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Other types of business organizations, such as cooperatives, credit unions and publicly owned enterprises, can be established with purposes that parallel, supersede, or even replace the profit maximization mandate of business corporations. There are various types of company that can be formed in different jurisdictions... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corporate_law |
The members guarantee the payment of certain (usually nominal) amounts if the company goes into insolvent liquidation, but otherwise they have no economic rights in relation to the company . a company limited by guarantee with a share capital. A hybrid entity, usually used where the company is formed for non-commercial... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corporate_law |
a company limited by shares. The most common form of company used for business ventures. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corporate_law |
an unlimited company either with or without a share capital. This is a hybrid company, a company similar to its limited company (Ltd.) counterpart but where the members or shareholders do not benefit from limited liability should the company ever go into formal liquidation.There are, however, many specific categories o... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corporate_law |
One of the key legal features of corporations are their separate legal personality, also known as "personhood" or being "artificial persons". However, the separate legal personality was not confirmed under English law until 1895 by the House of Lords in Salomon v. Salomon & Co. Separate legal personality often has unin... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corporate_law |
And in Macaura v. Northern Assurance Co Ltd a claim under an insurance policy failed where the insured had transferred timber from his name into the name of a company wholly owned by him, and it was subsequently destroyed in a fire; as the property now belonged to the company and not to him, he no longer had an "insura... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corporate_law |
For instance in Adams v. Cape Industries plc it was held that victims of asbestos poisoning at the hands of an American subsidiary could not sue the English parent in tort. Whilst academic discussion highlights certain specific situations where courts are generally prepared to "pierce the corporate veil", to look direc... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corporate_law |
Historically, because companies are artificial persons created by operation of law, the law prescribed what the company could and could not do. Usually this was an expression of the commercial purpose which the company was formed for, and came to be referred to as the company's objects, and the extent of the objects ar... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corporate_law |
If the objects were the things that the company was able to do, then the powers were the means by which it could do them. Usually expressions of powers were limited to methods of raising capital, although from earlier times distinctions between objects and powers have caused lawyers difficulty. Most jurisdictions have ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corporate_law |
However, references to corporate capacity and powers have not quite been consigned to the dustbin of legal history. In many jurisdictions, directors can still be liable to their shareholders if they cause the company to engage in businesses outside its objects, even if the transactions are still valid as between the co... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corporate_law |
As artificial persons, companies can only act through human agents. The main agent who deals with the company's management and business is the board of directors, but in many jurisdictions other officers can be appointed too. The board of directors is normally elected by the members, and the other officers are normally... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corporate_law |
These agents enter into contracts on behalf of the company with third parties. Although the company's agents owe duties to the company (and, indirectly, to the shareholders) to exercise those powers for a proper purpose, generally speaking third parties' rights are not impugned if it transpires that the officers were a... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corporate_law |
A line of common law cases reaching back to Royal British Bank v Turquand established in common law that third parties were entitled to assume that the internal management of the company was being conducted properly, and the rule has now been codified into statute in most countries. Accordingly, companies will normally... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corporate_law |
Corporate Manslaughter and Corporate Homicide Act 2007 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corporate_law |
Corporate governance is primarily the study of the power relations among a corporation's senior executives, its board of directors and those who elect them (shareholders in the "general meeting" and employees), as well as other stakeholders, such as creditors, consumers, the environment and the community at large. One ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corporate_law |
There is the option to use two tiers in France, and in the new European Companies (Societas Europaea). Recent literature, especially from the United States, has begun to discuss corporate governance in the terms of management science. While post-war discourse centred on how to achieve effective "corporate democracy" fo... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corporate_law |
The rules for corporations derive from two sources. These are the country's statutes: in the US, usually the Delaware General Corporation Law (DGCL); in the UK, the Companies Act 2006 (CA 2006); in Germany, the Aktiengesetz (AktG) and the Gesetz betreffend die Gesellschaften mit beschränkter Haftung (GmbH-Gesetz, GmbHG... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corporate_law |
