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The purpose of the next study was to find out how payment incentives would affect productivity. The surprising result was that productivity actually decreased. Workers apparently had become suspicious that their productivity may have been boosted to justify firing some of the workers later on. The study was conducted b... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawthorne_effect |
The researchers found that although the workers were paid according to individual productivity, productivity decreased because the men were afraid that the company would lower the base rate. Detailed observation of the men revealed the existence of informal groups or "cliques" within the formal groups. These cliques de... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawthorne_effect |
Richard Nisbett has described the Hawthorne effect as "a glorified anecdote," saying that "once you have got the anecdote, you can throw away the data." Other researchers have attempted to explain the effects with various interpretations. J. G. Adair warned of gross factual inaccuracy in most secondary publications on ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawthorne_effect |
He argued that it should be viewed as a variant of Orne's (1973) experimental demand effect. For Adair, the Hawthorne effect depended on the participants' interpretation of the situation. An implication is that manipulation checks are important in social sciences experiments. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawthorne_effect |
He advanced the view that awareness of being observed was not the source of the effect, but participants' interpretation of the situation is critical. How did the participants' interpretation of the situation interact with the participants' goals? Possible explanations for the Hawthorne effect include the impact of fee... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawthorne_effect |
Receiving feedback on their performance may improve their skills when an experiment provides this feedback for the first time. Research on the demand effect also suggests that people may be motivated to please the experimenter, at least if it does not conflict with any other motive. They may also be suspicious of the p... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawthorne_effect |
Therefore, Hawthorne effect may only occur when there is usable feedback or a change in motivation. Parsons defined the Hawthorne effect as "the confounding that occurs if experimenters fail to realize how the consequences of subjects' performance affect what subjects do" . His key argument was that in the studies wher... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawthorne_effect |
He did discuss the study as demonstrating an experimenter effect but as a management effect: how management can make workers perform differently because they feel differently. He suggested that much of the Hawthorne effect concerned the workers feeling free and in control as a group rather than as being supervised. The... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawthorne_effect |
The study was repeated with similar effects on mica-splitting workers.Clark and Sugrue in a review of educational research reported that uncontrolled novelty effects cause on average 30% of a standard deviation (SD) rise (i.e. 50–63% score rise), with the rise decaying to a much smaller effect after 8 weeks. In more de... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawthorne_effect |
The Hawthorne study showed "that the performance of workers had little relation to their ability and in fact often bore an inverse relation to test scores ...". Braverman argued that the studies really showed that the workplace was not "a system of bureaucratic formal organisation on the Weberian model, nor a system of... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawthorne_effect |
Re-analysing it, they found slight evidence for the Hawthorne effect over the long-run, but in no way as drastic as suggested initially. This finding supported the analysis of an article by S. R. G. Jones in 1992 examining the relay experiments. Despite the absence of evidence for the Hawthorne effect in the original s... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawthorne_effect |
Parsons has declined to analyse the illumination experiments, on the grounds that they have not been properly published and so he cannot get at details, whereas he had extensive personal communication with Roethlisberger and Dickson.Evaluation of the Hawthorne effect continues in the present day. Despite the criticisms... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawthorne_effect |
Various medical scientists have studied possible trial effect (clinical trial effect) in clinical trials. Some postulate that, beyond just attention and observation, there may be other factors involved, such as slightly better care; slightly better compliance/adherence; and selection bias. The latter may have several m... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawthorne_effect |
Despite the observer effect as popularized in the Hawthorne experiments being perhaps falsely identified (see above discussion), the popularity and plausibility of the observer effect in theory has led researchers to postulate that this effect could take place at a second level. Thus it has been proposed that there is ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawthorne_effect |
