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c_5317wbsche5o | In nature H. rhamnoides is found growing profusely on a wide range of soil types, but does better in soils with a light physical structure, rich in nutrient compounds and with a pH near neutral (pH 6.5–7.5). Best growth occurs in deep, well drained, sandy loam with ample organic matter. Very light, sandy soils have low... | Common sea-buckthorn |
c_ewco4znx4wse | rhamnoides is considered drought resistant but it is a moisture sensitive plant especially in the spring when plants are flowering and young fruits are beginning to develop. Planting in arid or semiarid areas is possible, if water is supplied for establishment. It can bear fruits at altitudes up to 2000 m above sea lev... | Common sea-buckthorn |
c_13rwjnr5fmx7 | The plant can withstand temperatures from −43 °C to + 40 °C. Vegetation begins at average daily air temperatures of 5 to 7 °C. It flowers at temperatures 10 to 15 °C and requires total effective temperatures, spring to harvest time, of 14.5 °C to 17.5 °C, depending on latitude, elevation and species. | Common sea-buckthorn |
c_ly4sdnbd9cox | Frost hardiness is the highest in deep dormancy in November and December. During this period, negative temperatures of −50 °C may be tolerated. | Common sea-buckthorn |
c_zp36ytzx1vdf | Whereas in the post-dormant period in January to March, the critical temperature drops in air temperature for the male to −30 °C to −35 °C and for the female, −40 °C to −45 °C. H. rhamnoides can only be grown in well-lit, unshaded areas. Starting from its very earliest stage of development, it can not tolerate shade. A... | Common sea-buckthorn |
c_5u7v87uem21m | In nature and human societies, many phenomena have causal relationships where one phenomenon A (a cause) impacts another phenomenon B (an effect). Establishing causal relationships is the aim of many scientific studies across fields ranging from biology and physics to social sciences and economics. It is also a subject... | Causal notation |
c_gjc93eijqm2s | Mathematical conventions are also used, such as plotting an independent variable on a horizontal axis and a dependent variable on a vertical axis, or the notation y = f ( x ) {\displaystyle y=f(x)} to denote that a quantity " y {\displaystyle y} " is a dependent variable which is a function of an independent variable "... | Causal notation |
c_qqs4orjf2z2n | In nature bacteria play a major role in the degradation of phosphonates. Due to the presence of natural phosphonates in the environment, bacteria have evolved the ability to metabolize phosphonates as nutrient sources. Some bacteria use phosphonates as a phosphorus source for growth. Aminophosphonates can also be used ... | Phosphonate |
c_spoz71uj5juk | The polyphosphonates used in industry differ greatly from natural phosphonates such as 2-aminoethylphosphonic acid, because they are much larger, carry a high negative charge and are complexed with metals. Biodegradation tests with sludge from municipal sewage treatment plants with HEDP and NTMP showed no indication fo... | Phosphonate |
c_6onjew9dti1s | It was noted, however, that in some tests due to the high sludge to phosphonate ratio, removal of the test substance from solution observed as loss of DOC was observed. This factor was attributed to adsorption rather than biodegradation. However, bacterial strains capable of degrading aminopolyphosphonates and HEDP und... | Phosphonate |
c_t47ytvxrlsxk | "No biodegradation of phosphonates during water treatment is observed but photodegradation of the Fe(III)-complexes is rapid. Aminopolyphosphonates are also rapidly oxidized in the presence of Mn(II) and oxygen and stable breakdown products are formed that have been detected in wastewater. The lack of information about... | Phosphonate |
c_xylrpzp7ndc4 | In nature conservation, a shifted baseline is a baseline for conservation targets and desired population sizes, that is based on non-pristine conditions. In this sense, the term was coined by marine biologist Daniel Pauly when he observed, that some fisheries scientists used the population sizes of fish at the beginnin... | Megaherbivore theory |
