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c_plxifm5hxwtn | In medieval Europe, crane vessels which could be flexibly deployed in the whole port basin were introduced as early as the 14th century.During the age of sail, the sheer hulk was used extensively as a floating crane for tasks that required heavy lift. At the time, the heaviest single components of ships were the main m... | Crane ship |
c_ca3jw4oj5xs7 | Later it was renamed Crane Ship No. 1. It was used, amongst other things, to place guns and other heavy items on other battleships under construction. | Crane ship |
c_hh0e3glkuurz | Another remarkable feat was the raising of the submarine USS Squalus in 1939. In 1942, the crane ships a.k.a. "Heavy Lift Ships" SS Empire Elgar (PQ 16), SS Empire Bard (PQ 15), and SS Empire Purcell (PQ 16) were sent to the Russian Arctic ports of Archangelsk, Murmansk and Molotovsk (since renamed Sererodvinsk). | Crane ship |
c_20wsh780y15u | Their role was to enable the unloading of the Arctic convoys where port installations were either destroyed by German bombers or were non existent (as at Bakaritsa quay Archangel).In 1949, J. Ray McDermott had Derrick Barge Four built, a barge that was outfitted with a revolving crane capable of lifting 150 tons. The a... | Crane ship |
c_y79sb4l1947p | For use in the shallow part of the Gulf of Mexico, the cradle of the offshore industry, these barges sufficed. In 1963, Heerema converted a Norwegian tanker, Sunnaas, into a crane vessel with a capacity of 300 tons, the first one in the offshore industry that was ship-shaped. It was renamed Global Adventurer. This type... | Crane ship |
c_1o1dblzwk50b | In medieval Europe, earwax and other substances such as urine were used to prepare pigments used by scribes to illustrate illuminated manuscripts. Pliny the Elder, in his Natural History, wrote that earwax—when applied topically—cured bites from humans, scorpions, and serpents; it was said to work best when taken from ... | Ear wax |
c_e9w9wwgkvy8u | Before waxed thread was commonly available, a seamstress would use her own earwax to stop the cut ends of threads from fraying. Earwax retains concentrations of cortisol over time. As cortisol levels change throughout the day and increase in response to stress, long-term measurements are difficult yet necessary. A 2020... | Ear wax |
c_87wmex3lp0ft | In medieval Europe, homosexuality was considered sodomy and was punishable by death. Persecutions reached their height during the Medieval Inquisitions, when the sects of Cathars and Waldensians were accused of fornication and sodomy, alongside accusations of Satanism. In 1307, accusations of sodomy and homosexuality w... | Homophobia |
c_t6dy6r2gcp26 | "Although bisexuality was accepted as normal human behavior in Ancient China, homophobia became ingrained in the late Qing Dynasty and the Republic of China due to interactions with the Christian West, and homosexual behavior was outlawed in 1740. During the Cultural Revolution, homosexuality was treated by the governm... | Homophobia |
c_qhyp0ha7wiab | "The Soviet Union under Vladimir Lenin decriminalized homosexuality in 1922, long before many other European countries. The Soviet Communist Party effectively legalized no-fault divorce, abortion and homosexuality, when they abolished all the old Tsarist laws and the initial Soviet criminal code kept these liberal sexu... | Homophobia |
c_3pgw71fn54wv | In medieval Europe, knowledge of the sphericity of Earth survived into the medieval corpus of knowledge by direct transmission of the texts of Greek antiquity (Aristotle), and via authors such as Isidore of Seville and the Venerable Bede. It became increasingly traceable with the rise of scholasticism and medieval lear... | History of geodesy |
c_7aeafw7j812a | The maps of Ptolemy strongly influenced the cartographers of the Middle Ages. It is probable that Christopher Columbus, using such maps, was led to believe that Asia was only 3,000 or 4,000 miles (4,800 or 6,400 km) west of Europe.Ptolemy's view was not universal, however, and chapter 20 of Sir John Mandeville's Travel... | History of geodesy |
c_1yhzzvq80mgl | Spread of this knowledge beyond the immediate sphere of Greco-Roman scholarship was necessarily gradual, associated with the pace of Christianisation of Europe. For example, the first evidence of knowledge of the spherical shape of Earth in Scandinavia is a 12th-century Old Icelandic translation of Elucidarius. A list ... | History of geodesy |
c_nqfex99dh6hi | In medieval Europe, marriage was governed by canon law, which recognized as valid only those marriages where the parties stated they took one another as husband and wife, regardless of the presence or absence of witnesses. It was not necessary, however, to be married by any official or cleric. This institution was canc... | Civil marriage |