Examples of rules that members of a company would be allowed to change and choose could include, what kind of procedure general meetings should follow, when dividends get paid out, or how many members (beyond a minimum set out in the law) can amend the constitution. Usually, the statute will set out model articles, whi... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corporate_law |
The memorandum of association (or articles of incorporation) is the primary document, and will generally regulate the company's activities with the outside world. It states which objects the company is meant to follow (e.g. "this company makes automobiles") and specifies the authorised share capital of the company. The... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corporate_law |
In civil law jurisdictions, the company's constitution is normally consolidated into a single document, often called the charter. It is quite common for members of a company to supplement the corporate constitution with additional arrangements, such as shareholders' agreements, whereby they agree to exercise their memb... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corporate_law |
Conceptually a shareholders' agreement fulfills many of the same functions as the corporate constitution, but because it is a contract, it will not normally bind new members of the company unless they accede to it somehow. One benefit of shareholders' agreement is that they will usually be confidential, as most jurisdi... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corporate_law |
The most important rules for corporate governance are those concerning the balance of power between the board of directors and the members of the company. Authority is given or "delegated" to the board to manage the company for the success of the investors. Certain specific decision rights are often reserved for shareh... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corporate_law |
There are necessarily rules on when directors can be removed from office and replaced. To do that, meetings need to be called to vote on the issues. How easily the constitution can be amended and by whom necessarily affects the relations of power. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corporate_law |
It is a principle of corporate law that the directors of a company have the right to manage. This is expressed in statute in the DGCL, where §141(a) states, (a) The business and affairs of every corporation organized under this chapter shall be managed by or under the direction of a board of directors, except as may be... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corporate_law |
In the United Kingdom, the right to manage is not laid down in law, but is found in Part.2 of the Model Articles. This means it is a default rule, which companies can opt out of (s.20 CA 2006) by reserving powers to members, although companies rarely do. UK law specifically reserves shareholders right and duty to appro... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corporate_law |
Similar rules, though much less stringent, exist in §271 DGCL and through case law in Germany under the so-called Holzmüller-Doktrin.Probably the most fundamental guarantee that directors will act in the members' interests is that they can easily be sacked. During the Great Depression, two Harvard scholars, Adolf Berle... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corporate_law |
10% of shareholders can demand a meeting any time, and 5% can if it has been a year since the last one (s.303 CA 2006). In Germany, where employee participation creates the need for greater boardroom stability, §84(3) AktG states that management board directors can only be removed by the supervisory board for an import... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corporate_law |
§122 AktG lets 10% of shareholders demand a meeting. In the US, Delaware lets directors enjoy considerable autonomy. §141(k) DGCL states that directors can be removed without any cause, unless the board is "classified", meaning that directors only come up for re-appointment on different years. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corporate_law |
If the board is classified, then directors cannot be removed unless there is gross misconduct. Director's autonomy from shareholders is seen further in §216 DGCL, which allows for plurality voting and §211(d) which states shareholder meetings can only be called if the constitution allows for it. The problem is that in ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corporate_law |
In most jurisdictions, directors owe strict duties of good faith, as well as duties of care and skill, to safeguard the interests of the company and the members. In many developed countries outside the English speaking world, company boards are appointed as representatives of both shareholders and employees to "codeter... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corporate_law |
This rule is so strictly enforced that, even where the conflict of interest or conflict of duty is purely hypothetical, the directors can be forced to disgorge all personal gains arising from it. In Aberdeen Ry v. Blaikie (1854) 1 Macq HL 461 Lord Cranworth stated in his judgment that, However, in many jurisdictions th... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corporate_law |
The standard of skill and care that a director owes is usually described as acquiring and maintaining sufficient knowledge and understanding of the company's business to enable him to properly discharge his duties. This duty enables the company to seek compensation from its director if it can be proved that a director ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corporate_law |
Ronald Coase has pointed out, all business organizations represent an attempt to avoid certain costs associated with doing business. Each is meant to facilitate the contribution of specific resources - investment capital, knowledge, relationships, and so forth - towards a venture which will prove profitable to all cont... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corporate_law |
For this reason, all partners in a typical general partnership may be held liable for the wrongs committed by one partner. Those forms that provide limited liability are able to do so because the state provides a mechanism by which businesses that follow certain guidelines will be able to escape the full liability impo... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corporate_law |
