral map projection is Buckminster Fullers Dymaxion map. When the spherical polyhedron faces are transformed to the faces of an ordinary polyhedron instead of laid flat in a plane, the result is a polyhedral globe.[1] Often the polyhedron used is a Platonic solid or Archimedean solid. However, other polyhedra can be used: the AuthaGraph projection makes use of a polyhedron with 96 faces, and the myriahedral projection allows for an arbitrary large number of faces.[2] Although interruptions between faces are common, and more common with an increasing number of faces, some maps avoid them: the Lee conformal projection only has interruptions at its border, and the AuthaGraph projection scales its faces so that the map fills a rectangle without internal interruptions. Some projections can be tesselated to fill the plane, the Lee conformal projection among them. To a degree, the polyhedron and the projection used to transform each face of the polyhedron can be considered separately, and some projections can be applied to differently shaped faces. The gnomonic projection transforms the edges of spherical polyhedra to straight lines, preserving all polyhedra contained within a hemisphere, so it is a common choice. The Snyder equal-area projection can be applied to any polyhedron with regular faces.[3] The projection used in later versions of the Dymaxion map can be generalized to other equilateral triangular faces,[4] and even to certain quadrilaterals.[5] Polyhedral map projections are useful for creating discrete global grids, as with the quadrilateralized spherical cube and Icosahedral Snyder Equal Area (ISEA) grids.[6] The earliest known polyhedral projection is the octant projection developed by Leonardo da Vinci or his associate around 1514, which transforms the faces of an octahedron to Reuleaux triangles.[1]
Icosahedron. In geometry, an icosahedron (/ˌaɪkɒsəˈhiːdrən, -kə-, -koʊ-/ or /aɪˌkɒsəˈhiːdrən/[1]) is a polyhedron with 20 faces. The name comes from Ancient Greek εἴκοσι (eíkosi) twenty and ἕδρα (hédra) seat. The plural can be either icosahedra (/-drə/) or icosahedrons. There are infinitely many non-similar shapes of icosahedra, some of them being more symmetrical than others. The best known is the (convex, non-stellated) regular icosahedron—one of the Platonic solids—whose faces are 20 equilateral triangles. There are two objects, one convex and one nonconvex, that can both be called regular icosahedra. Each has 30 edges and 20 equilateral triangle faces with five meeting at each of its twelve vertices. Both have icosahedral symmetry. The term regular icosahedron generally refers to the convex variety, while the nonconvex form is called a great icosahedron. While an icosagonal hosohedron could also be considered a regular icosahedron on the basis that it has twenty faces and is regular, it is often not counted due to being degenerate outside of spherical geometry.
Interruption (map projection). In map projections, an interruption is any place where the globe has been split. All map projections are interrupted at at least one point. Typical world maps are interrupted along an entire meridian. In that typical case, the interruption forms an east–west boundary, even though the globe has no boundaries.[1] Most map projections can be interrupted beyond what is required by the projection mathematics. The reason for doing so is to improve distortion within the map by sacrificing proximity—that is, by separating places on the globe that ought to be adjacent. Effectively, this means that the resulting map is actually an amalgam of several partial map projections of smaller regions. Because the regions are smaller, they cover less of the globe, are closer to flat, and therefore accrue less inevitable distortion. These extra interruptions do not create a new projection. Rather, the result is an arrangement of an existing projection. In casual parlance, interrupted projection usually means a projection that has been interrupted beyond mathematical necessity. In this casual sense, the usual east/west interruption of a pseudocylindric map is ignored as an interruption to focus on the elective interruptions. An archetypical example is the Goode homolosine projection. In 1916, John Paul Goode experimented by interrupting the Mollweide projection. Satisfied with the interruption scheme, he then devised a new projection as a composite of the Mollweide and the sinusoidal projection and applied the same interruption scheme to the new projection, which he dubbed homolosine.[2] Because pseudocylindric projections map parallels as straight lines, and meridians to have constant spacing, they are easy to interrupt.[1] This is normally done to optimize either for continental areas or for oceanic areas, as explored by Goode. Many interruption schemes that are much more elaborate have been developed. Since antiquity, for example, globe gores have been developed in order to paste map sections onto model globes. These are regular interruption either along the equator,[1] or in polar form as rosettes. The Cahill butterfly projection divides the world into octahedral sections.[3] More generally, any mapping onto polyhedral faces becomes an interrupted map when laid flat. Buckminster Fuller proposed his dymaxion map in 1943, using a modified icosahedral interruption scheme to divide the oceans up in a way that shows the continents in a nearly continuous mass as one island.[4] The most elaborate interruptions schemes include those of Athelstan Spilhaus along continental boundaries,[5] and JJ Wijks myriahedral projections.[6]