c_kdeo4vz60cr1 | Children born into unions that were not valid under the Act would not automatically inherit the property or titles of their parents. For historical reasons, the Act did not apply in Scotland. Consequently, until 1940, it continued to be enough in Scotland for a man and a woman to pledge their commitment to each other i... | Civil marriage |
c_dujz4u3dh9fg | In medieval Europe, medicinal herbs and plants were cultivated in monastery and nunnery gardens beginning about the 8th century. Charlemagne gave orders for the collection of medicinal plants to be grown systematically in his royal garden. This royal garden was an important precedent for botanical gardens and physic ga... | Materia Medica |
c_nnpta1m700jv | In about the 12th century, medicine and pharmacy began to be taught in universities.Shabbethai Ben Abraham, better known as Shabbethai Donnolo, (913–c.982) was a 10th-century Italian Jew and the author of an early Hebrew text, Antidotarium. It consisted of detailed drug descriptions, medicinal remedies, practical metho... | Materia Medica |
c_h396y6jlnfis | It was a veritable glossary of herbs and drugs used during the medieval period. Donnollo was widely travelled and collected information from Arabic, Greek and Roman sources.In the Early and High Middle Ages Nestorian Christians were banished for their heretical views that they carried to Asia Minor. The Greek text was ... | Materia Medica |
c_42ekcimycx7f | In medieval Europe, pearl powder was widely perceived to have therapeutic qualities. It was used in an attempt to treat the insanity of Charles VI of France (1368–1422), and the fever of which Lorenzo de Medici died in 1492. Seventeenth-century German and English works claimed its effectiveness in a wide range of physi... | Pearl powder |
c_vbfc8qc2n8tn | Francis Bacon (1561–1626) recommended it as a means of prolonging life. Pearl powder was also used as a skin whitener by women in Europe during the nineteenth century; one work, however, deprecated it as imparting a "pale, sickly hue", as well as being injurious to the skin and general health. == References == | Pearl powder |
c_sgy3u149nns0 | In medieval Europe, purple, violet, murrey and similar colors were produced by dyeing wool with woad or indigo in the fleece and then piece-dyeing the woven cloth with red dyes, either the common madder or the luxury dyes kermes and cochineal. Madder could also produce purples when used with alum. Brazilwood also gave ... | Natural dyes |
c_gznrmux971y0 | Choctaw artists traditionally used maple (Acer sp.) to create lavender and purple dyes. Purples can also be derived from lichens, and from the berries of White Bryony from the northern Rocky Mountain states and mulberry (morus nigra) (with an acid mordant). | Natural dyes |
c_bx7ildhjt6nh | In medieval Europe, quadrature meant the calculation of area by any method. Most often the method of indivisibles was used; it was less rigorous than the geometric constructions of the Greeks, but it was simpler and more powerful. With its help, Galileo Galilei and Gilles de Roberval found the area of a cycloid arch, G... | Quadrature (mathematics) |
c_b3hn0sr4mlfz | In medieval Europe, rose water was used to wash hands at a meal table during feasts. Rose water is a usual component of perfume. Rose water ointment is occasionally used as an emollient, and rose water is sometimes used in cosmetics such as cold creams, toners and face wash.Some people use rose water as a spray applied... | Rose water |
c_oz4ze3c2udws | In medieval Europe, the Church was specifically opposed to "Latin Averroists" (see Averroës), such as the prominent Averroist Siger of Brabant. It sought to halt the spread of certain of Aristotle's doctrines — those that dealt with physical science (see Aristotelian physics, Condemnations of 1210-1277), which the reco... | Double truth |
c_gcox4dsgwzv3 | In medieval Europe, the end of the judicial process, often an execution, was often its most public, and sometimes the only public, aspect. French philosopher Michel Foucault wrote in Discipline and Punish, his influential history of the evolution of criminal justice over the course of the Enlightenment: In France, as i... | Perp walk |
c_7pmoffr868ie | Convicts wore placards summing up their offense, and on the way to the gallows were stopped at churches to make an amende honorable, a ceremonial plea for forgiveness. The executions themselves were long, almost theatrical spectacles, such as the 1757 drawing and quartering of Robert-François Damiens for his attempted ... | Perp walk |
c_eq6g98u2wl7c | Originally they had been dragged by horses, but some arrived almost dead from that treatment, unable to live through the hanging, castration, disemboweling and drawing and quartering that followed. While being transported, they were often pelted with objects thrown at them by onlookers. "This was a symbolic process tha... | Perp walk |
