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c_wrnpq2yyaxiw | The monks were deterred from becoming members of the Dominican Order itself by the severe fasting requirements of the Dominican Constitutions, as well as the prohibition on owning any land other than that on which the monastery stood, and therefore became the Order of the United Friars of St. Gregory the Illuminator, a new order confirmed by Pope Innocent VI in 1356 whose Constitutions were similar to the Dominicans' except for these two laws. This order established monasteries over a vast amount of territory in Greater and Lesser Armenia, Persia, and Georgia, using the Dominican Rite in Armenian until the end of the order's existence in 1794. | Tridentine Latin Mass |
c_07e6yr6vowyv | On February 25, 1398, Pope Boniface IX also authorized Maximus Chrysoberges to found a monastery in Greece where Mass would be celebrated in Greek according to the Dominican Rite, and Manuel Chrysoloras translated the Dominican missal into Greek in pursuance of the plan, but nothing further is known of this undertaking.Missionaries in Canada were authorized to use Mohawk and Algonquin translations of the ordinary and the proper of the Tridentine Mass at least through the middle 1800s. In the late 1500s, permission was granted for missionaries working in India to use Syriac for the mass.On June 27, 1615, Pope Paul V granted permission for Mass and the Divine Office to be celebrated, and the sacraments administered, in the Chinese language according to the Roman Rite, and Lodovico Buglio, S.J., carried out the translation of the Missal, the Ritual, and a large part of the Breviary into Chinese. This faculty was never used.Similarly, on April 17, 1624, permission was granted for the Discalced Carmelites to use Arabic at the mission in Persia, and on April 30, 1631, the Theatines were granted permission to use Georgian or Armenian at their mission in Georgia. | Tridentine Latin Mass |
c_z9vj6jv0gi9e | Permission to use Arabic was also extended to the Franciscans in the Holy Land in the nineteenth century. In 1958, permission was given for Hindi to be used at masses in India.After the publication of the 1962 edition of the Roman Missal, the 1964 Instruction on implementing the Constitution on Sacred Liturgy of the Second Vatican Council laid down that "normally the epistle and gospel from the Mass of the day shall be read in the vernacular". Episcopal conferences were to decide, with the consent of the Holy See, what other parts, if any, of the Mass were to be celebrated in the vernacular.Outside the Roman Catholic Church, the vernacular language was introduced into the celebration of the Tridentine Mass by some Old Catholics and Anglo-Catholics with the introduction of the English Missal. | Tridentine Latin Mass |
c_5bbu72nu7lur | Some Western Rite Orthodox Christians, particularly in the Antiochian Orthodox Christian Archdiocese of North America's Western Rite Vicariate, use the Tridentine Mass in the vernacular with minor alterations under the title of the "Divine Liturgy of St. Gregory". Latin Masses on days of the week other than Sunday are becoming common. Most Old Catholics use the Tridentine Mass, either in the vernacular or in Latin. | Tridentine Latin Mass |
c_1xizb4wjzslc | In most countries, the local municipal council/local government, the body responsible of the environment and oftentimes the national government assume all the functions of land use planning; among them the corresponding function to territorial ordering (OT). For this reason, the highlighted bodies have among other responsibilities the promotion of the conservation and sustainable use of natural resources, establishing policies, criteria, tools and procedures of the most appropriate efficient and sustainable territorial order in coordination with any other relevant corresponding entities such as construction companies and the public. | Land-use planning |
c_y69aa1op2s4d | In most countries, the measurement of curvature of curved track is expressed in radius. The shorter the radius, the sharper the curve is. For sharper curves, the speed limits are lower to prevent an outward horizontal centrifugal force to overturn the trains by directing its weight toward the outside rail. | Track geometry |
c_q7erhrtg7tbq | Cant may be used to allow higher speeds over the same curve. In the United States, the measurement of curvature is expressed in degree of curvature. This is done by having a chord of 100 feet (30.48 m) connecting to two points on an arc of the reference rail, then drawing radii from the center to each of the chord end points. | Track geometry |
c_iubxpfnm1uuz | The angle between the radii lines is the degree of curvature. The degree of curvature is inverse of radius. The larger the degree of curvature, the sharper the curve is. | Track geometry |
c_s8x2b0zexd3u | Expressing the curve in this way allows surveyors to use estimation and simpler tools in curve measurement. This can be done by using a 62-foot (18.90 m) string line to be a chord to connect the arc at the gage side of the reference rail. Then at the midpoint of the string line (at the 31st foot), a measurement is taken from the string line to the gauge of the reference rail. The number of inches in that measurement is approximated to be the number of degrees of curvature.Due to the limitation of how specific train equipment can make a turn at maximum speeds, there is a limitation of minimum curve radius to control the sharpness of all curves along a given route. Although most countries use radius for measurement of curvature, the term maximum degree of curvature is still used outside of the United States such as in India, but with the radius as the unit. | Track geometry |
c_lcef1lx9x4qf | In most countries, the number of patients waiting for an organ transplantation is much larger than the number of available organs. Therefore, most countries choose who to allocate an organ to by some priority-ordering. Surprisingly, some priority orderings used in practice are not coherent. | Coherence (fairness) |
c_2r65j6jp3une | For example, one rule used by UNOS in the past was as follows:: Sec.6 Each patient is assigned a personal score, based on some medical data. Each patient is assigned a bonus, which is 10 times the fraction of patients who waited less than him. The agents are prioritized by the sum of their score + bonus.Suppose the personal scores of some four patients A, B, C, D are 16, 21, 20, 23. | Coherence (fairness) |
c_ngeutdpxojrb | Suppose their waiting times are A > B > C > D. Accordingly, their bonuses are 10, 7.5, 5, 2.5. So their sums are 26, 28.5, 25, 25.5, and the priority order is B > A > D > C. Now, after B receives an organ, the personal scores of A, C, D remain the same, but the bonuses change to 10, 6.67, 3.33, so the sums are 26, 26.67, 26.33, and the priority order is C > D > A. This inverts the order between the three agents. In order to have a coherent priority ordering, the priority should be determined only by personal traits. For example, the bonus can be computed by the number of months in line, rather than by the fraction of patients. | Coherence (fairness) |