In addition, researchers may use software packages that have different default settings that lead to small but significant fluctuations. Finally, the data that researchers use may not be identical, even though it seems so. For example, the OECD collects and distributes various socio-economic data; however, these data c... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawthorne_effect |
The idea of the secondary observer effect was floated by Nate Breznau in a thus far relatively obscure paper.Although little attention has been paid to this phenomenon, the scientific implications are very large. Evidence of this effect may be seen in recent studies that assign a particular problem to a number of resea... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawthorne_effect |
Moral idiocy is an inability to distinguish between right and wrong, or to understand how moral values apply to one's own life and the lives of others. The term is sometimes used to describe amoral institutional behavior, with the suggestion that moral idiocy may be an ingrained feature of some social, commercial, and/... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moral_idiocy |
The Deutsche Gesellschaft für Vorgeschichte (DGV) (German Society for Prehistory) was a society founded in 1909 by Gustaf Kossinna with the participation of Hans Hahne, Wilhelm Ohnesorge and others. The organization was committed to national prehistory and early history research and to providing a broad basis for Germa... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deutsche_Gesellschaft_für_Vorgeschichte |
After Kossinna's death, Alfred Götze initially took over the leadership of the society. In 1933, in the course of Gleichschaltung, the board decided to "expand" itself to the Reichsbund für Deutsche Vorgeschichte at the request of Hans Reinerth. This decision was confirmed a year later by the General Assembly. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deutsche_Gesellschaft_für_Vorgeschichte |
Also in 1934 Reinerth became leader (Bundesführer) of the Reichsbund. In 1968, the society was re-founded as the Gesellschaft für Vor- und Frühgeschichte (Bonn) by Bolko von Richthofen. He again published a periodical called Mannus. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deutsche_Gesellschaft_für_Vorgeschichte |
The members, who are mainly associated with right to far-right extremist views, included, among others the "Atlantis Researchers" Jürgen Spanuth, Herman Wirth, and Haye W. Hansen. "Mannus" was discontinued in 1994 after 24 issues. == References == | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deutsche_Gesellschaft_für_Vorgeschichte |
A pan-Romance language or Romance interlanguage is a codified linguistic variety which synthesizes the variation of the Romance languages and is representative of these as a whole. It can be seen as a standard language proposal for the whole language family but is generally considered a zonal constructed language becau... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pan-Romance_language |
Several pan-Romance languages have been developed by different individuals or groups in different times (since the 19th century) and places (Brazil, Canada, Denmark, Italy, Norway, Portugal, Spain, Switzerland, etc.). They are so similar to each other that they have been considered variations of a same language: 'diale... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pan-Romance_language |
A pan-Romance language is typically intended for communication amongst (or with) speakers of Romance languages, that is as a regional international auxiliary language, for the Latin world. Its vocabulary and grammar are codified to be as communicative as possible for Romance speakers. Words, for example, are chosen pre... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pan-Romance_language |
As a result, and thanks to intercomprehension, it's potentially understandable by an audience of up to 800 million speakers of Romance languages. In addition, it can complement Romance intercomprehension in situations where this communication strategy isn't so effective (for example, between French and Romanian speaker... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pan-Romance_language |
Latin's descendants, the Romance languages, have developed important differences but share so many traits that they have been considered a unity (a "type") by Romance linguist Michael Metzeltin. He explains the cohesion of the family by its shared Vulgar Latin inheritance, the use and influence of standard Latin until ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pan-Romance_language |
And mixed varieties like Portuñol or Frespañol arise spontaneously to communicate with speakers of other Romance languages, for example while visiting their country. All this shows that spoken and written communication amongst Romance speakers is still a reality and that, to some extent, they are a linguistic community... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pan-Romance_language |
Standard Latin, which preceded French as an international auxiliary language, undergoes lexical modernization to the present day but is based on Classical Latin, the language stage of the late Roman Republic to middle Roman Empire (75 BC to AD 3rd century). The idea of substituting it by a common Romance standard langu... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pan-Romance_language |
