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In Daubert, the Supreme Court ruled that the 1923 Frye standard was superseded by the 1975 Federal Rules of Evidence, specifically Rule 702 governing expert testimony. Rule 702 originally stated (in its entirety), If scientific, technical, or other specialized knowledge will assist the trier of fact to understand the e... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daubert_standard |
Moreover, such a rigid standard would be at odds with the Rules' liberal thrust and their general approach of relaxing the traditional barriers to 'opinion' testimony." By requiring experts to provide relevant opinions grounded in reliable methodology, proponents of Daubert were satisfied that these standards would res... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daubert_standard |
The Daubert decision has instead been heralded by some political commentators as one of the most important Supreme Court decisions in imposing higher barriers for toxic tort and product liability cases, by allegedly reducing the volume of so-called junk science in the court room. According to a 2002 RAND study, post Da... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daubert_standard |
This rise likely contributed to a doubling in successful motions for summary judgment in which 90% were against plaintiffs. Beyond this study, there is little empirical evidence of the impact of Daubert. However, some critics argue that Daubert has disrupted the balance between plaintiffs and defendants, "The exclusion... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daubert_standard |
Furthermore, there is little point in plaintiffs going to the expense of Daubert motions to exclude defendant's experts until they know if their case will proceed. So if more experts are now being excluded, then Daubert has undoubtedly shifted the balance between plaintiffs and defendants and made it more difficult for... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daubert_standard |
These tactics can range from simply attempting to delay the case to driving up the costs of the litigation forcing settlement.A different pattern has emerged in criminal cases. In criminal cases, the prosecution has the burden of proof and uses a host of forensic science methods as evidence to prove their case; but Dau... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daubert_standard |
Although "science for judges" forums have emerged in the wake of Daubert in order to educate judges in a variety of scientific fields, many are still skeptical about the usefulness of the Daubert standard in discerning valid science. The responsibility to assess scientific relevance has shifted from highly trained expe... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daubert_standard |
This increasingly shifts the burden of scientific judgement onto judges who have not had an education which would enable them to properly evaluate such data.Pursuant to Rule 104(a), in Daubert the U.S. Supreme Court suggested that the following factors be considered: Has the technique been tested in actual field condit... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daubert_standard |
Has the technique been subject to peer review and publication? What is the known or potential rate of error? Do standards exist for the control of the technique's operation? Has the technique been generally accepted within the relevant scientific community?The Supreme Court explicitly cautioned that the Daubert list sh... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daubert_standard |
Daubert has been pronounced DAW-burt (), DOW-burt () and doh-BAIR (). Yale Law School's Pronouncing Dictionary of the Supreme Court of the United States gives DAW-burt (audio) and quotes Jason Daubert himself. On the other hand, Daubert's lawyer, Michael H. Gottesman, while noting "the family's name is not dough-bear",... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daubert_standard |
The Canadian Supreme Court expressly discussed the Daubert standard in R. v. J.-L.J., . In J.-L.J., the court took a look at the development of U.S. law in this regard, noting the U.S. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daubert_standard |
Supreme Court's rejection of the Frye standard and its replacement with the Daubert standard. While the court did note that: "Daubert must be read in light of the specific text of the Federal Rules of Evidence, which differs from our own procedures," the court also stated in the same sentence that "the U.S. Supreme Cou... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daubert_standard |
The court then incorporated elements from the Daubert standard in their decision regarding the Quebec Court of Appeal ruling while ultimately rejecting the lower court's decision and reinstating the defendant's conviction. Later, in 2016, the Supreme Court of Canada in White Burgess Langille Inman v. Abbott and Halibur... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daubert_standard |
that cited Daubert, saying: "in the case of an opinion based on novel or contested science or science used for a novel purpose, the reliability of the underlying science for that purpose: J. (J.-L. ), at paras. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daubert_standard |
33, 35-36 and 47". This suggests that reliability using the Daubert factors should be assessed when novel or contested science is adduced. Additionally, in 2005, the United Kingdom House of Commons Science and Technology Select Committee recommended the creation of a Forensic Science Advisory Council to regulate forens... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daubert_standard |
Judges are not well-placed to determine scientific validity without input from scientists. We recommend that one of the first tasks of the Forensic Science Advisory Council be to develop a "gate-keeping" test for expert evidence. This should be done in partnership with judges, scientists and other key players in the cr... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daubert_standard |
Sentence processing takes place whenever a reader or listener processes a language utterance, either in isolation or in the context of a conversation or a text. Many studies of the human language comprehension process have focused on reading of single utterances (sentences) without context. Extensive research has shown... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sentence_processing |
