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The chthonic serpent was one of the earth-animals associated with the cult of Mithras. The basilisk, the venomous "king of serpents" with the glance that kills, was hatched by a serpent, Pliny the Elder and others thought, from the egg of a cock. Outside Eurasia, in Yoruba mythology, Oshunmare was another mythic regene... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serpent_symbolism |
The Rainbow Serpent (also known as the Rainbow Snake) is a major mythological being for Aboriginal people across Australia, although the creation myths associated with it are best known from northern Australia. In Fiji, Ratumaibulu was a serpent god who ruled the underworld and made fruit trees bloom. In the Northern F... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serpent_symbolism |
The serpent, when forming a ring with its tail in its mouth, is a clear and widespread symbol of the "All-in-All", the totality of existence, infinity and the cyclic nature of the cosmos. The most well known version of this is the Aegypto-Greek ourobouros. It is believed to have been inspired by the Milky Way, as some ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serpent_symbolism |
In Norse mythology the World Serpent (or Midgard serpent) known as Jörmungandr encircled the world in the ocean's abyss biting its own tail. In Hindu mythology Lord Vishnu is said to sleep while floating on the cosmic waters on the serpent Shesha. In the Puranas Shesha holds all the planets of the universe on his hoods... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serpent_symbolism |
He is sometimes referred to as "Ananta-Shesha," which means "Endless Shesha". In the Samudra manthan chapter of the Puranas, Shesha loosens Mount Mandara for it to be used as a churning rod by the Asuras and Devas to churn the ocean of milk in the heavens in order to make Soma (or Amrita), the divine elixir of immortal... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serpent_symbolism |
As a churning rope another giant serpent called Vasuki is used. In pre-Columbian Central America Quetzalcoatl was sometimes depicted as biting its own tail. The mother of Quetzalcoatl was the Aztec goddess Coatlicue ("the one with the skirt of serpents"), also known as Cihuacoatl ("The Lady of the serpent"). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serpent_symbolism |
Quetzalcoatl's father was Mixcoatl ("Cloud Serpent"). He was identified with the Milky Way, the stars, and the heavens in several Mesoamerican cultures. The demigod Aidophedo of the West African Ashanti people is also a serpent biting its own tail. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serpent_symbolism |
In Dahomey mythology of Benin in West Africa, the serpent that supports everything on its many coils was named Dan. In the Vodou of Benin and Haiti, Ayida-Weddo (a.k.a. Aida-Wedo, Aido Quedo, "Rainbow-Serpent") is a spirit of fertility, rainbows and snakes, and a companion or wife to Dan, the father of all spirits. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serpent_symbolism |
As Vodou was exported to Haiti through the slave trade, Dan became Danballah, Damballah or Damballah-Wedo. Because of his association with snakes, he is sometimes disguised as Moses, who carried a snake on his staff. He is also thought by many to be the same entity of Saint Patrick, known as a snake banisher. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serpent_symbolism |
The serpent Hydra is a star constellation representing either the serpent thrown angrily into the sky by Apollo or the Lernaean Hydra as defeated by Heracles for one of his Twelve Labors. The constellation Serpens represents a snake being tamed by Ophiuchus the snake-handler, another constellation. The most probable in... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serpent_symbolism |
Occasionally, serpents and dragons are used interchangeably, having similar symbolic functions. The venom of the serpent is thought to have a fiery quality similar to a fire-breathing dragon. The Greek Ladon and the Norse Níðhöggr (Nidhogg Nagar) are sometimes described as serpents and sometimes as dragons. In Germanic... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serpent_symbolism |
In Africa the chief centre of serpent worship was Dahomey, but the cult of the python seems to have been of exotic origin, dating back to the first quarter of the 17th century. By the conquest of Whydah the Dahomeyans were brought in contact with a people of serpent worshipers, and ended by adopting from them the belie... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serpent_symbolism |
Danh-gbi has numerous wives, who until 1857 took part in a public procession from which the profane crowd was excluded; a python was carried round the town in a hammock, perhaps as a ceremony for the expulsion of evils. The rainbow-god of the Ashanti was also conceived to have the form of a snake. His messenger was sai... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serpent_symbolism |
In many parts of Africa the serpent is looked upon as the incarnation of deceased relatives. Among the amaZulu, as among the Betsileo of Madagascar, certain species are assigned as the abode of certain classes. The Maasai, on the other hand, regard each species as the habitat of a particular family of the tribe. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serpent_symbolism |