Vlorë. Vlorë (/ˈvlɔːrə/ VLOR-ə;[10][11] Albanian: [ˈvlɔɾə]; Albanian definite form: Vlora)[b] is the third most populous city of Albania and seat of Vlorë County and Vlorë Municipality. Located in southwestern Albania, Vlorë sprawls on the Bay of Vlorë and is surrounded by the foothills of the Ceraunian Mountains along the Albanian Adriatic and Ionian Sea Coasts. It experiences a Mediterranean climate, which is affected by the Ceraunian Mountains and the proximity to the Mediterranean Sea. The coastal area of Vlorë was one of the Illyrian sites that had experienced pre-urban activity beginning from the 11th–10th centuries BC. The area was colonized by Ancient Greeks. A large fortified port-town that was inhabited from the 6th century BC to the 2nd century AD is placed, now partially submerged, in Triport, northwest of present-day Vlorë. Substantial port activity in this site occurred from at least the archaic period to the medieval period. It has been suggested that a transfer of the ancient city from the site of Triport to the site of modern Vlorë occurred. The center of the modern city features archaeological remains dating from late antiquity. Aulon, from which the modern city took its name, appears in historical sources starting form the 2nd century AD. It was conquered at different periods throughout history by Romans, Byzantines, Normans, Venetians and Ottomans. Between the 18th and 19th centuries, the Albanians gathered both spiritual and intellectual strength for national consciousness, which conclusively led to the Albanian Renaissance. Vlorë played an instrumental role in Albanian Independence as an epicenter for the founders of modern Albania, who signed the Declaration of Independence on 28 November 1912 at the Assembly of Vlorë. Vlorë is one of the most significant cities of southern Albania and the region of Labëria which is traditionally noted for its culture, traditions and folklore. Vlorë is served by the Port of Vlorë, the SH 8 highway, and the A2 motorway, collectively representing part of the Adriatic–Ionian Corridor and the Pan-European Corridor VIII. The city took its name from Ancient Greek: Αὐλών, romanized: Aulṓn, meaning channel, glen that resembles an aulos instrument. It is a typical toponym in the Greek world.[13] The name of the city was first recorded in the 2nd century AD, by two Ancient Greek authors, Lucian and Ptolemy, the latter calling it town and sea-port, which confirms that it was founded much earlier. However, Aulon has not been mentioned by earlier Ancient Greek and Roman authors, who on the other hand recorded the nearby town and seaport of Oricum. But in later sources Oricum is less encountered, while the toponym Aulon is more frequently mentioned.[14]
Net (polyhedron). In geometry, a net of a polyhedron is an arrangement of non-overlapping edge-joined polygons in the plane that can be folded (along edges) to become the faces of the polyhedron. Polyhedral nets are a useful aid to the study of polyhedra and solid geometry in general, as they allow for physical models of polyhedra to be constructed from material such as thin cardboard.[1] An early instance of polyhedral nets appears in the works of Albrecht Dürer, whose 1525 book A Course in the Art of Measurement with Compass and Ruler (Unterweysung der Messung mit dem Zyrkel und Rychtscheyd ) included nets for the Platonic solids and several of the Archimedean solids.[2][3] These constructions were first called nets in 1543 by Augustin Hirschvogel.[4] Many different nets can exist for a given polyhedron, depending on the choices of which edges are joined and which are separated. The edges that are cut from a convex polyhedron to form a net must form a spanning tree of the polyhedron, but cutting some spanning trees may cause the polyhedron to self-overlap when unfolded, rather than forming a net.[5] Conversely, a given net may fold into more than one different convex polyhedron, depending on the angles at which its edges are folded and the choice of which edges to glue together.[6] If a net is given together with a pattern for gluing its edges together, such that each vertex of the resulting shape has positive angular defect and such that the sum of these defects is exactly 4π, then there necessarily exists exactly one polyhedron that can be folded from it; this is Alexandrovs uniqueness theorem. However, the polyhedron formed in this way may have different faces than the ones specified as part of the net: some of the net polygons may have folds across them, and some of the edges between net polygons may remain unfolded. Additionally, the same net may have multiple valid gluing patterns, leading to different folded polyhedra.[7] In 1975, G. C. Shephard asked whether every convex polyhedron has at least one net, or simple edge-unfolding.[8] This question, which is also known as Dürers conjecture, or Dürers unfolding problem, remains unanswered.[9][10][11] There exist non-convex polyhedra that do not have nets, and it is possible to subdivide the faces of every convex polyhedron (for instance along a cut locus) so that the set of subdivided faces has a net.[5] In 2014 Mohammad Ghomi showed that every convex polyhedron admits a net after an affine transformation.[12] Furthermore, in 2019 Barvinok and Ghomi showed that a generalization of Dürers conjecture fails for pseudo edges,[13] i.e., a network of geodesics which connect vertices of the polyhedron and form a graph with convex faces. A related open question asks whether every net of a convex polyhedron has a blooming, a continuous non-self-intersecting motion from its flat to its folded state that keeps each face flat throughout the motion.[14]
