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c_h6jqt0ap7hfm | In networks-based biocomputation, self-propelled biological agents, such as molecular motor proteins or bacteria, explore a microscopic network that encodes a mathematical problem of interest. The paths of the agents through the network and/or their final positions represent potential solutions to the problem. For inst... | Biological computing |
c_r1pgbvrqodkf | Exits not visited are non-solutions. The motility proteins are either actin and myosin or kinesin and microtubules. | Biological computing |
c_pug5qu1rmfpr | The myosin and kinesin, respectively, are attached to the bottom of the network channels. When adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is added, the actin filaments or microtubules are propelled through the channels, thus exploring the network. The energy conversion from chemical energy (ATP) to mechanical energy (motility) is hi... | Biological computing |
c_jtuxk27mbues | In neural network applications, the number K of possible outcomes is often large, e.g. in case of neural language models that predict the most likely outcome out of a vocabulary which might contain millions of possible words. This can make the calculations for the softmax layer (i.e. the matrix multiplications to deter... | Softmax activation function |
c_hea927s7iv2a | The hierarchical softmax (introduced by Morin and Bengio in 2005) uses a binary tree structure where the outcomes (vocabulary words) are the leaves and the intermediate nodes are suitably selected "classes" of outcomes, forming latent variables. The desired probability (softmax value) of a leaf (outcome) can then be ca... | Softmax activation function |
c_ksq45no8wpby | In practice, results depend on choosing a good strategy for clustering the outcomes into classes. A Huffman tree was used for this in Google's word2vec models (introduced in 2013) to achieve scalability.A second kind of remedies is based on approximating the softmax (during training) with modified loss functions that a... | Softmax activation function |
c_xfsddk90cjp6 | In neural networking or heuristic algorithms (computer terms generally used to describe 'learning' computers or 'AI simulations'), a black box is used to describe the constantly changing section of the program environment which cannot easily be tested by the programmers. This is also called a white box in the context t... | Black box |
c_7vuw4d47iamu | In neural networks, each neuron receives input from some number of locations in the previous layer. In a convolutional layer, each neuron receives input from only a restricted area of the previous layer called the neuron's receptive field. Typically the area is a square (e.g. 5 by 5 neurons). Whereas, in a fully connec... | Pooling (neural networks) |
c_scrdm4mznzr3 | Thus, in each convolutional layer, each neuron takes input from a larger area in the input than previous layers. This is due to applying the convolution over and over, which takes the value of a pixel into account, as well as its surrounding pixels. | Pooling (neural networks) |
c_178jx18h4fxx | When using dilated layers, the number of pixels in the receptive field remains constant, but the field is more sparsely populated as its dimensions grow when combining the effect of several layers. To manipulate the receptive field size as desired, there are some alternatives to the standard convolutional layer. For ex... | Pooling (neural networks) |
c_ditopj1lx5ji | In neuroanatomy, a neural pathway is the connection formed by axons that project from neurons to make synapses onto neurons in another location, to enable neurotransmission (the sending of a signal from one region of the nervous system to another). Neurons are connected by a single axon, or by a bundle of axons known a... | Neural pathway |
c_ak7rqhsn5x01 | In neuroanatomy, a plexus (from the Latin term for "braid") is a branching network of vessels or nerves. The vessels may be blood vessels (veins, capillaries) or lymphatic vessels. The nerves are typically axons outside the central nervous system. The standard plural form in English is plexuses. Alternatively, the Lati... | Plexus |
c_f9iksjr9jxg2 | In neuroanatomy, dura mater is a thick membrane made of dense irregular connective tissue that surrounds the brain and spinal cord. It is the outermost of the three layers of membrane called the meninges that protect the central nervous system. The other two meningeal layers are the arachnoid mater and the pia mater. I... | Dura mater |
