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This theory is based in part on Marcel Mauss's theory of The Gift, which (in Lévi-Strauss' words) argued: that exchange in primitive societies consists not so much in economic transactions as in reciprocal gifts, that these reciprocal gifts have a far more important function than in our own, and that this primitive form of exchange is not merely nor essentially of an economic nature but is what he aptly calls "a total social fact", that is, an event which has a significance that is at once social and religious, magic and economic, utilitarian and sentimental, jural and moral. It is also based on Lévi-Strauss's analysis of data on different kinship systems and marriage practices documented by anthropologists and historians. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incest_taboo |
Lévi-Strauss called attention specifically to data collected by Margaret Mead during her research among the Arapesh. When she asked if a man ever sleeps with his sister, Arapesh replied: "No we don't sleep with our sisters. We give our sisters to other men, and other men give us their sisters." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incest_taboo |
Mead pressed the question repeatedly, asking what would happen if a brother and sister did have sex with one another. Lévi-Strauss quotes the Arapesh response: What, you would like to marry your sister? What is the matter with you anyway? | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incest_taboo |
Don't you want a brother-in-law? Don't you realize that if you marry another man's sister and another man marries your sister, you will have at least two brothers-in-law, while if you marry your own sister you will have none? With whom will you hunt, with whom will you garden, who will you visit? | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incest_taboo |
By applying Mauss's theory to data such as Mead's, Lévi-Strauss proposed what he called alliance theory. He argued that, in "primitive" societies—societies not based on agriculture, class hierarchies, or centralized government—marriage is not fundamentally a relationship between a man and a woman, but a transaction involving a woman that forges a relationship—an alliance—between two men.Some anthropologists argue that nuclear family incest avoidance can be explained in terms of the ecological, demographic, and economic benefits of exogamy.While Lévi-Strauss generally discounted the relevance of alliance theory in Africa, a particularly strong concern for incest is a fundamental issue among the age systems of East Africa. Here, the avoidance between men of an age-set and their daughters is altogether more intense than in any other sexual avoidance. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incest_taboo |
Paraphrasing Lévi-Strauss's argument, without this avoidance, the rivalries for power between age-sets, coupled with the close bonds of sharing between age-mates, could lead to a sharing of daughters as spouses. Young men entering the age system would then find a dire shortage of marriageable girls, and extended families would be in danger of dying out. Thus, by parading this avoidance of their daughters, senior men make these girls available for younger age-sets and their marriages form alliances that mitigate the rivalries for power. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incest_taboo |
Exogamy between households or descent groups is typically prescribed in classless societies. Societies that are stratified—that is, divided into unequal classes—often prescribe different degrees of endogamy. Endogamy is the opposite of exogamy; it refers to the practice of marriage between members of the same social group. An example is India's caste system, in which unequal castes are endogamous. Inequality between ethnic groups and races also correlates with endogamy.An extreme example of this principle, and an exception to the incest taboo, is found among members of the ruling class in certain ancient states, such as the Inca, Egypt, China, and Hawaii; brother–sister marriage (usually between half-siblings) was a means of maintaining wealth and political power within one family. Some scholars have argued that in Roman-governed Egypt this practice was also found among commoners, but others have argued that this was in fact not the norm. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incest_taboo |
Phenomenology within sociology, or phenomenological sociology, examines the concept of social reality (German: Lebenswelt or "Lifeworld") as a product of intersubjectivity. Phenomenology analyzes social reality to explain the formation and nature of social institutions. The application of phenomenological ideas in sociology is distinct from other social science applications of social science applications. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenomenology_(sociology) |
Having developed the initial groundwork for philosophical phenomenology, Edmund Husserl set out to create a method for understanding the properties and structures of consciousness such as emotions, perceptions of meaning, and aesthetic judgement. Social phenomenologists talk about the social construction of reality. They view social order as a creation of everyday interaction, often looking at conversations to find the methods that people use to maintain social relations.The leading exponent of Phenomenological Sociology was Alfred Schütz (1899–1959). Schütz sought to provide a critical philosophical foundation for Max Weber's interpretive sociology (verstehende Soziologie) by applying methods and insights derived from the philosophy of Husserl to the study of the social world. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenomenology_(sociology) |
It is the building of this bridge between Husserlian phenomenology and Weberian sociology that serves as the starting point for contemporary phenomenological sociology. Not all versions of phenomenological sociology are based on Weberian themes. There is some historical evidence that suggests elements of Weberian sociology are themselves based on certain phenomenological themes, especially in regard to the theory of the intended meaning of an act and ideas regarding theory and concept formation. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenomenology_(sociology) |