In ancient Mesopotamia, Nirah, the messenger god of Ištaran, was represented as a serpent on kudurrus, or boundary stones. Representations of two intertwined serpents are common in Sumerian art and Neo-Sumerian artwork and still appear sporadically on cylinder seals and amulets until as late as the thirteenth century B... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serpent_symbolism |
This creature, known in Akkadian as the mušḫuššu, meaning "furious serpent", was used as a symbol for particular deities and also as a general protective emblem. It seems to have originally been the attendant of the underworld god Ninazu, but later became the attendant to the Hurrian storm-god Tishpak, as well as, late... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serpent_symbolism |
In 6th-century Babylon, a pair of bronze serpents flanked each of the four doorways of the temple of Esagila. At the Babylonian New Year's festival, the priest was to commission from a woodworker, a metalworker and a goldsmith two images, one of which "shall hold in its left hand a snake of cedar, raising its right to... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serpent_symbolism |
Significant finds of pottery, bronze-ware and even gold depictions of snakes have been made throughout the United Arab Emirates (UAE). The Bronze Age and Iron Age metallurgical centre of Saruq Al Hadid has yielded probably the richest trove of such objects, although finds have been made bearing snake symbols in Bronze ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serpent_symbolism |
In the Hebrew Bible the serpent in the Garden of Eden lured Eve with the promise of being like God, tempting her that despite God's warning, death would not be the result, that God was withholding knowledge from her. Although the serpent is identified as Satan in the Book of Revelation, in Genesis the serpent is portra... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serpent_symbolism |
This copper snake according to the Biblical text is put on a pole and used for healing. Book of Numbers 21:9 "And Moses made a snake of copper, and put it upon a pole, and it came to pass, that if a snake had bitten any man, when he beheld the snake of brass, he lived." When the reformer King Hezekiah came to the thron... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serpent_symbolism |
In the Gospel of John 3:14–15, Jesus makes direct comparison between the raising up of the Son of Man and the act of Moses in raising up the serpent as a sign, using it as a symbol associated with salvation: "As Moses lifted up the serpent in the wilderness, even so must the Son of Man be lifted up, that whoever believ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serpent_symbolism |
The serpent is a recurrent motif in Islamic thought, appearing in both sacred texts representing evil and works of art. The creature is often seen as a symbol of evil and punishment. The serpent is a complex figure in Islamic thought, appearing as both a symbol of evil and a figure of wisdom. The creature provides a re... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serpent_symbolism |
Serpents are sacred and powerful in the thought of prehistoric cultures of Iran, having been portrayed as patrons of fertility, water and wealth in the ancient objects of Iran. They seem to have been worshipped along with the fertility goddesses from the fourth to first millennia BC, when their presence as mighty patro... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serpent_symbolism |
In Chinese creationism mythology, Nüwa is the mother goddess who created humans from clay. She is depicted as a half snake being. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serpent_symbolism |
The Minoan Snake Goddess brandished a serpent in either hand, perhaps evoking her role as source of wisdom, rather than her role as Mistress of the Animals (Potnia Theron), with a leopard under each arm. Serpents figured prominently in archaic Greek myths. According to some sources, Ophion ("serpent", a.k.a. Ophioneus)... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serpent_symbolism |
The oracles of the Ancient Greeks were said to have been the continuation of the tradition begun with the worship of the Egyptian cobra goddess Wadjet. Typhon, the enemy of the Olympian gods, is described as a vast grisly monster with a hundred heads and a hundred serpents issuing from his thighs, who was conquered and... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serpent_symbolism |
Serpent elements figure among his offspring; among his children by Echidna are Cerberus (a monstrous three-headed dog with a snake for a tail and a serpentine mane); the serpent-tailed Chimaera; the serpent-like chthonic water beast Lernaean Hydra; and the hundred-headed serpentine dragon Ladon. Both the Lernaean Hydra... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serpent_symbolism |
She always was represented in the vase-paintings and by sculptors as a serpent. Python was the chthonic enemy of Apollo, who slew her and remade her former home his own oracle, the most famous in Classical Greece. Medusa and the other Gorgons were vicious female monsters with sharp fangs and hair of living, venomous sn... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serpent_symbolism |