c_2pmndymcqp26 | In neuroanatomy, habenula (diminutive of Latin habena meaning rein) originally denoted the stalk of the pineal gland (pineal habenula; pedunculus of pineal body), but gradually came to refer to a neighboring group of nerve cells with which the pineal gland was believed to be associated, the habenular nucleus. The haben... | Lateral habenula |
c_r1wjlleyygae | By way of the fasciculus retroflexus (habenulointerpeduncular tract) it projects to the interpeduncular nucleus and other paramedian cell groups of the midbrain tegmentum. Although they were predominantly studied for their demonstration of asymmetrical brain development and function, in recent years many scientists hav... | Lateral habenula |
c_yr3l1ak45bkk | In neuroanatomy, thalamocortical radiations also known as thalamocortical fibres, are the efferent fibres that project from the thalamus to distinct areas of the cerebral cortex. They form fibre bundles that emerge from the lateral surface of the thalamus. | Thalamocortical radiation |
c_h7xjma7s9skh | In neuroanatomy, the arcuate fasciculus (AF; from Latin 'curved bundle') is a bundle of axons that generally connects the Broca's area and the Wernicke's area in the brain. It is an association fiber tract connecting caudal temporal cortex and inferior frontal lobe. | Arcuate fasciculus |
c_qnv9pwnfch9q | In neuroanatomy, the central sulcus (also central fissure, fissure of Rolando, or Rolandic fissure, after Luigi Rolando) is a sulcus, or groove, in the cerebral cortex in the brains of vertebrates. It is sometimes confused with the longitudinal fissure. The central sulcus is a prominent landmark of the brain, separatin... | Central sulcus |
c_tvofnaj6oxjo | In neuroanatomy, the corona radiata is a white matter sheet that continues inferiorly as the internal capsule and superiorly as the centrum semiovale. This sheet of both ascending and descending axons carries most of the neural traffic from and to the cerebral cortex. The corona radiata is associated with the corticopo... | Corona radiata |
c_k5j1aa3idk0u | In neuroanatomy, the corticobulbar (or corticonuclear) tract is a two-neuron white matter motor pathway connecting the motor cortex in the cerebral cortex to the medullary pyramids, which are part of the brainstem's medulla oblongata (also called "bulbar") region, and are primarily involved in carrying the motor functi... | Corticobulbar tract |
c_dktlkijo1283 | In neuroanatomy, the cranial nerve ganglia are ganglia of certain cranial nerves. They can be parasympathetic or sensory. All cranial nerve ganglia are bilateral. | Cranial nerve ganglia |
c_7c4krwsh1ikq | In neuroanatomy, the dorsal column nuclei are a pair of nuclei in the dorsal columns in the brainstem. The name refers collectively to the cuneate nucleus and gracile nucleus, which are situated at the lower end of the medulla oblongata. Both nuclei contain second-order neurons of the dorsal column–medial lemniscus pat... | Cuneate nucleus |
c_qkw8o4p6h7fq | In neuroanatomy, the lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN; also called the lateral geniculate body or lateral geniculate complex) is a structure in the thalamus and a key component of the mammalian visual pathway. It is a small, ovoid, ventral projection of the thalamus where the thalamus connects with the optic nerve. Ther... | Lateral geniculate body |
c_n8t4406rermi | The LGN receives information directly from the ascending retinal ganglion cells via the optic tract and from the reticular activating system. Neurons of the LGN send their axons through the optic radiation, a direct pathway to the primary visual cortex. In addition, the LGN receives many strong feedback connections fro... | Lateral geniculate body |
c_sm0e95jb58f4 | In neuroanatomy, the lateral sulcus (also called Sylvian fissure, after Franciscus Sylvius, or lateral fissure) is one of the most prominent features of the human brain. The lateral sulcus is a deep fissure in each hemisphere that separates the frontal and parietal lobes from the temporal lobe. The insular cortex lies ... | Lateral sulcus |