c_q259cehydefp | Pauly called this the shifting baseline syndrome.In line with this, it may be argued that the prevalance of closed-canopy forest as the prevailing conservation narrative in Europe similarly arises from multiple shifted baselines: While it is plausble that lions, leopards, hyenas, dholes, gazelles and moon bears among o... | Megaherbivore theory |
c_ow0pkckmajyl | Vera points out that words like wold and forest would have had different connotations than they do today. While today, a forest is a dense and reasonably large tract of trees, the Medieval Latin forestis, from which it derives, would have assigned open stands of trees, and was a wild and uncultivated land home also to ... | Megaherbivore theory |
c_9krs9f8tuvuh | From this Vera concluded that the assumption by scholars of the 19th and 20th century that grazing animals destroyed the original European closed-canopy wildwoods still present in the early medieval period is based on a misinterpretation of these terms and is closely related to the severe overstocking characteristic of... | Megaherbivore theory |
c_nksuqq271tmk | During their time, solid firewood would have been preferred over the medieval coppice bundles, e.g. faggots. However, the production of firewood would have required the felling of trees at an age at which they cannot produce suckers anymore, an ability trees commonly lose with progressing age. | Megaherbivore theory |
c_g1pm20ox9y4i | This would then have led to a different management system: the replacement by saplings planted or naturally regenerated via, for example, shelterwood cuttings. Initially these trees regenerated inside the forests would have been differentiated from wild growth outside the forests. In German, the former would have been ... | Megaherbivore theory |
c_jliro6c8ou0r | Thus, natural regeneration would not have been synonymous with the natural regeneration of trees in a natural situation. Only in the 19th and 20th centuries would this distinction have been abandoned in German. However, in the absence of thorny nurse bushes, which would have disappeared due to the shadow under the tree... | Megaherbivore theory |
c_s8a47h0ts7xo | Therefore, the "natural regeneration" would still have depended on work like ploughing, removal of browsing pressure and the suppression of weeds and thus was and is not "natural" in the ordinary sense of the word. Instead, according to Vera, the original meaning of the word "natural" in this context was that a seed ha... | Megaherbivore theory |
c_7c4hukdx4czw | Also because of this shifted baseline, cattle and horses would now have been considered "alien" to the landscape akin to invasive species and consequently removed from the forests, as it happened in former wood-pastures like Białowieża and other modern forest reserves, because they were seen as harmful to the creation ... | Megaherbivore theory |
c_5n9r1l6ap8lm | Finally, the biodiversity losses associated with the conversion of open grassland, mantle and fringe vegetation and open-grown trees into closed-canopy forests would then have been legitimised by the assumption that the forest was the only natural ecosystem, and hence species losses were casualties of a natural cause.H... | Megaherbivore theory |
c_llzlthyhui0v | In nature or crop fields, water is often the most limiting factor for plant growth. If plants do not receive adequate rainfall or irrigation, the resulting dehydration stress can reduce growth more than all other environmental stresses combined. Drought can be defined as the absence of rainfall or irrigation for a peri... | Breeding for drought stress tolerance |
c_85pe0oatslvx | In nature the ion is destroyed by reacting with other hydrogen molecules: H+2 + H2 → H+3 + H. | Hydrogen molecule ion |
c_5ts7xut2facm | In nature worship, a nature deity is a deity in charge of forces of nature, such as a water deity, vegetation deity, sky deity, solar deity, fire deity, or any other naturally occurring phenomena such as mountains, trees, or volcanoes. Accepted in panentheism, pantheism, deism, polytheism, animism, totemism, shamanism,... | Nature deity |
c_v2in2nhd08rm | In nature, DNA can form three structures, A-, B-, and Z-DNA. A- and B-DNA are very similar, forming right-handed helices, whereas Z-DNA is a left-handed helix with a zig-zag phosphate backbone. Z-DNA is thought to play a specific role in chromatin structure and transcription because of the properties of the junction be... | Chromatin structure |