Musashi Imperial Graveyard. Musashi Imperial Graveyard (武蔵陵墓地, Musashi ryōbochi) is a mausoleum complex of the Japanese Emperors in Nagabusa-machi, Hachiōji, Tokyo, Japan. Located within a forest in the western suburbs of Tokyo and named for the ancient Musashi Province, the site contains the mausolea of Emperor Taishō and Emperor Shōwa, as well as those of their wives, Empress Teimei and Empress Kōjun.[1] Emperor Taishō was the first Emperor of Japan to be buried in Tokyo. He has been called the first Tokyo Emperor because he was the first to live his entire life in or near Tokyo. His father, Emperor Meiji, was born and reared in Kyoto; and although he later lived and died in Tokyo, his mausoleum is located on the outskirts of Kyoto, near the tombs of his Imperial forebears.[2] It is under the administration of the Archives and Mausolea Department. The imperial graveyard in Hachiōji is designed as a semi-natural planted space which mainly consists of woodland, rocks and trees. In addition to the stone-topped Imperial mausolea, it also contains smaller monuments and religious structures, like Torii. The approach to the Musashi Imperial Graveyard from the Kōshū Kaidō is lined with zelkova and the mausolea planted with cryptomeria.[1]
Daijō Tennō. Daijō Tennō or Dajō Tennō (太上天皇) is a title for an Emperor of Japan who abdicates the Chrysanthemum Throne in favour of a successor.[1] It is sometimes translated as Emperor Emeritus. As defined in the Taihō Code, although retired, a Daijō Tennō could still exert power. The first such example is the Empress Jitō in the 7th century. A retired emperor sometimes entered the Buddhist monastic community, becoming a cloistered emperor. During late Heian period, cloistered emperors wielded power in a system known as cloistered rule. A total of 64 Japanese emperors have abdicated. A list follows: After abdicating, Gemmei was known as Daijō-tennō; she was only the second woman after Empress Jitō to claim this title. Gemmei lived in retirement until her death at the age of 61.[6] Emperor Go-Sanjō had wished for Shirakawas younger half-brother to succeed him to the throne. In 1085, this half-brother died of an illness; and Shirakawas own son, Taruhito became Crown Prince. On the same day that Taruhito was proclaimed as his heir, Shirakawa abdicated; and Taruhito became Emperor Horikawa. The now-retired Emperor Shirakawa was the first to attempt what became customary cloistered rule. He exercised power, ruling indirectly from the Shirakawa-in (White River Mansion/Temple); nevertheless, nominal sesshō and kampaku offices continued to exist for a long time.
Age of Discovery. The Age of Discovery (c. 1418 – c. 1620),[1] also known as the Age of Exploration, was part of the early modern period and overlapped with the Age of Sail. It was a period from approximately the 15th to the 17th century, during which seafarers from European countries explored, colonized, and conquered regions across the globe. The Age of Discovery was a transformative period when previously isolated parts of the world became connected to form the world-system, and laid the groundwork for globalization. The extensive overseas exploration, particularly the opening of maritime routes to the East Indies and European colonization of the Americas by the Spanish and Portuguese, later joined by the English, French and Dutch, spurred international global trade. The interconnected global economy of the 21st century has its origins in the expansion of trade networks during this era. The exploration created colonial empires and marked an increased adoption of colonialism as a government policy in several European states. As such, it is sometimes synonymous with the first wave of European colonization. This colonization reshaped power dynamics causing geopolitical shifts in Europe and creating new centers of power beyond Europe. Having set human history on the global common course, the legacy of the Age still shapes the world today. European oceanic exploration started with the maritime expeditions of Portugal to the Canary Islands in 1336,[2][3] and with the Portuguese discoveries of the Atlantic archipelagos of Madeira and Azores, the coast of West Africa in 1434, and the establishment of the sea route to India in 1498 by Vasco da Gama, which initiated the Portuguese maritime and trade presence in Kerala and the Indian Ocean.[4][5] Spain sponsored and financed the transatlantic voyages of Christopher Columbus (1492–1504), which marked the beginning of colonization in the Americas, and the Magellan expedition (1519–1522), which opened a route from the Atlantic to the Pacific and, under Juan Sebastián Elcano, completed the first circumnavigation of the globe. These Spanish expeditions significantly impacted European perceptions of the world and eventually led to numerous naval expeditions across the Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific Oceans, and land expeditions in the Americas, Asia, Africa, and Australia that continued into the 19th century, followed by Polar exploration in the 20th century. European exploration initiated the Columbian exchange between the Old World (Europe, Asia, and Africa) and New World (Americas). This exchange involved the transfer of plants, animals, human populations (including slaves), communicable diseases, and culture across the Eastern and Western Hemispheres. The Age of Discovery and European exploration involved mapping the world, shaping a new worldview and facilitating contact with distant civilizations. The continents drawn by European mapmakers developed from abstract blobs into the outlines more recognizable to us.[6] Simultaneously, the spread of new diseases, especially affecting native Americans, led to rapid declines in some populations. The era saw widespread enslavement, exploitation and military conquest of indigenous peoples, concurrent with the growing economic influence and spread of Western culture, science and technology leading to a faster-than-exponential population growth world-wide.