c_b67l3elgigfb | In neuroanatomy, the mandibular nerve (V3) is the largest of the three divisions of the trigeminal nerve, the fifth cranial nerve (CN V). Unlike the other divisions of the trigeminal nerve (ophthalmic nerve, maxillary nerve) which contain only afferent fibers, the mandibular nerve contains both afferent and efferent fi... | Mandibular nerve |
c_qju7r1525086 | In neuroanatomy, the marginal sulcus (margin of the cingulate sulcus) is a sulcus (crevice) that may be considered the termination of the cingulate sulcus. It separates the paracentral lobule anteriorly and the precuneus posteriorly. | Marginal sulcus |
c_6smjsc1e5t9e | In neuroanatomy, the maxillary nerve (V2) is one of the three branches or divisions of the trigeminal nerve, the fifth (CN V) cranial nerve. It comprises the principal functions of sensation from the maxilla, nasal cavity, sinuses, the palate and subsequently that of the mid-face, and is intermediate, both in position ... | Maxillary nerve |
c_1js270cn3mce | In neuroanatomy, the medial lemniscus, also known as Reil's band or Reil's ribbon (for German anatomist Johann Christian Reil), is a large ascending bundle of heavily myelinated axons that decussate (cross) in the brainstem, specifically in the medulla oblongata. The medial lemniscus is formed by the crossings of the i... | Medial lemniscus |
c_j3i937i4teiw | In neuroanatomy, the medullary pyramids are paired white matter structures of the brainstem's medulla oblongata that contain motor fibers of the corticospinal and corticobulbar tracts – known together as the pyramidal tracts. The lower limit of the pyramids is marked when the fibers cross (decussate). | Decussation of pyramids |
c_yter7rhozq9f | In neuroanatomy, the optic chiasm, or optic chiasma ( ; from Greek χίασμα 'crossing', from Ancient Greek χιάζω 'to mark with an X'), is the part of the brain where the optic nerves cross. It is located at the bottom of the brain immediately inferior to the hypothalamus. The optic chiasm is found in all vertebrates, alt... | Optic chiasm |
c_ynhsyrldrc93 | In neuroanatomy, the optic nerve, also known as the second cranial nerve, cranial nerve II, or simply CN II, is a paired cranial nerve that transmits visual information from the retina to the brain. In humans, the optic nerve is derived from optic stalks during the seventh week of development and is composed of retinal... | Optic nerve |
c_0huv4c66ujmd | In neuroanatomy, the optic radiation (also known as the geniculocalcarine tract, the geniculostriate pathway, and posterior thalamic radiation) are axons from the neurons in the lateral geniculate nucleus to the primary visual cortex. The optic radiation receives blood through deep branches of the middle cerebral arter... | Optic radiation |
c_z7wslr7zo7y7 | In neuroanatomy, the optic tract (from Latin tractus opticus) is a part of the visual system in the brain. It is a continuation of the optic nerve that relays information from the optic chiasm to the ipsilateral lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN), pretectal nuclei, and superior colliculus.It is composed of two individual... | Optic tract |
c_99k1qm6nm3z4 | In neuroanatomy, the paracentral lobule is on the medial surface of the cerebral hemisphere and is the continuation of the precentral and postcentral gyri. The paracentral lobule controls motor and sensory innervations of the contralateral lower extremity. It is also responsible for control of defecation and urination.... | Paracentral lobule |
c_4wzqt9dyvmr8 | In neuroanatomy, the parieto-occipital sulcus (also called the parieto-occipital fissure) is a deep sulcus in the cerebral cortex that marks the boundary between the cuneus and precuneus, and also between the parietal and occipital lobes. Only a small part can be seen on the lateral surface of the hemisphere, its chief... | Parieto-occipital sulcus |
c_9lmnx45a9337 | in length. The medial part of the parieto-occipital sulcus (Fig. 727) runs downward and forward as a deep cleft on the medial surface of the hemisphere, and joins the calcarine fissure below and behind the posterior end of the corpus callosum. In most cases, it contains a submerged gyrus. | Parieto-occipital sulcus |
c_g029blvvly2p | In neuroanatomy, the postcentral gyrus is a prominent gyrus in the lateral parietal lobe of the human brain. It is the location of the primary somatosensory cortex, the main sensory receptive area for the sense of touch. Like other sensory areas, there is a map of sensory space in this location, called the sensory homu... | Postcentral gyrus |