c_qquaks5u3r40 | These play a dual role of a site of recognition by many proteins and as a sink for torsional stress from RNA polymerase or nucleosome binding.DNA bases are stored as a code structure with four chemical bases such as “Adenine (A), Guanine (G), Cytosine (C), and Thymine (T)”. The order and sequences of these chemical str... | Chromatin structure |
c_51y008jfzk37 | Sugar and phosphate molecules are also paired with these bases, making DNA nucleotides arrange 2 long spiral strands unitedly called “double helix”. In eukaryotes, DNA consists of a cell nucleus and the DNA is providing strength and direction to the mechanism of heredity. Moreover, between the nitrogenous bonds of the ... | Chromatin structure |
c_i2tgde6cpu8s | In nature, DNA molecules are synthesised by all living cells through the process of DNA replication. This typically occurs as a part of cell division. DNA replication occurs so, during cell division, each daughter cell contains an accurate copy of the genetic material of the cell. In vivo DNA synthesis (DNA replication... | DNA synthesis |
c_j6q9cbyyxual | In both eukaryotes and prokaryotes, DNA replication occurs when specific topoisomerases, helicases and gyrases (replication initiator proteins) uncoil the double-stranded DNA, exposing the nitrogenous bases. These enzymes, along with accessory proteins, form a macromolecular machine which ensures accurate duplication o... | DNA synthesis |
c_p6gjbdib4crq | Complementary base pairing takes place, forming a new double-stranded DNA molecule. This is known as semi-conservative replication since one strand of the new DNA molecule is from the 'parent' strand. Continuously, eukaryotic enzymes encounter DNA damage which can perturb DNA replication. | DNA synthesis |
c_mrez4wp1pt27 | This damage is in the form of DNA lesions that arise spontaneously or due to DNA damaging agents. DNA replication machinery is therefore highly controlled in order to prevent collapse when encountering damage. Control of the DNA replication system ensures that the genome is replicated only once per cycle; over-replicat... | DNA synthesis |
c_tqlu9peloz7k | Deregulation of DNA replication is a key factor in genomic instability during cancer development.This highlights the specificity of DNA synthesis machinery in vivo. Various means exist to artificially stimulate the replication of naturally occurring DNA, or to create artificial gene sequences. However, DNA synthesis in... | DNA synthesis |
c_4v6q2940433x | In nature, Komagataella is found on trees, such as chestnut trees. They are heterotrophs and they can use several carbon sources for living, like glucose, glycerol and methanol. However, they cannot use lactose. | Pichia pastoris |
c_ua0nuxvknfzv | In nature, S. sempervirens is primarily a plant of the seashore, and is accordingly found along coasts of the Atlantic Ocean, the Caribbean, and the Gulf of Mexico from Central America north as far as Newfoundland. It grows on sand dunes, salt marshes, and the banks of estuaries. It is naturally found inland along the ... | Solidago sempervirens |
c_fr9o8maw4gyz | It is highly tolerant of both saline soils and salt spray, and is usually found growing on coastal dunes and in salt marshes. VarietiesSolidago sempervirens var. mexicana (L.) Fernald - from Massachusetts south to Central America and the West Indies Solidago sempervirens var. sempervirens - from Newfoundland south to V... | Solidago sempervirens |
c_9ar9hmrcy44v | In nature, a light source emits a ray of light which travels, eventually, to a surface that interrupts its progress. One can think of this "ray" as a stream of photons traveling along the same path. In a perfect vacuum this ray will be a straight line (ignoring relativistic effects). Any combination of four things migh... | Real-time raytracing |
c_r3kehi1u42qh | A surface may absorb part of the light ray, resulting in a loss of intensity of the reflected and/or refracted light. It might also reflect all or part of the light ray, in one or more directions. If the surface has any transparent or translucent properties, it refracts a portion of the light beam into itself in a diff... | Real-time raytracing |
c_h9g3lat52lar | Less commonly, a surface may absorb some portion of the light and fluorescently re-emit the light at a longer wavelength color in a random direction, though this is rare enough that it can be discounted from most rendering applications. Between absorption, reflection, refraction and fluorescence, all of the incoming li... | Real-time raytracing |