Nobuhito, Prince Takamatsu. Nobuhito, Prince Takamatsu (高松宮宣仁親王, Takamatsu-no-miya Nobuhito Shinnō; 3 January 1905 – 3 February 1987) was the third son of Emperor Taishō (Yoshihito) and Empress Teimei (Sadako) and a younger brother of Emperor Shōwa (Hirohito). He became heir to the Takamatsu-no-miya (formerly Arisugawa-no-miya), one of the four shinnōke or branches of the imperial family entitled to inherit the Chrysanthemum Throne in default of a direct heir. From the mid-1920s until the end of World War II, Prince Takamatsu pursued a career in the Japanese Imperial Navy, eventually rising to the rank of captain. Following the war, the prince became patron or honorary president of various organizations in the fields of international cultural exchange, the arts, sports, and medicine. He is mainly remembered for his philanthropic activities as a member of the Imperial House of Japan. Nobuhito was born at the Aoyama Palace in Tokyo to then-Crown Prince Yoshihito and Crown Princess Sadako.[1][2] His childhood appellation was Teru-no-miya (Prince Teru). Like his elder brothers, Prince Hirohito and Prince Yasuhito, he attended the boys elementary and secondary departments of the Peers School (Gakushuin). When Prince Arisugawa Takehito (1862–1913), the tenth head of the collateral imperial house of Arisugawa-no-miya, died without a male heir, Emperor Taishō placed Prince Nobuhito in the house. The name of the house reverted to the original Takamatsu-no-miya.[2] The new Prince Takamatsu was a fourth cousin, four times removed of Prince Takehito.[citation needed] Prince Takamatsu attended the Imperial Japanese Naval Academy from 1922 to 1924.[1][2] He received a commission as an ensign on 1 December 1925 and took up duties aboard the battleship Fusō. He was promoted to sub-lieutenant the following year after completing the course of study at the Torpedo School. The prince studied at the Naval Aviation School at Kasumigaura in 1927 and the Naval Gunnery School at Yokosuka in 1930–1931. In 1930, he was promoted to lieutenant and attached to the Imperial Japanese Navy General Staff in Tokyo. He became a squadron commander of cruiser Takao, two years later and subsequently was reassigned to the Fusō. Prince Takamatsu graduated from the Naval Staff College in 1936,[1][2] after having been promoted to lieutenant commander on 15 November 1935. He was promoted to the rank of commander on 15 November 1940 and finally to captain on 1 November 1942.[1] From 1936 to 1945, he held various staff positions in the Naval General Staff Office in Tokyo.[citation needed] On 4 February 1930, Prince Takamatsu married Kikuko Tokugawa (1911–2004), the second daughter of Yoshihisa Tokugawa.[1] The bride was a granddaughter of Yoshinobu Tokugawa, the last shōgun of the Tokugawa shogunate,[2] and a granddaughter of the late Prince Takehito Arisugawa. Shortly after the wedding, Prince and Princess Takamatsu embarked upon a world tour to Europe and then across the United States so as to strengthen the goodwill and understanding between Japan and those nations.[2] Prince Iesato Tokugawa was the uncle of Prince and Princess Takamatsu. Prince Tokugawa allied with Prince and Princess Takamatsu on many international goodwill projects.[citation needed]

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