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The turn (corresponding to a cycle or revolution) is used in technology and science. One turn is equal to 360°. With the invention of the metric system, based on powers of ten, there was an attempt to replace degrees by decimal "degrees" in France and nearby countries, where the number in a right angle is equal to 100 gon with 400 gon in a full circle (1° = 10⁄9 gon). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Degree_(geometry) |
This was called grade (nouveau) or grad. Due to confusion with the existing term grad(e) in some northern European countries (meaning a standard degree, 1/360 of a turn), the new unit was called Neugrad in German (whereas the "old" degree was referred to as Altgrad), likewise nygrad in Danish, Swedish and Norwegian (also gradian), and nýgráða in Icelandic. To end the confusion, the name gon was later adopted for the new unit. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Degree_(geometry) |
Although this idea of metrification was abandoned by Napoleon, grades continued to be used in several fields and many scientific calculators support them. Decigrades (1⁄4,000) were used with French artillery sights in World War I. An angular mil, which is most used in military applications, has at least three specific variants, ranging from 1⁄6,400 to 1⁄6,000. It is approximately equal to one milliradian (c. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Degree_(geometry) |
1⁄6,283). A mil measuring 1⁄6,000 of a revolution originated in the imperial Russian army, where an equilateral chord was divided into tenths to give a circle of 600 units. This may be seen on a lining plane (an early device for aiming indirect fire artillery) dating from about 1900 in the St. Petersburg Museum of Artillery. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Degree_(geometry) |
In most mathematics, the operations of addition and multiplication are associative. The associative law for addition, for example, states that ( a + b ) + c = a + ( b + c ) {\displaystyle (a+b)+c=a+(b+c)} . This means that once the associative law is stated, the parentheses are unnecessary and are usually omitted. More generally, any sum, of any number of terms, can be written without parentheses and any product, of any number of factors, can be written without parentheses. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbols_of_grouping |
In most medical applications, hydrogen nuclei, which consist solely of a proton, that are in tissues create a signal that is processed to form an image of the body in terms of the density of those nuclei in a specific region. Given that the protons are affected by fields from other atoms to which they are bonded, it is possible to separate responses from hydrogen in specific compounds. To perform a study, the person is positioned within an MRI scanner that forms a strong magnetic field around the area to be imaged. First, energy from an oscillating magnetic field is temporarily applied to the patient at the appropriate resonance frequency. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T2-weighted_imaging |
Scanning with X and Y gradient coils causes a selected region of the patient to experience the exact magnetic field required for the energy to be absorbed. The atoms are excited by a RF pulse and the resultant signal is measured by a receiving coil. The RF signal may be processed to deduce position information by looking at the changes in RF level and phase caused by varying the local magnetic field using gradient coils. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T2-weighted_imaging |
As these coils are rapidly switched during the excitation and response to perform a moving line scan, they create the characteristic repetitive noise of an MRI scan as the windings move slightly due to magnetostriction. The contrast between different tissues is determined by the rate at which excited atoms return to the equilibrium state. Exogenous contrast agents may be given to the person to make the image clearer.The major components of an MRI scanner are the main magnet, which polarizes the sample, the shim coils for correcting shifts in the homogeneity of the main magnetic field, the gradient system which is used to localize the region to be scanned and the RF system, which excites the sample and detects the resulting NMR signal. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T2-weighted_imaging |
The whole system is controlled by one or more computers. MRI requires a magnetic field that is both strong and uniform to a few parts per million across the scan volume. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T2-weighted_imaging |
The field strength of the magnet is measured in teslas – and while the majority of systems operate at 1.5 T, commercial systems are available between 0.2 and 7 T. Whole-body MRI systems for research application operate in e.g. 9.4T, 10.5T, 11.7T. Even higher field whole-body MRI systems e.g. 14 T and beyond are in conceptual proposal or in engineering design. Most clinical magnets are superconducting magnets, which require liquid helium to keep them at low temperatures. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T2-weighted_imaging |
Lower field strengths can be achieved with permanent magnets, which are often used in "open" MRI scanners for claustrophobic patients. Lower field strengths are also used in a portable MRI scanner approved by the FDA in 2020. Recently, MRI has been demonstrated also at ultra-low fields, i.e., in the microtesla-to-millitesla range, where sufficient signal quality is made possible by prepolarization (on the order of 10–100 mT) and by measuring the Larmor precession fields at about 100 microtesla with highly sensitive superconducting quantum interference devices (SQUIDs). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T2-weighted_imaging |
In most methods, the same threshold is applied to all pixels of an image. However, in some cases, it can be advantageous to apply a different threshold to different parts of the image, based on the local value of the pixels. This category of methods is called local or adaptive thresholding. They are particularly adapted to cases where images have inhomogeneous lighting, such as in the sudoku image on the right. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adaptive_thresholding |
In those cases, a neighborhood is defined and a threshold is computed for each pixel and its neighborhood. Many global thresholding methods can be adapted to work in a local way, but there are also methods developed specifically for local thresholding, such as the Niblack or the Bernsen algorithms. Software such as ImageJ propose a wide range of automatic threshold methods, both global and local. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adaptive_thresholding |
In most microtunneling operations the machine is launched through an entry eye and pipes are pushed behind the machine. This pipe jacking process is repeated until the MTBM reaches the reception shaft at the far end. The speed of the advancing machine is limited to the speed at which the pipe is inserted into the entry eye via the hydraulic rams in the jacking frame. The friction of the ground around the pipe increases in proportion to the tunnel length. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microtunneling |
Two practices can minimize this friction. First, over-cutting is used to provide a gap between the inner edge of the tunnel and the outer edge of the liner. The gap is 1⁄2 to 1.5 inches (13 to 38 mm). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microtunneling |
