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This matriclan is linked to an early ancestor from the Joof family, and at Faoye (in Senegal), it is still the members from the Joof patrilineage who are the head of this matriclan (as of 2002). Like their Lamanic paternal ancestor who is associated with a Serer saint — i.e. the justicer Fangool—Lunguñ Joof, this matri... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serer_maternal_clans |
The origin of this clan is Mandé. For several centuries (i.e. from the medieval era) this matriclan formed as much alliances with many Serer matriclans as it possibly could, through marriage.The Soos (or Sos) have become so "Sererized" and assimilated that most facets of their Mandé origin has been lost. The Soos assim... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serer_maternal_clans |
The Soos are one of the most well known Serer matriclans. For several centuries, they have formed a permanent fixture in Serer culture and country. According to their tradition, a Soos is prohibited from touching a partridge (ceбel in Serer) or the Nile monitor lizard (cas in Serer). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serer_maternal_clans |
The Peƴoor matriclan is one of the old Serer matriclans who are believed to have held sacred powers especially over the environment, in particular marine life. It is suggested that, this matriclan held great economic power right until the Guelowars' arrival in Sine (in 1335). The Peƴoor matriclan acquired substantial e... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serer_maternal_clans |
Forest burning in order to acquire estates (day or lamanat) was very common among this family. According to Serer tradition, this matriclan are believed to be masters of fire and rain, roles primarily reserved for the ancient Lamanes or Lamanic class and the Saltigues respectively. This makes them one of few if not the... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serer_maternal_clans |
Somewhat linked to the Peƴoor matriclan, the proto-Caxanora matriclan (variations: Caxanoora or o Tahanora) are afforded supernatural powers in Serer mythology and legend. According to their myth, they were once believed to possess the power to command the sea and fish at Fadiouth and south of the Palmarin, where they ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serer_maternal_clans |
Mama Ngec, the supernatural entity, is ritually venerated in order to increase fishing or in times of drought. Like the Gareh Kareh and Rik (see above), a Caxanora is forbidden from touching a savannah monitor (it is totemic).The Caxanoras are related to the Pufun matriclan as well as the Coofaan clan of Saloum. They a... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serer_maternal_clans |
The Wagadous (Serer: Bagadou, other variations Wagadu or Ougadou) originally came from the Kingdom of Wagadou in the early medieval era, affiliated to King Kaya Magan Cissé whose descendants went on to establish the Ghana Empire (see Soninke people). The Wagadou princesses were married off to the Serer nobility such as... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serer_maternal_clans |
However, they continued to rule in many parts of Senegambia including Baol and Cayor. The mother of the first "true" Damel of Cayor — Amari Ngoneh Sobell Faal (or Amari Ngoné Sobel Fall) was a Wagadou. Her name was Lingeer Ngoneh Sobell Njie (from the Njie family). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serer_maternal_clans |
Like the Guelowars (see below), this matriclan was assimilated to Serer culture through marriage.The Wagadous of Sine are related to the Lokam matriclan of Joal and the Wagan (Serer proper: Waagaan) clan of Saloum. Though the Lokam and Wagan clan take their names from the Serer language, they are usually regarded as th... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serer_maternal_clans |
Boulègue postulates that, the Jaafuns (Serer proper: Jaafuñ, other variation: Diafoune) are Soninkes and thus linked to the Wagadous. He went on to speculate that they (the Jaafuns) may have taken their name from the Soninke state of Jaafunu, located in the south-west of Wagadu, founded by a son of the founder of Wagad... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serer_maternal_clans |
The Joos Maternal Dynasty originated from the Serer pre-colonial Kingdom of Sine. The earliest recorded ancestor of the Joos clan is Lingeer Fatim Beye (c. 1335). Her grand daughter — Lingeer Ndoye Demba established this dynasty in Waalo in the 14th century (c. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serer_maternal_clans |
1367) after she was married off to the king of Waalo — Brak Caaka Mbaar. The Joos Dynasty of Waalo lasted for nearly 600 years, and collapsed in 1855, the year Waalo fell to the French. The Joos as a matriclan goes back to Lamanic times. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serer_maternal_clans |
The Guelowars were originally from the Kingdom of Kaabu. They were allegedly defeated by the powerful Ñaanco Maternal Dynasty at the so-called Battle of eignebang in 1335, an alleged dynastic war between the royal houses of Guelowar and Ñaanco. In reporting this tradition, Henry Gravrand did not notice that this is act... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serer_maternal_clans |
