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c_6r6q40wgt4ti | In nature, organisms are neither distributed uniformly nor at random, forming instead some sort of spatial pattern. This is due to various energy inputs, disturbances, and species interactions that result in spatially patchy structures or gradients. This spatial variance in the environment creates diversity in communit... | Spatial ecology |
c_plv2vhvoewb7 | On the other hand, certain spatial patterns may also rule out specific ecological theories previously thought to be true.Although spatial ecology deals with spatial patterns, it is usually based on observational data rather than on an existing model. This is because nature rarely follows set expected order. To properly... | Spatial ecology |
c_wnp9n2hoqs9h | Ideally, this would be accomplished beforehand via a benchmark spatial survey, which would determine whether the pattern or process is on a local, regional, or global scale. This is rare in actual field research, however, due to the lack of time and funding, as well as the ever-changing nature of such widely-studied or... | Spatial ecology |
c_udcpo3p7b70g | In nature, proanthocyanidins serve among other chemical and induced defense mechanisms against plant pathogens and predators, such as occurs in strawberries. | Proanthocyanidin |
c_n5gtv0gh95qe | In nature, pyruvate oxidase employs two cofactors thiamine pyrophosphate (ThDP) and Flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) to catalyze a conversion of pyruvate to acetyl phosphate. First, ThDP mediates a decarboxylation of pyruvate and generates an active aldehyde as a product. The aldehyde is then oxidized by FAD and is su... | Supramolecular catalysis |
c_ip1p23wsni51 | Diederich and coworkers mimicked this system with a supramolecular catalyst based on cyclophane. The catalyst has thiazolium ion, a reactive part of ThDP and flavin, a bare-bones core of FAD, in close proximity and near the substrate binding site. The catalytic cycle is almost the same as that in nature, except the sub... | Supramolecular catalysis |
c_nwhkmr75cihi | First, the catalyst binds the substrate within its cyclophane ring. Then, it uses thiazolium ion to condense with the substrate generating an active aldehyde. This aldehyde is oxidized by flavin and then attacked by methanol to yield a methyl ester. | Supramolecular catalysis |
c_2lmshjgnp9vj | In nature, scandium is found exclusively as the isotope 45Sc, which has a nuclear spin of 7/2; this is its only stable isotope. Twenty-five radioisotopes have been characterized with the most stable being 46Sc, which has a half-life of 83.8 days; 47Sc, 3.35 days; the positron emitter 44Sc, 4 hours; and 48Sc, 43.7 hours... | Scandium |
c_ymx15dm1tsez | This element also has five nuclear isomers, with the most stable being 44m2Sc (t1/2 = 58.6 h).The known isotopes of scandium range from 36Sc to 60Sc. The primary decay mode at masses lower than the only stable isotope, 45Sc, is electron capture, and the primary mode at masses above it is beta emission. The primary deca... | Scandium |
c_ht0m61sf0ygi | In nature, self-assembled gyroid structures are found in certain surfactant or lipid mesophases and block copolymers. In a typical A-B diblock copolymer phase diagram, the gyroid phase can be formed at intermediate volume fractions between the lamellar and cylindrical phases. In A-B-C block copolymers, the double and a... | Gyroid |
c_7eat7h63n0pw | Gyroid membrane structures are occasionally found inside cells. Gyroid structures have photonic band gaps that make them potential photonic crystals. Single gyroid photonic crystals have been observed in biological structural coloration such as butterfly wing scales and bird feathers, inspiring work on biomimetic mater... | Gyroid |
c_ld6f9ng7sci5 | The gyroid mitochondrial membranes found in the retinal cone cells of certain tree shrew species present a unique structure which may have an optical function.In 2017, MIT researchers studied the possibility of using the gyroid shape to turn bi-dimensional materials, such as graphene, into a three-dimensional structura... | Gyroid |
c_too8mcsertl4 | In nature, species do not evolve in isolation but in large networks of interacting species. One of the main goals in evolutionary ecology is to disentangle the evolutionary mechanisms that shape and are shaped by patterns of interaction between species. A particularly important question concerns how coevolution, the re... | Evolving digital ecological network |
