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In 1939 Russian economist Leonid Kantorovich (1912–1986) developed Linear Programming for the optimal allocation of resources, receiving the 1975 Nobel Economics Prize. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_economic_thought |
By the twentieth century, the industrial revolution had led to an exponential increase in the human consumption of resources. The increase in health, wealth and population was perceived as a simple path of progress. However, in the 1930s economists began developing models of non-renewable resource management (see Hotel... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_economic_thought |
Ecological economics was founded in the works of Kenneth E. Boulding, Nicholas Georgescu-Roegen, Herman Daly and others. The disciplinary field of ecological economics also bears some similarity to the topic of green economics.According to ecological economist Malte Faber, ecological economics is defined by its focus o... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_economic_thought |
Energy accounting was proposed in the early 1930s as a scientific alternative to a price system, or money method of regulating society. Joseph Tainter suggests that a diminishing ratio of energy returned on energy invested is a chief cause of the collapse of complex societies. Falling EROEI due to the depletion of non-... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_economic_thought |
In 1919 Yale economist Walton H. Hamilton coined the term "Institutional economics". In 1934 John R. Commons (1862–1945), another economist from midwestern America published Institutional Economics (1934), based on the concept that the economy is a web of relationships between people with diverging interests, including... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_economic_thought |
In 1920 Alfred Marshall's student Arthur Cecil Pigou (1877–1959) published Wealth and Welfare, which insisted on the possibility of market failures, claiming that markets are inefficient in the case of economic externalities, and the state must interfere to prevent them. However, Pigou retained free market beliefs, and... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_economic_thought |
In response to the Economic Calculation Problem proposed by the Austrian School of Economics that disputes the efficiency of a state-run economy, the theory of Market Socialism was developed in the late 1920s and 1930s by economists Fred M. Taylor (1855–1932), Oskar R. Lange (1904–1965), Abba Lerner (1903–1982) et al.,... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_economic_thought |
In the 1930s the Stockholm School of Economics was founded by Eli Heckscher (1879–1952), Bertil Ohlin (1899–1977), Gunnar Myrdal (1898–1987) et al. based on the works of John Maynard Keynes and Knut Wicksell (1851–1926), advising the founders of the Swedish Socialist welfare state. In 1933 Ohlin and Heckscher proposed ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_economic_thought |
This school includes economists like Michel Aglietta (1938), André Orléan (1950), Robert Boyer (1943), Benjamin Coriat (1948) and Alain Lipietz (1947). It is one of the two heterodox schools in France, the other being l'école des conventions. Their interests revolves around accounting for the regime of regulation of sp... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_economic_thought |
Production as organised scientifically and products weren't diversified. This corresponds with a homogenous consumption of goods. The economy was production led, where firms first produce the optimal amount of a type of good in the cheapest manner possible, destined to be mass consumed. Their inquiry consists of explai... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_economic_thought |
In 1885 the American Economic Association (AEA) was founded by Richard T. Ely (1854–1943) et al., publishing the American Economic Review starting in 1911. In 1918 Ely published Private Colonization of Land, founding Lambda Alpha International in 1930 to promote Land Economics. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_economic_thought |
John Maynard Keynes (1883–1946) was born in Cambridge, educated at Eton, and supervised by both A. C. Pigou and Alfred Marshall at Cambridge University. He began his career as a lecturer before working for the British government during the Great War, rising to be the British government's financial representative at the... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_economic_thought |
Keynes finished his treatise by advocating, first, a reduction in reparation payments by Germany to a realistically manageable level, increased intra-governmental management of continental coal production and a free trade union through the League of Nations; second, an arrangement to set off debt repayments between the... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_economic_thought |
During the Great Depression, Keynes published his most important work, The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money (1936). The Great Depression had been sparked by the Wall Street Crash of 1929, leading to massive rises in unemployment in the United States, leading to debts being recalled from European borrowe... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_economic_thought |
As Keynes famously remarked: "...this long run is a misleading guide to current affairs. In the long run we are all dead. Economists set themselves too easy, too useless a task if in tempestuous seasons they can only tell us that when the storm is long past the ocean is flat again." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_economic_thought |
On top of the supply of money, Keynes identified the propensity to consume, inducement to invest, marginal efficiency of capital, liquidity preference, and multiplier effect as variables which determine the level of the economy's output, employment, and price levels. Much of this esoteric terminology was invented by Ke... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_economic_thought |