The Guelowar women were married off to the Serer nobility and they assimilated to Serer culture and traditions. These royal marriages created the Guelowar Maternal Dynasty of Sine and Saloum which lasted for 600 years (1350 — 1969 in Sine, and 1493 — 1969 in Saloum). Some sources suggests that, Yembe Kame Guélaware is ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serer_maternal_clans |
Yembe Kame Guélaware was a Queen Consort (Maisata) of Bala Diakha - a medieval king (Mansa) of one of the provinces of Kaabu. The year of reign for Bala Diakha and Yembe Kame Guélaware is uncertain, but they are believed to have preceded Mansa Tiramakan Traore (one of Sundiata Keita's generals in the 13th century, c. 1... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serer_maternal_clans |
Other sources suggests they were the maternal descendants of princess Tenemba. In Serer medieval history to the present, the Guelowars are regarded as the last of the Serer matriclans. Unlike the proto-Serer matriclans who hold religious significance and enshrined in Serer legend, the Guelowars are merely viewed as the... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serer_maternal_clans |
The Mouïoy (many variations: Mooyoy or Moyoy) are one of the oldest Serer matriclans. In the Middle Ages, they were one of the rivals of the Wagadous. The Mouïoy prominence came later especially in Cayor and Baol. Some of the earliest Damels of Cayor were Mouïoys (16th century). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serer_maternal_clans |
Deche Fou Njoogu (father of Amari Ngoneh Sobell) is credited as the first Damel, albeit his short reigne (1549, died the same year) was a Mouïoy and so was Biram Yassin Boubou (var: Biram Yacine Boubou, reigned: c. 1664 - 1681) and Ma Fali Gaye (reigned: c. 1683* - 1684) who was assassinated in 1884. From 1549 followin... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serer_maternal_clans |
According to Serer oral tradition, the first Mouïoys were two brothers of noble birth, the eldest of which was destined to become a king. However, in his youth, he (the eldest) killed a man from a foreign family. In that distance past, Serer religious law dictates that a murderer must pay with blood for his action or i... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serer_maternal_clans |
As he had no one to deliver other than his younger brother, the young man was delivered to the victim's family. Instead of the victim's family killing the young man, he was held in servitude for his older brother's deed. Without rest, the young man was required to work all day, and at night, he was chained in the most ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serer_maternal_clans |
He spent most of his youth in servitude.The Serer tradition is silent on whether this foreign family were royals from a foreign land or not. However, it did went on to say that when the older brother took power in the country and became the king, he thought about liberating his younger brother, and accordingly, organiz... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serer_maternal_clans |
However, the stigma of servitude especially for a royal prince was unpalatable for the Serer community of that era, and he was regarded as nothing more than a liberated serf in spite of his royal blood. Therefore, the ambition of becoming a king one day was unlikely. As such, the younger brother's altered his royal amb... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serer_maternal_clans |
He settled near the palace in order to part take in constitutional affairs as much as he was possibly allowed. A man who was gifted with wisdom and supernatural powers became the father of two Mouïoys. This man, regarded as the Tokoor of the clan, had before his death hidden a secret talisman in a special place within ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serer_maternal_clans |
Due to an influx of visitors to the palace, the older brother took the charms to his younger brother for safe keeping. As such, the younger brother became the guardian of the family's secrets. Before going to a military campaign, the king (the elder brother) would slip the secret charms (rooster) in his younger brother... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serer_maternal_clans |
The younger brother who had gradually become a competent soothsayer was able to interpret the divination material. He used a pestle that he would place in equilibrium near the sacred places. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serer_maternal_clans |
If it remains standing, that signifies that the omens were favorable. If on the hand it drops, that signifies bad omen as it means that the king would not only suffer a severe defeat in war, but would also be killed in battle. The young brother's newly acquired powers earned him great respect and favour at least in his... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serer_maternal_clans |