c_mkxei0jkipvt | In most countries, the term of rights for patents is 20 years, after which the invention becomes part of the public domain. In the United States, the contents of patents are considered valid and enforceable for 20 years from the date of filing within the United States or 20 years from the earliest date of filing if under 35 USC 120, 121, or 365(c). However, the text and any illustration within a patent, provided the illustrations are essentially line drawings and do not in any substantive way reflect the "personality" of the person drawing them, are not subject to copyright protection. This is separate from the patent rights just mentioned. | Public domain resource |
c_m75esohkik1m | In most countries, there are very few cases where children are killed by other children. According to the U.S. Department of Justice statistics for 1996, one in five murders of children were committed by other children. | Child murder |
c_27vd73h43bd0 | Several murders by children have gained prominent media exposure. One was the killing on 12 February 1993 of the 2-year-old boy James Bulger by two 10-year-old boys in Bootle, Merseyside, England. He was beaten and stoned before his unconscious body was left on train tracks to give the impression that a train had hit him. | Child murder |
c_kivegq82o6y3 | Bulger's killers became the youngest convicted murderers in the modern history of the United Kingdom. Another notable case in the UK occurred in 1968 in Newcastle upon Tyne, when 10-year-old Mary Bell was convicted of manslaughter due to diminished responsibility in the deaths of toddlers Martin Brown and Brian Howe. She was released in 1980 at the age of 23. In 1998, 8-year-old Madelyn Clifton was killed by 14-year-old Josh Phillips. | Child murder |
c_m68bc5bqqo2e | In most countries, wage costs for healthcare practitioners are estimated to represent between 65% and 80% of renewable health system expenditures. There are three ways to pay medical practitioners: fee for service, capitation, and salary. There has been growing interest in blending elements of these systems. | Medical system |
c_6zeknpbc0we5 | In most cricketing countries, fast bowlers are considered to be the mainstay of a team's bowling attack, with slower bowlers in support roles. But in India, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka, the reverse is often true, with fast bowlers serving mainly to soften the ball up for the spinners. This is largely due to the condition of the pitches used in those countries, which gives more help to spinners than to fast bowlers, but at international level it also reflects the skills of their spinners compared to their pace bowlers. | Fast bowling |
c_6hm5egaevws9 | In most cultural, ethical, and religious contexts, sex within marriage is not considered to be contrary to notions of chastity. Some religious systems prohibit sexual activities between a person and anyone other than a spouse of that person, as have past legal systems and societal norms. In such contexts, sexual abstinence was prescribed for unmarried individuals for the purpose of chastity. Chastity has been used as a synonym for sexual abstinence, they are similar but with different behavior and restrictions. | Sexual abstinence |
c_fi2jc8vg6n9z | In most cultures where family names are written after given names, it is still desired to sort lists of names (as in telephone directories) by family name first. In this case, names need to be reordered to be sorted correctly. For example, Juan Hernandes and Brian O'Leary should be sorted as "Hernandes, Juan" and "O'Leary, Brian" even if they are not written this way. | Alphabetic order |
c_kjel1rjmpa4r | Capturing this rule in a computer collation algorithm is complex, and simple attempts will fail. For example, unless the algorithm has at its disposal an extensive list of family names, there is no way to decide if "Gillian Lucille van der Waal" is "van der Waal, Gillian Lucille", "Waal, Gillian Lucille van der", or even "Lucille van der Waal, Gillian". Ordering by surname is frequently encountered in academic contexts. Within a single multi-author paper, ordering the authors alphabetically by surname, rather than by other methods such as reverse seniority or subjective degree of contribution to the paper, is seen as a way of "acknowledg similar contributions" or "avoid disharmony in collaborating groups". The practice in certain fields of ordering citations in bibliographies by the surnames of their authors has been found to create bias in favour of authors with surnames which appear earlier in the alphabet, while this effect does not appear in fields in which bibliographies are ordered chronologically. | Alphabetic order |
c_i115dcighiev | In most cultures, gender differentiation of clothing is considered appropriate. The differences are in styles, colors, fabrics, and types. In contemporary Western societies, skirts, dresses, and high-heeled shoes are usually seen as women's clothing, while neckties usually are seen as men's clothing. Trousers were once seen as exclusively men's clothing, but nowadays are worn by both genders. | Folding clothes |
c_t1o1eh2j9fx0 | Men's clothes are often more practical (that is, they can function well under a wide variety of situations), but a wider range of clothing styles is available for women. Typically, men are allowed to bare their chests in a greater variety of public places. It is generally common for a woman to wear clothing perceived as masculine, while the opposite is seen as unusual. | Folding clothes |
c_g8yldgm218qk | Contemporary men may sometimes choose to wear men's skirts such as togas or kilts in particular cultures, especially on ceremonial occasions. In previous times, such garments often were worn as normal daily clothing by men. In some cultures, sumptuary laws regulate what men and women are required to wear. | Folding clothes |
c_kqytejra39yv | Islam requires women to wear certain forms of attire, usually hijab. What items required varies in different Muslim societies; however, women are usually required to cover more of their bodies than men. Articles of clothing Muslim women wear under these laws or traditions range from the head-scarf to the burqa. Some contemporary clothing styles designed to be worn by either gender, such as T-shirts, have started out as menswear, but some articles, such as the fedora, originally were a style for women. | Folding clothes |
c_s519glz0oj28 | In most cultures, men typically find female breasts attractive. Women sometimes use décolletage that exposes the cleavage to enhance their physical and sexual attractiveness, and to improve their sense of femininity. Display of cleavage with a low neckline is often regarded as a form of flirting or seduction, as much as for its aesthetic or erotic effect. According to Kinsey Reports, most men derive erotic pleasure from seeing a woman's cleavage. | Cleavage enhancement |
c_2bz3w6prjb18 | When designing costumes, creating shapes that draw attention to the face or the chest helps distract the gaze from body parts that are considered less desirable. Male cross-dressers and trans women often want female-like cleavage to make their bodies look more feminine. Convincing cleavage may distract attention from less-feminine aspects of the appearance and improve the ability to pass.The amount of cleavage exposure that is acceptable in public differs significantly between cultures and societies. | Cleavage enhancement |