This continues until the desire to save becomes equal to the desire to invest, which means a new "equilibrium" is reached and the spending decline halts. This new "equilibrium" is a depression, where people are investing less, have less to save and less to spend. Keynes argued that employment depends on total spending,... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_economic_thought |
Consumers only spend "passively", or according to their income fluctuations. Businesses, on the other hand, are induced to invest by the expected rate of return on new investments (the benefit) and the rate of interest paid (the cost). So, said Keynes, if business expectations remained the same, and government reduces ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_economic_thought |
Interest rates, in turn, depend on the quantity of money and the desire to hold money in bank accounts (as opposed to investing). If not enough money is available to match how much people want to hold, interest rates rise until enough people are put off. So if the quantity of money were increased, while the desire to h... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_economic_thought |
For both these reasons, Keynes therefore advocated low interest rates and easy credit, to combat unemployment. But Keynes believed in the 1930s, conditions necessitated public sector action. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_economic_thought |
Deficit spending, said Keynes, would kick-start economic activity. This he had advocated in an open letter to U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt in the New York Times (1933). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_economic_thought |
The New Deal programme in the U.S. had been well underway by the publication of the General Theory. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_economic_thought |
It provided conceptual reinforcement for policies already pursued. Keynes also believed in a more egalitarian distribution of income, and taxation on unearned income arguing that high rates of savings (to which richer folk are prone) are not desirable in a developed economy. Keynes therefore advocated both monetary man... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_economic_thought |
During World War II Keynes acted as adviser to HM Treasury again, negotiating major loans from the U.S., helping formulate the plans for the International Monetary Fund, the World Bank, and the International Trade Organisation at the 1944 Bretton Woods Conference, a package designed to stabilize world economy fluctuati... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_economic_thought |
Neoclassicists assert that a competitive market forces producers to minimize the costs of production. Robinson said that costs of production are merely the prices of inputs, like capital. Capital goods get their value from the final products. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_economic_thought |
And if the price of the final products determines the price of capital, then it is, argued Robinson, utterly circular to say that the price of capital determines the price of the final products. Goods cannot be priced until the costs of inputs are determined. This would not matter if everything in the economy happened ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_economic_thought |
Since capital cannot be adequately valued in independently measurable units, how can one show that capital earns a return equal to the contribution to production? Alfred Eichner (1937–1988) was an American post-Keynesian economist who challenged the neoclassical price mechanism and asserted that prices are not set thro... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_economic_thought |
Eichner's writings and advocacy of thought, differed with the theories of John Maynard Keynes, who was an advocate of government intervention in the free market and proponent of public spending to increase employment. Eichner argued that investment was the key to economic expansion. He was considered an advocate of the... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_economic_thought |
Richard Kahn (1905–1989) was a member of the Cambridge Circus who in 1931 proposed the Multiplier. Piero Sraffa (1898–1983) came to England from Fascist Italy in the 1920s, and became a member of the Cambridge Circus. In 1960 he published a small book called Production of Commodities by Means of Commodities, which expl... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_economic_thought |
Prices result from wage-profit tradeoffs, collective bargaining, labour and management conflict and the intervention of government planning. Like Robinson, Sraffa was showing how the major force for price setting in the economy was not necessarily market adjustments. John Hicks (1904–1989) of England was a Keynesian wh... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_economic_thought |
In 1977 Edmund Phelps (1933–) (who was awarded the 2006 Nobel Economics Prize) and John B. Taylor (1946–) published a paper proving that staggered setting of wages and prices gives monetary policy a role in stabilizing economic fluctuations if the wages/prices are sticky, even when all workers and firms have rational e... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_economic_thought |
In 1975 American economists Sidney Weintraub (1914–1983) and Henry Wallich (1914–1988) published A Tax-Based Incomes Policy, promoting Tax-Based Incomes Policy (TIP), using the income tax mechanism to implement an anti-inflationary incomes policy. In 1978 Weintraub and American economist Paul Davidson (1930–) founded t... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_economic_thought |