Members of a company generally have rights against each other and against the company, as framed under the company's constitution. However, members cannot generally claim against third parties who cause damage to the company which results in a diminution in the value of their shares or others membership interests becau... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corporate_law |
Accordingly, a number of exceptions have developed in law in relation to the general principle of majority rule. Where the majority shareholder(s) are exercising their votes to perpetrate a fraud on the minority, the courts may permit the minority to sue members always retain the right to sue if the majority acts to in... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corporate_law |
Through the operational life of the corporation, perhaps the most crucial aspect of corporate law relates to raising capital for the business to operate. The law, as it relates to corporate finance, not only provides the framework for which a business raises funds - but also provides a forum for principles and policies... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corporate_law |
Additional methods of raising capital necessary to finance its operations is that of retained profits Various combinations of financing structures have the capacity to produce fine-tuned transactions which, using the advantages of each form of financing, support the limitations of the corporate form, its industry, or e... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corporate_law |
A company limited by shares, whether public or private, must have at least one issued share; however, depending on the corporate structure, the formatting may differ. If a company wishes to raise capital through equity, it will usually be done by issuing shares (sometimes called "stock" (not to be confused with stock-i... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corporate_law |
Shares also normally have a nominal or par value, which is the limit of the shareholder's liability to contribute to the debts of the company on an insolvent liquidation. Shares usually confer a number of rights on the holder. These will normally include: voting rights rights to dividends (or payments made by companies... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corporate_law |
A company might issue both ordinary shares and preference shares, with the two types having different voting and/or economic rights. It might provide that preference shareholders shall each receive a cumulative preferred dividend of a certain amount per annum, but the ordinary shareholders shall receive everything else... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corporate_law |
Corporations will structure capital raising in this way in order to appeal to different lenders in the market by providing different incentives for investment. The total value of issued shares in a company is said to represent its equity capital. Most jurisdictions regulate the minimum amount of capital which a company... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corporate_law |
Events such as mergers, acquisitions, insolvency, or the commission of a crime affect the corporate form. In addition to the creation of the corporation, and its financing, these events serve as a transition phase into either dissolution, or some other material shift. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corporate_law |
A merger or acquisition can often mean the altering or extinguishing of the corporation. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corporate_law |
If unable to discharge its debts in a timely manner, a corporation may end up on bankruptcy liquidation. Liquidation is the normal means by which a company's existence is brought to an end. It is also referred to (either alternatively or concurrently) in some jurisdictions as winding up or dissolution. Liquidations gen... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corporate_law |
Where a company goes into liquidation, normally a liquidator is appointed to gather in all the company's assets and settle all claims against the company. If there is any surplus after paying off all the creditors of the company, this surplus is then distributed to the members. As its names imply, applications for comp... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corporate_law |
However, in some jurisdictions, regulators have the power to apply for the liquidation of the company on the grounds of public good, i.e., where the company is believed to have engaged in unlawful conduct, or conduct which is otherwise harmful to the public at large. Voluntary liquidations occur when the company's memb... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corporate_law |
Some jurisdictions also permit companies to be wound up on "just and equitable" grounds. Generally, applications for just and equitable winding-up are brought by a member of the company who alleges that the affairs of the company are being conducted in a prejudicial manner, and asking the court to bring an end to the c... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corporate_law |
Insider trading is the trading of a corporation's stock or other securities (e.g., bonds or stock options) by individuals with potential access to non-public information about the company. In most countries, trading by corporate insiders such as officers, key employees, directors, and large shareholders may be legal if... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corporate_law |
Illegal insider trading is believed to raise the cost of capital for securities issuers, thus decreasing overall economic growth.In the United States and several other jurisdictions, trading conducted by corporate officers, key employees, directors, or significant shareholders (in the United States, defined as benefici... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corporate_law |
Most case law on the matter of corporate governance dates to the 1980s and primarily addresses hostile takeovers, however, current research considers the direction of legal reforms to address issues of shareholder activism, institutional investors and capital market intermediaries. Corporations and boards are challenge... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corporate_law |