Weber may have taken influence from Wilhelm Dilthey's theory of Weltanschauung, who may have also taken from Husserl's theory of meaning.While Husserl's work was intended to understand how we reflect on the structures of consciousness in its own right, Schütz was concerned with the relationship between the Lebenswelt ("Lifeworld") and human action. Husserl's work was conducted as a transcendental phenomenology of consciousness. Schütz's work was conducted as a mundane phenomenology of the social world. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenomenology_(sociology) |
Their projects differ in level of analysis, topics of study, and the type of phenomenological reduction used in analysis. Ultimately these two distinct projects should be seen as complementary, with the studies of the latter dependent on the studies of the former. That is, valid phenomenological descriptions of the social reality should be consistent with the descriptions of intentional consciousness. It is from Husserl's work that Schütz' derives its meaning and verifiability. This is in keeping with Husserl's conception of phenomenology as "First Philosophy", the foundation, or ground, for both philosophy and all of the sciences. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenomenology_(sociology) |
Phenomenology takes it that social reality does not take place empirically or in any objective sense. Its various manifestations, such as institutions, organizations, social classes, and so on, are thought to be caused by lived social reality. In this way, these manifestations of social reality are considered "objects-constituted-in-and-for-consciousness". The process by which these manifestations come into being as products of consciousness is referred to in sociology as typification. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenomenology_(sociology) |
In Husserl's 'Ideas I,' he defines a concept he calls "the general thesis Natural Attitude" as "state of affairs in which we live before we have engaged in philosophy" or as the assumption that "the world is" as we literally perceive it in consciousness. The general thesis of the Natural Attitude is the ideational foundation for our everyday social experience. It unites the world of individual objects into a unified world of meaning, which we assume is shared by any and all who share our culture. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenomenology_(sociology) |
The Natural Attitude forms the underpinning for our thoughts and actions. It is the mental projection of a belief that a naturally occurring social world is both factually objective in its existential status, and unquestioned in its "natural" appearance. According to the Natural Attitude, social objects (persons, language, institutions, etc.) have the same existential status as objects occurring in nature (rocks, trees, and animals, etc.). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenomenology_(sociology) |
Although it is often referred to as the "General Thesis of the Natural Attitude", it is not a thesis in the formal sense of the term, but a non-thematic assumption, or belief, that underlies our sense of the objectivity and facticity of the world, and the objects appearing in this world. The facticity of this world of common sense is both unquestioned and virtually "unquestionable;" it is sanctionable as to its status as that which "is," and that which "everyone," or, at least, "any reasonable person," agrees to be the case with regard to the factual character of the world. As far as traditional social science is concerned, this taken-for-granted world of social facts is the starting and end point for any and all investigations of the social world. It provides the raw, observable, taken-for-granted "data" upon which the findings of the social sciences are idealized, conceptualized, and offered up for analysis and discourse. Within traditional social science, this "data" is formulated into a second order world of abstractions and idealizations constituted in accordance with these sciences' modelling schemes.Schutz's phenomenological descriptions are made from within the Phenomenological Attitude, which follows the process of phenomenological reduction (epoché), which suspends the Natural Attitude and reveals the phenomena occurring within the Natural Attitude of the mind as manifestations of the non-objective mental world. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenomenology_(sociology) |
The term “stock of knowledge” was coined by Schütz. This concept is vital to phenomenological sociologists and their claim that social reality is intersubjective. While phenomenologists tend to focus on establishing the structures of “intentional consciousness,” as Husserl calls it, proponents of phenomenological sociology are interested in the structures of the “lifeworld.” The latter refers to the world as directly experienced through the subjectivity of everyday life. As we go through our everyday lives, we draw on our stocks of knowledge to make interpretations. The "stock of knowledge” is typically a "deep background configuration" of a series of past experiences comprising: "one’s native language and linguistic rules; conventional modes of interpreting expressions and events; numerous theories and methods; aural and visual forms; shared cultural and normative understandings, and the like." Schütz argued that all "interpretation of this world is based upon a stock of previous experiences of it." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenomenology_(sociology) |
Martin Heidegger characterizes Husserl's phenomenological research project as, "the analytic description of intentionality in its a priori;" as it is the phenomenon of intentionality which provides the mode of access for conducting any and all phenomenological investigations, and the ultimate ground or foundation guaranteeing any findings resulting from any such inquiry. In recognizing consciousness as having the formal structure of intentionality, as always having consciousness of an intended object, Husserlian phenomenology has located the access point to a radical new form of scientific description. Methodologically, access to this field is obtained through the phenomenological reduction. While there is some controversy as to the official name, number, and levels of the reduction, this internal argument among the philosophers need not concern us. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenomenology_(sociology) |