In 1913 English economist-diplomat Alfred Mitchell-Innes (1864–1950) published What is Money?, which was reviewed favorably by John Maynard Keynes, followed in 1914 by The Credit Theory of Money, advocating the Credit Theory of Money, which economist L. Randall Wray called "The best pair of articles on the nature of mo... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_economic_thought |
The government-interventionist monetary and fiscal policies that the postwar Keynesian economists recommended came under attack by a group of theorists working at the University of Chicago, which came in the 1950s to be known as the Chicago School of Economics. Before World War II, the Old Chicago School of strong Keyn... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_economic_thought |
Homo economicus trades through bilateral contracts on open markets until the costs of transactions make the use of corporations to produce things more cost-effective. His second major article The Problem of Social Cost (1960) argued that if we lived in a world without transaction costs, people would bargain with one an... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_economic_thought |
Coase said that regardless of whether the judge ruled that the sweets maker had to stop using his machinery, or that the doctor had to put up with it, they could strike a mutually beneficial bargain about who moves house that reaches the same outcome of resource distribution. Only the existence of transaction costs may... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_economic_thought |
The idea is that law and regulation are not as important or effective at helping people as lawyers and government planners believe. Coase and others like him wanted a change of approach, to put the burden of proof for positive effects on a government that was intervening in the market, by analyzing the costs of action.... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_economic_thought |
In 1981 he published The Economics of Justice, which claimed that judges have been interpreting common law as it they were trying to maximize economic welfare. Milton Friedman (1912–2006) of the Chicago School of Economics is one of the most influential economists of the late 20th century, receiving the Nobel Prize in ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_economic_thought |
Friedman argues that laissez-faire government policy is more desirable than government intervention in the economy. Governments should aim for a neutral monetary policy oriented toward long-run economic growth, by gradual expansion of the money supply. He advocates the quantity theory of money, that general prices are ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_economic_thought |
Therefore, active monetary (e.g. easy credit) or fiscal (e.g. tax and spend) policy can have unintended negative effects. In Capitalism and Freedom (1962), Friedman wrote: "There is likely to be a lag between the need for action and government recognition of the need; a further lag between recognition of the need for a... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_economic_thought |
Friedman was also known for his work on the consumption function, the Permanent Income Hypothesis (1957), which Friedman referred to as his best scientific work. This work contended that rational consumers would spend a proportional amount of what they perceived to be their permanent income. Windfall gains would mostly... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_economic_thought |
In the early 1970s American Chicago School economist Robert E. Lucas, Jr. (1937–) founded New Classical Macroeconomics based on Milton Friedman's monetarist critique of Keynesian macroeconomics, and the idea of rational expectations, first proposed in 1961 by John F. Muth, opposing the idea that government intervention... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_economic_thought |
Lucas was awarded the 1995 Nobel Economics Prize. Lucas' model was superseded as the standard model of New Classical Macroeconomics by the Real Business Cycle Theory, proposed in 1982 by Finn Kydland (1943–) and Edward C. Prescott (1940–), which seeks to explain observed fluctuations in output and employment in terms o... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_economic_thought |
In 1965 Chicago School economist Eugene Fama (1939–) published The Behavior of Stock Market Prices, which found that stock market prices follow a random walk, proposing the Efficient Market Hypothesis, that randomness is characteristic of a perfectly functioning financial market. The same year Paul Samuelson published ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_economic_thought |
In 1898 Thorstein Veblen published Why is Economics not an Evolutionary Science, which coins the term Evolutionary economics, making use of anthropology to deny that there is a universal human nature, emphasizing the conflict between "industrial" or instrumental and "pecuniary" or ceremonial values, which became known ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_economic_thought |
A phase of expansion is made possible by innovations, because they bring productivity gains and encourage entrepreneurs to invest. However, when investors have no more opportunities to invest, the economy goes into recession, several firms collapse, closures and bankruptcy occur. This phase lasts until new innovations ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_economic_thought |
In 1951 Princeton mathematician John Forbes Nash Jr. published the article Non-Cooperative Games, becoming the first to define a Nash Equilibrium for non-zero-sum games. In 1956 American economist Robert Solow (1924–) and Australian economist Trevor Swan (1918–1989) proposed the Solow–Swan model, based on productivity,... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_economic_thought |
In 1956 Swan also proposed the Swan diagram of the internal-external balance. In 1987 Solow was awarded the Nobel Economics Prize. : 440–41 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_economic_thought |