He chooses Romance, for being his language, and then carries on his search by distinguishing in Romance three smaller languages, which he identifies by their word for 'yes': oc language, oïl language and sì language. He chooses the last variety, arguing that it's more similar to Latin, the literary language of the mome... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pan-Romance_language |
Lingua Romana is an artistic language which the German poet Stefan George (1868–1933) used in part of his lyrical work. He started using Lingua Romana, a mixed Romance language, at a young age, in 1889. It is his own artistic creation, closest to Spanish but with elements from Italian and (Vulgar) Latin. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pan-Romance_language |
The combinations are motivated by their sound effect in the poems, according to Radaelli. George himself explains Lingua Romana with these words (in Spanish): "La idea que desde mi juventud me atormenta concebir yo mismo una lengua literaria para mis propios fines a partir de material claro, románico, de similar sonor... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pan-Romance_language |
Se ha facto la sera tranquila, Jo son en mea cámera inturbato, Ahora haberia tempo pro curarme de toto. Ma sto magnetizato Dirigendo los oclos verso la lampa Reflectata indistinctamente En el obscuro speculo de la nocte. No volo plus pensar, no poto. Voleria sólamente clinar los genos, Nil pensar, apauco precar. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pan-Romance_language |
Neolatino is a Romance zonal auxiliary language intended to be used as a global international auxiliary language. It was developed by Danish Latinist Hans Henning Ørberg (1920–2010), known for his method for learning Latin, Lingua Latina per se Illustrata, first published in 1955. All the information available on this ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pan-Romance_language |
Neolatino is a Romance zonal auxiliary language proposed to be used as a global international auxiliary language. It was developed by francophone Swiss linguist André Schild (1910–1981), who presented it in Petite Grammaire Neolatine, published in January 1947. This first work includes grammar, vocabulary and sample te... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pan-Romance_language |
Later in 1947, Schild published an extended dictionary in Vocabulario Neolatino: Francese-Italiano-Hispano. In 1948, a group improved and further developed the language: Comitato Linguístico Neolatino, with Schild as its president. R. L. Stevenson's tale Will o' the mill: The plain and the stars was translated into Neo... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pan-Romance_language |
Lo NEOLATINO (NL) ha sito creato dal Suisso francese André Schild, pos vinte annos de studios interlinguísticos, secondo lo principio de la naturalitate integrale combinata con lo máximum de regularitate. Ilo usa ex lo latino solo to qui es ancora vivente e possede la gramática comune a los idiomas neolatinos. Sua base... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pan-Romance_language |
Seligendo solamente la materia vivente, se pote, mediante alcunas excepciones in la conjugacione, obtener un sistema perfectamente naturale. Lo NL, aplicando exclusivamente régulas naturales, es superiore a los altros sitemas cujos máximos defectos son contenitos in los principios. Existerán sempre alcunas formas duto... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pan-Romance_language |
Internacional (or 'lingua internacional') is a Romance zonal auxiliary language proposed to be used as a global international auxiliary language. It was developed by Portuguese lawyer João Evangelista Campos Lima (1887–1956), who presented it in Gramática internacional, published in 1948. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pan-Romance_language |
La prima qualitate que debe haber lo interncional è, evidentemente, la internacionalitate. Dunque, deben esser seleccionatos de preferéncia vocábulos autónomos internacionales o aqueles que donan, con perfecta regularitate, vários derivatos internacionales. Ma, perque quási totos los vocábulos internacionales son latin... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pan-Romance_language |
Sine dúbita que una língua, mesmo seleccionata, non pot esser formata solo per vocábulos latinos e internacionales. Ha que se recurrer anque a altros vocábulos, que poten non esser latinos ni internacionales ma que son necessários pro facer la ligacion con los altros vocábulos in las frases. La condicion principal que ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pan-Romance_language |
Tamen, esses vocábulos non latinos deben esser seleccionatos de preferéncia de las línguas neo-latinas. Per que? Per una altra qualitate que una lingua debe haber: la homogeneitate. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pan-Romance_language |
Romano is the result of the codification of Stefan George's Lingua Romana, a Romance artistic language which the German poet used in part of his lyrical work (see above). This codification is known through Grammatica de la lingua Romana de Stefan George (1991), an anonymous manuscript preserved at the Sammlung für Plan... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pan-Romance_language |