c_w7zdki76ae2n | In contemporary Western society, the extent to which a woman may expose her breasts depends on the social and cultural context. Displaying any part of the female breast may be considered inappropriate and may be prohibited in some settings, such as workplaces, churches, and schools, while in other spaces, such as parties, beaches and pools, it may be permissible to show as much cleavage as possible. Art historian James Laver noted the changing standards of cleavage are mostly applicable to evening wear rather than to day wear. The exposure of nipples and areolae is almost always considered immodest and in some instances is viewed as indecent behavior. | Cleavage enhancement |
c_sc42xudm46o4 | In most cultures, pregnant women have a special status in society and receive particularly gentle care. At the same time, they are subject to expectations that may exert great psychological pressure, such as having to produce a son and heir. In many traditional societies, pregnancy must be preceded by marriage, on pain of ostracism of mother and (illegitimate) child. Overall, pregnancy is accompanied by numerous customs that are often subject to ethnological research, often rooted in traditional medicine or religion. | Third trimester |
c_wasn9rcz2pet | The baby shower is an example of a modern custom. Pregnancy is an important topic in sociology of the family. The prospective child may preliminarily be placed into numerous social roles. The parents' relationship and the relation between parents and their surroundings are also affected. A belly cast may be made during pregnancy as a keepsake. | Third trimester |
c_fqtw42rpqosu | In most current designs of direct TPMS, a small electronic assembly which is rugged enough to be mounted inside a tire, measures the pressure using a microelectromechanical system (MEMS) pressure sensor and then transmits this and other information to one or more vehicle receivers. Other information can include a serial number, temperature, acceleration, direction of rotation and the status of the complete tire pressure monitoring system. The purpose of the serial number is to allow the vehicle to ignore transmissions from other vehicles and operate with a unique data field. A typical direct TPMS (e.g. Ford, BMW or Toyota) comprises the following components on a vehicle: A direct TPM sensor fitted to the back of the valve stem on each wheel A TPM Warning Light Unique identifier (IDs) for which tire is providing the data including speed and the direction of rotation A tire pressure monitor electronic control unit (ECU) Antenna(s) Controller for periodic measurements Source of power Diagnostics and wake up systemMost direct TPMS systems use ultra high frequency (UHF) radio in one of the 'unlicensed' ISM bands (industrial, scientific and medical) for transmitting the data, often around 433 MHz in Europe and 315 MHz in much of the rest of the world. | Direct TPMS |
c_l8ak4o1pu3wx | On some systems there is a separate receiver or antenna near each wheel whilst more commonly there is a single receiver which receives data from all of the wheels on the vehicle. Commonly this receiver is also used for remote keyless entry system (RKE) as this also usually uses UHF radio transmissions. TPM sensors can be fitted to the wheels in a number of ways. They can be mounted on the back of the tire's valve stem or attached using adhesive or to a band which is then securely wrapped around the rim inside the tire, usually in the drop zone. | Direct TPMS |
c_zs8ps7bvhq8m | In most current implementations of 3-D Secure, the card issuer or its ACS provider prompts the buyer for a password that is known only to the card issuer or ACS provider and the buyer. Since the merchant does not know this password and is not responsible for capturing it, it can be used by the card issuer as evidence that the purchaser is indeed their cardholder. This is intended to help decrease risk in two ways: Copying card details, either by writing down the numbers on the card itself or by way of modified terminals or ATMs, does not result in the ability to purchase over the Internet because of the additional password, which is not stored on or written on the card. Since the merchant does not capture the password, there is a reduced risk from security incidents at online merchants; while an incident may still result in hackers obtaining other card details, there is no way for them to get the associated password.3-D Secure does not strictly require the use of password authentication. | 3D Secure |
c_4vcvzcq0r0v0 | It is said to be possible to use it in conjunction with smart card readers, security tokens and the like. These types of devices might provide a better user experience for customers as they free the purchaser from having to use a secure password. Some issuers are now using such devices as part of the Chip Authentication Program or Dynamic Passcode Authentication schemes.One significant disadvantage is that cardholders are likely to see their browser connect to unfamiliar domain names as a result of vendors' MPI implementations and the use of outsourced ACS implementations by card issuers, which might make it easier to perform phishing attacks on cardholders. | 3D Secure |
c_cad58fwwngbn | In most current systems the power is provided to the control actuators by high-pressure hydraulic systems. In fly-by-wire systems the valves, which control these systems, are activated by electrical signals. In power-by-wire systems, electrical actuators are used in favour of hydraulic pistons. The power is carried to the actuators by electrical cables. | Aircraft flight control system |
c_otz7ttrzanka | These are lighter than hydraulic pipes, easier to install and maintain, and more reliable. Elements of the F-35 flight control system are power-by-wire. | Aircraft flight control system |
c_l6vhnpcpgl65 | The actuators in such an electro-hydrostatic actuation (EHA) system are self-contained hydraulic devices, small closed-circuit hydraulic systems. The overall aim is towards more- or all-electric aircraft and an early example of the approach was the Avro Vulcan. Serious consideration was given to using the approach on the Airbus A380. | Aircraft flight control system |
c_uzgvv85kp25b | In most current top-loading washers, if the motor spins in one direction, the gearbox drives the agitator; if the motor spins the other way, the gearbox locks the agitator and spins the basket and agitator together. Similarly, if the pump motor rotates one way it recirculates the sudsy water; in the other direction it pumps water from the machine during the spin cycle. Mechanically, this system is very simple. | Clothes washer |
c_hu6d6p0u7k2j | In most current use cases, the letters A–F or a–f represent the values 10–15, while the numerals 0–9 are used to represent their decimal values. There is no universal convention to use lowercase or uppercase, so each is prevalent or preferred in particular environments by community standards or convention; even mixed case is used. Seven-segment displays use mixed-case AbCdEF to make digits that can be distinguished from each other. There is some standardization of using spaces (rather than commas or another punctuation mark) to separate hex values in a long list. For instance, in the following hex dump, each 8-bit byte is a 2-digit hex number, with spaces between them, while the 32-bit offset at the start is an 8-digit hex number. | Hexadecimal numeral system |