A lubricant, often bentonite slurry, is injected into this gap. The pressure of the lubricant prevents the gap from collapsing. Depending on the geology a 35mm overcut may create ground subsidence. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microtunneling |
For road and rail crossings, this 35mm is reduced so prevent more than 10mm subsidence. As much as hundreds of tons of force may be required to push the machine and liner forward. The jacking frame containing hydraulic rams produces these forces. The entrance shaft must be strong enough to support the forces it generates. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microtunneling |
In most millipedes, sperm transfer is performed by one or two pair of modified legs called gonopods, which are often on the seventh body segment. During mating, a male bends his body to collect a spermatophore from the genital pore of his third segment, and inserts it into the female's body. Gonopods vary greatly among millipedes, and are often used to identify species. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intromittent_organ |
In most mini grids, inverters convert the direct current (DC) electricity stored in batteries and produced by solar panels into alternating current (AC) power that powers appliances used in households and businesses. In some particularly small communities with low loads, DC mesh mini grids are used. Mesh grids—or “skinny grids”—distribute DC electricity for lighting, electronics, and small appliances like fans and even efficient refrigerators or electric rickshaws. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talk:Mini-grid/Sandbox |
They take the form of clusters of solar home systems made up of solar panels affixed to customers’ premises and connected in a mesh network. Specialized controllers allow surpluses to be shared and households can upgrade to AC appliances by purchasing an inverter. Energy management systems (EMS) optimize the balance between dispatching the diesel generator and drawing on energy storage, taking into account expected load and near future opportunities for solar charging. Many mini grids, even in remote areas, have cell-phone carrier based remote monitoring capabilities that monitor power production and consumption, battery state-of-charge, and voltage levels and upload information to the internet several times per hour. Remote monitoring can help operators to identify and address small problems early before they cascade and become larger problems. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talk:Mini-grid/Sandbox |
In most models of communication protocol participants communicate through authenticated channels. This means that messages are not anonymous, and receivers know the source of every message they receive. Some models assume a stronger, transferable form of authentication, where each message is signed by the sender, so that a receiver knows not just the immediate source of every message, but the participant that initially created the message. This stronger type of authentication is achieved by digital signatures, and when this stronger form of authentication is available, protocols can tolerate a larger number of faults.The two different authentication models are often called oral communication and written communication models. In an oral communication model, the immediate source of information is known, whereas in stronger, written communication models, every step along the receiver learns not just the immediate source of the message, but the communication history of the message. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consensus_(computer_science) |
In most models of neural systems neurons are the most basic unit modeled. In computational neurogenetic modeling, to better simulate processes that are responsible for synaptic activity and connectivity, the genes responsible are modeled for each neuron. A gene regulatory network, protein regulatory network, or gene/protein regulatory network, is the level of processing in a computational neurogenetic model that models the interactions of genes and proteins relevant to synaptic activity and general cell functions. Genes and proteins are modeled as individual nodes, and the interactions that influence a gene are modeled as excitatory (increases gene/protein expression) or inhibitory (decreases gene/protein expression) inputs that are weighted to reflect the effect a gene or protein is having on another gene or protein. Gene regulatory networks are typically designed using data from microarrays.Modeling of genes and proteins allows individual responses of neurons in an artificial neural network that mimic responses in biological nervous systems, such as division (adding new neurons to the artificial neural network), creation of proteins to expand their cell membrane and foster neurite outgrowth (and thus stronger connections with other neurons), up-regulate or down-regulate receptors at synapses (increasing or decreasing the weight (strength) of synaptic inputs), uptake more neurotransmitters, change into different types of neurons, or die due to necrosis or apoptosis. The creation and analysis of these networks can be divided into two sub-areas of research: the gene up-regulation that is involved in the normal functions of a neuron, such as growth, metabolism, and synapsing; and the effects of mutated genes on neurons and cognitive functions. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational_neurogenetic_modeling |
In most modern cameras, the amount of light entering the camera is measured using a built-in light meter or exposure meter. Taken through the lens (called TTL metering), these readings are taken using a panel of light-sensitive semiconductors. They are used to calculate optimal exposure settings. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Still_camera |
These settings are typically determined automatically as the reading is used by the camera's microprocessor. The reading from the light meter is incorporated with aperture settings, exposure times, and film or sensor sensitivity to calculate the optimal exposure. Light meters typically average the light in a scene to 18% middle gray. More advanced cameras are more nuanced in their metering—weighing the center of the frame more heavily (center-weighted metering), considering the differences in light across the image (matrix metering), or allowing the photographer to take a light reading at a specific point within the image (spot metering). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Still_camera |
In most modern digital audio workstation software, the term "piano roll" is used to refer to a graphical display of, and means of editing, MIDI note data. Piano rolls allow the user to enter the pitch, length and velocity of notes manually, instead of recording the output of a keyboard or other device for entering note data. Usually a means of manually editing other aspects of the MIDI data, such as pitch bend or modulation, is also present, although not strictly part of the piano roll itself. From the mid 1980s, music software started to include grid-based graphical editors inspired by piano rolls, with the two axes representing pitch and time, and the notes displayed as bars on the grid. MacroMind's MusicWorks (1984) utilized the Macintosh's high resolution WIMP graphical user interface to implement a piano roll-style editor with a keyboard aligned vertically on the left of a grid. Other early examples of piano roll-inspired editors include Southworth's Total Music (1986), Iconix (1987) by System Exclusive, which used a vertical scrolling piano roll with the keyboard aligned horizontally at the top of the editing window, and Master Tracks Pro (1987) by Passport Designs.With the release of Cubase and its Key Edit window in 1989, the piano roll format introduced by MusicWorks was established as a standard MIDI editing feature in modern digital audio workstations. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piano_roll |
