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On this view, sensory contents constitute the foundation from which thinking may arise.An often-cited thought experiment in favor of the existence of a distinctive cognitive phenomenology involves two persons listening to a radio broadcast in French, one who understands French and the other who does not. The idea behin... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thought |
Other arguments for the experience of thinking focus on the direct introspective access to thinking or on the thinker's knowledge of their own thoughts.Phenomenologists are also concerned with the characteristic features of the experience of thinking. Making a judgment is one of the prototypical forms of cognitive phen... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thought |
It is sometimes argued that the experience of truth is central to thinking, i.e. that thinking aims at representing how the world is. It shares this feature with perception but differs from it in the way how it represents the world: without the use of sensory contents.One of the characteristic features often ascribed t... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thought |
For example, the perceptual experience of the front of a house brings with it various expectations about aspects of the house not directly seen, like the size and shape of its other sides. This process is sometimes referred to as apperception. These expectations resemble judgments and can be wrong. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thought |
This would be the case when it turns out upon walking around the "house" that it is no house at all but only a front facade of a house with nothing behind it. In this case, the perceptual expectations are frustrated and the perceiver is surprised. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thought |
There is disagreement as to whether these pre-predicative aspects of regular perception should be understood as a form of cognitive phenomenology involving thinking. This issue is also important for understanding the relation between thought and language. The reason for this is that the pre-predicative expectations do ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thought |
Various theorists have argued that pre-predicative experience is more basic or fundamental since predicative experience is in some sense built on top of it and therefore depends on it.Another way how phenomenologists have tried to distinguish the experience of thinking from other types of experiences is in relation to ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thought |
Empty intentions, on the other hand, present their object in a more abstract manner without the help of sensory contents. So when perceiving a sunset, it is presented through sensory contents. The same sunset can also be presented non-intuitively when merely thinking about it without the help of sensory contents. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thought |
In these cases, the same properties are ascribed to objects. The difference between these modes of presentation concerns not what properties are ascribed to the presented object but how the object is presented. Because of this commonality, it is possible for representations belonging to different modes to overlap or to... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thought |
For example, when searching one's glasses one may think to oneself that one left them on the kitchen table. This empty intention of the glasses lying on the kitchen table are then intuitively fulfilled when one sees them lying there upon arriving in the kitchen. This way, a perception can confirm or refute a thought de... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thought |
The mind–body problem concerns the explanation of the relationship that exists between minds, or mental processes, and bodily states or processes. The main aim of philosophers working in this area is to determine the nature of the mind and mental states/processes, and how—or even if—minds are affected by and can affect... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thought |
The question, then, is how it can be possible for conscious experiences to arise out of a lump of gray matter endowed with nothing but electrochemical properties. A related problem is to explain how someone's propositional attitudes (e.g. beliefs and desires) can cause that individual's neurons to fire and his muscles ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thought |
Psychologists have concentrated on thinking as an intellectual exertion aimed at finding an answer to a question or the solution of a practical problem. Cognitive psychology is a branch of psychology that investigates internal mental processes such as problem solving, memory, and language; all of which are used in thin... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thought |
Cognitive psychologists use psychophysical and experimental approaches to understand, diagnose, and solve problems, concerning themselves with the mental processes which mediate between stimulus and response. They study various aspects of thinking, including the psychology of reasoning, and how people make decisions an... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thought |
Cognitive theory contends that solutions to problems either take the form of algorithms: rules that are not necessarily understood but promise a solution, or of heuristics: rules that are understood but that do not always guarantee solutions. Cognitive science differs from cognitive psychology in that algorithms that a... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thought |
In developmental psychology, Jean Piaget was a pioneer in the study of the development of thought from birth to maturity. In his theory of cognitive development, thought is based on actions on the environment. That is, Piaget suggests that the environment is understood through assimilations of objects in the available ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thought |
As a result of this interplay between assimilation and accommodation, thought develops through a sequence of stages that differ qualitatively from each other in mode of representation and complexity of inference and understanding. That is, thought evolves from being based on perceptions and actions at the sensorimotor ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thought |
In recent years, the Piagetian conception of thought was integrated with information processing conceptions. Thus, thought is considered as the result of mechanisms that are responsible for the representation and processing of information. In this conception, speed of processing, cognitive control, and working memory a... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thought |