For the purposes of a mundane phenomenology of the social world, we, as phenomenological social scientists, engage in a mundane phenomenological reduction called the Epoché. The hallmark of this form of the reduction is what it reveals about its field of inquiry: a mundane phenomenology of the social world defines its phenomenal field as the intersubjective region of mundane consciousness as appearing from within the natural attitude. The phenomenological reduction as applied to a mundane analysis of the social world consists of the bracketing of the thesis of the natural attitude. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenomenology_(sociology) |
This bracketing is nothing more than a bracketing of the existential belief in the existence of the objective world; the existential status of the world itself is not called into question. The result of this bracketing is that our attention is shifted from the objects in the world as they occur in nature, to the objects in the world as they appear for consciousness - as phenomenon for intentional consciousness. Our descriptions of objects in the world are now transformed from the naive descriptions of objects as occurring in nature, to phenomenological descriptions of objects as appearing for consciousness. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenomenology_(sociology) |
In short, for the purpose of a mundane phenomenological analysis within the natural attitude, the epoche transforms objects as occurring in nature into: objects-for-subjectivity, objects-for-consciousness, objects-as-intended. Keep in mind that for positivism, the meaning of an object is, by definition, "objective". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenomenology_(sociology) |
That is, the meaning of the object is a property of the object itself, is independent of any particular observer, and "the same" for any and all observers regardless of their orientation or perspective. For phenomenology, an object is always intended, and constituted, as meaningful by a particular intending subject from a particular orientation and from a particular perspectival viewing point. In addition, phenomenologically speaking, the meaning of the object cannot be separated from its phenomenality, or materiality, and cannot be constituted qua meaningful object without the meaning bestowing act of intending on the part of a constituting subject. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenomenology_(sociology) |
For a phenomenology undertaken within the natural attitude, meaning does not inherently accrue to an object as a thing-in-itself, is not an "add-on" to the object (a label), and is not separable from the object as constituted by the intending subject in the act of meaning constitution. For phenomenology, the meaning and the object (in its "materiality") are co-constituted in the intending of the object by the subject—phenomenologically speaking there are only meaningful objects. There is no such thing as a neutrally valued object, or a meaningless object, and the notion of an object as "nonsense" is itself a meaningful determination - as the existentialists would say, we are condemned to meaning. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenomenology_(sociology) |
Note that, because we as observers have already been born into an already-existing social world that is already pre-interpreted - through both social meanings and through architectural and business intentionality - and 'made meaningful-to-us' as an intersubjectively available "entity", any proposal that the subject is creating the object, or creating the meaning of the object as an individual achievement in a particular situation is a misrepresentation of what is actually taking place. Within the 'Natural Attitude of Everyday Life', the subject's role in the constitution of meaningful objects is better understood as a reading off, or interpretation, of the meaning from the object-as-intended. This reading off, or interpretation, of the object's meaning is an intersubjective achievement of the intending subject that takes place within the intersubjective realm of the natural attitude. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenomenology_(sociology) |
The Commission on Health Research for Development was an independent international initiative with the aim of improving health and development in what were then called ‘developing countries’. It was active between 1987 and 1990, when it completed its work with the publication of its landmark report: Health Research: Essential Link to Equity in Development.Convinced that scientific research could contribute much more to health and development, the Commission set out to survey the status of research in relation to the health problems of developing countries, to examine how it was or was not contributing to health in these countries, and to propose improvements in the way health research was being conducted to ensure maximum impact on health. During its two years of work and deliberations, the Commission reviewed available information on health research and development, commissioned special papers, and consulted widely around the world. During open Commission meetings that were held in (Germany), Zimbabwe, the United States, Mexico, India, Japan, France and Sweden, local and international experts in health and development were invited to share their experiences. The Commission heard evidence from health researchers, social activists and administrators and met with ministers of health and representatives of many international organisations including the World Health Organization, UNICEF and the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commission_on_Health_Research_for_Development |
The Commission and its Secretariat produced 25 country reports, 10 Commission reports, 16 staff papers and 33 contributed papers examining the many aspects of health research and development. Consultations included 11 Commission meetings, 15 workshops and 4 consultations with researchers, members of governments and development agencies around the world. In all, the Commission says it involved more than 1000 scientists in this process. Their contributions were synthesized into the Commission's final report. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commission_on_Health_Research_for_Development |