In most modern digital cable systems the signals are encrypted, so cases of people obtaining illegal service are less common. The subscriber requires a set-top box provided by the cable company to decrypt and receive the cable signal. Unlike the older analog set-top boxes, the digital set-top box will not function until the cable company activates it by sending it a unique activation key through the cable, which is sent only after the subscriber signs up. Each set-top box is individually addressable, so a given box can be deactivated by command from the company if the subscriber fails to pay their bill (this is sometimes colloquially referred to as a "bullet"). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cable_television_piracy |
A box only decrypts the channel being watched, so each box can only be used with one television, requiring subscribers to lease additional boxes at greater expense for multiple televisions. One minor loophole is that the cable company has no way of knowing where a given set-top box is located, and once activated a box will function anywhere in the local cable system. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cable_television_piracy |
Subscribers are often provided with several set-top boxes as part of their subscription, and can give or sell unneeded activated boxes to neighboring nonsubscribers who can use them in their own residences, though a provider using IP location using the cable modem within a set-top box featuring advanced two-way features can avert this situation. This system is dependent on the security of the encryption system chosen by the cable company in question. Old cable equipment used an analog signal that was scrambled by tuning the signal so the picture was unsteady, just as Macrovision does at an attempt to copy a video. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cable_television_piracy |
The equipment would descramble the signal so that it can be viewed by the subscriber. It also is addressable, meaning that it can be remotely controlled by the company's technical staff. The first major case covered by the media was when 317 subscribers were caught in 1991 when the company they subscribed sent a "bullet" (a video signal that turns off the equipment) to their cable boxes. The boxes were modified, but possibly belonged to the cable company. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cable_television_piracy |
In most modern funiculars, neither of the two carriages is equipped with an engine of its own. Instead, the propulsion is provided by an electric motor in the engine room (typically at the upper end of the track); the motor is linked via a speed-reducing gearbox to a large pulley – a drive bullwheel – which then controls the movement of the haul rope using friction. Some early funiculars were powered in the same way, but using steam engines or other types of motor. The bullwheel has two grooves: after the first half turn around it the cable returns via an auxiliary pulley. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Funicular_railway |
This arrangement has the advantage of having twice the contact area between the cable and the groove, and returning the downward-moving cable in the same plane as the upward-moving one. Modern installations also use high friction liners to enhance the friction between the bullwheel grooves and the cable.For emergency and service purposes two sets of brakes are used at the engine room: the emergency brake directly grips the bullwheel, and the service brake is mounted at the high speed shaft of the gear. In case of an emergency the cars are also equipped with spring-applied, hydraulically opened rail brakes.The first funicular caliper brakes which clamp each side of the crown of the rail were invented by the Swiss entrepreneurs Franz Josef Bucher and Josef Durrer and implemented at the Stanserhorn funicular, opened in 1893. The Abt rack and pinion system was also used on some funiculars for speed control or emergency braking. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Funicular_railway |
In most modern operating systems (OSs), a large body of reusable code is provided to simplify the programmer's job. This code is typically provided as a set of dynamically loadable libraries that applications can call at runtime. Because the Java platform is not dependent on any specific operating system, applications cannot rely on any of the pre-existing OS libraries. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Java_(software_platform) |
Instead, the Java platform provides a comprehensive set of its own standard class libraries containing many of the same reusable functions commonly found in modern operating systems. Most of the system library is also written in Java. For instance, the Swing library paints the user interface and handles the events itself, eliminating many subtle differences between how different platforms handle components. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Java_(software_platform) |
The Java class libraries serve three purposes within the Java platform. First, like other standard code libraries, the Java libraries provide the programmer a well-known set of functions to perform common tasks, such as maintaining lists of items or performing complex string parsing. Second, the class libraries provide an abstract interface to tasks that would normally depend heavily on the hardware and operating system. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Java_(software_platform) |
Tasks such as network access and file access are often heavily intertwined with the distinctive implementations of each platform. The java.net and java.io libraries implement an abstraction layer in native OS code, then provide a standard interface for the Java applications to perform those tasks. Finally, when some underlying platform does not support all of the features a Java application expects, the class libraries work to gracefully handle the absent components, either by emulation to provide a substitute, or at least by providing a consistent way to check for the presence of a specific feature. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Java_(software_platform) |
In most modern patent laws, patent applications must have at least one claim, which are critical defining elements of the patent and the primary subject of examination. In some patent laws however, a date of filing may be obtained for an application which does not contain any claim. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patent_claims |
In most modern reptiles and amphibians, the quadratojugal is a prominent, straplike bone in the skull and provides structural integrity in the postorbital region of the skull. In many reptiles, the inner face of the quadratojugal also connects to the quadrate bone which forms the cranium's contribution to the jaw joint. Early in their evolution, diapsid reptiles evolved a lower temporal bar which was composed of the quadratojugal and jugal. The lower temporal bar forms the lower border of the infratemporal fenestra, one of two holes in the side of the head and a hallmark of a diapsidan skull. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quadratojugal_bone |