In the neo-Piagetian theories of cognitive development, the development of thought is considered to come from increasing speed of processing, enhanced cognitive control, and increasing working memory.Positive psychology emphasizes the positive aspects of human psychology as equally important as the focus on mood disord... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thought |
The "id", "ego" and "super-ego" are the three parts of the "psychic apparatus" defined in Sigmund Freud's structural model of the psyche; they are the three theoretical constructs in terms of whose activity and interaction mental life is described. According to this model, the uncoordinated instinctual trends are encom... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thought |
Any of his desires, to get rid of pain or enjoy something, command the mind what to do. For Freud, the unconscious was a repository for socially unacceptable ideas, wishes or desires, traumatic memories, and painful emotions put out of mind by the mechanism of psychological repression. However, the contents did not nec... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thought |
In the psychoanalytic view, the unconscious is a force that can only be recognized by its effects—it expresses itself in the symptom.The collective unconscious, sometimes known as collective subconscious, is a term of analytical psychology, coined by Carl Jung. It is a part of the unconscious mind, shared by a society,... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thought |
The collective unconscious is also known as "a reservoir of the experiences of our species".In the "Definitions" chapter of Jung's seminal work Psychological Types, under the definition of "collective" Jung references representations collectives, a term coined by Lucien Lévy-Bruhl in his 1910 book How Natives Think. Ju... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thought |
Traditionally, the term "laws of thought" refers to three fundamental laws of logic: the law of contradiction, the law of excluded middle, and the principle of identity. These laws by themselves are not sufficient as axioms of logic but they can be seen as important precursors to the modern axiomatization of logic. The... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thought |
The principle of identity asserts that any object is identical to itself: ∀ x ( x = x ) {\displaystyle \forall x(x=x)} . There are different conceptions of how the laws of thought are to be understood. The interpretations most relevant to thinking are to understand them as prescriptive laws of how one should think or a... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thought |
Metaphysical interpretations, on the other hand, see them as expressing the nature of "being as such".While there is a very wide acceptance of these three laws among logicians, they are not universally accepted. Aristotle, for example, held that there are some cases in which the law of excluded middle is false. This co... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thought |
On his view, it is currently "not ... either true or false that there will be a naval battle tomorrow". Modern intuitionist logic also rejects the law of excluded middle. This rejection is based on the idea that mathematical truth depends on verification through a proof. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thought |
The law fails for cases where no such proof is possible, which exist in every sufficiently strong formal system, according to Gödel's incompleteness theorems. Dialetheists, on the other hand, reject the law of contradiction by holding that some propositions are both true and false. One motivation of this position is to... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thought |
One of its problems is to find a formulation that circumvents the principle of explosion, i.e. that anything follows from a contradiction.Some formulations of the laws of thought include a fourth law: the principle of sufficient reason. It states that everything has a sufficient reason, ground, or cause. It is closely ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thought |
Counterfactual thinking involves mental representations of non-actual situations and events, i.e. of what is "contrary to the facts". It is usually conditional: it aims at assessing what would be the case if a certain condition had obtained. In this sense, it tries to answer "What if"-questions. For example, thinking a... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thought |
In this sense, counterfactual thinking is normally counterfactual only to a small degree since just a few facts are changed, like concerning the seatbelt, while most other facts are kept in place, like that one was driving, one's gender, the laws of physics, etc. When understood in the widest sense, there are forms of ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thought |
But the paradigmatic cases of counterfactual thinking involve alternatives to past events.Counterfactual thinking plays an important role since we evaluate the world around us not only by what actually happened but also by what could have happened. Humans have a greater tendency to engage in counterfactual thinking aft... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thought |
These cases are known as upward counterfactuals, in contrast to downward counterfactuals, in which the counterfactual scenario is worse than actuality. Upward counterfactual thinking is usually experienced as unpleasant, since it presents the actual circumstances in a bad light. This contrasts with the positive emotion... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thought |
Thought experiments involve thinking about imaginary situations, often with the aim of investigating the possible consequences of a change to the actual sequence of events. It is a controversial issue to what extent thought experiments should be understood as actual experiments. They are experiments in the sense that a... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thought |
Counterfactual thinking, therefore, plays a central role in thought experiments.The Chinese room argument is a famous thought experiment proposed by John Searle. It involves a person sitting inside a closed-off room, tasked with responding to messages written in Chinese. This person does not know Chinese but has a gian... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thought |