Sentence comprehension has to deal with ambiguity in spoken and written utterances, for example lexical, structural, and semantic ambiguities. Ambiguity is ubiquitous, but people usually resolve it so effortlessly that they do not even notice it. For example, the sentence Time flies like an arrow has (at least) the int... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sentence_processing |
Educated readers though, spontaneously think about the arrow of time but inhibit that interpretation because it deviates from the original phrase and the temporal lobe acts as a switch. Instances of ambiguity can be classified as local or global ambiguities. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sentence_processing |
A sentence is globally ambiguous if it has two distinct interpretations. Examples are sentences like Someone shot the servant of the actress who was on the balcony (was it the servant or the actress who was on the balcony?) or The cop chased the criminal with a fast car (did the cop or the criminal have a fast car?). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sentence_processing |
Comprehenders may have a preferential interpretation for either of these cases, but syntactically and semantically, neither of the possible interpretations can be ruled out. Local ambiguities persist only for a short amount of time as an utterance is heard or written and are resolved during the course of the utterance ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sentence_processing |
Then, the sentence could end, stating that the critic is the author of the book, or it could go on to clarify that the critic wrote something about a book. The ambiguity ends at was enlightening, which determines that the second alternative is correct. When readers process a local ambiguity, they settle on one of the p... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sentence_processing |
If readers are surprised by the turn the sentence really takes, processing is slowed and is visible for example in reading times. Locally-ambiguous sentences have, therefore, been used as test cases to investigate the influence of a number of different factors on human sentence processing. If a factor helps readers to ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sentence_processing |
Experimental research has spawned a large number of hypotheses about the architecture and mechanisms of sentence comprehension. Issues like modularity versus interactive processing and serial versus parallel computation of analyses have been theoretical divides in the field. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sentence_processing |
A modular view of sentence processing assumes that each factor involved in sentence processing is computed in its own module, which has limited means of communication with the other modules. For example, syntactic analysis creation takes place without input from semantic analysis or context-dependent information, which... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sentence_processing |
A separate mental module parses sentences and lexical access happens first. Then, one syntactic hypothesis is considered at a time. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sentence_processing |
There is no initial influence of meaning, or semantic. Sentence processing is supported by a temporo-frontal network. Within the network, temporal regions subserve aspects of identification and frontal regions the building of syntactic and semantic relations. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sentence_processing |
Temporal analyses of brain activation within this network support syntax-first models because they reveal that building of syntactic structure precedes semantic processes and that these interact only during a later stage.Interactive accounts assume that all available information is processed at the same time and can im... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sentence_processing |
Several syntactic hypotheses can be considered at a time. The interactive model demonstrates an on-line interaction between the structural and lexical and phonetic levels of sentence processing. Each word, as it is heard in the context of normal discourse, is immediately entered into the processing system at all levels... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sentence_processing |
Interactive models of language processing assume that information flows both bottom-up and top-down, so that the representations formed at each level may be influenced by higher as well as lower levels. A framework called the interactive activation framework that embeds this key assumption among others, including the a... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sentence_processing |
In the interactive activation framework, the knowledge that guides processing is stored in the connections between units on the same and adjacent levels. The processing units that they connect may receive input from a number of different sources, which allows the knowledge that guides processing to be completely local ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sentence_processing |
Bi-directional excitatory interactions between levels allow mutual simultaneous constraint among adjacent levels, and bi-directional inhibitory interactions within a level allow for competition among mutually incompatible interpretations of a portion of an input. The between-level excitatory interactions are captured i... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sentence_processing |
In addition, more recent studies with more sensitive eye tracking machines have shown early context effects. Frequency and contextual information will modulate the activation of alternatives even when they are resolved in favor of the simple interpretation. Structural simplicity is cofounded with frequency, which goes ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sentence_processing |