However, many diapsids, including modern squamates (lizards and snakes), have lost the lower temporal bar. Crocodilians and rhynchocephalians (the latter represented solely by the tuatara, Sphenodon) retain a quadratojugal. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quadratojugal_bone |
Turtles also seem to possess a quadratojugal. Among living amphibians, a quadratojugal is known to be present in some frogs and caecilians. However, it is notably absent in salamanders. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quadratojugal_bone |
In most modern scientific work, physical quantities are measured in SI units. The SI unit of weight is the same as that of force: the newton (N) – a derived unit which can also be expressed in SI base units as kg⋅m/s2 (kilograms times metres per second squared).In commercial and everyday use, the term "weight" is usually used to mean mass, and the verb "to weigh" means "to determine the mass of" or "to have a mass of". Used in this sense, the proper SI unit is the kilogram (kg). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Units_of_weight |
In most modern typefaces, the height of the 0 character is the same as the other digits. However, in typefaces with text figures, the character is often shorter (x-height). Traditionally, many print typefaces made the capital letter O more rounded than the narrower, elliptical digit 0. Typewriters originally made no distinction in shape between O and 0; some models did not even have a separate key for the digit 0. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbols_for_zero |
The distinction came into prominence on modern character displays.The digit 0 with a dot in the centre seems to have originated as an option on IBM 3270 displays. Its appearance has continued with Taligent's command line typeface Andalé Mono. One variation used a short vertical bar instead of the dot. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbols_for_zero |
This could be confused with the Greek letter Theta on a badly focused display, but in practice there was no confusion because theta was not (then) a displayable character and very little used anyway. An alternative, the slashed zero (looking similar to the letter O except for the slash), was primarily used in hand-written coding sheets before transcription to punched cards or tape, and is also used in old-style ASCII graphic sets descended from the default typewheel on the Teletype Model 33 ASR. This form is similar to the symbol ∅ {\displaystyle \emptyset } , or "∅" (Unicode character U+2205), representing the empty set, as well as to the letter Ø used in several Scandinavian languages. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbols_for_zero |
Some Burroughs/Unisys equipment displays a digit 0 with a reversed slash. The opposing convention that has the letter O with a slash and the digit 0 without was advocated by SHARE, a prominent IBM user group, and recommended by IBM for writing FORTRAN programs, and by a few other early mainframe makers; this is even more problematic for Scandinavians because it means two of their letters collide. Others advocated the opposite convention, including IBM for writing Algol programs. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbols_for_zero |
Another convention used on some early line printers left digit 0 unornamented but added a tail or hook to the capital O so that it resembled an inverted Q (like U+213A ℺) or cursive capital letter-O ( O {\displaystyle {\mathcal {O}}} ).Some fonts designed for use with computers made one of the capital-O–digit-0 pair more rounded and the other more angular (closer to a rectangle). The TI-99/4A computer has a more angular capital O and a more rounded digit 0, whereas others made the choice the other way around. The typeface used on most European vehicle registration plates distinguishes the two symbols partially in this manner (having a more rectangular or wider shape for the capital O than the digit 0), but in several countries a further distinction is made by slitting open the digit 0 on the upper right side (as in German plates using the fälschungserschwerende Schrift, "forgery-impeding typeface"). Sometimes the digit 0 is used either exclusively, or not at all, to avoid confusion altogether. For example, confirmation numbers used by Southwest Airlines use only the capital letters O and I instead of the digits 0 and 1, while Canadian postal codes use only the digits 1 and 0 and never the capital letters O and I, although letters and numbers always alternate. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbols_for_zero |
In most modern vehicles, internal combustion engines "breathe" under-hood air or air ducted from under the front bumper through plastic and rubber tubing. The high operating temperatures in the engine compartment result in intake air that is 28°C (82°F) or warmer than the ambient temperature and consequently, less dense. A hood scoop can provide the engine with cooler, denser outside air, increasing power. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hood_scoop |
In most motorcycles all or most of the exhaust system is visible and may be chrome plated as a display feature. Aftermarket exhausts may be made from steel, aluminium, titanium, or carbon fiber. Motorcycle exhausts come in many varieties depending on the type of engine and its intended use. A twin-cylinder bike may have independent exhaust sections, as seen in the Kawasaki EX250 (also known as the Ninja 250 in the US, or the GPX 250), or a single exhaust section known as a two-into-one (2-1). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_pipes |
4 cylinder machines, super-sport bikes like Kawasaki's ZX series, Honda's CBR series, Yamaha's YZF series, latterly titled R6 and R1, and Suzuki's GSX-R, often have a twin exhaust system. A "full system" may be bought as an aftermarket accessory, also called a 4-2-1 or 4–1, depending on its layout. In the past, these bikes would come as standard with a single exhaust muffler, a practice that lasted until the early 2000s, when EU noise and pollution regulations mostly stopped this practice, forcing companies to use other methods to increase the performance of the motorcycle. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_pipes |
In most multicellular organisms, mtDNA is inherited from the mother (maternally inherited). Mechanisms for this include simple dilution (an egg contains on average 200,000 mtDNA molecules, whereas a healthy human sperm has been reported to contain on average 5 molecules), degradation of sperm mtDNA in the male genital tract and in the fertilized egg; and, at least in a few organisms, failure of sperm mtDNA to enter the egg. Whatever the mechanism, this single parent (uniparental inheritance) pattern of mtDNA inheritance is found in most animals, most plants and also in fungi.In a study published in 2018, human babies were reported to inherit mtDNA from both their fathers and their mothers resulting in mtDNA heteroplasmy, a finding that has been rejected by other scientists. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitochondrial_gene |
In most multiprocessor systems, each processor schedules and controls itself, therefore there's no "supervisor" processor, and kernel data structures are globally shared; sections of code that access those shared data structures are critical sections. This design choice is made to improve scaling, reliability and modularity. Examples of such kernel data structure are ready list and communication channels. A "conflict" happens when more than one processor is trying to access the same resource (a memory portion) at the same time. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_lockout |