c_r3g9742j1r27 | "The drawing through the streets provided a final, degrading journey from the living world. "In the 19th century, as penal-reform efforts began to succeed, imprisonment began to replace execution as the preferred punishment for egregious crimes, since it offered the possibility of the convict's eventual repentance. The... | Perp walk |
c_mo11cyucpmxl | In medieval Europe, the pelican was thought to be particularly attentive to her young, to the point of providing her own blood by wounding her own breast when no other food was available. As a result, the pelican became a symbol of the Passion of Jesus and of the Eucharist from about the 12th century. | Christian symbols |
c_vmbv9a8bd9c6 | In medieval Europe, universities were mainly institutions of the Catholic Church. As they mainly trained clergy, most of these universities did not have any need to exact fees from the students with one notable exception: during the 12th century, while under the supervision of Pierre le Mangeur, the University of Paris... | Tuition fees |
c_297arzxprpry | On the other hand, the number of students from the lower classes was usually kept in check by the expenses of living during the years of study, although as early as the mid-19th century there were calls for limiting the university entrance by middle-class persons. A typical family, however, could not afford educating a... | Tuition fees |
c_njnxiyl9i5yp | After World War II the tuition systems of all of today's advanced democracies still were highly similar: Education institutions in all countries charged no or only very low tuition fees. It was not before the 1950s that the countries' education systems developed in different directions. Some countries, especially the A... | Tuition fees |
c_7j6kqob2oy7z | Other countries, particularly in Scandinavia and continental Europe, in contrast remained tuition-free. These developments were unrelated to the massive educational expansion that took place at the same time. | Tuition fees |
c_fw0ywuuksj2g | Since the early 1970s, the average cost of tuition has steadily outpaced the growth of the average American household. This trend continued particularly under President Reagan's higher education policies in the 1980s. Likewise, there has been a steady decrease in federal funding for grants and a rise in the interest ra... | Tuition fees |
c_c10zn5qbjoy2 | In medieval Europe, where the only coin in circulation was the silver penny (denier), the solidus was used as a unit of account equal to 12 deniers. Variations on the word solidus in the local language gave rise to a number of currency units: | Solidus coin |
c_h446iwnhiiss | In medieval European manuscripts, a single vertical bar was a common variant of the virgula ⟨/⟩ used as a period, scratch comma, and caesura mark.In Sanskrit and other Indian languages, a single vertical mark, a danda, has a similar function as a period (full stop). Two bars || (a 'double danda') is the equivalent of a... | Double vertical bar |
c_u0o8nka5jiqs | In medieval France the use of Biblical names appears to have been more extended, judging by the elaborate lists at the end of Gross's Gallia Judaica. True surnames occurred, especially in the south, like Farissol, Bonet, Barron, Lafitte; but as a rule local designations were popular, such as "Samson of Sens", etc. | Jewish surnames |
c_ge4hvvq9mro1 | In medieval Hungary the system of gyepű and gyepűelve, effective until the mid-13th century, can be considered as marches even though in its organisation it shows major differences from Western European feudal marches. For one thing, the gyepű was not controlled by a Marquess. The Gyepű was a strip of land that was spe... | March (territory) |
c_zhdfijn4alkl | Portions of the gyepű were usually guarded by tribes who had joined the Hungarian nation and were granted special rights for their services at the borders, such as the Székelys, Pechenegs and Cumans. A ban on settlement north of Niš by the Byzantine Empire in the twelfth century helped to establish uninhabited marchlan... | March (territory) |
c_nhtl6l8b6m7s | In medieval India, this bean was used in a technique to facilitate making crucibles impermeable. | Urad bean |
c_nnbi76atpjr8 | In medieval Islamic astronomy, precession was known based on Ptolemy's Almagest, and by observations that refined the value. Al-Battani, in his Zij Al-Sabi', after mentioning Hipparchus calculating precession, and Ptolemy's value of 1 degree per 100 solar years, says that he measured precession and found it to be one d... | Axial precession |