However, the esteem and respect afforded to him by his older brother was not matched by the Serer community of that era, who still regarded him as a liberated serf. When his elder brother died, not only was he barred from succeeding his late brother, but his entire descendants were barred from ascending to the throne. ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serer_maternal_clans |
Beye (also Bey or Bèye following its French spelling in Senegal) is both a Serer surname as well as a Serer matriclan. This matriclan gained particular prominence in Cayor and Baol (who ruled by the titles Damel and Teigne respectively) especially in the later part of the 17th century. They were more successful in Baol... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serer_maternal_clans |
The Geej (many variations: Guedj or Gedj) matriclan gained prominence in the late 17th century. The Serer princess —Lingeer Ngoneh Jaye (var: Ngoné Dièye) of the Jaye family of Saloum was the mother of Damel–Teigne Latsoukabe Ngoneh Faal (the king of Cayor and Baol). Having battled against his paternal half brothers an... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serer_maternal_clans |
This matriclan has provided several Senegambian kings including Lat Jorr Ngoneh Latir Jobe, one of the better known kings of 19th century Senegambian royalty. The Geej family of Cayor and Baol are related to the Soos family of Sine and Saloum, the country of their birth. They are usually regarded as extended relatives. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serer_maternal_clans |
The Gaanguuna (sing: O Kaanguuna) are most numerous in Sine and make up the fifth largest matriclan in Niakhar Arrondissement. According to their family legend and history, they claim descent from an ancient and invisible power — Kangeer, one of the Pangool in Serer religion. The Gaanguuna clan are responsible for the ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serer_maternal_clans |
The following are some of the other major matriclans: Taa'boor matriclan (var: Tabor) — their clan is linked to the Pangool Laga Ndong, whose libation is headed by this maternal family. Sass or Saas — the name for their clan is linked to the Saas tree which is enshrined in Serer cosmogony. Didink Bangai Siagne Biban Ti... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serer_maternal_clans |
Alliances (maasir) between matriclans which are historical in nature was, and still is prevalent. Some of the most well known matrilineal alliances are given below. : 1. The Coofaan group which includes: the Coofaan, Siañ, Pedior (also: Feejoor or Peeĵoor), Taa'boor and Jolax (or Diolah) are allies of the Gareh Kareh, ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serer_maternal_clans |
2. The Kagaw are allies of the Cegandum and Wagadou (or Bagadou). 3. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serer_maternal_clans |
The Joofaan are allies with the Feejoor (Peeĵoor or Pedior); the Waale have a bond of cousinage with the Rik and the Simala are allies with the Wagadou 4. The Gaanguuna are a major allies of the Simala. 5. The Soos are allies of the Jegandum, Kagaw, Coofaan, Taa'boor, Jaxanora, Siañ and Wagadou. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serer_maternal_clans |
The Serer people do not carry the surnames of their matriclans but they know them. The following table gives some of the matriclans, their totemic observances / myths and surnames : | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serer_maternal_clans |
The following is a list of known Serer matriarchs or dynasty founders. Those who are known to be queens, queen mothers or royal princess are prefixed with the royal title Lingeer: Lingeer Fatim Beye, Queen of Sine c 1335, matriarch of the Joos Maternal Dynasty Lingeer Bande Ñambo Sarr, a matriarch of the Pata Fata clan... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serer_maternal_clans |
Lingeer Ndoye Demba established the Joos Maternal Dynasty in Waalo. Lingeer Ngoneh Jaye (var: Ngoneh Jaaye / Jaay or Ngoné Dièye) of Saloum, founder of the Guedj Maternal Dynasty (var: Geej or Gedj) of Cayor and Baol. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serer_maternal_clans |
Mother of Latsoukabe Fall (Damel of Cayor and Teigne of Baol, respective titles for the king of Cayor and Baol, reigned: 1697-1719). She was given in marriage to the Teinge of Baol — Che Yassin Demba Noudj. It is from that marriage that Lat Soukabe came from. Lingeer Bassine Soureh (var: Bassine Souré), matriarch of th... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serer_maternal_clans |
Like the reverence held for the most ancient—Serer patriarchs (Mam o Kor), the reverence for Serer matriclans is also preserved in the following popular saying in pre-colonial Sine: O lok yaa, ten fisu a Sinig. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serer_maternal_clans |
The 1983 Ñakhar project was a collaborative effort by various scholars and institutions such as Charles Becker, Léonce Crétois, Henry Gravrand, Victor Martin, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, etc., to research and document the Serer matriclans of Niakhar or Ñakhar arrondissement in Senegal. Ñakhar was chos... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serer_maternal_clans |
Boumi et l'oiseau pélican (1990) by Phillipe Cassard, Paris. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serer_maternal_clans |