c_2g8pfh7qcjzv | In nature, acarbose is synthesized by soil bacteria Actinoplanes sp through its precursor valienamine. And acarbose is also degraded by gut bacteria Lactobacillus plantarum and soil bacteria Thermus sp by acarbose degrading glucosidases. | Acarbose |
c_xfeugbe9b4ur | In nature, algal viruses have been observed to play an ecological role in algal bloom demise. Given this, scientists have proposed that algal viruses have the potential to be used as biological treatments for algal bloom control. For example, a particular algal virus, known as a cyanophage, can be used to control harmf... | Algal virus |
c_erzwgwos601j | Specifically, the impact that cyanophages have on the population control of Microcystis aeruginosa has been a topic of interest given that this species of cyanobacteria is commonly responsible for harmful algal blooms. In one lab study, M. aeruginosa was collected and then treated with cyanophage that was found in the ... | Algal virus |
c_lfcnru4v59o2 | The results of another lab study showed that cyanophages maintain their observed function of algal bloom demise in a controlled eutrophic setting. In this case, the biomass of M. aeruginosa also greatly decreased when treated with cyanophages. | Algal virus |
c_dnllzgitr8dw | A negative correlation between M. aeruginosa and cyanophage has also been recorded in a natural setting. In the freshwater body, Lake Mikata, researchers analyzed samples of M. aeruginosa algal growth and found that the biomass of M. aeruginosa decreased in relation to an increase in cyanophage population density. == R... | Algal virus |
c_1ed022o6o2da | In nature, approximations of parabolas and paraboloids are found in many diverse situations. The best-known instance of the parabola in the history of physics is the trajectory of a particle or body in motion under the influence of a uniform gravitational field without air resistance (for instance, a ball flying throug... | Parabola |
c_2qwdwvyludpk | For objects extended in space, such as a diver jumping from a diving board, the object itself follows a complex motion as it rotates, but the center of mass of the object nevertheless moves along a parabola. As in all cases in the physical world, the trajectory is always an approximation of a parabola. The presence of ... | Parabola |
c_hc1dkxjn9s6q | At higher speeds, such as in ballistics, the shape is highly distorted and does not resemble a parabola. Another hypothetical situation in which parabolas might arise, according to the theories of physics described in the 17th and 18th centuries by Sir Isaac Newton, is in two-body orbits, for example, the path of a sma... | Parabola |
c_tciddipkh2d9 | The parabolic orbit is the degenerate intermediate case between those two types of ideal orbit. An object following a parabolic orbit would travel at the exact escape velocity of the object it orbits; objects in elliptical or hyperbolic orbits travel at less or greater than escape velocity, respectively. Long-period co... | Parabola |
c_au782knnbgep | Approximations of parabolas are also found in the shape of the main cables on a simple suspension bridge. The curve of the chains of a suspension bridge is always an intermediate curve between a parabola and a catenary, but in practice the curve is generally nearer to a parabola due to the weight of the load (i.e. the ... | Parabola |
c_fvvja19govfp | Unlike an inelastic chain, a freely hanging spring of zero unstressed length takes the shape of a parabola. Suspension-bridge cables are, ideally, purely in tension, without having to carry other forces, for example, bending. | Parabola |
c_18od1swjm9lq | Similarly, the structures of parabolic arches are purely in compression. Paraboloids arise in several physical situations as well. The best-known instance is the parabolic reflector, which is a mirror or similar reflective device that concentrates light or other forms of electromagnetic radiation to a common focal poin... | Parabola |
c_2iwr2vuzzq1v | The principle of the parabolic reflector may have been discovered in the 3rd century BC by the geometer Archimedes, who, according to a dubious legend, constructed parabolic mirrors to defend Syracuse against the Roman fleet, by concentrating the sun's rays to set fire to the decks of the Roman ships. The principle was... | Parabola |