c_apipeurey0c6 | This theory is commonly attributed to the Arab astronomer Thabit ibn Qurra, but the attribution has been contested in modern times. Nicolaus Copernicus published a different account of trepidation in De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (1543). This work makes the first definite reference to precession as the result of ... | Axial precession |
c_tfxyfnga42fw | In medieval Islamic psychology, certain hadiths indicate that dreams consist of three parts, and early Muslim scholars recognized three kinds of dreams: false, pathogenic, and true. Ibn Sirin (654–728) was renowned for his Ta'bir al-Ru'ya and Muntakhab al-Kalam fi Tabir al-Ahlam, a book on dreams. The work is divided i... | Dream interpretation |
c_c7ki6dqktz5k | Al-Kindi (Alkindus) (801–873) also wrote a treatise on dream interpretation: On Sleep and Dreams. In consciousness studies, Al-Farabi (872–951) wrote the On the Cause of Dreams, which appeared as chapter 24 of his Book of Opinions of the people of the Ideal City. It was a treatise on dreams, in which he was the first t... | Dream interpretation |
c_1f9jfm9qoqun | In The Canon of Medicine, Avicenna extended the theory of temperaments to encompass "emotional aspects, mental capacity, moral attitudes, self-awareness, movements and dreams." Ibn Khaldun's Muqaddimah (1377) states that "confused dreams" are "pictures of the imagination that are stored inside by perception and to whic... | Dream interpretation |
c_opfhka1ejacf | In medieval Italy, a business organization known as the commenda appeared in the 10th century that was generally used for financing maritime trade. In a commenda, the traveling trader of the ship had limited liability, and was not held responsible if money was lost as long as the trader had not violated the rules of th... | Limited Partnership |
c_bvcfjpoig4cc | As an institution, the commenda is very similar to the qirad but whether the qirad transformed into the commenda, or the two institutions evolved independently cannot be stated with certainty. In the Mongol Empire, the contractual features of a Mongol-ortoq partnership closely resembled that of qirad and commenda arran... | Limited Partnership |
c_04idjmnghmw5 | In medieval Japan, Heian period men were not very interested in a woman's physical beauty and rarely had an opportunity to see it. The only physical attribute of interest was a woman's hair, which had to be thick and longer than she was tall. | Long hair |
c_8wv4kpi8i123 | In medieval Latin, a place for the isolation and care of lepers was known as a leprosaria, leprosarium, or leprosorium, names which are sometimes used in English as well. The Latin domus leprosaria was calqued in English as leper house, with leper colony becoming by far the most common English term in the 1880s as the ... | Leper colonies |
c_ep5qhnt61rz2 | This caused leper colonies to also be known as lazar houses and, after the leper colony and quarantine center on Venice's Sta. Maria di Nazareth, as lazarets, lazarettes, lazarettos, and lazarettas. The name leper or leprosy village is sometimes used for colonies in China, a calque of the Mandarin name máfēngcūn (t 麻風村... | Leper colonies |
c_qzqlom0zcz1j | In medieval Muslim astronomy, Orion was known as al-jabbar, "the giant". Orion's sixth brightest star, Saiph, is named from the Arabic, saif al-jabbar, meaning "sword of the giant". | Orion constellation |
c_88ilz9am1vom | In medieval Persia, Avicenna (980-1037 CE), the 'Prince of Doctors', wrote about clay therapy in his numerous treatises. Ibn al-Baitar (1197–1248), a Muslim scholar born at Malaga, Spain, and author of a famous work on pharmacology, discusses eight kinds of medicinal earth. The eight kinds are: the terra sigillata, Egy... | Medicinal clay |
c_midrobkocax8 | In medieval Russia, the rituals and games of the day were considered demonic and were banned by church authorities. Thus, the message of the hegumen Pamphil of the Yelizarov Convent (1505) to the Pskov governor and authorities condemned the "pagan" games of Pskov residents on the night of the Nativity of John the Bapti... | Kupala Night |
c_4b1oaf20vudg | In medieval Spain (both Al-Andalus and the Christian kingdoms), a host of synagogues were built, and it was usual to commission them from Moorish and later Mudéjar architects. Very few of these medieval synagogues, built with Moorish techniques and style, are conserved. The two best known Spanish synagogues are in Tole... | Synagogue architecture |
c_tz903dxn68id | It is based upon Almohad style and contains long rows of octagonal columns with curiously carved capitals, from which spring Moorish arches supporting the roof. Another significant Mudéjar synagogue is the one at Córdoba built in 1315. As in El Tránsito, the vegetal and geometrical stucco decorations are purely Moorish... | Synagogue architecture |