The Gorgons wore a belt of two intertwined serpents in the same configuration of the caduceus. The Gorgon was placed at the center, highest point of one of the pediments on the Temple of Artemis at Corfu. Asclepius, the son of Apollo and Coronis, learned the secrets of keeping death at bay after observing one serpent b... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serpent_symbolism |
To prevent the entire human race from becoming immortal under Asclepius's care, Zeus killed him with a bolt of lightning. Asclepius' death at the hands of Zeus illustrates man's inability to challenge the natural order that separates mortal men from the gods. In honor of Asclepius, snakes were often used in healing rit... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serpent_symbolism |
Non-poisonous snakes were left to crawl on the floor in dormitories where the sick and injured slept. The Bibliotheca claimed that Athena gave Asclepius a vial of blood from the Gorgons. Gorgon blood had magical properties: if taken from the left side of the Gorgon, it was a fatal poison; from the right side, the blood... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serpent_symbolism |
However, Euripides wrote in his tragedy Ion that the Athenian queen Creusa had inherited this vial from her ancestor Erichthonios, who was a snake himself and had received the vial from Athena. In this version the blood of Medusa had the healing power while the lethal poison originated from Medusa's serpents. Olympias,... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serpent_symbolism |
Aeëtes, the king of Colchis and father of the sorceress Medea, possessed the Golden Fleece. He guarded it with a massive serpent that never slept. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serpent_symbolism |
Medea, who had fallen in love with Jason of the Argonauts, enchanted it to sleep so Jason could seize the Fleece. (See Lamia). When not driven by horses, the chariot of the Greek sun god is described as being pulled by fiery draconic beings. The most notable instance of this is observed in the episode in which Medea is... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serpent_symbolism |
Naga (Sanskrit:नाग) is the Sanskrit/Pāli word for a deity or class of entity or being, taking the form of a very large snake, found in Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism. The naga primarily represents rebirth, death and mortality, due to its casting of its skin and being symbolically "reborn". Hindus associated naga with S... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serpent_symbolism |
Serpents, or nāgas, play a particularly important role in Cambodian, Isan and Laotian mythology. An origin myth explains the emergence of the name "Cambodia" as resulting from conquest of a naga princess by a Kambuja lord named Kaundinya: the descendants of their union are the Khmer people. George Cœdès suggests the Ca... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serpent_symbolism |
Some Native American tribes give reverence to the rattlesnake as grandfather and king of snakes who is able to give fair winds or cause tempest. Among the Hopi of Arizona the serpent figures largely in one of the dances. The rattlesnake was worshiped in the Natchez Temple of the Sun, and the Aztec deity Quetzalcoatl wa... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serpent_symbolism |
The tribes of Peru are said to have adored great snakes in the pre-Inca days, and in Chile the Mapuche made a serpent figure in their deluge beliefs.A Horned Serpent is a popular image in Northern American natives' mythology.In one Native North American story, an evil serpent kills one of the gods' cousins, so the god ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serpent_symbolism |
Jörmungandr, alternately referred to as the Midgard Serpent or World Serpent, is a sea serpent of Norse mythology, the middle child of Loki and the giantess Angrboða. According to the Prose Edda, Odin took Loki's three children, Fenrisúlfr, Hel and Jörmungandr. He tossed Jörmungandr into the great ocean that encircles ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serpent_symbolism |
The serpent grew so big that he was able to surround the Earth and grasp his own tail, and as a result he earned the alternate name of the Midgard Serpent or World Serpent. Jörmungandr's arch enemy is the god Thor. In the Poetic Edda, Odin tells of eight serpents gnawing on the roots of Yggdrasil: Nidhöggr, Gravvitnir,... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serpent_symbolism |
In folk and fairy tale traditions all over the world, the serpent and the snake appear as characters in several fairy tales, either a main character in animal fables and magic tales (Märchen), or as the donor who grants the protagonist a special ability or impart him with some secret knowledge. According to the Aarne-T... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serpent_symbolism |
The trickster animal feigns innocence and wants to understand the origin of the problem, so the ungrateful animal goes back to the pit to demonstrate. The farmer leaves the animal trapped again. Example: The Tiger, the Brahmin and the Jackal, Indian fable. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serpent_symbolism |