William Henry Furness III (August 10, 1866 – August 11, 1920) was an American physician, ethnographer and author from Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. He made multiple trips to the South Pacific, and was among the first to study and photograph the Kayan people of Borneo and the Wa'ab people on the island of Yap. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Henry_Furness_III |
Furness was the grandson and namesake of Unitarian theologian William Henry Furness, and the son of Shakespearean scholar Horace Howard Furness. He attended St. Paul's School (Class of 1883) and Harvard University (Class of 1888), and graduated from the University of Pennsylvania Medical School in 1891. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Henry_Furness_III |
He was one of the medical students portrayed in the Thomas Eakins painting The Agnew Clinic.Furness made four expeditions to Southeast Asia and Oceania between 1895 and 1901, accompanied by Hiram M. Hiller, Jr. and Alfred C. Harrison, Jr. The trio collected ethnographic, archaeological, and skeletal material, and Furne... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Henry_Furness_III |
These artifacts were among the founding collections of the University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology. Zoological specimens – mostly fish and birds – were donated to the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia. Duplicate objects were donated to the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Henry_Furness_III |
He wrote about their use of rai stones – doughnut-shaped limestone discs – as money. As a coral island, Uap had no natural stone, and most of the rai came from Palau, an island some 280 miles (450 k) away. A rai with a diameter of about 1 foot (30.5 cm) was enough to purchase a full-grown pig, but some had diameters as... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Henry_Furness_III |
Utilizing a phonograph, Furness recorded Wa'ab speech and native songs, and published the first Uapese-to-English/English-to-Uapese dictionary.Furness served as curator of the University of Pennsylvania Museum's general ethnology section, 1903-05. At home in Wallingford, Pennsylvania, he raised chimpanzeees and orangut... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Henry_Furness_III |
Furness was elected a member of the American Philosophical Society (1897), a fellow of the Royal Geographical Society (1898), and a fellow of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland (1902). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Henry_Furness_III |
An 1894 article in The Oregonian described Furness as "the most artistically tattooed man in the world." It reported that during a long trip to Japan, he had been heavily tattooed: " splendid representation of the Goddess of Love covers his chest, and the God of Thunder illuminates his back. Snakes and birds by the doz... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Henry_Furness_III |
A Chinese boat is tattooed on one leg, and a dragon looks from the other. "His expeditions were underwritten by his father – his late mother had been heiress to an iron-making fortune and his father was a successful author. He never married, and lived at "Lindenshade," his parents' house in Wallingford. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Henry_Furness_III |
He provided some of the illustrations for the book String Figures and How to Make Them (1906), by his sister, ethnologist Caroline Furness Jayne. Following the deaths of Caroline in 1909 and her husband Horace Jayne in 1913, their teenage children – Kate Furness Jayne and Horace H. F. Jayne – lived with him at "Lindens... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Henry_Furness_III |
Army Medical Corps and organized distribution of medical supplies. He donated the land for the Helen Kate Furness Free Library in Wallingford, named for his mother. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Henry_Furness_III |
He began collecting and editing his father's letters, but ill health forced him to abandon the project. It was completed by his nephew Horace. Furness died the day after his 54th birthday. He is buried at Laurel Hill Cemetery in Philadelphia. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Henry_Furness_III |
"Glimpses of Borneo," Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, vol. 35 (1897). Life in the Luchu Islands (Philadelphia: 1899). Folk-Lore in Borneo: A Sketch (Wallingford, Pennsylvania: 1899). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Henry_Furness_III |
The Home-Life of Borneo Head-Hunters: Its Festivals and Folk-Lore (Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott Company, 1902). (Co-authored with H. M. Hiller, Jr.) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Henry_Furness_III |
Notes of a Trip to the Veddahs of Ceylon (London, 1902). "The Stone Money of Uap, West Caroline Islands," Transactions of the Department of Archaeology, University of Pennsylvania Museum, vol. 1, no. 1 (1904). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Henry_Furness_III |