c_zc4euuxtzqo0 | Understanding how individual interactions within networks influence coevolution, and conversely how coevolution influences the overall structure of networks, requires an appreciation for how pair-wise interactions change due to their broader community contexts as well as how this community context shapes selective pres... | Evolving digital ecological network |
c_c421kckj5k4q | In spite of the long time scales involved and the substantial effort that is necessary to isolate and quantify samples, the latter approach of testing biological evolution in the lab has been successful over the last two decades. However, studying the evolution of interspecific interactions, which involves dealing with... | Evolving digital ecological network |
c_bszjouev8qvl | A meta-analysis of host-phage interaction networks, carried out by Weitz and his team, found a striking statistical structure to the patterns of infection and resistance across a wide variety of environments and methods from which the hosts and phage were obtained. However, the ecological mechanisms and evolutionary pr... | Evolving digital ecological network |
c_6qjk0gjpzaon | Research using self-replicating computer programs can help us understand how coevolution shapes the emergence and diversification of coevolving species interaction networks and, in turn, how changes in the overall structure of the web (e.g., through extinction of taxa or the introduction of invasive species) affect the... | Evolving digital ecological network |
c_vuthd1x4e5s5 | Therefore, in order to obtain statistical power for predicting such outcomes of the coevolutionary process, experiments require a high level of replication. This stochastic nature of the evolutionary process was exemplified by Stephen Jay Gould's inquiry ("What would happen if the tape of the history of life were rewou... | Evolving digital ecological network |
c_63jp9bvfwpqy | Such experiments allow researchers to quantify the role of historical contingency and repeatability in network evolution, enabling predictions about the architecture and dynamics of large networks of interacting species. The inclusion of ecological interactions in digital systems enables new research avenues: investiga... | Evolving digital ecological network |
c_f0w0tdw7qa6b | In nature, the false percula clownfish is hosted by Heteractis magnifica and Stichodactyla gigantea. However, in captivity in a reef aquarium, the false percula is hosted by other species of anemone, including Entacmaea quadricolor. In addition, clownfish may adopt a surrogate host as opposed to an anemone, such as Eup... | Common clownfish |
c_exuevl35fdqa | In nature, the incorporation of a deoxyribonucleoside triphosphate (dNTP) into a growing DNA strand involves the formation of a covalent bond and the release of pyrophosphate and a positively charged hydrogen ion. A dNTP will only be incorporated if it is complementary to the leading unpaired template nucleotide. Ion s... | Ion semiconductor sequencing |
c_aynj6gs2ox7z | If an introduced dNTP is complementary to the next unpaired nucleotide on the template strand it is incorporated into the growing complementary strand by the DNA polymerase. If the introduced dNTP is not complementary there is no incorporation and no biochemical reaction. The hydrogen ion that is released in the reacti... | Ion semiconductor sequencing |
c_fitdkrk7xtdu | In nature, there are six different pathways where CO2 is fixed. Of these, the Wood–Ljungdahl pathway is the predominant sink in anaerobic conditions. Acetyl-CoA Synthase (ACS) and carbon monoxide dehydrogenase (CODH) are integral enzymes in this one pathway and can perform diverse reactions in the carbon cycle as a res... | Acetyl-CoA synthase |
c_e3xogu5z9ojq | In nature, there are very few organisms who can fly in such manner, making the phenomenon very rare. In the class Aves (birds), there is only one family, Trochilidae (hummingbirds) where the backward flying phenomenon can be found. In the class Insecta (insects), in the infraorder Anisoptera (dragonflies), genus Hemari... | Backward flying |
c_ycotm9z54l6p | In nature, there is a wide array of biominerals, ranging from iron oxide to strontium sulfate, with calcareous biominerals being particularly notable. However, the most taxonomically widespread biomineral is silica (SiO2·nH2O), being present in all eukaryotic supergroups. Notwithstanding, the degree of silicification c... | Biomineralization |