Aarne-Thompson-Uther Index tale type ATU 411, "The King and the Lamia (The Snake-Wife)": a man takes to wife a woman of mysterious background. A holy person (hermit, cleric, monk) sees through the deception and reveals the woman's true nature as a serpent. This type would include Legend of the White Snake (Chinese lege... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serpent_symbolism |
Aarne-Thompson-Uther Index tale type ATU 425, "The Search for the Lost Husband" and ATU 425A, "The Animal Bridegroom": a maiden is betrothed to an animal bridegroom (a snake, dragon or serpent, in several variants), who comes at night to the bridal bed in human form. The maiden breaks a taboo and her enchanted husband ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serpent_symbolism |
Example: The Green Serpent, French literary fairy tale; The Snake Prince, Indian fairy tale; The Enchanted Snake, Italian literary fairy tale; The Serpent Prince, Hungarian folktale. Aarne-Thompson-Uther Index tale type ATU 425M, "The Snake as Bridegroom": a girl goes bathing and leaves her clothing by the shore. When ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serpent_symbolism |
She promises to marry the snake. Some time later, the grass snake comes to take its bride and bring her to its underwater (or underground) palace. This tale type seems to be restricted to the Baltic geographical area. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serpent_symbolism |
Example: Egle the Queen of Serpents, a Lithuanian fairy tale. Aarne-Thompson-Uther Index tale type ATU 433B, "King Lindworm": a childless queen gives birth to a boy in snake form. Years later, he wishes to marry, but either devours his brides on their wedding night or cannot find a woman brave enough to accept his serp... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serpent_symbolism |
The snake prince is disenchanted by a maiden who wears layers of clothing in their nuptial night to mirror his layers of snakeskin. Example: King Lindworm, a Danish fairy tale. Aarne-Thompson-Uther Index tale type ATU 485, "Borma Jarizhka" or "The City of Babylon": a tsar sends a brave knight to the city of Babylon to ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serpent_symbolism |
The city is surrounded by snakes and ruled by a princess with snake-like attributes. Aarne-Thompson-Uther Index tale type ATU 560, "The Magic Ring": a poor man either buys or rescues four types of animals, a cat, a dog, a mouse and a snake. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serpent_symbolism |
This snake is the son of the king of serpents. It takes the boy to its father's court to reward him a wish-granting object (usually a magic stone or ring). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serpent_symbolism |
Example: The Enchanted Watch, French fairy tale. Aarne-Thompson-Uther Index tale type ATU 612, "The Three Snake-Leaves": a man kills a snake. Its mate brings three magical leaves to resurrect it. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serpent_symbolism |
This inspires the man to find a similar herb to use on his deceased bride/wife. Aarne-Thompson-Uther Index tale type ATU 672, "The Serpent's Crown": a snake takes off its crown to bathe in the lake. The crown is stolen by a human, who discovers the crown can grant special abilities (most often, the knowledge of animal ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serpent_symbolism |
Snakes entwined the staffs both of Hermes (the caduceus) and of Asclepius, where a single snake entwined the rough staff. On Hermes' caduceus, the snakes were not merely duplicated for symmetry, they were paired opposites. (This motif is congruent with the phurba.) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serpent_symbolism |
The wings at the head of the staff identified it as belonging to the winged messenger Hermes, the Roman Mercury, who was the god of magic, diplomacy and rhetoric, of inventions and discoveries, and the protector both of merchants and that allied occupation, to the mythographers' view, of thieves. It is however Hermes' ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serpent_symbolism |
Chemistry and medicines linked the rod of Hermes with the staff of the healer Asclepius, which was wound with a serpent; it was conflated with Mercury's rod, and the modern medical symbol—which should simply be the rod of Asclepius—often became Mercury's wand of commerce. Another version is used in alchemy where the sn... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serpent_symbolism |
Following the Christian context as a symbol for evil, serpents are sometimes featured in political propaganda. They were used to represent Jews in antisemitic propaganda. Snakes were also used to represent the evil side of drugs in such films as Narcotic and Narcotics: Pit of Despair. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serpent_symbolism |
The automobile brands AC Cobra, Ford Mustang Shelby, Zarooq Motors, Dodge Viper, and Alpha Romeo all feature snakes on their logos. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serpent_symbolism |
Post-processual archaeology, which is sometimes alternately referred to as the interpretative archaeologies by its adherents, is a movement in archaeological theory that emphasizes the subjectivity of archaeological interpretations. Despite having a vague series of similarities, post-processualism consists of "very div... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post-processual_archaeology |