Serial accounts assume that humans construct only one of the possible interpretations at first and try another only if the first one turns out to be wrong. Parallel accounts assume the construction of multiple interpretations at the same time. To explain why comprehenders are usually only aware of one possible analysis... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sentence_processing |
There are a number of influential models of human sentence processing that draw on different combinations of architectural choices. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sentence_processing |
The garden path model (Frazier 1987) is a serial modular parsing model. It proposes that a single parse is constructed by a syntactic module. Contextual and semantic factors influence processing at a later stage and can induce re-analysis of the syntactic parse. Re-analysis is costly and leads to an observable slowdown... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sentence_processing |
When the parser encounters an ambiguity, it is guided by two principles: late closure and minimal attachment. The model has been supported with research on the early left anterior negativity, an event-related potential often elicited as a response to phrase structure violations. Late closure causes new words or phrases... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sentence_processing |
Constraint-based theories of language comprehension emphasize how people make use of the vast amount of probabilistic information available in the linguistic signal. Through statistical learning, the frequencies and distribution of events in linguistic environments can be picked upon, which inform language comprehensio... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sentence_processing |
The good enough approach to language comprehension, developed by Fernanda Ferreira and others, assumes that listeners do not always engage in full detailed processing of linguistic input. Rather, the system has a tendency to develop shallow and superficial representations when confronted with some difficulty. The theor... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sentence_processing |
The first is that representations formed from complex or difficult material are often shallow and incomplete. The second is that limited information sources are often consulted in cases where the comprehension system encounters difficulty. The theory can be put to test using various experiments in psycholinguistics tha... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sentence_processing |
In behavioral studies, subjects are often presented with linguistic stimuli and asked to perform an action. For example, they may be asked to make a judgment about a word (lexical decision), reproduce the stimulus, or name a visually presented word aloud. Speed (often reaction time: time taken to respond to the stimulu... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sentence_processing |
An important component of any behavioral task is that it stays relatively true to 'normal' language comprehension—the ability to generalize the results of any task is restricted when the task has little in common with how people actually encounter language. A common behavioral paradigm involves priming effects, wherein... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sentence_processing |
For example, Fischler (1977) investigated word encoding using the lexical decision task. She asked participants to make decisions about whether two strings of letters were English words. Sometimes the strings would be actual English words requiring a "yes" response, and other times they would be nonwords requiring a "n... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sentence_processing |
Eye tracking has been used to study online language processing. This method has been influential in informing knowledge of reading. Additionally, Tanenhaus et al. (1995) established the visual world paradigm, which takes advantage of eye movements to study online spoken language processing. This area of research capita... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sentence_processing |
The rise of non-invasive techniques provides myriad opportunities for examining the brain bases of language comprehension. Common examples include positron emission tomography (PET), functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), event-related potentials (ERPs) in electroencephalography (EEG) and magnetoencephalography ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sentence_processing |
Computational modeling is another means by which to explore language comprehension. Models, such as those instantiated in neural networks, are particularly useful because they requires theorists to be explicit in their hypotheses and because they can be used to generate accurate predictions for theoretical models that ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sentence_processing |
This model derives garden path effects as well as local coherence phenomena. Computational modeling can also help to relate sentence processing to other functions of language. For example, one model of ERP effects in sentence processing (e.g., N400 and P600) argues that these phenomena arise out learning processes that... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sentence_processing |
Inquiry education (sometimes known as the inquiry method) is a student-centered method of education focused on asking questions. Students are encouraged to ask questions which are meaningful to them, and which do not necessarily have easy answers; teachers are encouraged to avoid giving answers when this is possible, a... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inquiry_education |
The inquiry method is motivated by Postman and Weingartner's recognition that good learners and sound reasoners center their attention and activity on the dynamic process of inquiry itself, not merely on the end product of static knowledge. They write that certain characteristics are common to all good learners (Postma... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inquiry_education |
34–37): They avoid telling students what they "ought to know". They talk to students mostly by questioning, and especially by asking divergent questions. They do not accept short, simple answers to questions. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inquiry_education |