Shareholders do not decide corporate policy, that is done by the board of directors, but shareholders may vote to elect board directors and on mergers and other changes that have been approved by directors. They may also vote to amend corporate bylaws. Broadly speaking there have been three movements in 20th century Am... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corporate_law |
However, these movements did not establish federal incorporation. Although there has been some federal involvement in corporate governance rules as a result, the relative rights of shareholders and corporate officers is still mostly regulated by state laws. There is no federal legislation like there is for corporate po... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corporate_law |
In the United States, most corporations are incorporated, or organized, under the laws of a particular state. The laws of the state of incorporation normally governs a corporation's internal operations, even if the corporation's operations take place outside that state. Corporate law differs from state to state. Becaus... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corporate_law |
A majority of publicly traded companies in the U.S. are Delaware corporations. Some companies choose to incorporate in Delaware because the Delaware General Corporation Law offers lower corporate taxes than many other states. Many venture capitalists prefer to invest in Delaware corporations. Also, the Delaware Court o... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corporate_law |
Implicit attitudes are evaluations that occur without conscious awareness towards an attitude object or the self. These evaluations are generally either favorable or unfavorable and come about from various influences in the individual experience. The commonly used definition of implicit attitude within cognitive and so... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Implicit_attitude |
A number of different theories have been proposed relating to the formation, development, and influence of implicit attitudes. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Implicit_attitude |
Based on many empirical findings, Greenwald and Banaji et al. (1995) generated the fundamental idea of implicit attitude definitively for the first time, disambiguating attitude into explicit and implicit types. Halo effects are an example of the empirical research used by Greenwald and Banaji in their chapter on impli... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Implicit_attitude |
Pioneered by Edward Thorndike in 1920, the halo effect is the judgement of attribute "A" being influenced by a known but irrelevant attribute "B". For example, subsequent replications commonly use physical attractiveness as attribute "B" and attribute "A" being a judgement of the subject. More specifically a study Land... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Implicit_attitude |
Earlier research findings on implicit attitudes show that socialization and reflections of past experiences may be responsible for the development or manifestation of longer lasting implicit attitudes. As an example, Rudman and Goodwin et al. found in 2004 that individuals who were primarily raised by their mothers sho... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Implicit_attitude |
Self-related objects are anything that pertains to the self; including in-groups and self-esteem (attitude towards the self). Early research by Nuttin et al. in 1985 suggested that people generally have an implicit preference for letters in their own name, known as the Name letter effect. Further replications of this s... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Implicit_attitude |
This manifestation of implicit attitude has come to be known as Implicit egotism. Implicit egotism additionally manifests itself in in-groups.Implicit partisanship is the heightened attractiveness and identification to a self-related group and negative or neutral attitudes towards non-self-related groups. Greenwald, Pi... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Implicit_attitude |
Generally speaking, culture and social norms have an effect on implicit attitude in the same way experiences and socialization have an effect on implicit attitude. However, culture has a very noticeable effect on implicit attitude in the way implicit attitude differs from one's explicit attitude. In 2002, Livingston et... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Implicit_attitude |
With that said, a strong cultural disadvantage (e.g., negative attitude) can effectively eliminate in-group favoritism when tested at the implicit level. However it may be important to note that at the explicit attitude level, these individuals still showed positive attitudes towards their social group. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Implicit_attitude |
Olson and Fazio et al. suggested in 2004 that at an implicit level one's personal attitude can be influenced by the social or cultural norms that one perceives. Furthermore, this may be due to a weak distinction between one's personal attitude and extrapersonal associations (e.g., one's cultural evaluations) towards an... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Implicit_attitude |
Current research supports the idea that there are three different aspects of attitudes captured by current indirect measures that could be outside of conscious awareness: the source, the content, and the impact of an attitude. Source awareness is described as the "awareness of the origin of a particular attitude" (emph... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Implicit_attitude |
Finally, one may have awareness of both the attitude and its source but the attitude may still have influences on thought or behavior beyond ones awareness; this can be thought of as impact awareness. Conclusions have been made that both indirectly assessed and self-reported attitudes can be characterized by lack of so... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Implicit_attitude |