c_p2rkk03ao36g | Biogeochemically and ecologically, diatoms are the most important silicifiers in modern marine ecosystems, with radiolarians (polycystine and phaeodarian rhizarians), silicoflagellates (dictyochophyte and chrysophyte stramenopiles), and sponges with prominent roles as well. In contrast, the major silicifiers in terrest... | Biomineralization |
c_00jg4byadas0 | The energetic costs of forming a silica structure from silicic acid are much less than forming the same volume from an organic structure (≈20-fold less than lignin or 10-fold less than polysaccharides like cellulose). Based on a structural model of biogenic silica, Lobel et al. (1996) identified by biochemical modeling... | Biomineralization |
c_pem7agi6or6d | With respect to biogenic silica, this can result in the production of much stronger structures, such as siliceous diatom frustules having the highest strength per unit density of any known biological material, or sponge spicules being many times more flexible than an equivalent structure made of pure silica. As a resul... | Biomineralization |
c_z6m959y1zpnh | There is also evidence that silicification is used as a detoxification response in snails and plants, biosilica has even been suggested to play a role as a pH buffer for the enzymatic activity of carbonic anhydrase, aiding the acquisition of inorganic carbon for photosynthesis. There are questions which have yet to be ... | Biomineralization |
c_enwaxmmcld80 | Fundamentally whether an organism produces silica or not involves evolutionary trade-offs and competition between silicifiers themselves, and non-silicifying organisms (both those which use other biominerals, and non-mineralizing groups). Mathematical models and controlled experiments of resource competition in phytopl... | Biomineralization |
c_9tqdbwyosfps | In nature, unsaturated fatty acids generally have double bonds in cis configuration (with the adjacent C–C bonds on the same side) as opposed to trans. Nevertheless, trans fatty acids (TFAs) occur in small amounts in meat and milk of ruminants (such as cattle and sheep), typically 2–5% of total fat. Natural TFAs, which... | Dietary fat |
c_1nl7ly8oz8qi | Concerns about trans fatty acids in human diet were raised when they were found to be an unintentional byproduct of the partial hydrogenation of vegetable and fish oils. While these trans fatty acids (popularly called "trans fats") are edible, they have been implicated in many health problems. The hydrogenation process... | Dietary fat |
c_5wg0pgzv57u1 | (The source fat and the process were initially kept secret to avoid consumer distaste.) This process was widely adopted by the food industry in the early 1900s; first for the production of margarine, a replacement for butter and shortening, and eventually for various other fats used in snack food, packaged baked goods,... | Dietary fat |
c_1i5kac480hes | However, hydrogenation generally was interrupted before completion, to yield a fat product with specific melting point, hardness, and other properties. Partial hydrogenation turns some of the cis double bonds into trans bonds by an isomerization reaction. | Dietary fat |
c_c8ib8qver49p | The trans configuration is favored because it is the lower energy form. This side reaction accounts for most of the trans fatty acids consumed today, by far. An analysis of some industrialized foods in 2006 found up to 30% "trans fats" in artificial shortening, 10% in breads and cake products, 8% in cookies and cracker... | Dietary fat |
c_67s14wn0d4le | Another 2010 analysis however found only 0.2% of trans fats in margarine and other processed spreads. Up to 45% of the total fat in those foods containing man-made trans fats formed by partially hydrogenating plant fats may be trans fat. Baking shortenings, unless reformulated, contain around 30% trans fats compared to... | Dietary fat |
c_5tjpru7254oc | High-fat dairy products such as butter contain about 4%. Margarines not reformulated to reduce trans fats may contain up to 15% trans fat by weight, but some reformulated ones are less than 1% trans fat. High levels of TFAs have been recorded in popular "fast food" meals. | Dietary fat |
c_8hsezrnkjk2f | An analysis of samples of McDonald's French fries collected in 2004 and 2005 found that fries served in New York City contained twice as much trans fat as in Hungary, and 28 times as much as in Denmark, where trans fats are restricted. For Kentucky Fried Chicken products, the pattern was reversed: the Hungarian product... | Dietary fat |