c_5ptm4oaosjk0 | In neuroanatomy, the pretectal area, or pretectum, is a midbrain structure composed of seven nuclei and comprises part of the subcortical visual system. Through reciprocal bilateral projections from the retina, it is involved primarily in mediating behavioral responses to acute changes in ambient light such as the pupi... | Pretectal area |
c_22i3qnkf0jy4 | In neuroanatomy, the primary somatosensory cortex is located in the postcentral gyrus of the brain's parietal lobe, and is part of the somatosensory system. It was initially defined from surface stimulation studies of Wilder Penfield, and parallel surface potential studies of Bard, Woolsey, and Marshall. Although initi... | Primary somatosensory cortex |
c_zn1s55y07hod | Each cerebral hemisphere of the primary somatosensory cortex only contains a tactile representation of the opposite (contralateral) side of the body. The amount of primary somatosensory cortex devoted to a body part is not proportional to the absolute size of the body surface, but, instead, to the relative density of c... | Primary somatosensory cortex |
c_o0u3v7ieb14e | In neuroanatomy, the retinohypothalamic tract (RHT) is a photic neural input pathway involved in the circadian rhythms of mammals. The origin of the retinohypothalamic tract is the intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells (ipRGC), which contain the photopigment melanopsin. The axons of the ipRGCs belonging t... | Retinohypothalamic tract |
c_n8yamulttmnl | In neuroanatomy, the sensory decussation or decussation of the lemnisci is a decussation (i.e. crossover) of axons from the gracile nucleus and cuneate nucleus, which are responsible for fine touch, vibration, proprioception and two-point discrimination of the body. The fibres of this decussation are called the interna... | Sensory decussation |
c_n3gfmpu9xrid | In neuroanatomy, the superior colliculus (from Latin 'upper hill') is a structure lying on the roof of the mammalian midbrain. In non-mammalian vertebrates, the homologous structure is known as the optic tectum, or optic lobe. The adjective form tectal is commonly used for both structures. | Superior colliculus |
c_9muqw74pqsjr | In mammals, the superior colliculus forms a major component of the midbrain. It is a paired structure and together with the paired inferior colliculi forms the corpora quadrigemina. The superior colliculus is a layered structure, with a pattern that is similar to all mammals. | Superior colliculus |
c_jcy1vi8d0ghe | The layers can be grouped into the superficial layers (stratum opticum and above) and the deeper remaining layers. Neurons in the superficial layers receive direct input from the retina and respond almost exclusively to visual stimuli. Many neurons in the deeper layers also respond to other modalities, and some respond... | Superior colliculus |
c_dlw7k9w30sox | The deeper layers also contain a population of motor-related neurons, capable of activating eye movements as well as other responses. In other vertebrates the number of layers in the homologous optic tectum varies.The general function of the tectal system is to direct behavioral responses toward specific points in body... | Superior colliculus |
c_u1k6vw05fk87 | In primates, the superior colliculus has been studied mainly with respect to its role in directing eye movements. Visual input from the retina, or "command" input from the cerebral cortex, create a "bump" of activity in the tectal map, which, if strong enough, induces a saccadic eye movement. Even in primates, however,... | Superior colliculus |
c_v94efbwwtuvr | In other species, the superior colliculus is involved in a wide range of responses, including whole-body turns in walking rats. In mammals, and especially primates, the massive expansion of the cerebral cortex reduces the superior colliculus to a much smaller fraction of the whole brain. It remains nonetheless importan... | Superior colliculus |
c_knwnl370ka5p | In non-mammalian species the optic tectum is involved in many responses including swimming in fish, flying in birds, tongue-strikes toward prey in frogs, and fang-strikes in snakes. In some species, including fish and birds, the optic tectum, also known as the optic lobe, is one of the largest components of the brain. ... | Superior colliculus |