c_fkjh4cp57gjv | In parabolic microphones, a parabolic reflector is used to focus sound onto a microphone, giving it highly directional performance. Paraboloids are also observed in the surface of a liquid confined to a container and rotated around the central axis. In this case, the centrifugal force causes the liquid to climb the wal... | Parabola |
c_m2mcllehaeql | In nature, camouflage is used by organisms to escape predators. This is achieved through creating an ambiguity of texture segmentation by imitating the surrounding environment. Without being able to perceive noticeable differences in texture and position, a predator will be unable to see their prey. | Reversible figure |
c_zz797npqbvmn | In nature, carbon exists as three isotopes: two stable, nonradioactive (carbon-12 (12C), and carbon-13 (13C), and one radioactive carbon-14 (14C), also known as "radiocarbon"). The half-life of 14C (the time it takes for half of a given amount of 14C to decay) is about 5,730 years, so its concentration in the atmospher... | Radioactive carbon dating |
c_mizjjoqarsb8 | Animals eat the plants, and ultimately the radiocarbon is distributed throughout the biosphere. The ratio of 14C to 12C is approximately 1.25 parts of 14C to 1012 parts of 12C. In addition, about 1% of the carbon atoms are of the stable isotope 13C.The equation for the radioactive decay of 14C is:146C → 147N + e− + νe ... | Radioactive carbon dating |
c_f8f4zgehvtlu | In nature, carbon fixation is done by green plants using the enzyme RuBisCO as a part of the Calvin cycle. RuBisCO is a rather slow catalyst compared to the vast majority of other enzymes, incorporating only a few molecules of carbon dioxide into ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate per minute, but does so at atmospheric pressure... | Artificial Photosynthesis |
c_z0sioy1yo2jc | The process consumes energy in the form of ATP and NADPH. Artificial CO2 reduction for fuel production aims mostly at producing reduced carbon compounds from atmospheric CO2. Some transition metal polyphosphine complexes have been developed for this end; however, they usually require previous concentration of CO2 befor... | Artificial Photosynthesis |
c_tvfvl1mvthrn | In nature, chloride is found primarily in seawater, which has a chloride ion concentration of 19400 mg/liter. Smaller quantities, though at higher concentrations, occur in certain inland seas and in subterranean brine wells, such as the Great Salt Lake in Utah and the Dead Sea in Israel. Most chloride salts are soluble... | Chloride salt |
c_c7h3jcref6fo | In nature, circular DNA is always isolated as a higher-order helix-upon-a-helix, known as a superhelix. In discussions of this subject, the Watson–Crick twist is referred to as a "secondary" winding, and the superhelices as a "tertiary" winding. The sketch at right indicates a "relaxed", or "open circular" Watson–Crick... | Supercoiled DNA |
c_h5w5r36l4xqm | For purposes of mathematical computations, a right-handed superhelix is defined as having a "negative" number of superhelical turns, and a left-handed superhelix is defined as having a "positive" number of superhelical turns. In the drawing (shown at the right), both the secondary (i.e., "Watson–Crick") winding and the... | Supercoiled DNA |
c_eyaoxd9dllyb | The superhelicity is presumed to be a result of underwinding, meaning that there is a deficiency in the number of secondary Watson–Crick twists. Such a chromosome will be strained, just as a macroscopic metal spring is strained when it is either overwound or unwound. | Supercoiled DNA |
c_u6t9mf1xyh80 | In DNA which is thusly strained, supertwists will appear. DNA supercoiling can be described numerically by changes in the linking number Lk. The linking number is the most descriptive property of supercoiled DNA. | Supercoiled DNA |
c_r2vtpmaodth3 | Lko, the number of turns in the relaxed (B type) DNA plasmid/molecule, is determined by dividing the total base pairs of the molecule by the relaxed bp/turn which, depending on reference is 10.4; 10.5; 10.6. L k o = b p / 10.4 {\displaystyle Lk_{o}=bp/10.4} Lk is the number of crosses a single strand makes across the o... | Supercoiled DNA |