c_vpzgblsihz8g | In nature, uranium is found as uranium-238 (99.2742%) and uranium-235 (0.7204%). Isotope separation concentrates (enriches) the fissile uranium-235 for nuclear weapons and most nuclear power plants, except for gas cooled reactors and pressurised heavy water reactors. Most neutrons released by a fissioning atom of urani... | Uranium Processing |
c_bi0m8yxmv18e | To be considered 'enriched', the uranium-235 fraction should be between 3% and 5%. This process produces huge quantities of uranium that is depleted of uranium-235 and with a correspondingly increased fraction of uranium-238, called depleted uranium or 'DU'. To be considered 'depleted', the uranium-235 isotope concentr... | Uranium Processing |
c_ussvyx1nemaw | The price of uranium has risen since 2001, so enrichment tailings containing more than 0.35% uranium-235 are being considered for re-enrichment, driving the price of depleted uranium hexafluoride above $130 per kilogram in July 2007 from $5 in 2001.The gas centrifuge process, where gaseous uranium hexafluoride (UF6) is... | Uranium Processing |
c_0z60pepqhu6m | The molecular laser isotope separation method employs a laser beam of precise energy to sever the bond between uranium-235 and fluorine. This leaves uranium-238 bonded to fluorine and allows uranium-235 metal to precipitate from the solution. An alternative laser method of enrichment is known as atomic vapor laser isot... | Uranium Processing |
c_icw3wf4dq4dr | Another method used is liquid thermal diffusion.The only significant deviation from the 235U to 238U ratio in any known natural samples occurs in Oklo, Gabon, where natural nuclear fission reactors consumed some of the 235U some two billion years ago when the ratio of 235U to 238U was more akin to that of low enriched ... | Uranium Processing |
c_ujlr0ofygvuz | In nature, variations in isotopic ratios of trace metals on the order of a few tenths to several ‰ are observed within and across diverse environments spanning the geosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere. A complete understanding of all processes that fractionate trace metal isotopes is presently lacking, but in general, ... | Trace metal stable isotope biogeochemistry |
c_6fut5541zogp | In nature, water cascading down a mountain will always follow the path of least resistance – the easiest route. In thinking, too, our minds tend to take the path of least resistance – those avenues most familiar to us. So doing, it is difficult to arrive at ideas new to us or to our competitors. SIT encourages an appro... | Systematic inventive thinking |
c_k4in1k7q5fj9 | In nature, wings have evolved in insects, pterosaurs, dinosaurs (birds, Scansoriopterygidae), and mammals (bats) as a means of locomotion. Various species of penguins and other flighted or flightless water birds such as auks, cormorants, guillemots, shearwaters, eider and scoter ducks and diving petrels are avid swimme... | Wing |
c_fxh64mykj11m | In nature, yeast cells are found primarily on ripe fruits such as grapes (before maturation, grapes are almost free of yeasts). S. cerevisiae can also be found year-round in the bark of oak trees. Since S. cerevisiae is not airborne, it requires a vector to move.Queens of social wasps overwintering as adults (Vespa cra... | Saccharomyces cerevisiae |
c_mmopb174j6s9 | In nautical navigation the absolute bearing is the clockwise angle between north and an object observed from the vessel. If the north used as reference is the true geographical north then the bearing is a true bearing whereas if the reference used is magnetic north then the bearing is a magnetic bearing. An absolute be... | Bearing angle |
c_c6jfasqq1iym | A grid bearing (also known as grid azimuth) is measured in relation to the fixed horizontal reference plane of grid north, that is, using the direction northwards along the grid lines of the map projection as a reference point. A compass bearing, as in vehicle or marine navigation, is measured in relation to the magnet... | Bearing angle |
c_d1og0a714a78 | In nautical navigation the relative bearing of an object is the clockwise angle from the heading of the vessel to a straight line drawn from the observation station on the vessel to the object. The relative bearing is measured with a pelorus or other optical and electronic aids to navigation such as a periscope, sonar ... | Absolute bearing |