The Commission had 12 members: John R. Evans (Canada) chair, Gelia T. Castillo (Philippines) deputy-chair, Fazle Hasan Abed (Bangladesh), Sune D. Bergstrom (Sweden), Doris Howes Calloway (United States), Essmat S. Ezzat (Egypt), Demissie Habte (Ethiopia), Walter J. Kamba (Zimbabwe), Adetokunbo O. Lucas (Nigeria), Adolfo Martinez-Palomo (Mexico), Saburo Okita (Japan), V. Ramalingaswami (India). The professional backgrounds of the Commission members include biomedical, social and epidemiological sciences. Several had institutional responsibilities for the development of governments, institutions, universities, medical schools and research institutions. In addition to scientists and public health professionals, the panel included a businessman, nutritionist, economist, rural sociologist and a lawyer. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commission_on_Health_Research_for_Development |
In the introduction to its Report, Health Research: Essential Link to Equity in Development, the Commission describes itself as an independent group that is “not the creation of any agency or institution. Because it is not created by government or an international agency, it is free to reflect frankly on the policies and practices of all.” In the course of its work, the Commission explored the fundamental relationship between health research and development. The multidisciplinary nature of the Commission’s membership helped shape the shared vision that health can be a driving force for national development. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commission_on_Health_Research_for_Development |
At the same time, the Commission was not unanimous in its conclusions or recommendations, and heated debates about interpretation of findings and recommended actions were inherent part of its work. In particular, disagreements about where health research should be conducted: should it be in more capable research environments in high income countries where research can be done to higher standards and possibly lead to quicker results and more rapid development of technical interventions or should it be done in low and middle income countries where capacity for research still needed to be built in many instances? In the latter case, the outcome of research studies was not only a research product but also increased research capacity. This same debate continues to this date in virtually the entire field of global health. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commission_on_Health_Research_for_Development |
The Commission's work was supported by 16 donors. The following three provided the leadership in launching the Commission:: viii The German Development Agency GTZ (Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit) The Edna McConnell Clark Foundation in the United States Canada's International Development Research Centre (IDRC)The other sponsoring agencies were:: 2 Academia de la Investigacion Cientifica (Mexico) Carnegie Corporation of New York (USA) Ford Foundation (USA) Foundation for Total Health Promotion (Japan) Nobel Assembly (Sweden) Oak Foundation (UK) Overseas Development Administration (currently DFID UK) Pew Charitable Trusts (USA) Rockefeller Foundation (USA) Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency SIDA (Sweden) Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation (Switzerland) World Bank United Nations Development Program (UNDP)Further support was also provided by a number of universities, university departments and institutes, foundations and government ministries who supported the organization of national and regional workshops, consultations, and contributed papers and inputs to the Commission process. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commission_on_Health_Research_for_Development |
The Commission's work was coordinated by a secretariat, run by Lincoln Chen, Sunil Chacko and David Bell at Harvard University; Richard Feachem and David Bradley at the London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine; and Shigekoto Kaihara at Tokyo University. The Secretariat was supported by 24 professional, research and administrative staff during the course of its work. Dr. Sunil Chacko was the sole full-time professional staff member for much of the life of the Commission. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commission_on_Health_Research_for_Development |
The Commission found a gross mismatch between the burden of illness, which is overwhelmingly in the Third World, and investment in health research, which is overwhelmingly focused on the health problems of industrialized countries. Developing countries need stronger scientific and institutional capacity to address problems unique to their circumstances, but sufficient investment is not being made to build and sustain their health research capacity. Especially weak are the critical fields of epidemiology, the policy and social sciences and management research. Biomedical and clinical research are somewhat stronger, but capacity-strengthening efforts in these fields are modest in scale and narrowly targeted. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commission_on_Health_Research_for_Development |
The mismatch was between conditions that cause ill health and death which mostly occurred in low and middle income countries, and global expenditure on health research which focused mostly on the less severe health conditions prevalent in high income countries, became known as the 10–90 gap. In actual figures, 93% of ‘potential years of life lost’ occurred in the developing world while 95% of all research expenditures were made in high income countries. To state this in another way, one could say that only 5% of the world’s research expenditures were spent on diseases that caused 93% of global mortality. This mismatch became later known as the 10/90 gap (in health research expenditure). Although this is an oversimplification, it is a very powerful expression of how research did not deliver on its potential to improve health in the developing world because of a skewed allocation of health research resources in the world. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commission_on_Health_Research_for_Development |
Based on these findings, the Commission made four main recommendations: 1. Essential National Health Research (ENHR). All countries, no matter how poor, should invest in developing long-term, sustainable research capacity development. With this, countries should identify and prioritize their own research requirements to improve health, and, secondly, should link up with global efforts to address specific conditions. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commission_on_Health_Research_for_Development |