c_tt0jgr6m4weo | The topology of the DNA is described by the equation below in which the linking number is equivalent to the sum of Tw, which is the number of twists or turns of the double helix, and Wr, which is the number of coils or "writhes." If there is a closed DNA molecule, the sum of Tw and Wr, or the linking number, does not c... | Supercoiled DNA |
c_2w0rh8adg4rh | We have already seen that native DNA is usually found to be superhelical. If one goes around the superhelically twisted chromosome, counting secondary Watson–Crick twists, that number will be different from the number counted when the chromosome is constrained to lie flat. In general, the number of secondary twists in ... | Supercoiled DNA |
c_1wmm0ni7byzu | Wr, called "writhe," is the number of superhelical twists. Since biological circular DNA is usually underwound, Lk will generally be less than Tw, which means that Wr will typically be negative. | Supercoiled DNA |
c_swo36m68h3mp | If DNA is underwound, it will be under strain, exactly as a metal spring is strained when forcefully unwound, and that the appearance of supertwists will allow the chromosome to relieve its strain by taking on negative supertwists, which correct the secondary underwinding in accordance with the topology equation above.... | Supercoiled DNA |
c_s0iwjqvzeegb | The change in the linking number, ΔLk, is the actual number of turns in the plasmid/molecule, Lk, minus the number of turns in the relaxed plasmid/molecule Lko: Δ L k = L k − L k o {\displaystyle \Delta Lk=Lk-Lk_{o}} If the DNA is negatively supercoiled, Δ L k < 0 {\displaystyle \Delta Lk<0} . The negative supercoiling... | Supercoiled DNA |
c_gddxz94n89fv | σ = Δ L k / L k o {\displaystyle \sigma =\Delta {Lk/Lk_{o}}} The Gibbs free energy associated with the coiling is given by the equation below Δ G / N = 10 R T σ 2 {\displaystyle {\Delta G/N=10RT\sigma ^{2}}} The difference in Gibbs free energy between the supercoiled circular DNA and uncoiled circular DNA with N > 2000... | Supercoiled DNA |
c_4bz5ajlrzm1n | In this state, its writhe W = 0. Since L = T + W, in a relaxed state T = L. Thus, if we have a 400 bp relaxed circular DNA duplex, L ~ 40 (assuming ~10 bp per turn in B-DNA). Then T ~ 40. Positively supercoiling: T = 0, W = 0, then L = 0 T = +3, W = 0, then L = +3 T = +2, W = +1, then L = +3 Negatively supercoiling: T ... | Supercoiled DNA |
c_czvcqfbx2hqy | In nature, controlling or the avoidance of pathogens is an essential fitness strategy because disease-causing agents are ever-present. Pathogens reproduce rapidly at the expense of their hosts' fitness, this creates a coevolutionary arms race between pathogen transmission and host avoidance. For a pathogen to move to a... | Pathogen avoidance |
c_fz3avm8uhcpl | Pathogen avoidance provides the first line of defense by physically avoiding conspecifics, other species, objects or locations that could increase vulnerability to pathogens.The pathogen avoidance theory of disgust predicts that behavior that reduces contact with pathogens, will have been under strong selection through... | Pathogen avoidance |
c_u5yuwzkyfah0 | In nature, cytochalasin B is involved in fungal virulence, food spoilage and the maintenance of the symbiosis between host and symbiont. | Cytochalasin B |
c_oyp1473p7pzx | In nature, denitrification can take place in both terrestrial and marine ecosystems. Typically, denitrification occurs in anoxic environments, where the concentration of dissolved and freely available oxygen is depleted. In these areas, nitrate (NO3−) or nitrite (NO2−) can be used as a substitute terminal electron acce... | Denitrification |
c_ne7nf1utohd1 | Examples of anoxic environments can include soils, groundwater, wetlands, oil reservoirs, poorly ventilated corners of the ocean and seafloor sediments. Furthermore, denitrification can occur in oxic environments as well. High activity of denitrifiers can be observed in the intertidal zones, where the tidal cycles caus... | Denitrification |
c_xo9s1jhllayj | For example, the bacterial species Paracoccus denitrificans engages in denitrification under both oxic and anoxic conditions simultaneously. Upon oxygen exposure, the bacteria is able to utilize nitrous oxide reductase, an enzyme that catalyzes the last step of denitrification. Aerobic denitrifiers are mainly Gram-nega... | Denitrification |