c_qcvw6v8l9t3d | In neuroanatomy, the superior frontal gyrus (SFG, also marginal gyrus) is a gyrus – a ridge on the brain's cerebral cortex – which makes up about one third of the frontal lobe. It is bounded laterally by the superior frontal sulcus.The superior frontal gyrus is one of the frontal gyri. | Superior frontal gyrus |
c_tbd3qy4gmrev | In neuroanatomy, the trigeminal nerve (lit. triplet nerve), also known as the fifth cranial nerve, cranial nerve V, or simply CN V, is a cranial nerve responsible for sensation in the face and motor functions such as biting and chewing; it is the most complex of the cranial nerves. Its name (trigeminal, from Latin tri-... | Trigeminal system |
c_gdncnjorap82 | Adding to the complexity of this nerve is that autonomic nerve fibers as well as special sensory fibers (taste) are contained within it. The motor division of the trigeminal nerve derives from the basal plate of the embryonic pons, and the sensory division originates in the cranial neural crest. Sensory information fro... | Trigeminal system |
c_90d4zzutr73i | In neurobiology, lateral inhibition is the capacity of an excited neuron to reduce the activity of its neighbors. Lateral inhibition disables the spreading of action potentials from excited neurons to neighboring neurons in the lateral direction. This creates a contrast in stimulation that allows increased sensory perc... | Lateral inhibition |
c_mbwgrmfow9ue | It is also referred to as lateral antagonism and occurs primarily in visual processes, but also in tactile, auditory, and even olfactory processing. Cells that utilize lateral inhibition appear primarily in the cerebral cortex and thalamus and make up lateral inhibitory networks (LINs). Artificial lateral inhibition ha... | Lateral inhibition |
c_x9dvfybwgdgl | An often under-appreciated point is that although lateral inhibition is visualised in a spatial sense, it is also thought to exist in what is known as "lateral inhibition across abstract dimensions." This refers to lateral inhibition between neurons that are not adjacent in a spatial sense, but in terms of modality of ... | Lateral inhibition |
c_emzwqmetwpkn | In neurobiology, the length constant (λ) is a mathematical constant used to quantify the distance that a graded electric potential will travel along a neurite via passive electrical conduction. The greater the value of the length constant, the farther the potential will travel. A large length constant can contribute to... | Length constant |
c_78r5baojvluz | In calculation, the effects of ro are negligible, so the equation is typically expressed as: λ = r m r i {\displaystyle \lambda ={\sqrt {\frac {r_{m}}{r_{i}}}}} The membrane resistance is a function of the number of open ion channels, and the axial resistance is generally a function of the diameter of the axon. The gre... | Length constant |
c_j2mwcn21v5vs | The length constant is used to describe the rise of potential difference across the membrane V ( x ) = V max ( 1 − e − x / λ ) {\displaystyle V(x)=V_{\max }\left(1-e^{-x/\lambda }\right)} The fall of voltage can be expressed as: V ( x ) = V max e − x / λ {\displaystyle V(x)=V_{\max }e^{-x/\lambda }} Where voltage, V, i... | Length constant |
c_km7ry1z5ub4f | In neuroenhancement, the human brain is conceived of as a malleable "wetware". | Neuroenhancement |
c_bfegvbpz46ip | In neuroethology and the study of learning, anti-Hebbian learning describes a particular class of learning rule by which synaptic plasticity can be controlled. These rules are based on a reversal of Hebb's postulate, and therefore can be simplistically understood as dictating reduction of the strength of synaptic conne... | Anti-Hebbian learning |
c_ck6jthv2zgfz | In neurogenesis, Sox2 is expressed throughout developing cells in the neural tube as well as in proliferating central nervous system progenitors. However, Sox2 is downregulated during progenitors' final cell cycle during differentiation when they become post mitotic. Cells expressing Sox2 are capable of both producing ... | SOX2 |
c_psocluf9h9zc | Thus signals controlling Sox2 expression in the presumptive neuronal compartment, like Notch signaling, control what size the neuronal compartment finally reaches. Proliferation of Sox2+ neural stem cells can generate neural precursors as well as Sox2+ neural stem cell population. Differences in brain size between the ... | SOX2 |