c_e62vezi9nhwo | In most darkrooms, an enlarger, an optical apparatus similar to a slide projector, that projects light through the image of a negative onto a base, finely controls the focus, intensity and duration of light, is used for printmaking. A sheet of photographic paper is exposed to the light coming through the negative, resulting in a positive version of the image on the paper. When making black-and-white prints, a safelight is commonly used to illuminate the work area. Since the majority of black-and-white papers are sensitive to only blue, or to blue and green light, a red- or amber-colored light can be safely used without exposing the paper. | Dark room |
c_vqzc3s1vx6g5 | Color print paper, being sensitive to all parts of the visible spectrum, must be kept in complete darkness until the prints are properly fixed. A very dim variation of safelight that can be used with certain negative color materials exists, but the light emitted by one is so low that most printers do not use one at all.Another use for a darkroom is to load film in and out of cameras, development spools, or film holders, which requires complete darkness. Lacking a darkroom, a photographer can make use of a changing bag, which is a small bag with sleeved arm holes specially designed to be completely light proof and used to prepare film prior to exposure or developing. | Dark room |
c_0veu2wzbk2zi | In most database management systems durable database transactions are supported through a log file. However, multiple writes to the same page of that file can produce a slim chance of data loss. Assuming for simplicity that the log file is organized in pages whose size matches the block size of its underlying medium, the following problem can occur: If the very last page of the log file is only partially filled with data and has to be written to permanent storage in this state, the very same page will have to be overwritten during the next write operation. If a crash happens during that later write operation, previously stored log data may be lost. | Ping-pong scheme |
c_wed0i2i47d5n | The Ping-Pong scheme described in Transaction Processing eliminates this problem by alternately writing the contents of said (logical) last page to two different physical pages inside the log file (the actual last page i and its empty successor i+1). Once said logical log page is no longer the last page (i.e. it is completely filled with log data), it is written one last time to the regular physical position (i) inside the log file. This scheme requires the usage of time stamps for each page in order to distinguish the most recent version of the logical last page one from its predecessor. | Ping-pong scheme |
c_gsaq4wb4vo35 | In most deck-building games, each player starts with a small deck of cards of low value. Each turn, they draw some cards from their deck and play them, which may have various gameplay effects, and may buy more cards from a central market, thereby building their deck. The effects of playing cards often include providing the in-game currency that allows players to buy cards; other effects may include increasing the number of game actions a player may take on their turn, removing unwanted cards from the player’s deck, or attacking other players. As players buy more cards with more valuable abilities, their decks gradually become more powerful. | Deck-building game |
c_gvesvih6rly5 | When the player runs out of cards to draw, they shuffle their discard pile (which usually includes newly-gained cards) to create a new deck to draw from. Apart from this, however, games may vary; for instance, some are competitive, while others are co-operative.As players do not build their decks before playing, they cannot organize a deck in advance, and must do so during play. Therefore, strategy is driven by the cards available in the market, which may vary from game to game. In some games (such as Legendary: A Marvel Deck Building Game), before the game begins, players can strategize and choose which cards go into the central market deck (the cards that can potentially be bought to increase the strength of each player’s deck).Deck-building is the central mechanic in some games, such as Dominion or Star Realms. However, in others, such as the Mage Knight Board Game or Arkham Horror: The Card Game, it is combined with others.If a game has similar mechanics, but doesn't use cards, it is frequently called a pool-building game. | Deck-building game |
c_d0q2562g55sw | In most deployments of Paxos, each participating process acts in three roles; Proposer, Acceptor and Learner. This reduces the message complexity significantly, without sacrificing correctness: In Paxos, clients send commands to a leader. During normal operation, the leader receives a client's command, assigns it a new command number i {\displaystyle i} , and then begins the i {\displaystyle i} th instance of the consensus algorithm by sending messages to a set of acceptor processes. By merging roles, the protocol "collapses" into an efficient client-master-replica style deployment, typical of the database community. The benefit of the Paxos protocols (including implementations with merged roles) is the guarantee of its safety properties. A typical implementation's message flow is covered in the section Multi-Paxos. | Paxos (computer science) |
c_vnfuzpcxlgsn | In most designs the 56000 is dedicated to one single task, because digital signal processing using special hardware is mostly real-time and does not allow any interruption. For less demanding tasks which are not time-critical, designers normally use a separate CPU or MCU. The 56000 can execute a 1024-point complex Fast Fourier transform (FFT) in 59,898 clock cycles, taking 1.8 ms at 33 MHz, or a rate of just over 555 operations per second, allowing both realtime decoding and encoding of reasonably advanced audio codecs such as MP3 for direct-to-disc recording purposes.The addition of SIMD instructions to most desktop computer CPUs have meant that dedicated DSP chips like the 56000 have partly disappeared from some application fields, but they continue to be used widely in communications and other professional uses. | Motorola 56000 |
c_gsfgj1pbanx4 | To this end the 56800 series added a complete MCU which created a single-chip "DSPcontroller" solution, while the opposite occurred in the 68456, a 68000 with a 56000 on it. A still quite prevalent model of the 56000 is the third generation 56300 family, starting with the 56301, which features several models with special applications hard- and firmware built-in, like PCI interface logic, CRC processors, or audio companders. Core clock frequencies ranged up to 250 MHz. | Motorola 56000 |
c_4qki3hkj2sh3 | In most developed areas the use of fencing is regulated, variously in commercial, residential, and agricultural areas. Height, material, setback, and aesthetic issues are among the considerations subject to regulation. | Fence |
c_ccc5bxvllzcb | In most developed countries, asbestos is typically disposed of as hazardous waste in designated landfill sites. The demolition of buildings containing large amounts of asbestos-based materials pose particular problems for builders and property developers – such buildings often have to be deconstructed piece by piece, or the asbestos has to be painstakingly removed before the structure can be razed by mechanical or explosive means. One such example is the Red Road Flats in Glasgow, Scotland which used huge amounts of asbestos cement board for wall panelling – British health and safety regulations stipulate that asbestos material has to be removed in specially adapted vehicles and taken to a landfill site with an appropriate permit to accept asbestos, via an approved route, at certain times of the day. In the United States, the EPA governs the removal and disposal of asbestos strictly. | Asbestos containing materials |