c_rt2fpayq3x9g | Enzymes NapAB, NirS, NirK and NosZ are located in the periplasm, a wide space bordered by the cytoplasmic and the outer membrane in Gram-negative bacteria.Denitrification can lead to a condition called isotopic fractionation in the soil environment. The two stable isotopes of nitrogen, 14N and 15N are both found in the... | Denitrification |
c_aqk0mxc0q4c1 | In nature, enzymes called Baeyer-Villiger monooxygenases (BVMOs) perform the oxidation analogously to the chemical reaction. To facilitate this chemistry, BVMOs contain a flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) cofactor. In the catalytic cycle (see figure on the right), the cellular redox equivalent NADPH first reduces the c... | Baeyer-Villiger oxidation |
c_2v46uxiz95ob | After the rearrangement step forming the ester product, a hydroxyflavin remains, which spontaneously eliminates water to form oxidized flavin, thereby closing the catalytic cycle. BVMOs are closely related to the flavin-containing monooxygenases (FMOs), enzymes that also occur in the human body, functioning within the ... | Baeyer-Villiger oxidation |
c_3qs3m1d5p5j5 | Considering the environmental concerns for most of the chemical catalysts, the use of enzymes is considered a greener alternative. BVMOs in particular are interesting for application because they fulfil a range of criteria typically sought for in biocatalysis: besides their ability to catalyse a synthetically useful re... | Baeyer-Villiger oxidation |
c_i1xiiarv3cwh | In nature, formic acid is found in most ants and in stingless bees of the genus Oxytrigona. Wood ants from the genus Formica can spray formic acid on their prey or to defend the nest. The puss moth caterpillar (Cerura vinula) will spray it as well when threatened by predators. | HCOOH |
c_x6p22mauwuot | It is also found in the trichomes of stinging nettle (Urtica dioica). Apart from that, this acid is incorporated in many fruits such as pineapple (0.21mg per 100g), apple (2mg per 100g) and kiwi (1mg per 100g), as well as in many vegetables, namely onion (45mg per 100g), eggplant (1.34 mg per 100g) and, in extremely lo... | HCOOH |
c_p8yihoqr5qlb | In nature, free field conditions occur only when sound reflections from the floor can be ignored, e.g. in new snow in a field, or approximately at good sound-absorbing floors (deciduous, dry sand, etc.) Free field conditions can be artificially produced in anechoic chambers. In particular, free field conditions play a ... | Free field (acoustics) |
c_03r9cx9c3pw1 | In nature, free oxygen is produced by the light-driven splitting of water during oxygenic photosynthesis. According to some estimates, green algae and cyanobacteria in marine environments provide about 70% of the free oxygen produced on Earth, and the rest is produced by terrestrial plants. Other estimates of the ocean... | Medical oxygen |
c_c809kmljm9rp | The O2 remaining (after production of the water molecule) is released into the atmosphere.Oxygen is used in mitochondria in the generation of ATP during oxidative phosphorylation. The reaction for aerobic respiration is essentially the reverse of photosynthesis and is simplified as C6H12O6 + 6 O2 → 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + 2880... | Medical oxygen |
c_x23mits47wdp | Other animals use hemocyanin (molluscs and some arthropods) or hemerythrin (spiders and lobsters). A liter of blood can dissolve 200 cm3 of O2.Until the discovery of anaerobic metazoa, oxygen was thought to be a requirement for all complex life.Reactive oxygen species, such as superoxide ion (O−2) and hydrogen peroxide... | Medical oxygen |
c_sviw90it9ioe | Reactive oxygen species also play an important role in the hypersensitive response of plants against pathogen attack. Oxygen is damaging to obligately anaerobic organisms, which were the dominant form of early life on Earth until O2 began to accumulate in the atmosphere about 2.5 billion years ago during the Great Oxyg... | Medical oxygen |
c_g26y18hnrd6d | In nature, free oxygen is produced by the light-driven splitting of water during oxygenic photosynthesis. Green algae and cyanobacteria in marine environments provide about 70% of the free oxygen produced on earth. The remainder is produced by terrestrial plants, although, for example, almost all oxygen produced in tro... | Dioxygen in biological reactions |