They encourage students to interact directly with one another, and avoid judging what is said in student interactions. They do not summarize students' discussion. They do not plan the exact direction of their lessons in advance, and allow it to develop in response to students' interests. Their lessons pose problems to ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inquiry_education |
The Anacostia Riverwalk Trail is a multi-use trail system in Washington, DC, which, when complete, will be ~25 miles long, spanning both sides of the Anacostia River, the Washington Channel waterfront, and projecting into neighborhoods away from the Anacostia. It has more recently been branded as part of a larger Anaco... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anacostia_Riverwalk_Trail |
The Anacostia Riverwalk Trail was first proposed as a 20-mile system of trails in the 2003 Anacostia Waterfront Initiative (AWI) Framework Plan, though similar proposals for such trails had been considered for decades. For example the National Capital Planning Commission's 1997 Extending the Legacy plan proposed an 11 ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anacostia_Riverwalk_Trail |
Over the next three years, the District government proceeded to study and design the trail system. During that time it was renamed, with the "and" dropped. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anacostia_Riverwalk_Trail |
They identified 19 different trail segments 16 miles in total length, or 25 miles with expanded elements. The system proposed after design was expanded to include segments south to Blue Plains, north to the Capitol and the Tidal Basin, and with a bridge across the Anacostia at the National Arboretum. The design took ad... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anacostia_Riverwalk_Trail |
However, the Navy Yard Promenade didn't open to the public until April 1, 2011, after the Navy built a fence between it and the facility. Altogether 4.5 miles of trail and facilities existed prior to production of the AWI plan. In 2003, the District Department of Transportation defined and signed an interim trail that ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anacostia_Riverwalk_Trail |
At that time they also repaved a temporary trail from Anacostia Drive to the Douglass Bridge's sidewalks and on to Bolling Air Force Base.Since the initial groundbreaking in 2007, another 13 miles of trail has been completed and over two miles is under construction as of 2020. In 2014, the section that passes beneath t... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anacostia_Riverwalk_Trail |
Because the Riverwalk was built bit by bit, designed and constructed at different times by different organizations, the trail is a varying combination of trails and trail segments. At times it is a paved multi-use trail, an on-road route, a sidewalk, a protected bike lane or a riverfront promenade. Its surface is mostl... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anacostia_Riverwalk_Trail |
On the north end, the trail starts at the southern terminus of the Anacostia Tributary Trail System in Prince George's County just north of the New York Avenue/US-50 Bridge and follows the river south through Kenilworth Park and Aquatic Gardens to the intersection of 40th St. NE and Anacostia Avenue, NE. It then travel... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anacostia_Riverwalk_Trail |
NE. There it enters the south portion of Kenilworth Park on an old park service access road where it connects to a multi-use trail between the river and the old PEPCO power plant. It follows this trail to Benning Road where the trail splits to both sides of the river. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anacostia_Riverwalk_Trail |
On the east side, the trail continues along the river through River Terrace Park, under East Capitol Street, over the railroad tracks and into the main part of Anacostia National Park. In ANP it travels all the way to Poplar Point between the river and Anacostia Drive, SE. At Popular Point it begins to run along the ea... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anacostia_Riverwalk_Trail |
On the west side, the trail travels along the river to Douglass Bridge and then across Southwest DC to the Washington Channel, where it turns north. South of Benning Road, it travels along the river on the east side of the RFK parking lots and Congressional Cemetery. It crosses over the railroad tracks, with a separate... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anacostia_Riverwalk_Trail |
After crossing under the 11th Street Bridge, it connects, in order, to the Navy Yard Promenade, Yards Park and Diamond Teague Park. Someday it will connect from there to the Douglass Bridge and Buzzard Point before turning north, but for now, it detours on road on Potomac Avenue, First Street, SW and P Street, SW to So... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anacostia_Riverwalk_Trail |
The trifunctional hypothesis of prehistoric Proto-Indo-European society postulates a tripartite ideology ("idéologie tripartite") reflected in the existence of three classes or castes—priests, warriors, and commoners (farmers or tradesmen)—corresponding to the three functions of the sacral, the martial and the economic... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trifunctional_hypothesis |
According to Georges Dumézil (1898–1986), Proto-Indo-European society had three main groups, corresponding to three distinct functions: Sovereignty, which fell into two distinct and complementary sub-parts: one formal, juridical and priestly but worldly; the other powerful, unpredictable and priestly but rooted in the ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trifunctional_hypothesis |
Early Germanic society: the supposed division between the king, nobility and regular freemen in early Germanic society. Norse mythology: Odin (sovereignty), Týr (law and justice), the Vanir (fertility). Odin has been interpreted as a death-god and connected to cremations, and has also been associated with ecstatic prac... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trifunctional_hypothesis |