The core idea of this thought experiment is that neither the person nor the computer understands Chinese. This way, Searle aims to show that computers lack a mind capable of deeper forms of understanding despite acting intelligently.Thought experiments are employed for various purposes, for example, for entertainment, ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thought |
This use is found in fields like philosophy, the natural sciences, and history. It is controversial since there is a lot of disagreement concerning the epistemic status of thought experiments, i.e. how reliable they are as evidence supporting or refuting a theory. Central to the rejection of this usage is the fact that... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thought |
Defenders of thought experiments usually contend that the intuitions underlying and guiding the thought experiments are, at least in some cases, reliable. But thought experiments can also fail if they are not properly supported by intuitions or if they go beyond what the intuitions support. In the latter sense, sometim... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thought |
Critical thinking is a form of thinking that is reasonable, reflective, and focused on determining what to believe or how to act. It holds itself to various standards, like clarity and rationality. In this sense, it involves not just cognitive processes trying to solve the issue at hand but at the same time meta-cognit... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thought |
This means that logic plays an important role in critical thinking. It concerns not just formal logic, but also informal logic, specifically to avoid various informal fallacies due to vague or ambiguous expressions in natural language. No generally accepted standard definition of "critical thinking" exists but there is... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thought |
According to some versions, only the thinker's own observations and experiments are accepted as evidence in critical thinking. Some restrict it to the formation of judgments but exclude action as its goal.A concrete everyday example of critical thinking, due to John Dewey, involves observing foam bubbles moving in a di... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thought |
But not all forms of cognitively valuable processes involve critical thinking. Arriving at the correct solution to a problem by blindly following the steps of an algorithm does not qualify as critical thinking. The same is true if the solution is presented to the thinker in a sudden flash of insight and accepted straig... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thought |
In this sense, it is important to convey not just a set of true beliefs to the student but also the ability to draw one's own conclusions and to question pre-existing beliefs. The abilities and dispositions learned this way may profit not just the individual but also society at large. Critics of the emphasis on critica... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thought |
Positive thinking is an important topic in positive psychology. It involves focusing one's attention on the positive aspects of one's situation and thereby withdrawing one's attention from its negative sides. This is usually seen as a global outlook that applies especially to thinking but includes other mental processe... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thought |
In this sense, it is closely related to optimism. It includes expecting positive things to happen in the future. This positive outlook makes it more likely for people to seek to attain new goals. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thought |
It also increases the probability of continuing to strive towards pre-existing goals that seem difficult to reach instead of just giving up.The effects of positive thinking are not yet thoroughly researched, but some studies suggest that there is a correlation between positive thinking and well-being. For example, stud... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thought |
Reduced stress may therefore be found in positive thinkers because they tend to see such situations in a more positive light. But the effects also include the practical domain in that positive thinkers tend to employ healthier coping strategies when faced with difficult situations. This effects, for example, the time n... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thought |
Without these factors, it may lead to negative results. For example, the tendency of optimists to keep striving in difficult situations can backfire if the course of events is outside the agent's control. Another danger associated with positive thinking is that it may remain only on the level of unrealistic fantasies a... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thought |
Pessimism, on the other hand, may have positive effects since it can mitigate disappointments by anticipating failures.Positive thinking is a recurrent topic in the self-help literature. Here, often the claim is made that one can significantly improve one's life by trying to think positively, even if this means fosteri... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thought |
The Virtual Teaching Collection (VTC) project at the Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, University of Cambridge within the University of Cambridge, led by Dr Robin Boast, ran from 1994 to 1997 and was part of the Teaching and Learning Technology Project funded by the Higher Education Funding Council for England.Th... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_Teaching_Collection |
It was a collection of digital representations that may be used as a collection. The images did not pretend to be the objects, but were objects in their own right and, therefore, able to constitute a collection in their own right. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_Teaching_Collection |
The goals of the VTC were two fold. First, to explore the range and potential of producing and using digital representations in their various forms; images, texts, hypertexts, video, sound, 3-D images and illustrations. Second, to construct a working digital museum that was meaningful to the way we work with collection... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_Teaching_Collection |
The collections that were developed included about 4,000 images and other representations of objects, along with the related catalogue information. Within the Archaeology Collection, these objects span the Neolithic to the Medieval period in Britain. The History of Science Collection drew on the collections of the Whip... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_Teaching_Collection |