To prevent critical races and inconsistency, only one processor (CPU) at a given time is allowed to access a particular data structure (a memory portion), while other CPUs trying to access at the same time are locked-out, waiting in idle status.Three cases can be distinguished when this idle wait is either necessary, convenient, or not convenient. The idle wait is necessary when the access is to a ready list for a low level scheduling operation. The idle wait is not necessary but convenient in the case of a critical section for synchronization/IPC operations, which require less time than a context switch (executing another process to avoid idle wait). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_lockout |
Idle wait is instead not convenient in case of a kernel critical section for device management, present in monolithic kernels only. A microkernel instead falls on just the first two of the above cases. In a multiprocessor system, most of the conflicts are kernel-level conflicts, due to the access to the kernel level critical sections, and thus the idle wait periods generated by them have a major impact in performance degradation. This idle wait time increases the average number of idle processors and thus decreases scalability and relative efficiency. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_lockout |
In most musical instruments, the tone-generating component (a string or resonant column of air) vibrates at many frequencies simultaneously: a fundamental frequency that is usually perceived as the pitch of the note, and harmonics or overtones that are multiples of the fundamental frequency and whose wavelengths therefore divide the tone-generating region into simple fractional segments (1/2, 1/3, 1/4, etc.). (See harmonic series.) The fundamental note and its harmonics sound together, and the amplitude relationships among them strongly affect the perceived tone or timbre of the instrument. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stretched_tuning |
In the acoustic piano, harpsichord, and clavichord, the vibrating element is a metal wire or string; in many non-digital electric pianos, it is a tapered metal tine (Rhodes piano) or reed (Wurlitzer electric piano) with one end clamped and the other free to vibrate. Each note on the keyboard has its own separate vibrating element whose tension and/or length and weight determines its fundamental frequency or pitch. In electric pianos, the motion of the vibrating element is sensed by an electromagnetic pickup and amplified electronically. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stretched_tuning |
In most non-human primate species, natural SIV infection does not cause a fatal disease (but see below). Comparison of the gene sequence of SIV with HIV should, therefore, provide information about the factors necessary to cause disease in humans. The factors that determine the virulence of HIV as compared to most SIVs are only now being elucidated. Non-human SIVs contain a nef gene that down-regulates CD3, CD4, and MHC class I expression; most non-human SIVs, therefore, do not induce immunodeficiency; the HIV-1 nef gene, however, has lost its ability to down-regulate CD3, which results in the immune activation and apoptosis that is characteristic of chronic HIV infection.In addition, a long-term survey of chimpanzees naturally infected with SIVcpz in Gombe National Park, Tanzania found that, contrary to the previous paradigm, chimpanzees with SIVcpz infection do experience an increased mortality, and also suffer from a human AIDS-like illness. SIV pathogenicity in wild animals could exist in other chimpanzee subspecies and other primate species as well, and stay unrecognized by lack of relevant long term studies. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_HIV/AIDS |
In most non-strict languages the non-strictness extends to data constructors. This allows conceptually infinite data structures (such as the list of all prime numbers) to be manipulated in the same way as ordinary finite data structures. It also allows for the use of very large but finite data structures such as the complete game tree of chess. Non-strictness has several disadvantages which have prevented widespread adoption: Because of the uncertainty regarding if and when expressions will be evaluated, non-strict languages generally must be purely functional to be useful. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-strict_programming_language |
All hardware architectures in common use are optimized for strict languages, so the best compilers for non-strict languages produce slower code than the best compilers for strict languages. Space complexity of non-strict programs is difficult to understand and predict.Strict programming languages are often associated with eager evaluation, and non-strict languages with lazy evaluation, but other evaluation strategies are possible in each case. The terms "eager programming language" and "lazy programming language" are often used as synonyms for "strict programming language" and "non-strict programming language" respectively. In many strict languages, some advantages of non-strict functions can be obtained through the use of macros or thunks. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-strict_programming_language |
In most object-oriented languages, calls to methods are represented physically by a pointer to the code in memory. This restricts the design of an application since specific command handling classes are needed, usually organized according to the chain-of-responsibility pattern. While Cocoa retains this approach for the most part, Objective-C's late binding opens up more flexibility. Under Objective-C, methods are represented by a selector, a string describing the method to call. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cocoa_API |
When a message is sent, the selector is sent into the Objective-C runtime, matched against a list of available methods, and the method's implementation is called. Since the selector is text data, this lets it be saved to a file, transmitted over a network or between processes, or manipulated in other ways. The implementation of the method is looked up at runtime, not compile time. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cocoa_API |
There is a small performance penalty for this, but late binding allows the same selector to reference different implementations. By a similar token, Cocoa provides a pervasive data manipulation method called key-value coding (KVC). This allows a piece of data or property of an object to be looked up or changed at runtime by name. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cocoa_API |
The property name acts as a key to the value. In traditional languages, this late binding is impossible. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cocoa_API |
KVC leads to great design flexibility. An object's type need not be known, yet any property of that object can be discovered using KVC. Also, by extending this system using something Cocoa terms key-value observing (KVO), automatic support for undo-redo is provided. Late static binding is a variant of binding somewhere between static and dynamic binding. The binding of names before the program is run is called static (early); bindings performed as the program runs are dynamic (late or virtual). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cocoa_API |