c_1vugmscf01cv | Companies that remove asbestos must comply with EPA licensing. These companies are called EPA licensed asbestos contractors. | Asbestos containing materials |
c_lqxk86qs0wbs | Anytime one of these asbestos contractors performs work a test consultant has to conduct strict testing to ensure the asbestos is completely removed. Asbestos can be destroyed by ultra-high-temperature incineration and plasma melting process. A process of thermal decomposition at 1,000–1,250 °C (1,800–2,300 °F) produces a mixture of non-hazardous silicon-based wastes, and at temperatures above 1,250 °C (2,300 °F) it produces silicate glass. Microwave thermal treatment can be used in an industrial manufacturing process to transform asbestos and asbestos-containing waste into porcelain stoneware tiles, porous single-fired wall tiles, and ceramic bricks.The combination of oxalic acid with ultrasound fully degrades chrysotile asbestos fibers. | Asbestos containing materials |
c_8eua9ehe6r2v | In most developed countries, domestic waste disposal is funded from a national or local tax which may be related to income, or property values. Commercial and industrial waste disposal is typically charged for as a commercial service, often as an integrated charge which includes disposal costs. This practice may encourage disposal contractors to opt for the cheapest disposal option such as landfill rather than the environmentally best solution such as re-use and recycling. Financing of solid waste management projects can be overwhelming for the city government, especially if the government see it as an important service they should render to the citizen. | Solid waste management |
c_h6b1azsjyo0j | Donors and grants are a funding mechanism that is dependent on the interest of the donor organization. as much as it is a good way to develop a city's waste management infrastructure, attracting and utilizing grants is solely reliant on what the donor considers as important. Therefore, it may be a challenge for a city government to dictate how the funds should be distributed among the various aspect of waste management.In some areas like Taipei, the city government charges its households and industries for the volume of rubbish they produce. | Solid waste management |
c_3frmzto2syeo | Waste is collected by the city council only if it is put in government issued rubbish bags. This policy has successfully reduced the amount of waste the city produces and increased the recycling rate.Another example from a country that enforces a waste tax is Italy. Instead of using government issued bags like Taipei, the tax is based on two rates: fixed and variable. The fixed rate is based on the size of the house while the variable is determined by the number of people living in the house.The World Bank finances and advises on solid waste management projects using a diverse suite of products and services, including traditional loans, results-based financing, development policy financing, and technical advisory. World Bank-financed waste management projects usually address the entire lifecycle of waste right from the point of generation to collection and transportation, and finally treatment and disposal. | Solid waste management |
c_q1gn44iqfjsx | In most developed countries, only those qualified with an appropriate license, certification, or registration with a relevant body (often governmental), may legally practice architecture. Such licensure usually required a university degree, successful completion of exams, as well as a training period. Representation of oneself as an architect through the use of terms and titles were restricted to licensed individuals by law, although in general, derivatives such as architectural designer were not legally protected. To practice architecture implies the ability to practice independently of supervision. The term building design professional (or design professional), by contrast, is a much broader term that includes professionals who practice independently under an alternate profession such as engineering professionals, or those who assist in the practice of architecture under the supervision of a licensed architect such as intern architects. In many places, independent, non-licensed individuals, may perform design services outside the professional restrictions such as the design houses or other smaller structures. | Architect |
c_8i4blvptlyc1 | In most developed countries, pension systems are being threatened by rising demographic imbalances as well as lower growth in productivity. With the need to supplement public and private retirement benefits via voluntary contributions, individuals are becoming increasingly responsible for their own retirement savings and investment decisions. The principles of goal-based investing can be applied to the retirement problem (Giron, Martellini, Milhau, Mulvey, and Suri, 2018). In retirement investing, the goal is to generate replacement income. | Goal-based investing |
c_6lc7ikoybcqb | The first step is the identification of a safe “goal-hedging portfolio” (GHP), which effectively and reliably secures an investor’s essential goal, regardless of assumptions on parameter values such as risk premia on risky assets. In other words, the GHP should secure the purchasing power of retirement savings in terms of replacement income, an objective that is clearly different from securing the nominal value of retirement savings. A target level of replacement income that the investor would like to reach but is unable to secure given current resources is said to be an aspirational goal. | Goal-based investing |
c_ryrveixbk2xm | On the other hand, an essential goal is an affordable level of income that the investor would like to secure with the highest confidence level. In most cases, current savings are insufficient to finance the target income level that allow the desired standard of living to be financed, so the investor needs to have access to upside potential via some performance seeking portfolio (PSP). It can be shown that the optimal payoff can be approximated with a simple dynamic GBI strategy in which the dollar allocation to the PSP is given by a multiple of the risk budget, defined as the distance between current savings and a floor equal to the present value of the essential goal. | Goal-based investing |
c_gm6y0y6dk90p | This form of strategy is reminiscent of the dynamic core-satellite investment approach of Amenc, Malaise, and Martellini (2004), with the GHP as the core and the PSP as the satellite. It allows the tracking error with respect to the replacement income portfolio to be managed in a non-symmetric way, by capturing part of the upside of the PSP while limiting funding ratio downside risk to a fixed level. From an implementation standpoint, it has the advantage over the probability-maximising strategy that it is only based on observable parameters. In order to achieve the highest success probability, the GBI strategy embeds a stop-gain mechanism, by which all assets are transferred to the GHP on the first date the aspirational goal is hit, that is if and when current wealth becomes sufficiently high to purchase the target level of replacement income cash flows. By using the proper GHP and a risk-controlled investment approach, retirement GBI strategies secure a fixed fraction of the purchasing power of each dollar invested without sacrificing upside potential. | Goal-based investing |