Parallel developments soon followed in the United States. Initially post-processualism was primarily a reaction to and critique of processual archaeology, a paradigm developed in the 1960s by 'New Archaeologists' such as Lewis Binford, and which had become dominant in Anglophone archaeology by the 1970s. Post-processua... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post-processual_archaeology |
The post-processualists' approach to archaeology is diametrically opposed to that of the processualists. The processualists, as positivists, believed that the scientific method should and could apply to archaeological investigation, therefore allowing archaeologists to present objective statements about past societies ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post-processual_archaeology |
Due to the fact that they believe archaeology to be inherently subjective, post-processualists argue that "all archaeologists... whether they overtly admit it or not", always impose their own views and biases into their interpretations of the archaeological data. In many cases, they hold that this bias is political in ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post-processual_archaeology |
In a similar criticism, Miller and Chris Tilley believed that by putting forward the concept that human societies were irresistibly shaped by external influences and pressures, archaeologists were tacitly accepting social injustice. Many post-processualists took this further and criticised the fact that archaeologists ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post-processual_archaeology |
Whereas the processualists had been firm materialists, and the culture-historical archaeologists had, by contrast, been idealists, the post-processualists argued that past societies should be interpreted through both materialist and idealist ideas. As Johnson noted, "Many postprocessualists claim that we should reject ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post-processual_archaeology |
He argued that: On the one hand, a materialist view of landscape tends to stress how it may be seen in terms of a set of resources, for example for hunter-gatherers or early farming groups. This leads one to turn, for example, to optimal foraging theory and other economic models for an understanding of how people explo... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post-processual_archaeology |
They reject the 'rational' view of 'landscape-as-a-set-of-resources' as that of our own society and one that is ideologically loaded in its own way, loaded towards ideas of commodity and exploitation found in our own society. They suggest that ancient peoples would have had different views of what was 'real' in that la... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post-processual_archaeology |
Many, although not all post-processualists have adhered to the theory of structuralism in understanding historical societies. Structuralism itself was a theory developed by the French anthropologist Claude Lévi-Strauss (1908–2009), and held to the idea that "cultural patterns need not be caused by anything outside them... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post-processual_archaeology |
This structuralist approach was first taken from anthropology and applied into forms of archaeology by the French archaeologist André Leroi-Gourhan (1911–1986), who used it to interpret prehistoric symbols in his 1964 work, Les Religions de la Préhistoire.Within the post-processual movement, Ian Hodder became "the lead... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post-processual_archaeology |
Post-processualists have also adopted beliefs regarding human agency, arguing that in other theoretical approaches to archaeology such as cultural-historical and processual, "the individual is lost", and humans are therefore portrayed as "passive dupes who blindly follow social rules." Post-processualists instead argue... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post-processual_archaeology |
In turn, by bending the societal rules, these rules eventually change.Other post-processualists have instead taken the view of sociologist Karl Marx (1818–1883) that class conflict was the force for this social change. In this manner they share similarities with Marxist archaeologists. A minority of post-processualists... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post-processual_archaeology |
Post-processualism places great emphasis on encouraging marginalised groups to interact with archaeology. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post-processual_archaeology |
In the 1960s and 1970s, feminist archaeology emerged as adherents of the second wave feminist movement began to argue that women in the archaeological record had been ignored by archaeologists up until that time. According to archaeologist Sam Lucy, "The agendas of feminist archaeology and post-processualism highlighte... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post-processual_archaeology |
Although it would not be actually termed "post-processual archaeology" until 1985 (by one of its most prominent proponents, Ian Hodder), an archaeological alternative to processual archaeology had begun to develop during the 1970s. Some had already anticipated the theory's emergence, with the social anthropologist Edmu... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post-processual_archaeology |