Classical Greece: the three divisions of the ideal society as described by Socrates in Plato's The Republic. Bernard Sergent examined the trifunctional hypothesis in Greek epic, lyric and dramatic poetry. India: the three Hindu castes, the Brahmins or priests; the Kshatriya, the warriors and military; and the Vaishya, ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trifunctional_hypothesis |
The Shudra, a fourth Indian caste, is a peasant or serf. Researchers believe that Indo-European-speakers entered India in the Late Bronze Age, mixed with local Indus Valley civilisation populations and may have established a caste system, with themselves primarily in higher castes.cience. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trifunctional_hypothesis |
2019 Sep 6;365(6457):eaat7487. doi: 10.1126/science.aat7487. PMID: 31488661; PMCID: PMC6822619. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trifunctional_hypothesis |
Supporters of the hypothesis include scholars such as Émile Benveniste, Bernard Sergent and Iaroslav Lebedynsky, the last of whom concludes that "the basic idea seems proven in a convincing way".The hypothesis was embraced outside the field of Indo-European studies by some mythographers, anthropologists and historians ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trifunctional_hypothesis |
Cristiano Grottanelli states that while Dumézilian trifunctionalism may be seen in modern and medieval contexts, its projection onto earlier cultures is mistaken. Belier is strongly critical.The hypothesis has been criticised by the historians Carlo Ginzburg, Arnaldo Momigliano and Bruce Lincoln as being based on Duméz... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trifunctional_hypothesis |
Fretwork is an interlaced decorative design that is either carved in low relief on a solid background, or cut out with a fretsaw, coping saw, jigsaw or scroll saw. Most fretwork patterns are geometric in design. The materials most commonly used are wood and metal. Fretwork is used to adorn furniture and musical instrum... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fretwork |
The term is also used for tracery on glazed windows and doors. Fretwork is also used to adorn/decorate architecture, where specific elements of decor are named according to their use such as eave bracket, gable fretwork or baluster fretwork, which may be of metal, especially cast iron or aluminum. Installing elaborate ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fretwork |
Designs have developed from the rectangular wave Greek fret to intricate intertwined patterns. A common misconception is that fretwork must be done with a fretsaw. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fretwork |
However, a fretwork pattern is considered a fretwork whether or not it was cut out with a fretsaw. Computer numerical control (CNC) has brought about change in the method of timber fretwork manufacture. Lasers or router/milling cutting implements can now fashion timber and various other materials into flat and even 3D ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fretwork |
Reserve army of labour is a concept in Karl Marx's critique of political economy. It refers to the unemployed and underemployed in capitalist society. It is synonymous with "industrial reserve army" or "relative surplus population", except that the unemployed can be defined as those actually looking for work and that t... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reserve_army_of_labour |
Marx did not invent the term "reserve army of labour". It was already being used by Friedrich Engels in his 1845 book The Condition of the Working Class in England. What Marx did was theorize the reserve army of labour as a necessary part of the capitalist organization of work. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reserve_army_of_labour |
Prior to what Marx regarded as the start of the capitalist era in human history (i.e. before the 16th century), structural unemployment on a mass scale rarely existed, other than that caused by natural disasters and wars. In ancient societies, all people who could work necessarily had to work, otherwise they would star... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reserve_army_of_labour |
Although the idea of the industrial reserve army of labour is closely associated with Marx, it was already in circulation in the British labour movement by the 1830s. Engels discussed the reserve army of labour in his famous book The Condition of the Working Class in England (1845) before Marx did. The first mention of... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reserve_army_of_labour |
Overpopulation is therefore in the interest of the bourgeoisie, and it gives the workers good advice which it knows to be impossible to carry out. Since capital only increases when it employs workers, the increase of capital involves an increase of the proletariat, and, as we have seen, according to the nature of the r... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reserve_army_of_labour |
To be sure, the proletarian can restrain his natural instinct by reason, and so, by moral supervision, halt the law of nature in its injurious course of development. The idea of the labour force as an "army" occurs also in Part 1 of The Communist Manifesto, written by Marx and Engels in 1848: Modern Industry has conver... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reserve_army_of_labour |
As privates of the industrial army they are placed under the command of a perfect hierarchy of officers and sergeants. Not only are they slaves of the bourgeois class, and of the bourgeois State; they are daily and hourly enslaved by the machine, by the overlooker, and, above all, by the individual bourgeois manufactur... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reserve_army_of_labour |
Marx introduces the concept of the reserve army of labour in chapter 25 of the first volume of Capital: Critique of Political Economy, twenty years later in 1867, stating the following: capitalistic accumulation itself constantly produces, and produces in the direct ratio of its own energy and extent, a relatively re... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reserve_army_of_labour |
Its force increases with the accumulation of capital. His argument is that as capitalism develops, the organic composition of capital will increase, which means that the mass of constant capital grows faster than the mass of variable capital. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reserve_army_of_labour |