The Island of Stone Money, Uap of the Carolines (Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott Company, 1910). "A Visit to a Head-Hunter of Borneo, 1901," The World's Story: A History of the World in Story, Song and Art, Volume 1: China, Japan, and the Islands of the Pacific (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1914). "Observations on the Ment... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Henry_Furness_III |
Respect, also called esteem, is a positive feeling or deferential action shown towards someone or something considered important or held in high esteem or regard. It conveys a sense of admiration for good or valuable qualities. It is also the process of honoring someone by exhibiting care, concern, or consideration for... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Respect |
In so-called "honor cultures", respect is more often earned in this way than granted by default. Courtesies that show respect may include simple words and phrases like "thank you" in the West or "namaste" in the Indian subcontinent, or simple physical signs like a slight bow, a smile, direct eye contact, or a handshake... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Respect |
One definition of respect is a feeling of admiration for someone or something elicited by their abilities, qualities, and achievements. An honorific is a word or expression (such as a title like "Doctor" or a pronoun form) that shows respect when used in addressing or referring to a person. Typically honorifics are use... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Respect |
For example, it is disrespectful not to use polite language and honorifics when speaking in Japanese with someone having a higher social status. The Japanese honorific "san" can be used when English is spoken.In China, it is considered rude to call someone by their first name unless the person is known by the speaker f... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Respect |
In work-related situations, people address each other by their titles. At home, people often refer to each other by nicknames or terms of kinship. In Chinese culture, individuals often address their friends as juniors and seniors even if they are just a few months younger or older. When the Chinese ask for someone's ag... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Respect |
In Islamic cultures, there are many ways to show respect to people. For example, one may kiss the hands of parents, grandparents, or teachers. Also, it is narrated in the sayings of Muhammad that if a person looks at the faces of parents and teachers with a smile, he or she will definitely be rewarded by Allah with suc... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Respect |
Pranāma, or the touching of feet in Indian culture is a sign of respect. For instance, when a child is greeting his or her grandparent, they typically will touch their hands to their grandparents' feet. In Indian culture, it is believed that the feet are a source of power and love.In many African/West Indian descent co... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Respect |
For instance, one should not point directly at someone. When greeting someone or thanking them, it may be insulting if the person of lower status does not bow lower than the person with higher status. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Respect |
The duration and level of the bow depends on many factors such as age and status. Some signs of physical respect apply to women only. If a woman does not wear cosmetics or a brassiere, it is possible that she will be considered unprofessional or others may think she does not care about her situation. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Respect |
Respect for others is a variety of virtue or character strength. The philosopher Immanuel Kant made the virtue of respect the core of his Categorical Imperative: So act that you treat humanity… always at the same time as an end, never merely as a means. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Respect |
In Chinese culture, bowing is generally reserved as a sign of respect for elders and ancestors. When bowing, they place the fist of the right hand in the palm of their left at stomach level. The deeper the bow, the more respect they are showing. Traditionally, there was not much hand-shaking in Chinese culture. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Respect |
However, this gesture is now widely practiced among men, especially when greeting Westerners or other foreigners. Many Westerners may find Chinese handshakes to be too long or too weak, but this is because a weaker handshake is a gesture of humility and respect.Kowtowing, or kneeling and bowing so deeply that one's for... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Respect |
Filial piety is a virtue of having respect for ancestors, family, and elders. As in many cultures, younger Chinese individuals are expected to defer to older people, let them speak first, sit down after them, and not contradict them. Sometimes when an older person enters a room, everyone stands. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Respect |
People are often introduced from oldest to youngest. Often, younger people will go out of their way to open doors for their elders and not cross their legs in front of them. The older you are the more respect you are expected to be treated with. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Respect |