c_srbr34z8bd6a | Relative bearings then serve as the baseline data for converting relative directional data into true bearings (N-S-E-W, relative to the Earth's true geography). By contrast, Compass bearings have a varying error factor at differing locations about the globe, and are less reliable than the compensated or true bearings. ... | Absolute bearing |
c_cvovrums05wd | For example: The navigator on a ship observes a lighthouse when its relative bearing is 45° and again when it is 90°. He now knows that the distance from the ship to the lighthouse is equal to the distance travelled by the vessel between both observations. The pilot of a boat observes that the relative bearing of anoth... | Absolute bearing |
c_pc6tkxx9t5j9 | In nautical settings, a stopper may refer to a length of rope that is belayed at one end with the other end attached to a tensioned main line using a friction hitch in order to tension the stopper and thereby slacken the portion of the tensioned main line behind the friction hitch. For example if a sheet becomes jammed... | Stopper knot |
c_f5b9o70rzstr | In nautical terminology, stowage is the amount of room available for stowing materials aboard a ship, tank or an airplane. In container shipping, stowage planning refers to the arrangement of containers on board a container vessel. The stowage of a container ship involves different objectives, such as to optimize the a... | Stowage |
c_k2hckf4qty36 | Containers will be arranged depending on their destinations (those going to the first port calls in the schedule will be placed on top), cargo weight (lighter containers are stored on top of heavier ones), cargo nature (dangerous goods containers normally are placed at the end of ship, and on upper deck to minimize the... | Stowage |
c_5ovzt5gyu6i4 | In nautical terms, the word sound is used to describe the process of determining the depth of water in a tank or under a ship. Tanks are sounded to determine if they are full (for cargo tanks) or empty (to determine if a ship has been holed) and for other reasons. Soundings may also be taken of the water around a ship ... | Sound (nautical) |
c_g5d7td6rasyg | In nautical usage the term "sheet" is applied to a line or chain attached to the lower corners of a sail for the purpose of extension or change of direction. The connection in derivation with the root "shoot" is more clearly seen in "sheet-anchor", one that is kept in reserve, to be "shot" in case of emergency. | Jib sheet |
c_5cafqmoth7kt | In nautical use, any boat uses a specific flag of a specific Nation to indicate its organizational membership. The ensign is flown on a ship for that reason. The flag signifies the home port of the ship owner and that his tax is paid there for his income made with the ship. Flagging out always means that the relevant l... | Ensign (flag) |
c_bf35h1wmnb97 | In naval architecture an afterdeck or after deck, or sometimes the aftdeck, aft deck or a-deck, is the open deck area toward the stern or aft back part of a ship or boat. The afterdeck can be used for a number of different purposes. Not all ships have an afterdeck. In place of the afterdeck a ship may be built with a p... | Afterdeck |
c_ov19rpxdrkgq | A poop deck usually is higher up than an afterdeck. A ship may have its superstructure or aftercastle located in the stern and thus not have an afterdeck. The stern and afterdeck of a ship are usually more smooth and stable than the bow (front) of the ship in motion. A taffrail is the handrail around the open afterdeck... | Afterdeck |
c_f9q2xxuvvhmm | In naval architecture and aerospace engineering, the fineness ratio is the ratio of the length of a body to its maximum width. Shapes that are short and wide have a low fineness ratio, those that are long and narrow have high fineness ratios. Aircraft that spend time at supersonic speeds, e.g. the Concorde, generally h... | Fineness ratio |
c_kt14irhznbdb | As the name implies, this is drag caused by the interaction of the airflow with the aircraft's skin. To minimize this drag, the aircraft should be designed to minimize the exposed skin area, or "wetted surface". One solution to this problem is constructing an "egg shaped" fuselage, for example as used on the home-built... | Fineness ratio |