c_t4sy9bute5oe | In neuroimaging, spatial normalization is an image processing step, more specifically an image registration method. Human brains differ in size and shape, and one goal of spatial normalization is to deform human brain scans so one location in one subject's brain scan corresponds to the same location in another subject'... | Spatial normalization |
c_dp4n4zh4v8ix | There are two steps in the spatial normalization process: Specification/estimation of warp-field Application of warp-field with resamplingThe estimation of the warp-field can be performed in one modality, e.g., MRI, and be applied in another modality, e.g., PET, if MRI and PET scans exist for the same subject and they ... | Spatial normalization |
c_dpsrv5qavofq | In neuroimaging, the most common variants are voxel-based morphometry, deformation-based morphometry and surface-based morphometry of the brain. | Morphometrics |
c_j046yptg0gk2 | In neurology and neuroscience research, steady state visually evoked potentials (SSVEPs) are signals that are natural responses to visual stimulation at specific frequencies. When the retina is excited by a visual stimulus ranging from 3.5 Hz to 75 Hz, the brain generates electrical activity at the same (or multiples o... | Steady state visually evoked potential |
c_q87v93y76jui | SSVEPs also provide a means to characterize preferred frequencies of neocortical dynamic processes. SSVEPs are generated by stationary localized sources and distributed sources that exhibit characteristics of wave phenomena. SSVEPs have been widely used in vision, cognitive neuroscience (e.g., visual attention, binocul... | Steady state visually evoked potential |
c_sfupd2nsybky | In neurology, anterograde amnesia is the inability to create new memories after an event that caused amnesia, leading to a partial or complete inability to recall the recent past, while long-term memories from before the event remain intact. This is in contrast to retrograde amnesia, where memories created prior to the... | Anterograde amnesia |
c_jz5cb4h2fvf2 | In neurology, retrograde amnesia (RA) is the inability to access memories or information from before an injury or disease occurred. RA differs from a similar condition called anterograde amnesia (AA), which is the inability to form new memories following injury or disease onset. Although an individual can have both RA ... | Retrograde amnesia |
c_oel5s8kx6cwa | Depending on its severity, RA can result in either temporally graded or more permanent memory loss. However, memory loss usually follows Ribot's law, which states that individuals are more likely to lose recent memories than older memories. Diagnosing RA generally requires using an Autobiographical Memory Interview (AM... | Retrograde amnesia |
c_4gvtb0v2fezy | In neurology, the Bereitschaftspotential or BP (German for "readiness potential"), also called the pre-motor potential or readiness potential (RP), is a measure of activity in the motor cortex and supplementary motor area of the brain leading up to voluntary muscle movement. The BP is a manifestation of cortical contri... | Bereitschaftspotential |
c_33clsjht1wva | In neurometabolic diseases, distended storage neurons are markedly swollen and pear shaped, with the nucleus and the nissl bodies displaced toward the apical dendrites. Examples of neuron metabolic storage diseases are the sphingolipid storage diseases which typically involve malfunctioning hydrolases in the lysosomes ... | Apical dendrite |
c_bc99orufcji5 | In neuronal cells, CCAT is generated upon activation of a cryptic promoter in exon 46 of CACNA1C, the gene that encodes the voltage-gated calcium channel Cav1.2. == References == | Calcium channel associated transcriptional regulator |
c_jre3euqqwod5 | In neuronal exocytosis, the term priming has been used to include all of the molecular rearrangements and ATP-dependent protein and lipid modifications that take place after initial docking of a synaptic vesicle but before exocytosis, such that the influx of calcium ions is all that is needed to trigger nearly instanta... | Exocytosis |
c_1ib4k68c7ykt | In neurons of the human brain, somatic recombination occurs frequently in the gene that encodes APP. Neurons from individuals with sporadic Alzheimer's disease show greater APP gene diversity due to somatic recombination than neurons from healthy individuals. | Amyloid-beta precursor protein |