Stefan George (1868–1933), poeta de dimensión Europea no se conformaba con su idioma materno, el alemán. Su aspiración poética visaba una universalitat de expresión humana qui ja de séc(u)los existaba como bene spiritual de multos pópulos: el Romano. Esta base lingüística era pro él medio poético e(d) un instrumento de... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pan-Romance_language |
Potemos traherla a la luz del di – no a manera de romanistas scientíficos, pero ma(gi)s en la actitúdine de artistas del renascimento, pro los cuales objectos arqueológicos fueron inspiración viva pro novas op(e)ras de arte. Pro eso el Romano de la Rosa Galba no es un novo Esperanto. En el Esperanto el mundo ha un perf... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pan-Romance_language |
La Rosa Galba es regional e medio de expresión de una cultura qui no pretenda esser melior que altras. Varios intentos han stato factos pro reconstituir este idioma común, multas vices con intención misionária. Seamos magis modestos: El Romano no pote „salvar el mundo“. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pan-Romance_language |
Pero es el ligamen de una comunitate aperta, en la cual poten prender parte totos los qui lo volan.Si el Romano será veramente una lingua aplicata en la práctica decide el futuro. Come hemos dicto, el Romano es un idioma libre. Comencemos purtropo fixando alcunas regulas generales pro obtener una evolución equilibrata,... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pan-Romance_language |
Interlingua Romanica (or simply 'Romanica') is a Romance zonal auxiliary language proposed to be used as a regional international auxiliary language for the Latin world. It is a reformed version of the constructed international auxiliary language Interlingua and was developed in 2001 by the English-speaking Canadian in... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pan-Romance_language |
Fifty years later, Sorfleet and Lavin proposed for Interlingua a new grammar, which incorporates some typical Romance features that are missing in traditional Interlingua: nominal agreement, verbal personal inflexion, etc. As a result, Interlingua Romanica shares vocabulary with Interlingua (with minor modifications) b... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pan-Romance_language |
Interlingua Romanica has been abandoned by its proponents (the last one, Lavin, in 2008), but has still a small community of users and continues to attract interest of new people, often through Interlingua. A Facebook group with 175 members (October 2019) and several internet pages are devoted to Interlingua Romanica. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pan-Romance_language |
There are other proposals to reform Interlingua. A slightly older project is Modern Latin or Latino Moderne by David Th. Stark (1996), which includes verbal personal inflection but not nominal agreement. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pan-Romance_language |
It has not built a community, but has attracted attention. Another project is Modern Latin or Latino Moderne by Alexandre Rousset (2001), which does not modify Interlingua's simplified grammar but its vocabulary (phonetic orthography, modernization of words, elimination of the ancient ones without posterity). Modern La... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pan-Romance_language |
Interlingua et Interlingua Romanica son duos usages grammaticales differentes et complementarios de la mesma lingua. Los dictionarios, dunque, son identicos.Version in Interlingua:Interlingua e Interlingua Romanica es duo usages grammatical differente e complementari del mesme lingua. Le dictionarios, dunque, es identi... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pan-Romance_language |
Romance Neolatino (or simply 'Neolatino') is a pan-Romance language proposed as a standard language for Romance as a whole, to ease communication amongst or with speakers of Romance languages, complementing (not substituting) the standards that exist locally (Portuguese, Spanish, etc.). In addition to its intended role... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pan-Romance_language |
There is also a Facebook page with over 850 followers and several other internet pages devoted to Romance Neolatino, including four blogs: Voces Neolatinas, by students of the Escòla Neolatina, La Gabbia, by Diego Fierro, Mondo Neolatino, by Cassany Bates, and Lo espàzio, by Martín Rincón Botero. The two last authors h... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pan-Romance_language |
The linguists of Vía Neolatina intend to design or codify a pan-Romance standard in a scientific way, and to do so they pay special attention to its design principles (including values, goals, methodology, etc.). The design principles developed by Vía Neolatina are based on theoretical insights from applied linguistics... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pan-Romance_language |
Por facilitare et altrosí dignificare la communicatione inter- et panlatina actuale, lo projècto Vía Neolatina ha recuperato et actualizzato lo latino, orígine de las lenguas neolatinas aut romànicas et traditionale stàndarde commune. Lo modèllo de lengua que presènta cui èst una síntese de la variatione romànica que p... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pan-Romance_language |
Latino Interromanico (or simply 'Interromance' in English, or 'Interromanico' in the language itself) is a Romance zonal auxiliary language proposed to be used as a regional international auxiliary language for the Latin world. It was started in 2017 by European (German-Romanian) programmer Raymund Zacharias, who publi... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pan-Romance_language |