c_r2zi7eydva22 | Theoretical ideal fineness ratios in subsonic aircraft fuselages are typically found at about 6:1, however this may be compromised by other design considerations such as seating or freight size requirements. Because a higher fineness fuselage can have reduced tail surfaces, this ideal ratio can practically be increased... | Fineness ratio |
c_qkpndhsxf993 | Reducing the length of the fuselage would require larger controls, which would offset the drag savings from using the ideal fineness ratio. An example of a high-performance design with an imperfect fineness ratio is the Lancair. In other cases, the designer is forced to use a non-ideal design due to outside factors suc... | Fineness ratio |
c_g03la2o78q80 | Modern airliners often have fineness ratios much higher than ideal, a side effect of their cylindrical cross-section which is selected for strength, as well as providing a single width to simplify seating layout and air cargo handling. As an aircraft approaches the speed of sound, shock waves form on areas of greater c... | Fineness ratio |
c_la87v0m3ijbk | This appears to be a new form of drag—referred to as wave drag—which peaks at about three times the drag at speeds even slightly below the critical mach. In order to minimize the wave drag, the curvature of the aircraft should be kept to a minimum, which implies much higher fineness ratios. This is why high-speed aircr... | Fineness ratio |
c_mz3vn2u3vuf9 | More technically, the best possible performance for a supersonic design is typified by two "perfect shapes", the Sears-Haack body which is pointed at both ends, or the von Kármán ogive, which has a blunt tail. Examples of the latter design include the Concorde, F-104 Starfighter and XB-70 Valkyrie, although to some deg... | Fineness ratio |
c_mjl50syfagmb | Missile designers are even less interested in low-speed performance, and missiles generally have higher fineness ratios than most aircraft. The introduction of aircraft with higher fineness ratios also introduced a new form of instability, inertial coupling. As the engines and cockpit moved away from the aircraft's cen... | Fineness ratio |
c_xhpsg43j8pwm | In naval architecture, a poop deck is a deck that forms the roof of a cabin built in the rear, or "aft", part of the superstructure of a ship.The name originates from the French word for stern, la poupe, from Latin puppis. Thus the poop deck is technically a stern deck, which in sailing ships was usually elevated as th... | Poop Deck |
c_vbnl2ofrzcq0 | In naval architecture, sill also refers to the lower horizontal plate (frame) height, above which doors and access opening are fixed. | Sill plate |
c_whsxkiwy0bnb | In naval architecture, the term transom has two meanings. First, it can be any of the individual beams that run side-to-side or "athwart" the hull at any point abaft the fashion timber; second, it can refer specifically to the flat or slightly curved surface that is the very back panel of a transom stern. In this sense... | Transom stern |
c_ouelcbd900lr | Until a new form of stern appeared in the 19th century, the transom stern was a floating house—and required just as many timbers, walls, windows, and frames. The stern frame provided the foundational structure of the transom stern, and was composed of the sternpost, wing transom, and fashion piece.Abaft the fashion tim... | Transom stern |
c_e4gdc34wpr8k | If the stern had transoms above the wing transom, they would no longer be affixed to the sternpost. The first of these might be called a counter transom; next up was the window sill transom; above that, the spar deck transom. | Transom stern |
c_lx9voitbal09 | The larger the vessel, the more numerous and wider the transoms required to support its stern. Stern timbers (also called stern frames) – These timbers are mounted vertically in a series; each timber typically rests or "steps" on the wing transom and then stretches out (aft) and upward. Those not reaching all the way t... | Transom stern |
c_zlswh2fvrhei | The two outermost of these timbers, located at the corners of the stern, are called the side-counter timbers or outer stern timbers. It is the stern timbers collectively which determine the backward slope of the square stern, called its rake – that is, if the stern timbers end up producing a final transom that falls ve... | Transom stern |
c_mggxt15crfug | In naval battles of the 1890s the decisive weapon was the medium-calibre, typically 6-inch (152 mm), quick-firing gun firing at relatively short range; at the Battle of the Yalu River in 1894, the victorious Japanese did not commence firing until the range had closed to 4,300 yards (3,900 m), and most of the fighting o... | Dreadnought battleship |