c_fp9fzswihce3 | In neurons that are involved in chemical synaptic transmission, neurotransmitters are synthesized either in the neuronal cell body, or within the presynaptic terminal, depending on the type of neurotransmitter being synthesized and the location of enzymes involved in its synthesis. These neurotransmitters are stored in... | Excitatory synapse |
c_001hd821yl3y | There is high concentration of calcium in the synaptic cleft between the two participating neurons (presynaptic and postsynaptic). This difference in calcium concentration between the synaptic cleft and the inside of the presynaptic terminal establishes a strong concentration gradient that drives the calcium into the p... | Excitatory synapse |
c_qarccck07zjg | After entering the presynaptic terminal, the calcium binds a protein called synaptotagmin, which is located on the membrane of the synaptic vesicles. This protein interacts with other proteins called SNAREs in order to induce vesicle fusion with the presynaptic membrane. As a result of this vesicle fusion, the neurotra... | Excitatory synapse |
c_cjidjuigs0zw | These neurotransmitters bind to a variety of receptors on the postsynaptic cell membrane. In response to neurotransmitter binding, these postsynaptic receptors can undergo conformational changes that may open a transmembrane channel subunit either directly, or indirectly via a G-Protein signaling pathway. The selective... | Excitatory synapse |
c_hftd4h6rufj1 | In neurons, action potentials induce neurotransmitter release at axon terminals by opening voltage-gated Ca2+ channels, allowing for Ca2+ influx. As a result, GCaMP is commonly used to measure increases in intracellular Ca2+ in neurons as a proxy for neuronal activity in multiple animal models, including Caenorhabditis... | GCaMP |
c_exqh0q5i7h7d | GCaMP expression in zebrafish brains has also been used to study activation of neural circuits in cognitive processes like prey capture, impulse control, and attention.Additionally, researchers have used GCaMP to observe neuronal activity in mice by expressing it under control of the Thy1 promoter, which is found in ex... | GCaMP |
c_0ku6mzyou18u | Finally, GCaMP has been used to identify activity patterns in specific regions of the mouse brain. For instance, Jones et al. (2018) used GCaMP6 in mice to measure neuronal activity in the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), the mammalian circadian pacemaker, and showed that SCN neurons that produced vasoactive intestinal p... | GCaMP |
c_01f66ysjwimy | In neurons, autophagosomes are generated at the neurite tip and mature (acidify) as they travel towards the cell body along the axon. This axonal transport is disrupted if huntingtin or its interacting partner HAP1, which colocalize with autophagosomes in neurons, are depleted. == References == | Autophagosome |
c_5we0z0i332oc | In neurons, concomitant increases in cytosolic and mitochondrial Ca2+ are important for the synchronization of neuronal electrical activity with mitochondrial energy metabolism. Mitochondrial matrix Ca2+ levels can reach the tens of μM levels that are necessary for the activation of isocitrate dehydrogenase, which is o... | Calcium signalling |
c_jef7muqfjne1 | These may communicate both locally and globally in the cell. These Ca2+ signals integrate extracellular and intracellular fluxes, and have been implicated to play roles in synaptic plasticity, memory, neurotransmitter release, neuronal excitability, and long term changes at the gene transcription level. ER stress is al... | Calcium signalling |
c_k1iz8luxlm4f | These transmitters allow communication between neurons and are triggered by calcium levels increasing around astrocytes from inside stores. This increase in calcium can also be caused by other neurotransmitters. Some examples of gliotransmitters are ATP and glutamate. Activation of these neurons will lead to an increas... | Calcium signalling |
c_3tp91bqjeq05 | In neuropathy associated with diabetes mellitus characterized by alteration in small nerve fibers, a reduction in time domain parameters of HRV seems not only to carry negative prognostic value but also to precede the clinical expression of autonomic neuropathy. In diabetic patients without evidence of autonomic neurop... | Heart rate variability |