In most object-oriented languages, objects can be referred to using references. Some examples of such languages are Java, C++, C#, VB.NET, and many scripting languages, such as Perl, Python, and Ruby. In this case, it matters whether the state of an object can vary when objects are shared via references. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mutable_variable |
In most object-oriented languages, such as Java or C#, references may be null. These references need to be checked to ensure they are not null before invoking any methods, because methods typically cannot be invoked on null references. The Objective-C language takes another approach to this problem and does nothing when sending a message to nil; if a return value is expected, nil (for objects), 0 (for numeric values), NO (for BOOL values), or a struct (for struct types) with all its members initialised to null/0/NO/zero-initialised struct is returned. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Null_Object_pattern |
In most occasions, thrust reversers are deployed after the aircraft touches down. However, some engines with target-type thrust reversers allow in-flight deployment, which means the thrust reversers being deployed when the aircraft is still in air. A considerable proportion of Russia-made aircraft like the Tupolev Tu-154 and Ilyushin Il-62 have this feature. Their thrust reversers can be deployed when the landing gears are still a few meters from the ground. The Douglas DC-8, on the other hand, is qualified to use thrust reversal anytime in flight for speed adjustment. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Target-type_thrust_reversal |
In most of Africa, many styles are used by traditional royalty. Generally the vast majority of the members of these royal families use the titles Prince and Princess, while the higher ranked amongst them also use either Highness or Royal Highness to describe secondary appellations in their native languages that they hold in their realms, appellations that are intended to highlight their relative proximity to their thrones, either literally in the sense of the extant kingships of the continent or symbolically in the sense of its varied chiefships of the name, and which therefore serve a function similar to the said styles of Highness and Royal Highness. For example, the Yoruba people of West Africa usually make use of the word Kabiyesi when speaking either to or about their sovereigns and other royals. As such, it is variously translated as Majesty, Royal Highness or Highness depending on the actual rank of the person in question, though a literal translation of the word would read more like this: He (or She) whose words are beyond questioning, Great Lawgiver of the Nation. Within the Zulu Kingdom of Southern Africa, meanwhile, the monarch and other senior royals are often addressed as uNdabezitha meaning He (or She) Who Concerns the Enemy, but rendered in English as Majesty in address or reference to the king and his consorts, or Royal Highness in the case of other senior members of the royal family. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forms_of_address |
In most of Asia and Africa, Isuzu is known primarily for trucks of all sizes, after Isuzu dropped all sales of sedans and compact cars in the late 1990s due to plummeting sales. In the days when Isuzu sold passenger cars, they were known for focusing on the diesel-engined niche. In 1983, for instance, long before the explosion in diesel sales, diesels represented 63.4% of their passenger car production. In 2009, Isuzu abandoned the United States consumer market due to lack of sales. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isuzu |
Isuzu as a corporation has always been primarily a manufacturer of small to medium compact automobiles and commercial trucks of sizes medium duty and larger, but markets around the world show different needs. Isuzu Motors America discontinued the sale of passenger vehicles in the United States on January 31, 2009. The company explained to its dealers that it had not been able to secure replacements for the Isuzu Ascender and Isuzu i-Series that would be commercially viable. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isuzu |
Isuzu sold 7,098 cars in the year 2007. This action did not affect Isuzu's commercial vehicle or industrial diesel engine operations in the United States. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isuzu |
Isuzu has a contract with Budget Truck Rental to manufacture their rental trucks, shared with Ford, GMC, and Navistar International.In Australia, Isuzu was for many years a major supplier of light commercial and domestic vehicles to Holden (General Motors). However, by 2008, Holden was sourcing few Isuzus. At this time Isuzu began to sell the D-Max under the Isuzu name. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isuzu |
Isuzu's entry in the Thai market proved to be one of its most successful. Its presence in the country began in 1966 when it established a manufacturing facility for pick-up trucks in the Samuthprakarn province with a capacity of 155,000 units per year. The automaker quickly became a market leader so that by 2002, the company transferred its production base from its original location in Fujisawa, Japan to Thailand. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isuzu |
Isuzu claimed the largest share of the Thai commercial vehicle market, outperforming its competitors for at least 23 years. By 2006, the company transferred to an industrial zone in Chachoengsao province to support further production expansion. By 2017, Isuzu has been exporting pick-up trucks, with shipments reaching North America, Latin America, Australia, and Japan. In the same year, it announced that its profit climbed 7 percent and has doubled its annual truck production to meet overseas demands. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isuzu |
In most of Australia, the primary and secondary school year lasts about 200 days, from late January or early February to early or mid-December, and is split into four terms: Term 1 starts in late January or early February and ends in late March or early April (often in close proximity to Easter). Term 2 starts in late April or early May and ends in late June. Term 3 starts in mid-to-late July and ends mid-to-late September. Term 4 starts in early-to-mid October and ends typically in mid-to-late December.Terms 4 & 1 (rolled over) and 2 & 3 are respectively usually deemed 'summer' and 'winter' respectively for purposes of sports participation and uniform standards. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semester |
Australian states and territories vary their approach to Easter when determining the dates for the holiday at the end of Term 1.The exact dates vary from year to year, as well as between states, and for public and private school. In Tasmania until and including 2012, the school year was split into three terms, the first one being the longest and including an extended Easter holiday (which was also the practice of mainland Australia until the mid-1980s). However, in 2013 Tasmania introduced a four-term year, to conform to the rest of the country. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semester |