Recent research indicates the possibility of the malleability of implicit attitudes based on situational context. That is, implicit attitudes are not believed to be stable representations of memory, rather they are constructed based on the type of available information in a given situation. Available information can va... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Implicit_attitude |
For example, it has been demonstrated that the information given to an individual prior to completing an implicit measure directly affects their response based on the information they were given. Therefore, if an individual is primed with information regarding the positive, or negative, attributions of a different race... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Implicit_attitude |
The fundamental goal of measuring implicit attitudes is to use it to predict behavior; behaviors that can't be predicted by knowledge of explicitly held attitudes. Numerous studies, such as research conducted by Chen and Bargh in 1999, show that automatic evaluations triggered by various attitudes towards objects direc... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Implicit_attitude |
In Bassenoff and Sherman et al. (2000) they found that automatic negative attitudes about overweight individuals directly predicted how far participants choose to sit from a fat woman, who they were expected to interact with. We see this phenomenon also with implicitly held racial attitudes as shown by McConnell and Le... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Implicit_attitude |
Implicit attitudes aren't always better at predicting behavior than explicit measurements, they both play a systematic role in predicting behavior. Implicit attitudes are typically better than explicit attitudes at predicting behavior that is automatic and spontaneous. In line with Dual process theories such as Fazio's... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Implicit_attitude |
Although, research has shown that motivation and an opportunity to react carefully can affect how much implicit attitudes influence behavioral response. When individuals are highly motivated to control their responses and processing abilities are not lacking or preoccupied, behavioral responses tend to reflect intentio... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Implicit_attitude |
There is an assortment of different experimental tests that assess for the presence of implicit attitudes, including the implicit association test, evaluative and semantic priming tasks, the Extrinsic Affective Simon Task, Go/No-Go Association Task, and the Affect Misattribution Procedure. Though these tests vary in ad... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Implicit_attitude |
The Implicit Association Test is a latency-based measure of the relative associations between two concepts. In a series of tasks, participants sort words or images representing a target concept such as race (white/black) and stimuli with known positive/negative valence into two categories (usually indicated by right or... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Implicit_attitude |
A full demonstration of the IAT procedure can be found at the Project Implicit link and the IAT Inquisit link below. Research using the IAT measure of implicit attitudes has demonstrated consistent experimental and population-based attitudes with respect to concepts such as gender, race, and age. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Implicit_attitude |
An analysis from the Project Implicit database found that science-gender stereotypes are predictive of differences in gender related math and science performance across countries in an international sample. Research has also successfully used the IAT in consumer research. Implicit attitude also directly drives the use ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Implicit_attitude |
Research using the evaluative priming task has been frequently used in research on eating and attitudes towards food. In clinical studies, the procedure was used to study attitudes of those diagnosed with eating disorders such as anorexia nervosa. Along with many of the other methods presented here, researchers have us... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Implicit_attitude |
In the semantic priming task paradigm described by Wittenbrink et al. (1997), participants are shown a word prime at intervals which are too brief for reported awareness (see subliminal stimuli). The word prime consists of two groups of words representing the concept in question (such as black sounding names or white s... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Implicit_attitude |
In the Extrinsic Affective Simon Task (EAST), participants categorized stimuli which consisted of words that either had positive or negative valence that were presented in either the color white or two different colors. When the words are presented in white, participants categorize based words on their perceived positi... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Implicit_attitude |
A full demonstration of the EAST procedure can be found in the external links below. The EAST has been used in research of attitudes of those who have specific phobias and/or anxiety. Additionally, the test has been recently used to measure implicit attitudes towards alcohol in populations who have substance abuse prob... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Implicit_attitude |
In practice, the GNAT appears similar to the Implicit Association Test in that participants are asked to categorize targets representing either a concept (such as race; ex. white or black names) or words which have obvious positive or negative valence. Participants are asked to respond ('go') or decline to respond ('no... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Implicit_attitude |
When paired with words with positive valence, faster and more accurate responding indicates greater association, and therefore positive attitude towards the target concept (either white or black race). A full demonstration of the GNAT procedure can be found in the external links below. Like the EAST, the GNAT has been ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Implicit_attitude |