c_62j84n7pgiff | In neurophysiological studies, the motor system is modeled as a distributed, often hierarchical system with the spinal cord controlling the "most automatic" of movements such as stretch reflexes, and the cortex controlling the "most voluntary" actions such as reaching for an object, with the brainstem performing a func... | Degrees of Freedom Problem (Motor Control) |
c_htym9nn5fpxt | In neurophysiology, a dendritic spike refers to an action potential generated in the dendrite of a neuron. Dendrites are branched extensions of a neuron. They receive electrical signals emitted from projecting neurons and transfer these signals to the cell body, or soma. | Dendritic spike |
c_wy8qjh7cdi4e | Dendritic signaling has traditionally been viewed as a passive mode of electrical signaling. Unlike its axon counterpart which can generate signals through action potentials, dendrites were believed to only have the ability to propagate electrical signals by physical means: changes in conductance, length, cross section... | Dendritic spike |
c_bf9fa097nsv7 | Dendritic spikes have been recorded in numerous types of neurons in the brain and are thought to have great implications in neuronal communication, memory, and learning. They are one of the major factors in long-term potentiation. A dendritic spike is initiated in the same manner as that of an axonal action potential. | Dendritic spike |
c_rd0plrub65sj | Depolarization of the dendritic membrane causes sodium and potassium voltage-gated ion channels to open. The influx of sodium ions causes an increase in voltage. If the voltage increases past a certain threshold, the sodium current activates other voltage-gated sodium channels transmitting a current along the dendrite. | Dendritic spike |
c_3v9cvqgxws10 | Dendritic spikes can be generated through both sodium and calcium voltage-gated channels. Dendritic spikes usually transmit signals at a much slower rate than axonal action potentials. Local voltage thresholds for dendritic spike initiation are usually higher than that of action potential initiation in the axon; theref... | Dendritic spike |
c_yhyqaw1taxab | In neurophysiology, commutation is the process by which the brain's neural circuits exhibit non-commutativity. Physiologist Douglas B. Tweed and coworkers have considered whether certain neural circuits in the brain exhibit noncommutativity and state: In noncommutative algebra, order makes a difference to multiplicatio... | Commutative (neurophysiology) |
c_s22rjbjyibri | This idea is controversial: studies of eye and head control have revealed behaviours that are consistent with non-commutativity in the brain, but none that clearly rules out all commutative models. Tweed goes on to demonstrate non-commutative computation in the vestibulo-ocular reflex by showing that subjects rotated i... | Commutative (neurophysiology) |
c_y8d9rjuorg4k | In neurophysiology, long-term depression (LTD) is an activity-dependent reduction in the efficacy of neuronal synapses lasting hours or longer following a long patterned stimulus. LTD occurs in many areas of the CNS with varying mechanisms depending upon brain region and developmental progress.As the opposing process t... | Long term depression |
c_xu5iioectwpa | In neurophysiology, peristimulus time histogram and poststimulus time histogram, both abbreviated PSTH or PST histogram, are histograms of the times at which neurons fire. It is also sometimes called pre event time histogram or PETH. These histograms are used to visualize the rate and timing of neuronal spike discharge... | Post stimulus time histogram |
c_5fv9f07eh2vq | The prefix peri, for through, is typically used in the case of periodic stimuli, in which case the PSTH show neuron firing times wrapped to one cycle of the stimulus. The prefix post is used when the PSTH shows the timing of neuron firings in response to a stimulus event or onset.To make a PSTH, a spike train recorded ... | Post stimulus time histogram |
c_iunxak66jjvn | In neurophysiology, several mathematical models of the action potential have been developed, which fall into two basic types. The first type seeks to model the experimental data quantitatively, i.e., to reproduce the measurements of current and voltage exactly. The renowned Hodgkin–Huxley model of the axon from the Lol... | Quantitative models of the action potential |
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