In many indigenous American societies, respect is viewed as a moral value that teaches indigenous people about their culture. This moral value is treated as a process that influences participation in the community and also helps people develop and become integrated into their culture. For this reason, the value of resp... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Respect |
In medicine, a social history (abbreviated "SocHx") is a portion of the medical history (and thus the admission note) addressing familial, occupational, and recreational aspects of the patient's personal life that have the potential to be clinically significant. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_history_(medicine) |
Components can include inquiries about: Substances Alcohol Tobacco (pack years) illicit drugs occupation sexual behavior (increased risk of various infections among prostitutes, people who have sex with people for money, and males engaging in anal-receptive intercourse) prison (especially if tuberculosis needs to be ru... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_history_(medicine) |
The Judaica Archival Project was founded in 1987 as a non-profit preservation and access program for Rabbinics. From 1988 to 1999 the Project operated a microfilm lab at the Jewish National and University Library (JNUL) of the Hebrew University. The Project was supported by private foundations, book lovers and from the... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judaica_Archival_Project |
The recent digital book revolution started by Google Books actually started over 15 years in the Jewish World using hard drives and CDs. The publishing field for religious books in Jewish law or Rabbinics is very active and classic works from the 15-20th century are reprinted frequently in small editions generally with... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judaica_Archival_Project |
However the pioneer in this field was the Judaica Archival Project. From 1995 the Project pioneered the concept of a virtual library by posting catalogs and scans of rare books on its web site. Catalogs of other facsimile and reference book publishers were added with the goal of creating a central portal for Rabbinics ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judaica_Archival_Project |
Recently, the web site was reorganized as the VirtualGeula portal, including some commercial Judaica sites in an effort to earn income for the project. Over the last decade due to rapid changes in preservation technology microfilm has been replaced by digital media. The Project has adapted to these changes by changing ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judaica_Archival_Project |
Major libraries are continuing to lose a substantial portion of their base collections due to paper acidification. As for Judaica and Hebraica the percentages are even higher due to inferior paper quality, low print runs, and the willful destruction of Jewish books during the Holocaust. The Judaica Archival Project con... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judaica_Archival_Project |
Cityblooms is an urban farming technology company currently located in Santa Cruz, California. The company was founded by CEO Nick Halmos in 2001. In 2010 the company began developing modular hydroponic systems that leverage Internet-of-Things technology to grow premium produce for local distribution.In 2014, Citybloom... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cityblooms |
The concept of fictitious commodities (or false commodities) originated in Karl Polanyi's 1944 book The Great Transformation and refers to anything treated as market commodity that is not created for the market, specifically land, labor, and money. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fictitious_commodities |
For Polanyi, the effort by classical and neoclassical economics to make society subject to the free market was a utopian project and, as Polanyi scholars Fred Block and Margaret Somers claim, "When these public goods and social necessities (what Polanyi calls "fictitious commodities") are treated as if they are commodi... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fictitious_commodities |
For Marx, "a commodity appears at first sight an extremely obvious, trivial thing. But its analysis brings out that it is a very strange thing, abounding in metaphysical subtleties and theological niceties." And what is a social relation between people, between "capitalists" and "exploited laborers," instead assumes "t... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fictitious_commodities |
"David Bollier wrote that, according to Polanyi, "prior to the rise of the market as an ordering principle for society, politics, religion and social norms were the prevailing forces of governance. Land, labor and money itself were not regarded chiefly as commodities to be bought and sold. They were embedded in social ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fictitious_commodities |