c_79izmzd6jvgi | For instance, in 1903, the US Navy ordered a design of torpedo effective to 4,000 yards (3,700 m). Both British and American admirals concluded that they needed to engage the enemy at longer ranges. In 1900, Admiral Fisher, commanding the Royal Navy Mediterranean Fleet, ordered gunnery practice with 6-inch guns at 6,00... | Dreadnought battleship |
c_u9h101enrtlt | By 1904 the US Naval War College was considering the effects on battleship tactics of torpedoes with a range of 7,000 to 8,000 yards (6,400 to 7,300 m).The range of light and medium-calibre guns was limited, and accuracy declined badly at longer range. At longer ranges the advantage of a high rate of fire decreased; ac... | Dreadnought battleship |
c_lsfvaak0apsh | In naval gunnery, when long-range guns became available, an enemy ship would move some distance after the shells were fired. It became necessary to figure out where the enemy ship, the target, was going to be when the shells arrived. The process of keeping track of where the ship was likely to be was called rangekeepin... | Mathematical discussion of rangekeeping |
c_an55oiyqu6m7 | Rangekeeping is an excellent example of the application of analog computing to a real-world mathematical modeling problem. Because nations had so much money invested in their capital ships, they were willing to invest enormous amounts of money in the development of rangekeeping hardware to ensure that the guns of these... | Mathematical discussion of rangekeeping |
c_ige67s4f737u | To make this discussion more concrete, the Ford Mk 1 Rangekeeper is used as the focus of this discussion. The Ford Mk 1 Rangekeeper was first deployed on the USS Texas in 1916 during World War I. This is a relatively well documented rangekeeper that had a long service life. While an early form of mechanical rangekeeper... | Mathematical discussion of rangekeeping |
c_s7hwufhoi1gr | The rangekeepers of other nations used similar algorithms for computing gun angles, but often differed dramatically in their operational use.In addition to long range gunnery, the launching of torpedoes also requires a rangekeeping-like function. The US Navy during World War II had the TDC, which was the only World War... | Mathematical discussion of rangekeeping |
c_7ojo6n06c7cp | In naval parlance, the sail (American usage) or fin (British/Commonwealth usage) (also known as a fairwater) of a submarine is the tower-like structure found on the dorsal (topside) surface of submarines. Submarine sails once housed the conning tower (command and communications data center), the periscope(s), radar and... | Submarine sail |
c_r961e38zd8tk | It also provides an entrance and exit point on the submarine that has enough freeboard to prevent the submarine being swamped. Under water, the sail acts as a vertical stabilizer. In some submarines, the sail also supports diving planes (or fairwater planes), which are control surfaces used for underwater stability and... | Submarine sail |
c_sybyauyqgr60 | In naval terminology, a destroyer is a fast, maneuverable, long-endurance warship intended to escort larger vessels in a fleet, convoy, or battle group and defend them against powerful short-range attackers. They were originally developed in 1885 by Fernando Villaamil for the Spanish Navy as a defense against torpedo b... | Destroyer minelayer |
c_8q5mukqzvrzg | The American Allen M. Sumner-class destroyers had a displacement of 2,200 tons, while the Arleigh Burke class has a displacement of up to 9,600 tons, a difference of nearly 340%. Moreover, the advent of guided missiles allowed destroyers to take on the surface-combatant roles previously filled by battleships and cruise... | Destroyer minelayer |
c_cuoayssmt0rt | At the start of the 21st century, destroyers are the global standard for surface-combatant ships, with only two nations (the United States and Russia) officially operating the heavier cruisers, with no battleships or true battlecruisers remaining. Modern guided-missile destroyers are equivalent in tonnage but vastly su... | Destroyer minelayer |
c_30i8kvmkfue9 | In naval terms, turret traditionally and specifically refers to a gun mounting where the entire mass rotates as one, and has a trunk that projects below the deck. The rotating part of a turret seen above deck is the gunhouse, which protects the mechanism and crew, and is where the guns are loaded. The gunhouse is suppo... | Gun turret |