c_jb80rbn12bre | In most developed countries, schools use different approaches to providing special education services to students. These approaches can be broadly grouped into four categories, according to how much contact the student with special needs has with non-disabled students (using North American terminology): Inclusion: In this approach, students with special needs spend all, or most of the school day with students who do not have special needs. Due to the fact that inclusion can require substantial modification of the general curriculum, most schools use it only for selected students with mild to moderate special needs, which is accepted as a best practice. Specialized services may be provided inside or outside the regular classroom, depending on the type of service. | Special needs education |
c_pd89kh5itmfk | Students may occasionally leave the regular classroom to attend smaller, more intensive instructional sessions in a separate classroom, resource room, or to receive other related services that might require specialised equipment or might be disruptive to the rest of the class, such as speech and language therapy, occupational therapy, physical therapy, rehabilitation counseling. They might also leave the regular classroom for services that require privacy, such as counseling sessions with a social worker. Mainstreaming refers to the practice of educating students with special needs in classes with non-disabled students during specific time periods based on their skills. | Special needs education |
c_ex357wpc0sow | Students with special needs are segregated in separate classrooms exclusively for students with special needs for the rest of the school day. Segregation in a separate classroom or special school for students with special needs: In this model, students with special needs do not attend classes with non-disabled students. Segregated students may attend the same school where regular classes are provided, but spend all instructional time exclusively in a separate classroom for students with various disabilities. | Special needs education |
c_q5lqmbaoqtly | If their special class is located in an ordinary school, they may be provided opportunities for social integration outside the classroom, such as by eating meals with non-disabled students. Alternatively, these students may attend a special school. It may also occur when a student is in hospital, housebound, or detained by the criminal justice system. | Special needs education |
c_4i81pxn6260t | These students may receive one-on-one instruction or group instruction. Students who have been suspended or expelled are not considered segregated in this sense. Co-teaching: In this setting, disabled students are placed in a general education classroom to learn along with their disabled peers and non-disabled peers. A general education teacher and a special education teacher work as partners in instruction. Types of co-teaching include "one teaching/one helping" in which one teacher instructs while the other circulates around the class to evaluate and offer help, "parallel teaching" in which both teachers teach the same content to two groups of students of equal size, "station teaching" in which both teachers present differing content to different groups of students simultaneously and students rotate through each station, "alternative teaching" in which one teacher works with a smaller group or individual students while the other works with the rest of the class, and "team teaching" in which both teachers plan and teach a lesson together. | Special needs education |
c_kr8y8obu4dtp | In most developed countries, the legislature has granted original jurisdiction over highly technical matters to executive branch administrative agencies which oversee such things. As a result, some lawyers have become specialists in administrative law. In a few countries, there is a special category of jurists with a monopoly over this form of advocacy; for example, France formerly had conseils juridiques (who were merged into the main legal profession in 1991). In other countries, like the United States, lawyers have been effectively barred by statute from certain types of administrative hearings in order to preserve their informality. | Legal services |
c_cdzixrhb904e | In most developed countries, the single most important form of disability insurance is that provided by the national government for all citizens. For example, the United Kingdom's version is part of National Insurance; the United States' version is Social Security (SS): specifically, several parts of SS including Social Security Disability Insurance (SSDI) and Supplemental Security Income (SSI). These programs provide a floor beneath all other disability insurance. | Disability insurance |
c_fwe6ijgve2gk | In other words, they are the safety net that catches everyone who was otherwise (a) uninsured or (b) underinsured. As such, they are large programs with many beneficiaries. The general theory of the benefit formula is that the benefit is enough to prevent abject poverty. | Disability insurance |
c_x6r4qbx24xfg | In most developed countries, there are two main types of lab processing the majority of medical specimens. Hospital laboratories are attached to a hospital, and perform tests on their patients. Private (or community) laboratories receive samples from general practitioners, insurance companies, clinical research sites and other health clinics for analysis. For extremely specialised tests, samples may go to a research laboratory. | Medical laboratory |
c_frvvpt8xpfdm | Some tests involve specimens sent between different labs for uncommon tests. For example, in some cases it may be more cost effective if a particular laboratory specializes in a less common tests, receiving specimens (and payment) from other labs, while sending other specimens to other labs for those tests they do not perform. In many countries there are specialized types of Medical Laboratories according to the types of investigations carried out. Organisations that provide blood products for transfusion to hospitals, such as The Red Cross, will provide access to their reference laboratory for their customers. Some laboratories specialize in Molecular diagnostic and cytogenetic testing, in order to provide information regarding diagnosis and treatment of genetic or cancer-related disorders. | Medical laboratory |
c_269rj20uhuw2 | In most developed nations, all new developments are assessed for flood risks. The aim is to ensure flood risk is taken into account in all stages of the planning process to avoid inappropriate development in areas of high risk. When development is required in areas of high risk, structures should be built to flood-resistant standards and living or working areas should be raised well above the worst-case scenario flood levels. For existing structures in high-risk areas, funding should be allocated to i.e. raise the electrical wiring/sockets so any water that enters the home can not reach the electrics. | Urban resilience |