These base forms by default then only receive a minimal adjustment to adhere to the grammar and spelling of Interromance. In order to produce text or speech that is as universally understood as possible, the words and word parts are checked to have as many cognates as possible within the different Romance linguistic va... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pan-Romance_language |
Flavorizations are possible in order to increase the comprehension to specific target groups or to indicate certain trends. Since 2019, Interromanico has received another definition in Grammatica dello Latino Interromanico by Brazilian Thiago Sanctus, who intends it to be used as a more complete reference for acquiring... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pan-Romance_language |
Lo scopo dello Latino Interromanico est essere una lingua lexicalmente similare allo latino et modellata nellos parametros della grammatica intriseca dellas linguas romanicas et servire de lingua auxiliare intercommunicativa dellos populos parlantes de linguas romanicas modernas. Lo Latino Interromanico non pretendet e... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pan-Romance_language |
Pan-Romance languages and other Romance-based languages can be similar. The later are mostly constructed a posteriori languages that resemble Romance, mainly because of their vocabulary, but lack some typical, generally grammatical, Romance features, which pan-Romance languages do include. Mediterranean Lingua Franca w... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pan-Romance_language |
There are many constructed a posteriori languages which integrate elements from different, typically European, language families but have a very Romance or even Latin appearance because they are based on international vocabulary, that is, words which are common to the most internationally influential European languages... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pan-Romance_language |
The linguists at the International Auxiliary Language Association who developed the language from 1937 to 1951 based it on international vocabulary and, as a result, it has a very Latin or even Romance appearance. Nevertheless, Interlingua grammar lacks some important Romance features. Because it is intended as a globa... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pan-Romance_language |
Thus, they developed a simple grammatical system inspired by English (a Germanic language) which is not representative of Romance. It lacks, for example, nominal agreement or verbal personal inflection, which is a common trait of the major Romance languages (Portuguese, Spanish, Catalan, French, Italian, Romanian, etc.... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pan-Romance_language |
As a result, Occidental is "much more European, more Anglo-Germano-Slavic by spirit".There is no clear border between pan-Romance languages and some of these Romance-based constructed languages. For example, Schild's Neolatino (see above), intended as a global international auxiliary language, includes the Greek-based ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pan-Romance_language |
There are some constructed a posteriori languages which do not integrate elements from languages families other than Romance but are still not representative of Romance as a whole. This difference arises because, for example, they are also based on Romance creole languages, or their developers have strongly simplified ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pan-Romance_language |
According to the main site of the project, "It is designed to seem relatively “natural” to those who are familiar with Romance languages, without being any more difficult for others to learn." Sample text in Lingua Franca Nova: Lingua franca nova (cortida a lfn, cual es comun pronunsiada como "elefen") es un lingua aid... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pan-Romance_language |
La gramatica es multe reduida e simil a la creoles romanica. La lingua es fonetical speleda, con 22 leteras de la alfabeta latina o la alfabeta cirilica. There is no clear border between pan-Romance languages and some of these other Romance-based constructed languages. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pan-Romance_language |
For example, Romanova lacks verbal personal inflexion, but nominal agreement is optional. As a result, it can seem a pan-Romance language when the subject of the sentences is the third person. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pan-Romance_language |
Sample text in Romanova: Bono di'a, i benvenido al Projeto Romanova! Si tu pode leser esto tecsto, donse la lingua nova ce nus clama Romanova sta funsionando multo bien! Nus ave produsido esta lingua con la speransa ce todos los parladores de las linguas roma'nicas modernas podera' comunicar eficasemente entre se. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pan-Romance_language |
La lingua nova consiste de tres mil vocablos, mas o menos, i elo fu formado di vocablos prendidos di todas las cuatro linguas roma'nicas maiores: el espaniese, el fransiese, el italiese, i el portugalese.On the other side, George's Lingua Romana has elements of Italian and (Vulgar) Latin, but is closest to Spanish, so ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pan-Romance_language |