c_bkfrzb3l6gvp | After the expulsion from Spain there was a general feeling among wealthy Sephardim that Moorish architecture was appropriate in synagogues. By the mid-19th century, the style was adopted by the Ashkenazim of Central and Eastern Europe, who associated Moorish and Mudéjar architectural forms with the golden age of Jewry ... | Synagogue architecture |
c_a9jdtvxkb776 | The Alhambra has furnished inspiration for innumerable synagogues, but seldom have its graceful proportions or its delicate modeling and elaborate ornamentation been successfully copied. Moorish style, when adapted by the Ashkenazi was believed to have been a reference to the Golden Age of Spanish Jewry, it was not the... | Synagogue architecture |
c_xkn7518cn80c | In medieval Spain, Santas Hermandades, or 'holy brotherhoods', peacekeeping associations of armed individuals, were a characteristic of municipal life, especially in Castile. As medieval Spanish kings often could not offer adequate protection, protective municipal leagues began to emerge in the twelfth century against ... | Law enforcer |
c_yr6c82fv5srj | Throughout the Middle Ages such alliances were frequently formed by combinations of towns to protect the roads connecting them, and were occasionally extended to political purposes. Among the most powerful was the league of North Castilian and Basque ports, the Hermandad de las marismas: Toledo, Talavera, and Villarrea... | Law enforcer |
c_p91kgfmqjnvu | They adapted an existing brotherhood to the purpose of a general police acting under officials appointed by themselves, and endowed with great powers of summary jurisdiction even in capital cases. The original brotherhoods continued to serve as modest local police-units until their final suppression in 1835. | Law enforcer |
c_5ks6eztrw4c2 | The Vehmic courts of Germany provided some policing in the absence of strong state institutions. Such courts had a chairman who presided over a session and lay judges who passed judgement and carried out law enforcement tasks. Among the responsibilities that lay judges had were giving formal warnings to known troublema... | Law enforcer |
c_eelejssnv1t4 | In the medieval Islamic Caliphates, police were known as Shurta. Bodies termed Shurta existed perhaps as early as the Caliphate of Uthman. The Shurta is known to have existed in the Abbasid and Umayyad Caliphates. | Law enforcer |
c_ozzzd5dzxt5u | Their primary roles were to act as police and internal security forces but they could also be used for other duties such as customs and tax enforcement, rubbish collection, and acting as bodyguards for governors. From the 10th century, the importance of the Shurta declined as the army assumed internal security tasks wh... | Law enforcer |
c_17io3wwspltj | In France during the Middle Ages, there were two Great Officers of the Crown of France with police responsibilities: The Marshal of France and the Grand Constable of France. The military policing responsibilities of the Marshal of France were delegated to the Marshal's provost, whose force was known as the Marshalcy be... | Law enforcer |
c_n30vj7t5yw2b | Another organisation, the Constabulary (Old French: Connétablie), was under the command of the Constable of France. The constabulary was regularised as a military body in 1337. Under Francis I (reigned 1515–1547), the Maréchaussée was merged with the constabulary. | Law enforcer |
c_nroku5p07h9v | The resulting force was also known as the Maréchaussée, or, formally, the Constabulary and Marshalcy of France. In late medieval Italian cities, police forces were known as berovierri. Individually, their members were known as birri. | Law enforcer |
c_2ggkpqt1ok8i | Subordinate to the city's podestà, the berovierri were responsible for guarding the cities and their suburbs, patrolling, and the pursuit and arrest of criminals. They were typically hired on short-term contracts, usually six months. Detailed records from medieval Bologna show that birri had a chain of command, with co... | Law enforcer |
c_s6f95wfwtphb | This system was introduced under Alfred the Great. Communities were divided into groups of ten families called tithings, each of which was overseen by a chief tithingman. Every household head was responsible for the good behavior of his own family and the good behavior of other members of his tithing. | Law enforcer |
c_niwk6zctk8mn | Every male aged 12 and over was required to participate in a tithing. Members of tithings were responsible for raising "hue and cry" upon witnessing or learning of a crime, and the men of his tithing were responsible for capturing the criminal. The person the tithing captured would then be brought before the chief tith... | Law enforcer |