The second main influence was postmodernism, which "emphasized the subjective nature of knowledge and embraced extreme relativism and idealism". Having originated among the disciplines of comparative literature, literary criticism and cultural studies, postmodernist thinking had begun to develop within archaeology. The... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post-processual_archaeology |
Post-processual archaeology began in Britain during the late 1970s, spearheaded by a number of British archaeologists who had become interested in aspects of French Marxist anthropology. Most prominent among these was Ian Hodder (born 1948), a former processualist who had made a name for himself for his economic analys... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post-processual_archaeology |
As a result of this, Hodder grew increasingly critical of the processualist approach, developing an interest in how culture shaped human behaviour. He was supported in this new endeavour by many of his students, including Matthew Spriggs.In 1980 these early post-processualists held a conference at Cambridge University,... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post-processual_archaeology |
Individual scholars who were invited to talk to us in Cambridge in that period often felt, understandably, obliged to maintain a distinct opposition. While it is certainly the case that these presentations had occurred before our views had even begun to settle down, and that they were excessively aggressive, they playe... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post-processual_archaeology |
The opposition highlighted our own opinion but also threw the spotlight on the blind alleys down which there was a danger of straying. Our aggression resulted from the conviction that we were doing something new. This, too, was important. In the initial period there was a clear idea of what was wrong with existing appr... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post-processual_archaeology |
Post-processual archaeology developed largely independently among the archaeological community in the United States. As such its primary influence was critical theory, as opposed to the French Marxist anthropology which had been the primary influence upon their British counterparts. Many American archaeologists had beg... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post-processual_archaeology |
They also began to notice elements of ethnic prejudice within archaeology, particularly in regards to Native American peoples, who had commonly not had a chance to participate in their own heritage management up until the 1990s. Many American archaeologists also began to take note of a gender bias in the archaeological... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post-processual_archaeology |
As the archaeologists Colin Renfrew and Paul Bahn noted, "For its most severe critics, , while making a number of valid criticisms, simply developed some of the ideas and theoretical problems introduced by . To these critics it brought in a variety of approaches from other disciplines, so that the term "postprocessual,... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post-processual_archaeology |
Marion True (born November 5, 1948) was the former curator of antiquities for the J. Paul Getty Museum in Los Angeles, California. True was indicted on April 1, 2005 by an Italian court, on criminal charges accusing her of participating in a conspiracy that laundered stolen artifacts through private collections and cre... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marion_True |
True was born in Tahlequah, Oklahoma, in 1948, and grew up in Newburyport, Massachusetts, where she developed an interest in Greek Antiquities. True later received a scholarship to study the classics and fine arts at New York University, NYU. True also has a master's degree in classical archaeology from NYU's Institute... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marion_True |
In 1982, True joined The Getty as a curatorial assistant and later became a curator in 1986. True created a new policy for The Getty in 1987, which required the museum to notify governments when objects were being considered for acquisitions. Under this new policy, if a government could prove an object had been illegal... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marion_True |
In 1992, True organized a symposium to debate the authenticity of a Greek kouros, which is referred to today as the Getty kouros. The label in the museum reads, "Greek, 530 BCE or Modern Forgery". This Kouros was worth $10 million in 1985 when it was acquired, and it is believed to have been looted from southern Italy. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marion_True |
In 1995, True put in place another acquisition policy that prohibited the museum from acquiring antiquities that lacked thorough documentation, or that had not previously been part of an established collection. Later in 1995, The Getty incorporated the collection of Barbara and Lawrence Fleischman into the museum's col... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marion_True |