Romance-based constructed languages can be also difficult to distinguish from Latin-based constructed languages, like Latino sine flexione. There are many proposals, typically intended as international auxiliary languages. An early project was Weltsprache, by A. Volk ed R. Fuchs (1883). Sample text in Latino sine flexi... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pan-Romance_language |
Seculo vigesimo es primo que non habe lingua commune. Hodie quasi omne auctore scribe in proprio lingua nationale, id es in plure lingua neo-latino, in plure germanico, in plure slavo, in nipponico et alio. Tale multitudine de linguas in labores de interesse commune ad toto humanitate constitute magno obstaculo ad prog... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pan-Romance_language |
Psychological egoism is the view that humans are always motivated by self-interest and selfishness, even in what seem to be acts of altruism. It claims that, when people choose to help others, they do so ultimately because of the personal benefits that they themselves expect to obtain, directly or indirectly, from so d... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychological_egoism |
A specific form of psychological egoism is psychological hedonism, the view that the ultimate motive for all voluntary human action is the desire to experience pleasure or to avoid pain. Immediate gratification can be sacrificed for a chance of greater, future pleasure. Further, humans are not motivated to strictly avo... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychological_egoism |
Some theorists explain behavior motivated by self-interest without using pleasure and pain as the final causes of behavior. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychological_egoism |
Beginning with ancient philosophy, Epicureanism claims humans live to maximize pleasure. Epicurus argued the theory of human behavior being motivated by pleasure alone is evidenced from infancy to adulthood. Humanity performs altruistic, honorable, and virtuous acts not for the sake of another or because of a moral cod... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychological_egoism |
Bentham explicitly described what types and qualities of pain and pleasure exist, and how human motives are singularly explained using psychological hedonism. Bentham attempted to quantify psychological hedonism. Bentham endeavored to find the ideal human behavior based on hedonic calculus or the measurement of relativ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychological_egoism |
From an evolutionary perspective, Herbert Spencer, a psychological egoist, argued that all animals primarily seek to survive and protect their lineage. Essentially, the need for the individual and for the individual's immediate family to live supersedes the others' need to live. All species attempt to maximize their ow... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychological_egoism |
Whether or not Sigmund Freud was a psychological egoist, his concept of the pleasure principle borrowed much from psychological egoism and psychological hedonism in particular. The pleasure principle rules the behavior of the Id which is an unconscious force driving humans to release tension from unfulfilled desires. W... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychological_egoism |
Traditional behaviorism dictates all human behavior is explained by classical conditioning and operant conditioning. Operant conditioning works through reinforcement and punishment which adds or removes pleasure and pain to manipulate behavior. Using pleasure and pain to control behavior means behaviorists assumed the ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychological_egoism |
Often, behaviorist experiments using humans and animals are built around the assumption that subjects will pursue pleasure and avoid pain. Although psychological hedonism is incorporated into the fundamental principles and experimental designs of behaviorism, behaviorism itself explains and interprets only observable b... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychological_egoism |
Psychological egoism is controversial. Proponents cite evidence from introspection: reflection on one's own actions may reveal their motives and intended results to be based on self-interest. Psychological egoists and hedonists have found through numerous observations of natural human behavior that behavior can be mani... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychological_egoism |
Also, the work of some social scientists has empirically supported this theory. Further, they claim psychological egoism posits a theory that is a more parsimonious explanation than competing theories.Opponents have argued that psychological egoism is not more parsimonious than other theories. For example, a theory tha... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychological_egoism |
The psychological egoist asserts humans act altruistically for selfish reasons even when cost of the altruistic action is far outweighed by the reward of acting selfishly because altruism is performed to fulfill the desire of a person to act altruistically. Other critics argue that it is false either because it is an o... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychological_egoism |