c_jke0i05wegmt | Other solutions are to raise these structures to appropriate heights or make them floating or considerations should be made to relocate or rebuild structures on higher ground. A house in Mexico Beach, Florida which survived Hurricane Michael is an example of a house built to survive tidal surge.The pre-Incan Uru people of Lake Titicaca in Peru have lived on floating islands made of reeds for hundreds of years. The practice began as an innovative form of protection from competition for land by various groups, and it continues to support the Uru homeland. | Urban resilience |
c_jhawuvf67kl7 | The manual technique is used to build homes resting on hand-made islands all from simple reeds from the totora plant. Similarly, in the southern wetlands of Iraq, the Marsh Arabs (Arab al-Ahwār) have lived for centuries on floating islands and in arched buildings all constructed exclusively from the local qasab reeds. Without any nails, wood, or glass, buildings are assembled by hand as quickly as within a day. Another aspect of these villages, called Al Tahla, is that the built homes can also be disassembled in a day, transported, and reassembled . | Urban resilience |
c_ybzhumgagfm3 | In most dewetting studies a thin polymer film is spin-cast onto a substrate. Even in the case of S < 0 {\displaystyle S<0} the film does not dewet immediately if it is in a metastable state, e.g. if the temperature is below the glass transition temperature of the polymer. Annealing such a metastable film above its glass transition temperature increases the mobility of the polymer-chain molecules and dewetting takes place.The process of dewetting occurs by the nucleation and growth of randomly formed holes, which coalesce to form a network of filaments, before breaking into droplets. When starting from a continuous film, an irregular pattern of droplets is formed. | Dewetting |
c_66960nyb4r80 | The droplet size and droplet spacing may vary over several orders of magnitude, since the dewetting starts from randomly formed holes in the film. There is no spatial correlation between the dry patches that develop. These dry patches grow and the material is accumulated in the rim surrounding the growing hole. | Dewetting |
c_gsw00cel1lpm | In the case where the initially homogeneous film is thin (in the range of 100 nm), a polygon network of connected strings of material is formed, like a Voronoi pattern of polygons. These strings then can break up into droplets, a process which is known as the Plateau-Rayleigh instability. At other film thicknesses, other complicated patterns of droplets on the substrate can be observed, which stem from a fingering instability of the growing rim around the dry patch. | Dewetting |
c_ggpmwmt6m2rl | In most dialects of American English, speakers have a process known as intervocalic alveolar flapping that changes the consonants /t/ and /d/ into a quick flap consonant () in words such as "butter" () and "notable" (). The stop consonants /t/ and /d/ only become a flap in between two vowels, where the first vowel is stressed and the second is stressless. It is common to represent phonological rules using formal rewrite rules in the most general way possible. Thus, the intervocalic alveolar flapping described above can be formalized as | Phonological rule |
c_31pnl6kx3nb8 | In most dialects of Lisp including Common Lisp, by convention the value NIL evaluates to the value false in a boolean expression. In Scheme, since the IEEE standard in 1991, all values except #f, including NIL's equivalent in Scheme which is written as '(), evaluate to the value true in a boolean expression. (R5RS sec. 6.3.1)Where the constant representing the boolean value of true is T in most Lisps, in Scheme it is #t. | Scheme programming language |
c_ma28zsl2pmhg | In most dialects, the fortis stops and affricate /p, t, tʃ, k/ have various different allophones, and are distinguished from the lenis stops and affricate /b, d, dʒ, ɡ/ by several phonetic features. The allophones of the fortes /p, t, tʃ, k/ include: aspirated when they occur in the onset of a stressed syllable, as in potato. In clusters involving a following liquid, the aspiration typically manifests as the devoicing of this liquid. These sounds are unaspirated after /s/ within the same syllable, as in stan, span, scan, and at the ends of syllables, as in mat, map, mac. | International Phonetic Alphabet for English |
c_bs368bsp9ad3 | The voiceless fricatives are nearly always unaspirated, but a notable exception is English-speaking areas of Wales, where they are often aspirated. In many accents of English, fortis stops /p, t, k, tʃ/ are glottalized in some positions. That may be heard either as a glottal stop preceding the oral closure ("pre-glottalization" or "glottal reinforcement") or as a substitution of the glottal stop for the oral stop (glottal replacement). | International Phonetic Alphabet for English |
c_3k743cxqy79s | /tʃ/ can be only pre-glottalized. Pre-glottalization normally occurs in British and American English when the fortis consonant phoneme is followed by another consonant or when the consonant is in final position. Thus football and catching are often pronounced and , respectively. | International Phonetic Alphabet for English |
c_9hx6202g9xlt | Glottal replacement often happens in cases such as those just given, so that football is frequently pronounced . In addition, however, glottal replacement is increasingly common in British English when /t/ occurs between vowels if the preceding vowel is stressed; thus better is often pronounced by younger speakers as . Such t-glottalization also occurs in many British regional accents, including Cockney, where it can also occur at the end of words, and where /p/ and /k/ are sometimes treated the same way. | International Phonetic Alphabet for English |
c_098mp4w1f5cd | For some RP-speakers, final voiceless stops, especially /k/, may become ejectives. Among stops, both fortes and lenes: May have no audible release in the word-final position. These allophones are more common in North America than Great Britain. | International Phonetic Alphabet for English |
c_7dyrh12ok5f6 | Almost always have a masked release before another plosive or affricate (as in rubbed ), i.e. the release of the first stop is made after the closure of the second stop. This also applies when the following stop is homorganic (articulated in the same place), as in top player. A notable exception is Welsh English in which stops are usually released in that environment. | International Phonetic Alphabet for English |
c_kvhz7jhhoxmq | The affricates /tʃ, dʒ/ have a mandatory fricative release in all environments. Very often in the United States and Canada and less frequently in Australia and New Zealand, both /t/ and /d/ can be pronounced as a voiced flap in certain positions: when they come between a preceding stressed vowel (possibly with intervening /r/) and precede an unstressed vowel or syllabic /l/. Examples include water, bottle, petal, peddle (the last two words sound alike when flapped). | International Phonetic Alphabet for English |
c_hy3b7y4xevcs | The flap may even appear at word boundaries, as in put it on. When the combination /nt/ appears in such positions, some American speakers pronounce it as a nasalized flap that may become indistinguishable from /n/, so winter may be pronounced similarly or identically to winner . Yod-coalescence is a process that palatalizes the clusters /dj/, /tj/, /sj/ and /zj/ into , , and respectively, frequently occurring with clusters that would be considered to span a syllable boundary.Yod-coalescence in stressed syllables, such as in tune and dune, occurs in Australian, Cockney, Estuary English, Hiberno-English (some speakers), Newfoundland English, South African English, and to a certain extent in New Zealand English and Scottish English (many speakers). | International Phonetic Alphabet for English |