The Affect Misattribution Procedure relies on participant ratings of neutral stimuli as an indirect measure of implicit attitudes rather than latency or accuracy measures. In the procedure, participants are first presented with a stimulus (usually an image or word), for either a brief visible period or subliminally, wh... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Implicit_attitude |
Neutral stimuli which are rated as more visually pleasing indicate that the preceding concept presented in the prime stimuli are associated with positive valence. A full demonstration of the AMP procedure can be found in the external links below. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Implicit_attitude |
The AMP has been used to study attitudes towards political candidates and has proven useful in predicting voting behavior. Also, the procedure is frequently used in the study of substance use; for example, attitudes towards cigarettes among smokers and non-smokers and attitudes towards alcohol among heavy drinkers. It ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Implicit_attitude |
The following are some examples of how implicit attitude and explicit attitude are moderated by each other and how they interact with each other. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Implicit_attitude |
Individuals will alter a response when questioned for personal or social purposes. This typically happens in situations where individuals are not willing to report or express their "affective response toward an object" because they don't want others to know how they feel about something (they don't consciously accept o... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Implicit_attitude |
The strength of an attitude has an influence on explicit attitudes the stronger an implicit attitude the more likely it is that it will show up in an explicit attitude. Strong attitudes are stable and not easily changed due to persuasion and can therefore help predict behaviors. The more an individual expresses or acts... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Implicit_attitude |
Much of the literature within the field of social psychology has focused on explicit constructions of the attitude construct. Until more recently, examination of attitudes beyond reported awareness has lagged far behind that of explicit attitudes. This point is driven home in a review of research in the mid-1990s which... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Implicit_attitude |
Newer research has called into question the distinction between implicit and explicit attitudes. Fazio & Olson ask whether a person who is being primed to detect implicit attitudes is necessarily blind to their implicit beliefs. In their paper they bring up the question; just because a person is primed on an unconsciou... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Implicit_attitude |
They go on to say there is not a known test capable of measuring explicit attitudes solely without the influence of implicit attitudes as well. However, they do go on to say that context can have a significant effect on this particular line of research. People's explicitly stated and implicitly tested attitudes are mor... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Implicit_attitude |
They exert that "The more sensitive the domain, the greater the likelihood that motivational factors will be evoked and exert some influence on overt responses to an explicit measure". In other words, it is easier to compare explicit and implicit attitudes on safe subjects than subjects where people are likely to mask ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Implicit_attitude |
A central assumption of the APE model is that implicit and explicit evaluations are the product of two functionally distinct mental processes. Whereas implicit evaluations are assumed to be the outcome of associative processes, explicit evaluations are assumed to be the outcome of propositional processes. Associative p... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Implicit_attitude |
Propositional processes are defined as the validation of activated information on the basis of cognitive consistency. A central assumption of the APE model is that people tend to rely on their implicit evaluations when making explicit evaluative judgments to the extent that the implicit evaluative response is consisten... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Implicit_attitude |
Hugging Face, Inc. is a French-American company that develops tools for building applications using machine learning, based in New York City. It is most notable for its transformers library built for natural language processing applications and its platform that allows users to share machine learning models and dataset... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugging_Face |
The company was founded in 2016 by French entrepreneurs Clément Delangue, Julien Chaumond, and Thomas Wolf in New York City, originally as a company that developed a chatbot app targeted at teenagers. After open-sourcing the model behind the chatbot, the company pivoted to focus on being a platform for machine learning... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugging_Face |
The company received a $2 billion valuation. On May 13, 2022, the company introduced its Student Ambassador Program to help fulfill its mission to teach machine learning to 5 million people by 2023.On May 26, 2022, the company announced a partnership with Graphcore to optimize its Transformers library for the Graphcore... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugging_Face |
The Transformers library is a Python package that contains open-source implementations of transformer models for text, image, and audio tasks. It is compatible with the PyTorch, TensorFlow and JAX deep learning libraries and includes implementations of notable models like BERT and GPT-2. The library was originally call... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugging_Face |
The Hugging Face Hub is a platform (centralized web service) for hosting: Git-based code repositories, with features similar to GitHub, including discussions and pull requests for projects. models, also with Git-based version control; datasets, mainly in text, images, and audio; web applications ("spaces" and "widgets"... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugging_Face |
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