Claim clubs, also called actual settlers' associations or squatters' clubs, were a nineteenth-century phenomenon in the American West. Usually operating within a confined local jurisdiction, these pseudo-governmental entities sought to regulate land sales in places where there was little or no legal apparatus to deal w... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claim_club |
Claim clubs were essentially designed to "do what politicians refused to do: make land available to needy settlers." Their general purpose was to protect the first settlers to arrive on unclaimed lands, particularly in their rights to speculate and cultivate. With the continuous availability of frontier lands from the ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claim_club |
Period accounts report that in some areas, claim clubs were regarded with "the same majesty of the law of the Supreme Court of the United States. "East Coast land speculators were prone to roam the recently opened Western United States and select the most desirable spots with the intent to outbid the settler and real c... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claim_club |
Generally they sought to be present at a land sale when the first claimant was not there. In many cases, when people who claimed land and then did not live on it and had not developed it with a shelter, fencing or other structures, "claim jumpers" would move in. This was one scenario where claim clubs would enter. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claim_club |
The absentee-owned land would be exploited directly and indirectly, or just simply seized with the title held "by claim club." Members might vote expensive local improvements for the land, including roads and schoolhouses, and assign the heavy costs of development as a tax burden on the land held by absentees. This bec... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claim_club |
Claim clubs did not always protect the honest settler against the scheming speculator. Although claim club law sometimes shielded of the simple homesteader, it was also a tool and a weapon of the speculator. Claim clubs acted not only to protect a squatter's title to land he lived on and was cultivating, but also to he... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claim_club |
One early claim club in the United States was established by settlers around Burlington, Iowa, where claims were formed before the Sac and Fox people ceded the area in 1832. These clubs were established in direct violation of federal law, in what J. Sterling Morton described as a claim meeting According to one report, ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claim_club |
In Colorado City, Colorado, the El Paso Claim Club was formed by members of the Colorado City Town Company in 1859. The Club reportedly "settled land disputes and recorded real property transactions until federal government regulations provided for an official land office in 1862. "The Cañon City (Colorado) Claim Club ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claim_club |
The Omaha Claim Club was founded in 1854, the year the city was founded. Initially designed to protect the interests of 20 men, it grew to include almost two hundred settlers. The group used violent means to impose "frontier justice", including dunking in the frozen Missouri River, running off legitimate settlers, and ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claim_club |
The club ran Omaha until the Supreme Court ruled against their violent measures in Baker v. Morton, a hallmark in contract law cases. In the 1854 the Bellevue (Nebraska) Claim Club was organized. The original aim of the club was "to secure the peaceful adjustment of all cases in which claims in this then un-surveyed co... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claim_club |
The club was renowned for visiting "claim jumpers" with beatings to convince them to leave their claims. Its last act, reportedly in 1858, was to attempt to tar and feather an old man and his three sons reportedly squatting in the area. The Platte Valley Claim Club was established in Fremont in August, 1856 to settle l... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claim_club |
One story of claim club "justice" comes from Montgomery County, Kansas town in 1867. An early settler had tilled his land and improved on it, according to the provisions of the Homestead Act. However, he had not lived on it for five years. After he sold it to another man, this same settler reportedly went to the United... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claim_club |
Claim clubs also secured members' stakes on land they speculated to become important to the federal government, for the purpose of selling it back to the government at a later date. Members of one Iowa claim club purchased 15,000 acres (61 km2) in central Iowa, which eventually was sold in order to develop both the sta... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claim_club |
From 1832 to 1843, Dupage County, Illinois created a number of claim clubs until the federal land surveyors arrived. In 1835 settlers in Elkhorn Creek, Wisconsin formed a claim club. Other settlers did the same, including the town of Yankton, South Dakota. There is also a report of a claim club in Alabama in the 1850s. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claim_club |
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