c_x4xo9mlxf7eu | All members of the criminal's tithing would be responsible for paying the fine. A group of ten tithings was known as a "hundred" and every hundred was overseen by an official known as a reeve. Hundreds ensured that if a criminal escaped to a neighboring village, he could be captured and returned to his village. | Law enforcer |
c_bmv7cx51wt4g | If a criminal was not apprehended, then the entire hundred could be fined. The hundreds were governed by administrative divisions known as shires, the rough equivalent of a modern county, which were overseen by an official known as a shire-reeve, from which the term sheriff evolved. The shire-reeve had the power of pos... | Law enforcer |
c_gi9sudsbeilb | Following the Norman conquest of England in 1066, the tithing system was tightened with the frankpledge system. By the end of the 13th century, the office of constable developed. Constables had the same responsibilities as chief tithingmen and additionally as royal officers. | Law enforcer |
c_57qq3fkctgr3 | The constable was elected by his parish every year. Eventually, constables became the first 'police' official to be tax-supported. | Law enforcer |
c_fttn17z32oa2 | In urban areas, watchmen were tasked with keeping order and enforcing nighttime curfew. Watchmen guarded the town gates at night, patrolled the streets, arrested those on the streets at night without good reason, and also acted as firefighters. Eventually the office of justice of the peace was established, with a justi... | Law enforcer |
c_mnfrqw9c2us0 | There was also a system of investigative "juries". The Assize of Arms of 1252, which required the appointment of constables to summon men to arms, quell breaches of the peace, and to deliver offenders to the sheriff or reeve, is cited as one of the earliest antecedents of the English police. The Statute of Winchester o... | Law enforcer |
c_slw7vuh8bsn4 | They were later nicknamed 'Charlies', probably after the reigning monarch King Charles II. Thief-takers were also rewarded for catching thieves and returning the stolen property. They were private individuals usually hired by crime victims. The earliest English use of the word police seems to have been the term Polles ... | Law enforcer |
c_wuc20o4zoso1 | In medieval and Renaissance Europe the term "property" essentially referred to land. After much rethinking, land has come to be regarded as only a special case of the property genus. This rethinking was inspired by at least three broad features of early modern Europe: the surge of commerce, the breakdown of efforts to ... | Property |
c_rqmqu2qmtjyh | In medieval and early modern Europe, before the development of modern prison systems, the death penalty was also used as a generalised form of punishment for even minor offences.In early modern Europe, a mass panic regarding witchcraft swept across Europe and later the European colonies in North America. During this pe... | Capital punishment |
c_sjcll99n8y2s | In the early history of Islam (7th–11th centuries), there is a number of "purported (but mutually inconsistent) reports" (athar) regarding the punishments of sodomy ordered by some of the early caliphs. Abu Bakr, the first caliph of the Rashidun Caliphate, apparently recommended toppling a wall on the culprit, or else ... | Capital punishment |
c_8935ucwwdccy | In early modern England, the Buggery Act 1533 stipulated hanging as punishment for "buggery". James Pratt and John Smith were the last two Englishmen to be executed for sodomy in 1835. | Capital punishment |
c_llsh387c4p8l | In 1636 the laws of Puritan governed Plymouth Colony included a sentence of death for sodomy and buggery. The Massachusetts Bay Colony followed in 1641. | Capital punishment |
c_2oxyrktszyzs | Throughout the 19th century, U.S. states repealed death sentences from their sodomy laws, with South Carolina being the last to do so in 1873.Historians recognise that during the Early Middle Ages, the Christian populations living in the lands invaded by the Arab Muslim armies between the 7th and 10th centuries suffere... | Capital punishment |
c_l70icm2rkocx | Christians and other religious minorities thus faced religious discrimination and religious persecution in that they were banned from proselytising (for Christians, it was forbidden to evangelise or spread Christianity) in the lands invaded by the Arab Muslims on pain of death, they were banned from bearing arms, under... | Capital punishment |
c_pwmmxl783b4q | Many Christian martyrs were executed under the Islamic death penalty for defending their Christian faith through dramatic acts of resistance such as refusing to convert to Islam, repudiation of the Islamic religion and subsequent reconversion to Christianity, and blasphemy towards Muslim beliefs.Despite the wide use of... | Capital punishment |