c_nlsmlbis8wb5 | The electrons extracted from the water molecules transfer to the electron-deficient high-energy state P680+ of the P680 pigment of Photosystem II, which have been removed into an electron transport chain after light-dependent excitation and a series of redox reactions onto plastoquinone. Photosystem II therefore has al... | Dioxygen in biological reactions |
c_h7sy5rszdq1s | This proton gradient is the driving force for ATP synthesis via photophosphorylation and couples the absorption of light energy and photolysis of water to the creation of chemical energy during photosynthesis. The O2 remaining after oxidation of the water molecule is released into the atmosphere. Water oxidation is cat... | Dioxygen in biological reactions |
c_s9uw5rdx6o0s | In nature, heparin is a polymer of varying chain size. Unfractionated heparin (UFH) as a pharmaceutical is heparin that has not been fractionated to sequester the fraction of molecules with low molecular weight. In contrast, low-molecular-weight heparin (LMWH) has undergone fractionation for the purpose of making its p... | Heparin |
c_44sznompyuo2 | In nature, hydroxytyrosol is generated by the hydrolysis of oleuropein that occurs during olive ripening. Oleuropein accumulates in olive leaves and fruit as a defense mechanism against pathogens and herbivores. During olive ripening or when the olive tissue is damaged by pathogens, herbivores, or mechanical damage, th... | Hydroxytyrosol |
c_o0kz50y02ljh | In nature, iron, copper, lead, nickel, and other metals are found in impure states called ores, often oxidized and mixed in with silicates of other metals. During smelting, when the ore is exposed to high temperatures, these impurities are separated from the molten metal and can be removed. Slag is the collection of co... | Basic slag |
c_cdipkudus37p | In this case, the slag is termed synthetic. A good example is steelmaking slag: quicklime (CaO) and magnesite (MgCO3) are introduced for refractory protection, neutralizing the alumina and silica separated from the metal, and assisting in the removal of sulfur and phosphorus from the steel.As a co-product of steelmakin... | Basic slag |
c_nqxi2v4ue4px | In nature, limonene is formed from geranyl pyrophosphate, via cyclization of a neryl carbocation or its equivalent as shown. The final step involves loss of a proton from the cation to form the alkene. The most widely practiced conversion of limonene is to carvone. The three-step reaction begins with the regioselective... | Limonene |
c_0q1e7vm2pzt1 | In nature, many blue phenomena arise from structural colouration, the result of interference between reflections from two or more surfaces of thin films, combined with refraction as light enters and exits such films. The geometry then determines that at certain angles, the light reflected from both surfaces interferes ... | Blue color |
c_3agv6axd4kxr | In nature, methoxy groups are found on nucleosides that have been subjected to 2′-O-methylation, for example in variations of the 5′-cap structure known as cap-1 and cap-2. They are also common substituents in O-methylated flavonoids, whose formation is catalyzed by O-methyltransferases that act on phenols, such as cat... | Methoxy group |
c_tugiperbq643 | In nature, mice are usually herbivores, consuming a wide range of fruit or grain. However, in laboratory studies it is usually necessary to avoid biological variation and to achieve this, laboratory mice are almost always fed only commercial pelleted mouse feed. Food intake is approximately 15 g (0.53 oz) per 100 g (3.... | Laboratory mice |
c_3v0f5aprsrhs | In nature, networks rarely appear in isolation. They are typically elements in larger systems and can have non-trivial effects on one another. For example, infrastructure networks exhibit interdependency to a large degree. The power stations which form the nodes of the power grid require fuel delivered via a network of... | Interdependent networks |
c_6bc6ktchnahf | Though the transportation network does not depend on the power network to function, the communications network does. Thus the deactivation of a critical number of nodes in either the power network or the communication network can lead to a series of cascading failures across the system with potentially catastrophic rep... | Interdependent networks |
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