As well as directly related information, these Collections also included text, video, and display resources, as well as bibliographies and glossaries. Included in the collections were a variety of what were called "narratives". These were works using the collections in a variety of forms from traditional documents to h... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_Teaching_Collection |
This was central to the way that Cabinet collections work. They are not fixed ‘textbooks’ but flexible resources that teachers and students may work with to create meaningful works. It was in this way that the collections do not form an end in themselves, but a means of working. They are the very flexible resource that... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_Teaching_Collection |
Cabinet was a software application developed as part of the VTC and was designed to be an easy to use and well presented suite of software tools that were intuitive. Using these tools, the user could create their own collection, and could search, retrieve, display and browse the existing collections. The presentation t... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_Teaching_Collection |
Cabinet was not simply a multimedia authoring tool. It was designed to be under the control not only of the author, but also of the reader. The collections were not interactive in the conventional sense, but were interactive in the sense that the reader could also modify or even re-author what had been produced. This k... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_Teaching_Collection |
Lead institutionMuseum of Archaeology and Anthropology, Cambridge UniversityConsortium membersThe Whipple Museum, Cambridge University The Museum of the History of Science, Oxford University The Department of Archaeology, Glasgow University The Lansdown Centre for Electronic Arts, Middlesex University The Centre for Me... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_Teaching_Collection |
Dario Maestripieri (born 1964) is an Italian behavioral biologist who is known for his research and writings about biological aspects of behavior in nonhuman primates and humans. He is currently a Professor of Comparative Human Development, Evolutionary Biology, and Neurobiology at The University of Chicago. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dario_Maestripieri |
Maestripieri obtained a laurea in Biology in 1987 and a doctorate in Psychobiology in 1992 from the Università di Roma La Sapienza, in Italy. After spending one year as a Visiting Researcher at the Sub-department of Animal Behaviour of the University of Cambridge in the U.K., he moved to Emory University in Atlanta, U.... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dario_Maestripieri |
Maestripieri conducts research with rhesus macaques at the Caribbean Primate Research Center of the University of Puerto Rico as well as research with human subjects at the University of Chicago. His studies of nonhuman primates have addressed topics such as aggression and dominance, affiliation and social bonding, com... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dario_Maestripieri |
His books provide an illustration of his intellectual interests. Evolutionary Theory and Primate Behavior includes a collection of essays illustrating evolutionary analyses of major aspects of primate socioecology and behavior including feeding, social, and reproductive strategies. In Primate Psychology, Maestripieri i... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dario_Maestripieri |
In Macachiavellian Intelligence: How Rhesus Macaques and Humans Have Conquered the World, he highlights the many parallels between the social behavior of rhesus macaques and human beings and explains them using evolutionary and economic cost-benefit analyses. He also suggests that complex political intelligence evolved... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dario_Maestripieri |
Dario Maestripieri was awarded the B. Grassi Prize as the Best Young Zoologist from the Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei in Italy in 1989, the Distinguished Scientific Award for Early Career Contribution to Psychology from the American Psychological Association in 2000 and a Career Development Award from the National Ins... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dario_Maestripieri |
Games Primates Play: An Undercover Investigation of the Evolution and Economics of Human Relationships (2012) Basic Books Animal Personalities: Behavior, Physiology, and Evolution (2012), with Claudio Carere, The University of Chicago Press Maternal Effects in Mammals (2009), with Jill Mateo, The University of Chicago ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dario_Maestripieri |
Maestripieri, D. (2010). Platt, M.; Ghazanfar, A. (eds.). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dario_Maestripieri |
"Neurobiology of social behavior". Primate Neuroethology. Oxford: Oxford University Press: 359–384. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dario_Maestripieri |
doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195326598.003.0019. ISBN 978-0-19-532659-8. Sapienza, P.; Zingales, L.; Maestripieri, D. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dario_Maestripieri |
(2009). "Gender differences in financial risk aversion and career choices are affected by testosterone". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dario_Maestripieri |
106 (36): 15268–15273. Bibcode:2009PNAS..10615268S. doi:10.1073/pnas.0907352106. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dario_Maestripieri |
PMC 2741240. PMID 19706398. Roney, JR. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dario_Maestripieri |
; Hanson, KN. ; Durante, KM. ; Maestripieri, D. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dario_Maestripieri |
(2006). "Reading men's faces: Women's mate attractiveness judgments track men's testosterone and interest in infants". Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dario_Maestripieri |
273 (1598): 2169–2175. doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3569. PMC 1635527. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dario_Maestripieri |
PMID 16901836. Maestripieri, D.; Roney, JR. (2005). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dario_Maestripieri |
"Primate copulation calls and post-copulatory female choice". Behavioral Ecology. 16: 106–113. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dario_Maestripieri |
doi:10.1093/beheco/arh120. Maestripieri, D. (2005). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dario_Maestripieri |