The exact start and finish date of the academic year varies between jurisdictions; in 2023 Queensland will start earliest on 23 January (the only jurisdiction to begin the academic year before Australia Day) and finish earliest on 8 December, while Tasmania will start latest on 8 February and finish latest on 21 December. There is typically a break of two weeks between each term, followed by a 1-2 month summer break after term 4 which ends just before Christmas. This occasionally varies in different jurisdictions/school systems (i.e. some independent schools have a break of three week between terms 1 & 2 and between terms 3 & 4). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semester |
In the year 2000, due to the 2000 Summer Olympics in Sydney, the state of New South Wales extended the break after Term 3 to three weeks. Most Australian universities have two semesters a year, but Bond University, Deakin University, CQUniversity, Griffith University, the University of New South Wales and the University of Canberra have three trimesters. Unusually, Macquarie University officially uses the word "session" and CQUniversity uses the word "term" in place of "semester". Many universities offer an optional short summer semester. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semester |
In most of Canada, either partner may informally assume the spouse's surname after marriage, so long as it is not for the purposes of fraud. The same is true for people in common-law relationships, in some provinces. This is not considered a legal name change in most provinces, excluding British Columbia. For federal purposes, such as a Canadian passport, Canadians may also assume their partner's surname if they are in a common-law relationship. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maiden_name |
In the province of British Columbia, people have to undergo a legal name change if they want to use a combined surname after marriage. Their marriage certificate is considered proof of their new name.The custom in Québec was similar to the one in France until 1981. Women would traditionally go by their husband's surname in daily life, but their maiden name remained their legal name. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maiden_name |
Since the passage of a 1981 provincial law intended to promote gender equality, as outlined in the Québec Charter of Rights, no change may be made to a person's name without the authorization of the registrar of civil status or the authorization of the court. Newlyweds who wish to change their names upon marriage must therefore go through the same procedure as those changing their names for other reasons. The registrar of civil status may authorize a name change if: the name the person generally uses does not correspond to the name on their birth certificate, the name is of foreign origin or too difficult to pronounce or write in its original form, or the name invites ridicule or has become infamous.This law does not make it legal for a woman to change her name immediately upon marriage, as marriage is not listed among the reasons for a name change. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maiden_name |
In most of Central Europe, poppy seed is commonly used for traditional pastries and cakes, and it is legal to grow poppies throughout the region, although Germany requires a licence.Since January 1999 in the Czech Republic, according to the 167/1998 Sb. Addictive Substances Act, poppies growing in fields larger than 100 square metres (120 sq yd) is obliged for reporting to the local Custom Office. Extraction of opium from the plants is prohibited by law (§ 15 letter d/ of the act). It is also prohibited to grow varieties with more than 0.8% of morphine in dry matter of their capsules, excluding research and experimental purposes (§24/1b/ of the act). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opium_poppies |
The name Czech blue poppy refers to blue poppy seeds used for food.The United Kingdom does not require a licence for opium poppy cultivation, but does for extracting opium for medicinal products. In the United States, opium poppies and poppy straw are prohibited. As the opium poppy is legal for culinary or esthetic reasons, poppies were once grown as a cash crop by farmers in California. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opium_poppies |
The law of poppy cultivation in the United States is somewhat ambiguous. The reason for the ambiguity is that the Opium Poppy Control Act of 1942 (now repealed) stated that any opium poppies should be declared illegal, even if the farmers were issued a state permit. § 3 of the Opium Poppy Control Act stated: It shall be unlawful for any person who is not the holder of a license authorizing him to produce the opium poppy, duly issued to him by the Secretary of the Treasury in accordance with the provisions of this Act, to produce the opium poppy, or to permit the production of the opium poppy in or upon any place owned, occupied, used, or controlled by him. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opium_poppies |
This led to the Poppy Rebellion, and to the Narcotics Bureau arresting anyone planting opium poppies and forcing the destruction of poppy fields of anyone who defied the prohibition of poppy cultivation. Though the press of those days favored the Federal Bureau of Narcotics, the state of California supported the farmers who grew opium poppies for their seeds for uses in foods such as poppy seed muffins. Today, this area of law has remained vague and remains somewhat controversial in the United States. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opium_poppies |
The Opium Poppy Control Act of 1942 was repealed on 27 October 1970.Under the Federal Controlled Substances Act opium poppy and poppy straw are listed as Schedule II drugs under ACSN 9630. Most (all?) states also use this classification under the uniform penal code. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opium_poppies |
Possession of a Schedule II drug is a federal and state felony. Canada forbids possessing, seeking or obtaining the opium poppy (Papaver somniferum), its preparations, derivatives, alkaloids and salts, although an exception is made for poppy seed.In some parts of Australia, P. somniferum is illegal to cultivate, but in Tasmania, some 50% of the world supply is cultivated.In New Zealand, it is legal to cultivate the opium poppy as long as it is not used to produce controlled drugs.In United Arab Emirates the cultivation of the opium poppy is illegal, as is possession of poppy seed. At least one man has been imprisoned for possessing poppy seed obtained from a bread roll.Burma bans cultivation in certain provinces. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opium_poppies |
In northern Burma bans have ended a century-old tradition of growing the opium poppy. Between 20,000 and 30,000 former poppy farmers left the Kokang region as a result of the ban in 2002. People from the Wa region, where the ban was implemented in 2005, fled to areas where growing opium is still possible. In South Korea, the cultivation of the opium poppy is strictly prohibited. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opium_poppies |
In most of Christianity, a fallen angel is an angel who has been exiled or banished from Heaven. Often such banishment is a punishment for disobeying or rebelling against God (see War in Heaven). The best-known fallen angel is Lucifer. Lucifer is a name frequently given to Satan in Christian belief. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_theology |