The globalization era began with the end of World War II and the rise of the U.S. as the world's leading economic power, along with the United Nations. To prevent another global depression, the victorious allies countries forgave Germany its war debts and used its surpluses to rebuild Europe and encourage reindustriali... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_economic_thought |
In The Affluent Society (1958), Galbraith argued that voters reaching a certain material wealth begin to vote against the common good. He also argued that the "conventional wisdom" of the conservative consensus was not enough to solve the problems of social inequality. In an age of big business, he argued, it is unreal... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_economic_thought |
They set prices and use advertising to create artificial demand for their own products, distorting people's real preferences. Consumer preferences actually come to reflect those of corporations – a "dependence effect" – and the economy as a whole is geared to irrational goals. In The New Industrial State Galbraith argu... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_economic_thought |
This hierarchy is self-serving, profits are no longer the prime motivator, and even managers are not in control. Because they are the new planners, corporations detest risk, require steady economic and stable markets. They recruit governments to serve their interests with fiscal and monetary policy, for instance adheri... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_economic_thought |
While the goals of an affluent society and complicit government serve the irrational technostructure, public space is simultaneously impoverished. Galbraith paints the picture of stepping from penthouse villas onto unpaved streets, from landscaped gardens to unkempt public parks. In Economics and the Public Purpose (19... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_economic_thought |
Introductory university economics courses began to present economic theory as a unified whole in what is referred to as the neoclassical synthesis. "Positive economics" became the term created to describe certain trends and "laws" of economics that could be objectively observed and described in a value-free way, separa... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_economic_thought |
Samuelson started with two assumptions. First, people and firms will act to maximize their self-interested goals. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_economic_thought |
Second, markets tend towards an equilibrium of prices, where demand matches supply. He extended the mathematics to describe equilibrating behavior of economic systems, including that of the then new macroeconomic theory of John Maynard Keynes. Whilst Richard Cantillon had imitated Isaac Newton's mechanical physics of i... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_economic_thought |
Reasserting economics as a hard science was being done in the United Kingdom also, and one celebrated "discovery", of A. W. Phillips, was of a correlative relationship between inflation and unemployment. The workable policy conclusion was that securing full employment could be traded-off against higher inflation. Samue... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_economic_thought |
His introductory textbook Economics was influential and widely adopted. It became the most successful economics text ever. Paul Samuelson was awarded the new Nobel Prize in Economics in 1970 for his merging of mathematics and political economy. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_economic_thought |
American economist Kenneth Arrow's (1921–2017) published Social Choice and Individual Values in 1951. It consider connections between economics and political theory. It gave rise to social choice theory with the introduction of his "Possibility Theorem". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_economic_thought |
This sparked widespread discussion over how to interpret the different conditions of the theorem and what implications it had for democracy and voting. Most controversial of his four (1963) or five (1950/1951) conditions is the independence of irrelevant alternatives.In the 1950s Kenneth Arrow and Gérard Debreu (1921–2... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_economic_thought |
In 1951 English economist James E. Meade (1907–1995) published The Balance of Payments, volume 1 of "The Theory of International Economic Policy", which proposed the theory of domestic divergence (internal and external balance), and promoted policy tools for governments. In 1955 he published volume 2 Trade and Welfare,... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_economic_thought |
In 1979 American economist Paul Krugman (1953–) published a paper founding New trade theory, which attempts to explain the role of increasing returns to scale and network effects in international trade. In 1991 he published a paper founding New economic geography. His textbook International Economics (2007) appears on ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_economic_thought |
In 1954 Saint Lucian economist Sir Arthur Lewis (1915–1991) proposed the Dual Sector Model of Development Economics, which claims that capitalism expands by making use of an unlimited supply of labor from the backward non-capitalist "subsistence sector" until it reaches the Lewisian breaking point where wages begin to ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_economic_thought |
In 1981, Sen published Poverty and Famines: An Essay on Entitlement and Deprivation (1981), a book in which he argued that famine occurs not only from a lack of food, but from inequalities built into mechanisms for distributing food. Sen also argued that the Bengal famine was caused by an urban economic boom that raise... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_economic_thought |
In 1958 American economists Alfred H. Conrad (1924–1970) and John R. Meyer (1927–2009) founded New Economic History, which in 1960 was called Cliometrics by American economist Stanley Reiter (1925–2014) after Clio, the muse of history. It uses neoclassical economic theory to reinterpret historical data, spreading throu... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_economic_thought |