Fewer workers can produce all that is necessary for society's requirements. In addition, capital will become more concentrated and centralized in fewer hands. This being the absolute historical tendency under capitalism, part of the working population will tend to become surplus to the requirements of capital accumulat... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reserve_army_of_labour |
Paradoxically, the larger the wealth of society, the larger the industrial reserve army will become. One could add that the larger the wealth of society, the more people it can also support who do not work. However, as Marx develops the argument further it also becomes clear that depending on the state of the economy, ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reserve_army_of_labour |
They are, therefore, not determined by the variations of the absolute number of the working population, but by the varying proportions in which the working-class is divided into active and reserve army, by the increase or diminution in the relative amount of the surplus-population, by the extent to which it is now abso... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reserve_army_of_labour |
Marx discusses the army of labor and the reserve army in Capital Volume III, Chapter 14, Counteracting Factors, Section IV. The army of labor consists in those working class people employed in average or better than average jobs. Not every one in the working class gets one of these jobs. There are then four other categ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reserve_army_of_labour |
Finally, people may leave the army and the reserve army by turning to criminality, Marx refers to such people as lumpenproletariat. The stagnant part consists of marginalised people with "extremely irregular employment". Stagnant pool jobs are characterized by below average pay, dangerous working conditions and they ma... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reserve_army_of_labour |
Those caught in the stagnant pool have jobs, so the modern definition of the employed would include both the army of labor plus the stagnant pool. However, they are constantly on the lookout for something better. The modern unemployed would refer primarily to the floating reserve, people who used to have good jobs, but... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reserve_army_of_labour |
They certainly hope that their unemployment is temporary ("conjunctural unemployment"), but they are well aware that they could fall into the stagnant pool or the pauper class. The latent part consists of that segment of the population not yet fully integrated into capitalist production. In Marx's day, he was referring... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reserve_army_of_labour |
In modern times, people coming from slums in developing countries where they survive largely by non-monetary means, to developed cities where they work for pay might form the latent. Housewives who move from unpaid to paid employment for a business could also form a part of the latent reserve. They are not unemployed b... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reserve_army_of_labour |
In this sense, the latent forms a reservoir of potential workers for industries. Pauperdom is where one might end up. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reserve_army_of_labour |
The homeless is the modern term for paupers. Marx calls them people who cannot adapt to capital's never ending change. For Marx, "the sphere of pauperism", including those still able to work, orphans and pauper children and the "demoralised and ragged" or "unable to work".Marx then analyses the reserve army of labour i... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reserve_army_of_labour |
Some economists such as Paul Samuelson have taken issue with Marx's concept of the reserve army of labour. Samuelson argues that much Marxian literature assumes that the mere existence of the unemployed drives down wages, when in reality is dependent upon contingent factors. (Are the unemployed easily available as repl... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reserve_army_of_labour |
Samuelson argues that if prices also fall with money wage, then this does not mean real wages will fall. Samuelson also argues that wages will fall only until there are no more unemployed to bid it down: the reserve army can reduce wages only by decreasing its size. Samuelson's concludes that to mean that while the une... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reserve_army_of_labour |
Rothbard observes that this is supported by modern market economics, which holds that unemployment lowers wages and thus ultimately eliminates itself. Thus, Rothbard concludes that the reserve army would ultimately cease to be a threat. Rothbard also argues that industries can experience an increase in demand for other... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reserve_army_of_labour |
Some writers have interpreted Marx's argument to mean that an absolute immiseration of the working class would occur as the broad historical trend. Thus, the workers would become more and more impoverished and unemployment would constantly grow. This is no longer credible in the light of the facts because in various ep... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reserve_army_of_labour |
In the Great Depression, about one in four workers became unemployed, but towards the end of the post-war boom unemployment in richer countries reduced to a very low level. However, economic historian Paul Bairoch estimated in the mid-1980s that in Latin America, Africa and Asia "total inactivity" among the population ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reserve_army_of_labour |
In part, the level of unemployment also seems to be based on the balance of power between social classes and state policy. Governments can allow unemployment to rise, but also implement job-creating policies, which makes unemployment levels partly a political result. If chapter 25 of Marx's Capital, Volume I is read ca... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reserve_army_of_labour |
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