In 2005, True was indicted by the Italian government, along with renowned American antiquities dealer, Robert E. Hecht, for conspiracy to traffic in illicit antiquities. She was accused of participating in a conspiracy that laundered stolen objects through private collection in order to create a fake paper trail that w... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marion_True |
True." The primary evidence in the case came from the 1995 raid of a Geneva, Switzerland warehouse, which contained a fortune in stolen artifacts. Italian art dealer, Giacomo Medici, was eventually arrested in 1997; his operation was thought to be "one of the largest and most sophisticated antiquities networks in the w... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marion_True |
Medici was sentenced in 2004, by a court in Rome, to ten years in prison and a fine of 10 million euros, "the largest penalty ever meted out for antiquities crime in Italy".On October 1, 2005, True resigned from The Getty. In November 2006, The Greek prosecution followed the Italian's lead, charging True with trafficki... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marion_True |
In a letter to the J. Paul Getty Trust on December 18, 2006, True stated that she was being made to "carry the burden" for practices which were known, approved, and condoned by The Getty's Board of Directors. True testified for the first time in March 2007. In September 2007, Italy dropped the civil charges against Tru... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marion_True |
The Getty also announced its plan to return 40 out of 46 objects. On September 26, 2007, Getty Center signed a contract with the Italian Culture ministry in Rome to return stolen arts from Italy. Forty ancient art works would be returned including: the 5th century BC Aphrodite limestone and marble statue, in 2010; fres... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marion_True |
All charges against True were eventually dismissed. Because the statute of limitations had expired, she was acquitted in 2007 of charges relating to the acquisition of a 2,500-year-old funerary wreath, which was shown to have been looted from northern Greece. The wreath in question had already been returned to Greece. ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marion_True |
Aphrodite of Morgantina was an acrolithic sculpture acquired by The Getty in 1988, it is a 7-foot-tall, 1,300-pound statue of limestone and marble. The Museum and True ignored the obvious signs that it was looted. It was returned to Morgantina in early March, 2011. It is thought that the sculpture actually portrays Per... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marion_True |
The Getty kouros is an over-life-size statue in the form of a late archaic Greek kouros. The dolomitic marble sculpture was also bought by Jiří Frel in 1985 for $7 million and first exhibited there in October 1986. If genuine, it is one of only twelve complete kouroi still extant. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marion_True |
If fake, it exhibits a high degree of technical and artistic sophistication by an as-yet unidentified forger. Its status remains undetermined: today the museum's label reads "Greek, about 530 B.C., or modern forgery".The Golden Wreath was bought by The Getty in 1994 for $1.15 million. True was shown the wreath in a Swi... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marion_True |
KL-ONE (pronounced "kay ell won") is a knowledge representation system in the tradition of semantic networks and frames; that is, it is a frame language. The system is an attempt to overcome semantic indistinctness in semantic network representations and to explicitly represent conceptual information as a structured in... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KL-ONE |
There is a whole family of KL-ONE-like systems. One of the innovations that KL-ONE initiated was the use of a deductive classifier, an automated reasoning engine that can validate a frame ontology and deduce new information about the ontology based on the initial information provided by a domain expert. Frames in KL-ON... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KL-ONE |
These form hierarchies using subsume-relations; in the KL-ONE terminology a super class is said to subsume its subclasses. Multiple inheritance is allowed. Actually a concept is said to be well-formed only if it inherits from more than one other concept. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KL-ONE |
All concepts, except the top concept (usually THING), must have at least one super class. In KL-ONE descriptions are separated into two basic classes of concepts: primitive and defined. Primitives are domain concepts that are not fully defined. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KL-ONE |
This means that given all the properties of a concept, this is not sufficient to classify it. They may also be viewed as incomplete definitions. Using the same view, defined concepts are complete definitions. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KL-ONE |
Given the properties of a concept, these are necessary and sufficient conditions to classify the concept. The slot-concept is called roles and the values of the roles are role-fillers. There are several different types of roles to be used in different situations. The most common and important role type is the generic R... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KL-ONE |
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