This usage stems from a particular interpretation, as a reference to a fallen angel, of a passage in the Bible (Isaiah 14:3–20) that speaks of someone who is given the name of "Day Star" or "Morning Star" (in Latin, Lucifer) as fallen from heaven. The Greek etymological synonym of Lucifer, Φωσφόρος (Phosphoros, "light-bearer"). is used of the morning star in 2 Peter 1:19 and elsewhere with no reference to Satan. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_theology |
But Satan is called Lucifer in many writings later than the Bible, notably in Milton's Paradise Lost (7.131–134, among others), because, according to Milton, Satan was "brighter once amidst the host of Angels, than that star the stars among." Allegedly, fallen angels are those which have committed one of the seven deadly sins. Therefore, are banished from heaven and suffer in hell for all eternity. Demons from hell would punish the fallen angel by ripping out their wings as a sign of insignificance and low rank. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_theology |
In most of Continental Europe, the default rule is to give priority to the right, but this may be overridden by signs or road markings. There, priority was initially given according to the social rank of each traveler, but early in the life of the automobile this rule was deemed impractical and replaced with the priorité à droite (priority to the right) rule, which still applies. At a traffic circle where priorité à droite is not overridden, traffic on what would otherwise be a roundabout gives way to traffic entering the circle. Most French roundabouts now have give-way signs for traffic entering the circle, but there remain some notable exceptions that operate on the old rule, such as the Place de l'Étoile around the Arc de Triomphe. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Road_traffic |
Priority to the right where used in continental Europe may be overridden by an ascending hierarchy of markings, signs, signals, and authorized persons. In the United Kingdom, priority is generally indicated by signs or markings, so that almost all junctions between public roads (except those governed by traffic signals) have a concept of a major road and minor road. The default give-way-to-the-right rule used in Continental Europe causes problems for many British and Irish drivers who are accustomed to having right of way by default unless otherwise indicated. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Road_traffic |
A very small proportion of low-traffic junctions are unmarked – typically on housing estates or in rural areas. Here the rule is to "proceed with great care" i.e. slow the vehicle and check for traffic on the intersecting road. Other countries use various methods similar to the above examples to establish the right of way at intersections. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Road_traffic |
For example, in most of the United States, the default priority is to yield to traffic from the right, but this is usually overridden by traffic control devices or other rules, like the boulevard rule. This rule holds that traffic entering a major road from a smaller road or alley must yield to the traffic of the busier road, but signs are often still posted. The boulevard rule can be compared with the above concept of a major and minor road, or the priority roads that may be found in countries that are parties to the Vienna Convention on Road Signs and Signals. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Road_traffic |
Perpendicular intersections Also known as a "four-way" intersection, this intersection is the most common configuration for roads that cross each other, and the most basic type. If traffic signals do not control a four-way intersection, signs or other features are typically used to control movements and make clear priorities. The most common arrangement is to indicate that one road has priority over the other, but there are complex cases where all traffic approaching an intersection must yield and may be required to stop. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Road_traffic |
In the United States, South Africa, and Canada, there are four-way intersections with a stop sign at every entrance, called four-way stops. A failed signal or a flashing red light is equivalent to a four-way stop, or an all-way stop. Special rules for four-way stops may include: In the countries that use four-way stops, pedestrians always have priority at crosswalks – even at unmarked ones, which exist as the logical continuations of the sidewalks at every intersection with approximately right angles – unless signed or painted otherwise. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Road_traffic |
Whichever vehicle first stops at the stop line – or before the crosswalk, if there is no stop line – has priority. If two vehicles stop at the same time, priority is given to the vehicle on the right. If several vehicles arrive at the same time, a right-of-way conflict may arise wherein no driver has the legal right-of-way. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Road_traffic |
This may result in drivers informally signaling to other drivers to indicate their intent to yield, for example by waving or flashing headlights.In Europe and other places, there are similar intersections. These may be marked by special signs (according to the Vienna Convention on Road Signs and Signals), a danger sign with a black X representing a crossroads. This sign informs drivers that the intersection is uncontrolled and that default rules apply. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Road_traffic |
In Europe and in many areas of North America the default rules that apply at uncontrolled four-way intersections are almost identical: Rules for pedestrians differ by country, in the United States and Canada pedestrians generally have priority at such an intersection. All vehicles must give priority to any traffic approaching from their right, Then, if the vehicle is turning right or continuing on the same road it may proceed. Vehicles turning left must also give priority to traffic approaching from the opposite direction, unless that traffic is also turning left. If the intersection is congested, vehicles must alternate directions and/or circulate priority to the right one vehicle at a time. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Road_traffic |
In most of Europe and North America, dried grapes are referred to as "raisins" or the local equivalent. In the UK, three different varieties are recognized, forcing the EU to use the term "dried vine fruit" in official documents. A raisin is any dried grape. While raisin is a French loanword, the word in French refers to the fresh fruit; grappe (from which the English grape is derived) refers to the bunch (as in une grappe de raisins). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grape_seed |
A raisin in French is called raisin sec ("dry grape"). A currant is a dried Zante Black Corinth grape, the name being a corruption of the French raisin de Corinthe (Corinth grape). The names of the black and red currant, now more usually blackcurrant and redcurrant, two berries unrelated to grapes, are derived from this use. Some other fruits of similar appearance are also so named, for example, Australian currant, native currant, Indian currant.A sultana was originally a raisin made from Sultana grapes of Turkish origin (known as Thompson Seedless in the United States), but the word is now applied to raisins made from either white grapes or red grapes that are bleached to resemble the traditional sultana. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grape_seed |
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