Even though it is true that every human being seeks his own satisfaction, this sometimes may only be achieved via the well-being of his neighbor. An example of this situation could be phoning for an ambulance when a car accident has happened. In this case, the caller desires the well-being of the victim, even though th... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychological_egoism |
For example, German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche was a psychological egoist for some of his career, though he is said to have repudiated that later in his campaign against morality. He argues in §133 of The Dawn that in such cases compassionate impulses arise out of the projection of our identity unto the object of ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychological_egoism |
In such cases, according to Nietzsche, there comes into play unconscious fears regarding our own safety. The suffering of another person is felt as a threat to our own happiness and sense of safety, because it reveals our own vulnerability to misfortunes, and thus, by relieving it, one could also ameliorate those perso... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychological_egoism |
David Hume once wrote, "What interest can a fond mother have in view, who loses her health by assiduous attendance on her sick child, and afterwards languishes and dies of grief, when freed, by its death , from the slavery of that attendance?". It seems incorrect to describe such a mother's goal as self-interested. Psy... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychological_egoism |
The helpful action is merely instrumental to these ultimately selfish goals. In the ninth century, Mohammed Ibn Al-Jahm Al-Barmaki (محمد بن الجـَهْم البَرمَكي) has been quoted saying: "No one deserves thanks from another about something he has done for him or goodness he has done, he is either willing to get a reward f... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychological_egoism |
According to psychological hedonism, the ultimate egoistic motive is to gain good feelings of pleasure and avoid bad feelings of pain. Other, less restricted forms of psychological egoism may allow the ultimate goal of a person to include such things as avoiding punishments from oneself or others (such as guilt or sham... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychological_egoism |
According to the "merge with others hypothesis", empathy increases the more an individual feels like they are one with another person, and decreases as the oneness decreases. Therefore, altruistic actions emanating from empathy and empathy itself are caused by making others' interests our own, and the satisfaction of t... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychological_egoism |
Neuropsychological studies have linked mirror neurons to humans experiencing empathy. Mirror neurons are activated both when a human (or animal) performs an action and when they observe another human (or animal) perform the same action. Researchers have found that the more these mirror neurons fire the more human subje... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychological_egoism |
From a neurological perspective, scientists argue that when a human empathizes with another, the brain operates as if the human is actually participating in the actions of the other person. Thus, when performing altruistic actions motivated by empathy, humans experience someone else's pleasure of being helped. Therefor... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychological_egoism |
Even accepting the theory of universal positivity, it is difficult to explain, for example, the actions of a soldier who sacrifices his life by jumping on a grenade in order to save his comrades. In this case, there is simply no time to experience positivity toward one's actions, although a psychological egoist may arg... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychological_egoism |
This is repeated until, finally, the dog sits without requiring a biscuit. Psychological egoists could claim that such actions which do not 'directly' result in positivity, or reward, are not dissimilar from the actions of the dog. In this case, the action (sitting on command) will have become a force of habit, and bre... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychological_egoism |
Psychological egoism has been accused of being circular: "If a person willingly performs an act, that means he derives personal enjoyment from it; therefore, people only perform acts that give them personal enjoyment." In particular, seemingly altruistic acts must be performed because people derive enjoyment from them ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychological_egoism |
An earlier version of the same objection was made by Joseph Butler in 1726. Joel Feinberg, in his 1958 paper "Psychological Egoism", embraces a similar critique by drawing attention to the infinite regress of psychological egoism. He expounds it in the following cross-examination: "All men desire only satisfaction. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychological_egoism |
""Satisfaction of what? ""Satisfaction of their desires. ""Their desires for what? | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychological_egoism |
""Their desires for satisfaction. ""Satisfaction of what? ""Their desires. ""For what? ""For satisfaction"—etc., ad infinitum. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychological_egoism |
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