"Early experience affects the intergenerational transmission of infant abuse in rhesus monkeys". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 102 (27): 9726–9729. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dario_Maestripieri |
Bibcode:2005PNAS..102.9726M. doi:10.1073/pnas.0504122102. PMC 1172276. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dario_Maestripieri |
PMID 15983367. Maestripieri, D.; Zehr, JL. (1998). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dario_Maestripieri |
"Maternal responsiveness increases during pregnancy and after estrogen treatment in macaques". Hormones and Behavior. 34 (3): 223–230. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dario_Maestripieri |
doi:10.1006/hbeh.1998.1470. PMID 9878271. S2CID 20711399. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dario_Maestripieri |
Maestripieri, D. (1995). "First steps in the macaque world: Do rhesus mothers encourage their infants' independent locomotion?". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dario_Maestripieri |
Animal Behaviour. 49 (6): 1541–1549. doi:10.1016/0003-3472(95)90075-6. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dario_Maestripieri |
S2CID 43638848. Maestripieri, D. (1993). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dario_Maestripieri |
"Vigilance costs of allogrooming in macaque mothers". The American Naturalist. 141 (5): 744–753. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dario_Maestripieri |
doi:10.1086/285503. PMID 19426008. S2CID 29266193. == References == | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dario_Maestripieri |
Project Debater is an IBM artificial intelligence project, designed to participate in a full live debate with expert human debaters. It follows on from the Watson project which played Jeopardy! | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_Debater |
Project Debater was developed at IBM's lab in Haifa, Israel. The project was proposed by Noam Slonim in 2011 as the IBM Research next Grand Challenge, following Deep Blue and the victory of Watson in Jeopardy! It was exposed for the first time in a closed media event at June 18, 2018, in San Francisco, under the leader... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_Debater |
On February 11, 2019, Project Debater was revealed to the world in a live debate in San Francisco. Nonpartisan media group Intelligence Squared U.S. Debates hosted the debate which was moderated by journalist John Donvan. The debate took place between Project Debater and Harish Natarajan, who holds the world record in ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_Debater |
Project Debater was featured in a television series called “That’s Debatable” presented by Intelligence Squared U.S. Debates and Bloomberg Media. For each episode of “That’s Debatable,” Project Debater provided insight into three distinct debate topics on the redistribution of wealth, modern monetary theory, and a US-C... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_Debater |
To develop Project Debater, the IBM Research team had to endow the system with the following AI capabilities: Data-driven speech writing and delivery: Project Debater is the first demonstration of a computer that can digest massive corpora, and given a short description of a controversial topic, write a well-structured... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_Debater |
The Hawthorne effect is a type of human behavior reactivity in which individuals modify an aspect of their behavior in response to their awareness of being observed. The effect was discovered in the context of research conducted at the Hawthorne Western Electric plant; however, some scholars feel the descriptions are f... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawthorne_effect |
This turned out not to be true. In the study that was associated with Elton Mayo, which ran from 1928 to 1932, a series of changes in work structure were implemented (e.g., changes in rest periods) in a group of five women. However, this was a methodologically poor, uncontrolled study that did not permit any firm concl... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawthorne_effect |
The term "Hawthorne effect" was coined in 1958 by Henry A. Landsberger when he was analyzing the Hawthorne studies conducted between 1924 and 1932 at the Hawthorne Works (a Western Electric factory in Cicero, outside Chicago). The Hawthorne Works had commissioned a study to determine if its workers would become more pr... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawthorne_effect |
It was suggested that the productivity gain occurred as a result of the motivational effect on the workers of the interest being shown in them.This effect was observed for minute increases in illumination. In these lighting studies, light intensity was altered to examine its effect on worker productivity. Most industri... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawthorne_effect |
In one of the studies, researchers chose two women as test subjects and asked them to choose four other workers to join the test group. Together the women worked in a separate room over the course of five years (1927–1932) assembling telephone relays. Output was measured mechanically by counting how many finished relay... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawthorne_effect |
In the experiment room they had a supervisor who discussed changes with their productivity. Some of the variables were: Giving two 5-minute breaks (after a discussion with them on the best length of time), and then changing to two 10-minute breaks (not their preference). Productivity increased, but when they received s... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawthorne_effect |
Providing food during the breaks. Shortening the day by 30 minutes (output went up); shortening it more (output per hour went up, but overall output decreased); returning to the first condition (where output peaked).Changing a variable usually increased productivity, even if the variable was just a change back to the o... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawthorne_effect |
Researchers concluded that the workers worked harder because they thought that they were being monitored individually. Researchers hypothesized that choosing one's own coworkers, working as a group, being treated as special (as evidenced by working in a separate room), and having a sympathetic supervisor were the real ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawthorne_effect |
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