c_y94mfydlaxz9 | The British battlecruiser Hood, like some American battleships, did have vertical restraints.Below the gunhouse there may be a working chamber, where ammunition is handled, and the main trunk, which accommodates the shell and propellant hoists that bring ammunition up from the magazines below. There may be a combined h... | Gun turret |
c_uvwut8s91xz7 | The barbette extends down to the main armoured deck (red in the animation). At the base of the turret sit handing rooms, where shell and propelling charges are passed from the shell room and magazine to the hoists. The handling equipment and hoists are complex arrangements of machinery that transport the shells and cha... | Gun turret |
c_46csbd3abx53 | Bearing in mind that shells can weigh around a ton, the hoists have to be powerful and rapid; a 15-inch turret of the type in the animation was expected to perform a complete loading and firing cycle in a minute. The loading system is fitted with a series of mechanical interlocks that ensure that there is never an open... | Gun turret |
c_957ih6srgbch | Generally, with large-calibre guns, powered or assisted ramming is required to force the heavy shell and charge into the breech. As the hoist and breech must be aligned for ramming to occur, there is generally a restricted range of elevations at which the guns can be loaded; the guns return to the loading elevation, ar... | Gun turret |
c_wy9w7d8jfxbi | The animation illustrates a turret where the rammer is fixed to the cradle that carries the guns, allowing loading to occur across a wider range of elevations. Earlier turrets differed significantly in their operating principles. It was not until the last of the "rotating drum" designs described in the previous section... | Gun turret |
c_nm71vwlk34zm | In naval tradition, mast is the traditional location of the non-judicial hearing under which a commanding officer studies and disposes of cases involving those in his command. In the United States Navy and United States Coast Guard, these proceedings take place under the authority of Article 15 of the Uniform Code of M... | Non-judicial punishment |
c_mqfysbnqr1g5 | If an admiral is overseeing the mast, then the procedure is referred to as an admiral's mast or a flag mast.A captain's mast or admiral's mast is a procedure whereby the commanding officer must: Make inquiry into the facts surrounding minor offenses allegedly committed by a member of the command; Afford the accused a h... | Non-judicial punishment |
c_aaxmx1r4ovgb | In naval warfare during the Age of Sail, a vessel always sought to use the wind to its advantage, maneuvering if possible to attack from windward. This was particularly important for less maneuverable square-rigged warships, which had limited ability to sail upwind, and sought to "hold the weather gage" entering battle... | Lee side |
c_mvkc37yl5aec | In navigation the instrument is also called a cross-staff and was used to determine angles, for instance the angle between the horizon and Polaris or the sun to determine a vessel's latitude, or the angle between the top and bottom of an object to determine the distance to said object if its height is known, or the hei... | Jacob's staff |
c_jxds53jhfm1a | In navigation, a radio beacon or radiobeacon is a kind of beacon, a device that marks a fixed location and allows direction-finding equipment to find relative bearing. But instead of employing visible light, radio beacons transmit electromagnetic radiation in the radio wave band. They are used for direction-finding sys... | Radio beacon station |
c_1jdka6p1syal | In navigation, a rhumb line (or loxodrome) is a line crossing all meridians of longitude at the same angle, i.e. a path derived from a defined initial bearing. That is, upon taking an initial bearing, one proceeds along the same bearing, without changing the direction as measured relative to true or magnetic north. | Navigation |
c_6byza6vzxttz | In navigation, a rhumb line or loxodrome is an arc crossing all meridians of longitude at the same angle. Loxodromes are the same as straight lines in the Mercator projection. A rhumb line is not a spherical spiral. Except for some simple cases, the formula of a rhumb line is complicated. | Curve on a sphere |
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