c_9wjsk4hiqqzc | This can lead to additional homophony; for instance, dew and due come to be pronounced the same as Jew. In certain varieties such as Australian English, South African English, and New Zealand English, /sj/ and /zj/ in stressed syllables can coalesce into and , respectively. In Australian English for example, assume is pronounced by some speakers. | International Phonetic Alphabet for English |
c_zmnausl610dl | Furthermore, some British, Canadian, American, New Zealand and Australian speakers may change the /s/ sound to /ʃ/ before /tr/, so that a word having a cluster of ⟨str⟩ like in strewn would be pronounced . The postalveolar consonants /tʃ, dʒ, ʃ, ʒ/ are strongly labialized: . In addition to /tʃ, dʒ/, clusters /ts, dz, tr, dr, tθ, dð, pf, bv/ also have affricate-like realizations in certain positions (as in cats, roads, tram, dram, eighth, behind them, cupful, obvious; see also § Onset), but usually only /tʃ, dʒ/ are considered to constitute the monophonemic affricates of English because (among other reasons) only they are found in all of morpheme-initial, -internal, and -final positions, and native speakers typically perceive them as single units. | International Phonetic Alphabet for English |
c_84vo89ktp480 | In most dialects, there may be more or fewer phonemes than those listed in the chart above. For example, is considered a native phoneme in most Arabic dialects except in Levantine dialects like Syrian or Lebanese where ج is pronounced and ق is pronounced . or (ج) is considered a native phoneme in most dialects except in Egyptian and a number of Yemeni and Omani dialects where ج is pronounced . or and are distinguished in the dialects of Egypt, Sudan, the Levant and the Hejaz, but they have merged as in most dialects of the Arabian Peninsula, Iraq and Tunisia and have merged as in Morocco and Algeria. | Arabian language |
c_t6dabz8aaqdy | The usage of non-native پ and ڤ depends on the usage of each speaker but they might be more prevalent in some dialects than others. The Iraqi and Gulf Arabic also has the sound and writes it and with the Persian letters چ and گ, as in گوجة gawjah "plum"; چمة chimah "truffle". Early in the expansion of Arabic, the separate emphatic phonemes and coalesced into a single phoneme . | Arabian language |
c_g70uq88jg6rm | Many dialects (such as Egyptian, Levantine, and much of the Maghreb) subsequently lost interdental fricatives, converting into . Most dialects borrow "learned" words from the Standard language using the same pronunciation as for inherited words, but some dialects without interdental fricatives (particularly in Egypt and the Levant) render original in borrowed words as . Another key distinguishing mark of Arabic dialects is how they render the original velar and uvular plosives /q/, /d͡ʒ/ (Proto-Semitic /ɡ/), and /k/: ق /q/ retains its original pronunciation in widely scattered regions such as Yemen, Morocco, and urban areas of the Maghreb. | Arabian language |
c_w82n69rnku0k | It is pronounced as a glottal stop in several prestige dialects, such as those spoken in Cairo, Beirut and Damascus. But it is rendered as a voiced velar plosive in Persian Gulf, Upper Egypt, parts of the Maghreb, and less urban parts of the Levant (e.g. Jordan). In Iraqi Arabic it sometimes retains its original pronunciation and is sometimes rendered as a voiced velar plosive, depending on the word. | Arabian language |
c_2iogxlm8vgwa | Some traditionally Christian villages in rural areas of the Levant render the sound as , as do Shiʻi Bahrainis. In some Gulf dialects, it is palatalized to or . It is pronounced as a voiced uvular constrictive in Sudanese Arabic. | Arabian language |
c_ohz1j83k7q43 | Many dialects with a modified pronunciation for /q/ maintain the pronunciation in certain words (often with religious or educational overtones) borrowed from the Classical language. ج /d͡ʒ/ is pronounced as an affricate in Iraq and much of the Arabian Peninsula but is pronounced in most of North Egypt and parts of Yemen and Oman, in Morocco, Tunisia, and the Levant, and , in most words in much of the Persian Gulf. ك /k/ usually retains its original pronunciation but is palatalized to /t͡ʃ/ in many words in Israel and the Palestinian Territories, Iraq, and countries in the eastern part of the Arabian Peninsula. | Arabian language |
c_ek750l3j5g08 | Often a distinction is made between the suffixes /-ak/ ('you', masc.) and /-ik/ ('you', fem. | Arabian language |
c_p5qerjjmymtp | ), which become /-ak/ and /-it͡ʃ/, respectively. In Sana'a, Omani, and Bahrani /-ik/ is pronounced /-iʃ/.Pharyngealization of the emphatic consonants tends to weaken in many of the spoken varieties, and to spread from emphatic consonants to nearby sounds. | Arabian language |
c_vviwczvjz2lo | In addition, the "emphatic" allophone automatically triggers pharyngealization of adjacent sounds in many dialects. As a result, it may be difficult or impossible to determine whether a given coronal consonant is phonemically emphatic or not, especially in dialects with long-distance emphasis spreading. (A notable exception is the sounds /t/ vs. /tˤ/ in Moroccan Arabic, because the former is pronounced as an affricate but the latter is not.) | Arabian language |
c_u7u55mx9j9r1 | In most digital camera (except some high-end linear array cameras and simple, low-end webcams), a digital memory device is used for storing images, which may be transferred to a computer later. This memory device is usually a memory card; floppy disks and CD-RWs are less common. In addition to taking pictures, digital cameras may also record sound and video. | Digital photo |
c_bujo258jvb4y | Some function as webcams, some use the PictBridge standard to connect to printers without using a computer, and some can display pictures directly on a television set. Similarly, many camcorders can take still photographs and store them on videotape or flash memory cards with the same functionality as digital cameras. Digital photography is an example of the shift from analog information to digital information. In the past, conventional photography was an entirely chemical and mechanical process that did not require electricity. Now, modern photography is a digital process in which analog signals are converted to and stored as digital data using built-in computers. | Digital photo |
c_72l7kfxkg5y2 | In most digital cameras, by default autofocus is only activated (AF-on) when the shutter button is pressed halfway down, which helps to preserve battery life. However, some photographers find that having AF-on and the shutter release on the same button makes it harder to establish the correct focus point, or hold it once the desired point is established. By using a separate shutter and focus button, focus can be locked at the same time as shooting without changing exposure, allowing the photographer to focus on the subject through the viewfinder. One technique to make this easier to control is called back button focus: separating focus from the shutter control button by reassigning the AF-on function to a button on the back of the camera body. | Digital camera modes |
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