In 1962 American economists James M. Buchanan (1919–2013) and Gordon Tullock (1922–2014) published The Calculus of Consent, which revived Public Choice Theory by differentiating politics (the rules of the game) from public policy (the strategies to adopt within the rules), founding Constitutional Economics, the economi... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_economic_thought |
In 1962–1963 Scottish economist Marcus Fleming (1911–1976) and Canadian economist Robert Mundell (1932–) published the Mundell–Fleming Model of the Economy, an extension of the IS–LM Model to an open economy, proposing the Impossible Trinity of fixed exchange rate, free capital movement, and an independent monetary pol... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_economic_thought |
In 1965 American economist Henry G. Manne (1928–2015) published Mergers and the Market for Corporate Control in Journal of Political Economy, which claims that changes in the price of a share of stock in the stock market will occur more rapidly when insider trading is prohibited than when it is permitted, founding the ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_economic_thought |
In 1970 George Akerlof (1940–) published the paper The Market for Lemons, founding the theory of Information Economics, receiving the 2001 Nobel Economics Prize. Joseph E. Stiglitz (1943–) also received the Nobel Economics Prize in 2001 for his work in Information Economics. He has served as chairman of President Clint... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_economic_thought |
In recent years he has become an outspoken critic of global economic institutions. In Making Globalization Work (2007) he offers an account of his perspectives on issues of international economics: "The fundamental problem with the neoclassical model and the corresponding model under market socialism is that they fail ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_economic_thought |
In 1973 Russian-American mathematician-economist Leonid Hurwicz (1917–2008) founded Market (Mechanism) Design Theory, a.k.a. Reverse Game Theory, which allows people to distinguish situations in which markets work well from those in which they do not, aiding the identification of efficient trading mechanisms, regulatio... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_economic_thought |
In 1974 American economist Arthur Laffer formulated the Laffer curve, which postulates that no tax revenue will be raised at the extreme tax rates of 0% and 100%, and that there must be at least one rate where tax revenue would be a non-zero maximum. This concept was adopted by U.S. President Ronald Reagan in the early... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_economic_thought |
In 1986 French economist Jean Tirole (1953–) published "Dynamic Models of Oligopoly", followed by "The Theory of Industrial Organization" (1988), launching his quest to understand market power and regulation, resulting in the 2014 Nobel Economics Prize. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_economic_thought |
In 2008, there was a financial crisis which led to a global recession. This prompted some Macro economists and Financial Economists to question the current orthodoxy.One response was the Keynesian resurgence. This emerged as a consensus among some policy makers and economists for Keynesian solutions. Figures in this sc... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_economic_thought |
Austerity policies may include spending cuts, tax increases, or a mixture of both. Two influential academic papers support this position. The first was Large Changes in Fiscal Policy: Taxes Versus Spending, published in October 2009 by Alberto Alesina and Silvia Ardagna. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_economic_thought |
It asserted that fiscal austerity measures did not hurt economies, and actually helped their recovery. The second Growth in a Time of Debt, published in 2010 by Carmen Reinhart and Kenneth Rogoff. It analyzed public debt and GDP growth among 20 advanced economies and claimed that high debt countries grew at −0.1% since... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_economic_thought |
A History of Economic Thought Isaak Illich Rubin. The History of Economic Thought, (1938, and subsequent editions), Eric Roll. The Worldly Philosophers, (1953, and subsequent editions), Robert Heilbroner A History of Economic Thought, (1967, and subsequent editions), William J. Barber. Kazanas, N. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_economic_thought |
2010. Economic principles in the Vedic tradition. New Delhi: Aditya Prakashan. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_economic_thought |
Majumdar, R. C. 2010. Corporate life in ancient India. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_economic_thought |
Charleston, SC: Bibliolife. An Outline of the History of Economic Thought (2nd Edition), (2003) Ernesto Screpanti and Stefano Zamagni The Penguin History of Economics, (2002), Roger Backhouse (economist). Blaug, Mark (1985). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_economic_thought |
Economic Theory in Retrospect (PDF contains full book) (4th ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521316446. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_economic_thought |
European Journal of the History of Economic Thought (U.K.) History of Economic Ideas (Italy) Il pensiero economico italiano (Italy) History of Economics Review (Australia) History of Economic Thought (Japan) History of Political Economy (U.S.) Journal of the History of Economic Thought (published by the History of Econ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_economic_thought |