c_jki9fnxj4m92 | In medieval and early modern Germany, the Münzmeister ("mint master", the Latin term is monetarius) was the head or manager of a mint, a moneyer with responsibility for the minting of coins, or specie. His duties were defined differently at different times and places. | Münzmeister |
c_5tissoah3b35 | In medieval and renaissance Europe, a number of visual signs consist of three elements interlaced together in the same way that the Borromean rings are shown interlaced (in their conventional two-dimensional depiction), but with individual elements that are not closed loops. Examples of such symbols are the Snoldelev s... | Borromean ring |
c_3udyyhk4xy1j | In medieval astrology, certain aspects and planets were considered to be either favorable (benefic) or unfavorable (malefic). Modern usage places less emphasis on these fatalistic distinctions. The more modern approach to astrological aspects is exemplified by research on astrological harmonics. | Astrological aspect |
c_oiwsjdfn7qgf | In 1619, Johannes Kepler advocates this in his book Harmonice Mundi. Thereafter, John Addey was a major proponent. However, even in modern times, aspects are considered to be either easy (60° Sextile or 120° Trine) or hard (90° Square or 180° Opposition). | Astrological aspect |
c_ql94z8batntk | Depending on the involved planets, a Conjunction (0°, which is a discounting orb) may be in either category. Easy aspects may be positive, because they enhance opportunity for talent to grow. Hard aspects may be negative, because they enhance a challenge where an adjustment must be made to reach balance. | Astrological aspect |
c_hupxg21i792p | Typically, manifestation may occur with a Conjunction, Square or Opposition. Planets may be considered. Mars and Uranus tend to ignite while Saturn and Neptune inhibit. | Astrological aspect |
c_2as6f6x0n0v3 | Whether a planet is direct or retrograde is of great significance. An eclipse of the Sun or Moon is even more significant. The South Node of the Moon denotes innate wisdom from past experience while the North Node denotes karma and evolution. | Astrological aspect |
c_gkflqby6lrut | Astrological Signs may be considered. For example, the fire signs of Aries, Leo and Sagittarius are more compatible with the air signs of Gemini, Libra and Aquarius. The Earth signs of Taurus, Virgo and Capricorn are more compatible with the water signs of Cancer, Scorpio and Pisces. | Astrological aspect |
c_5n49xc592hgn | The mutable signs of Gemini, Virgo, Sagittarius and Pisces may be flexible. The cardinal signs of Aries, Cancer, Libra and Capricorn may change their mind. The fixed signs of Taurus, Leo, Scorpio and Aquarius may be difficult. Astrological Houses may be considered. | Astrological aspect |
c_1wc85qw7n270 | In medieval castles, the area surrounded by a curtain wall, with or without towers, is known as the bailey. The outermost walls with their integrated bastions and wall towers together make up the enceinte or main defensive line enclosing the site. In medieval designs of castle and town, the curtain walls were often bui... | Curtain wall (fortification) |
c_rbt0du76vtb9 | Behind the parapet was a wall walk from which the defenders could fight or move from one part of the castle to another. Larger curtain walls were provided with mural passages or galleries built into the thickness of the walls and provided with arrowslits. If an enemy reached the foot of the wall, they became difficult ... | Curtain wall (fortification) |
c_1t38vjvce4ng | In medieval central Europe, annual cattle drives brought Hungarian Grey cattle across the Danube River to the beef markets of Western Europe. In the 16th century the Swiss operated cattle drives over the St. Gotthard Pass to the markets in Bellinzona and Lugano and into Lombardy in northern Italy. | Cattle drive |
c_j59nmvf0enuw | The drives had ended by 1700 when sedentary dairy farming proved more profitable. In the eighteenth century up to 80,000 cattle were driven South from Scotland each year. From 1850 cattle trains were established from Aberdeen to London. | Cattle drive |
c_p5hshy68pxf2 | In medieval churches the altar, no longer standing between priest and people, grew considerably in size. The bishop's seat was moved to one side and the elaborate altar was placed against, or at least close to, the wall of the apse. The Roman Missal of Pope Pius V, whose use was made generally obligatory throughout the... | Altar (Catholic Church) |
c_kylp6z1ao1un | These adjuncts became common when, in the sixteenth century, church tabernacles were added to altars, requiring that most of the altars concerned be provided with these superstructures, which are known as altar ledges, degrees, gradini or superstructural steps. The front of these steps was sometimes painted and decorat... | Altar (Catholic Church) |
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