European Society for the History of Economic Thought (ESHET) History of Economics Society (HES) List of other societies and research centers in history of economic thought is available here | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_economic_thought |
The hard palate is a thin horizontal bony plate made up of two bones of the facial skeleton, located in the roof of the mouth. The bones are the palatine process of the maxilla and the horizontal plate of palatine bone. The hard palate spans the alveolar arch formed by the alveolar process that holds the upper teeth (w... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hard_palate |
The hard palate is formed by the palatine process of the maxilla and horizontal plate of palatine bone. It forms a partition between the nasal passages and the mouth. On the anterior portion of the hard palate are the plicae, irregular ridges in the mucous membrane that help facilitate the movement of food backward tow... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hard_palate |
The hard palate is important for feeding and speech. Mammals with a defective hard palate may die shortly after birth due to inability to suckle. It is also involved in mastication in many species. The interaction between the tongue and the hard palate is essential in the formation of certain speech sounds, notably hig... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hard_palate |
In the birth defect called cleft palate, the left and right portions of this plate are not joined, forming a gap between the mouth and nasal passage (a related defect affecting the face is cleft lip). While a cleft palate has a severe impact upon the ability to nurse and speak, it is now successfully treated through re... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hard_palate |
Due to the complexity of this birth defect, researchers still do not know exactly what causes the cleft palate to form during foetal development. Recently, these researchers found that even though there is no exact cause, there are several factors that drastically increase the risk of a baby being born with an orofacia... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hard_palate |
Based on a recent study of 103 German patients with cleft palates, it was found that 25.2% of their mothers smoked during pregnancy, a higher proportion than for the population as a whole.While maternal smoking during pregnancy is a risk, there are also several genetic risk factors. Six single-nucleotide polymorphisms ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hard_palate |
When tested in the European and Asian communities, five of the six loci had a significant association at the 95% confidence level. Besides the PAX 7 gene variants, there were also five possible mutations found in the transforming growth factor-alpha gene (TGFA) that could lead to the development of a cleft palate. Even... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hard_palate |
Palatal abscesses may also occur. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hard_palate |
Long-term use of the drug chloroquine diphosphatase, used in malaria prophylaxis, rheumatoid arthritis and other conditions, was found to cause bluish-grey pigmentation in the hard palate. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hard_palate |
Boris Tamm (23 June 1930 Tallinn – 5 February 2002 Tallinn) was an Estonian cyberneticist.In 1954, he graduated from Tallinn Polytechnical Institute in cybernetics speciality (cum laude). In 1970, he defended his doctoral thesis in Moscow.From 1976 to 1991, he was the rector of Tallinn University of Technology.In 2002,... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boris_Tamm |
Drinah Banda Nyirenda is a Zambian nutritionist and agricultural scientist.Drinah Nyirenda obtained her BSc in Agricultural Sciences in Zambia. She then did her MSc and PhD at University of California, Davis. She has worked at the University of Zambia for over 26 years. She was the Head of Department of Animal Science,... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drinah_Nyirenda |
In 2011, she promoted the launch of the first BSc in Human Nutrition at the University of Zambia. She is the executive director of Zambia's Programme Against Malnutrition, a board chairperson at the Livestock Development Trust, and a chairperson at the Nutrition Association of Zambia. == References == | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drinah_Nyirenda |
False Folio is the term that Shakespeare scholars and bibliographers have applied to William Jaggard's printing of ten Shakespearean and pseudo-Shakespearean plays together in 1619, the first attempt to collect Shakespeare's work in a single volume. There are only two complete extant copies. One is part of the collecti... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/False_Folio |
The term "false folio" intentionally evokes the folio collections of Shakespeare's works that appeared later: the First Folio of 1623 and its three seventeenth-century successors. The description "folio" is not strictly accurate, since the ten plays were printed in a larger-than-usual quarto format, not in folio; but t... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/False_Folio |
In summary, the stationer and printer William Jaggard reprinted ten plays in 1619, either to be bound together in a single volume or issued separately depending on customer choice. Jaggard, however, did not have clear title to all of the plays involved , and therefore he printed some of the texts with false dates and t... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/False_Folio |
False date. Thomas Pavier was the stationer who possessed the rights to Henry V, and was an associate of Jaggard. King Lear – "Printed for Nathaniel Butter 1608." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/False_Folio |
False date and name. Nicholas Okes had printed Q1 of Lear for Butter in 1608. The Merchant of Venice – "Printed by J. Roberts, 1600." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/False_Folio |
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