Responsibility for the implementation of ENRH was primarily located at the level of low and middle income countries themselves – particularly through setting priorities for health research and health research systems, and through – what can now be termed – as generating an environment conducive to research. In addition, countries were asked to invest 2% of their national health budget in health research. Research Capacity Strengthening. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commission_on_Health_Research_for_Development |
Strengthening the research capacity of developing nations, including its individuals, institutions and the research system as a whole. 2. Creating international research partnerships The international community, its institutions and research organisations in high income countries were also given specific responsibilities. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commission_on_Health_Research_for_Development |
The report outlines many different lines of investigation that were neglected at the time – some of which are still neglected now. It also emphasized the need for international networking and the support of epidemiological and social science research to achieve health. It also called on the international community to support research capacity building in low and middle income countries. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commission_on_Health_Research_for_Development |
3. Mobilizing funding to support health research for development. In addition to calling on developing countries to spend 2% of their national health budgets on health research, the Commission called on donors to allocate 5% of all aid given in the health sector to health research and towards building health research capacity. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commission_on_Health_Research_for_Development |
Other recommendations were made, but this section remains the most underdeveloped of the Commission’s report. Although calls for ‘innovative financing mechanisms’ were made, no specifics were provided. 4. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commission_on_Health_Research_for_Development |
Establishing a forum in which progress towards reducing the ‘10/90 gap’ can be monitored. The fourth recommendation concerns the establishment of an ‘international mechanism’ to communicate progress and, if needed, to mobilize more finances for health research for development. This ‘mechanism’ should be ‘independent’ – with which was meant that it should act as a stimulus for others to do research not as a research organisation itself. Such a forum would bring together researchers, donors, governments and other stakeholders on an annual basis to monitor health research for development. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commission_on_Health_Research_for_Development |
The Commission tabled its report in September 1990 during a meeting at the Karolinska Institute in Sweden. The meeting brought together many of the people who had been active in or interviewed by the Commission and its Secretariat. The report was widely endorsed, and to ensure that action would not stop with the end of the Commission's work, a Task Force on Health Research for Development was initiated. The Task Force on Health Research for Development was active from the end of the work of the Commission in 1990 until the establishment of a permanent body to take some of the Commission's work forward, the Council on Health Research for Development (COHRED). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commission_on_Health_Research_for_Development |
COHRED, took over where the Task Force left off. COHRED's primary responsibility became, firstly, advocacy for Essential National Health Research (ENHR) and, secondly, strengthening research capacity in low and middle income countries. Provided with an extremely meagre budget compared to current ‘global health partnerships’, COHRED was nevertheless instrumental in promoting research priority setting in low and middle income countries. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commission_on_Health_Research_for_Development |
It brought the message of ENHR to countries across the world, evolving today to support countries' development of research capacity and national research systems for health. COHRED was established in the administrative environment of the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) rather than in the World Health Organization (WHO). This emphasizes a key characteristic of the organisation – its focus is development – and the way to get there includes promotion of research and research systems for health, equity and development. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commission_on_Health_Research_for_Development |
in 2002, COHRED became an independent international non-governmental organisation. See the pages on COHRED or Council on Health Research for Development for more information. The fourth recommendation became the basis for the establishment of the Global Forum for Health Research, which was created in 1997. == References == | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commission_on_Health_Research_for_Development |
Personalismo is a cult of personality built around Latin American and African political leaders. It often involves subjugating the interests of political parties, ideologies and constitutional government to loyalty to one leader. In personalismo, it is customary for the dictator's personal charisma to be considered as more important than political achievements.Many political parties in the region have been made up of personal supporters of a particular leader, as is apparent from the colloquial names of their members. In Argentina, for example, Partido Justicialista's supporters are commonly referred to only as "Peronists", according to Juan Perón, and in Cuba, Fidel Castro's supporters are "Fidelistas". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personalismo |
Although personalismo is quite common throughout Latin American history, it has been a particular part of the political systems of the Dominican Republic and Ecuador.Personalismo is closely linked to the Latin American caudilismo phenomenon, where states are dominated by leaders (caudillos) whose power leans on violence and, on the other hand, personal charisma. Caudillos were particularly common in the newly independent Latin American states of the early 19th century. However, caudilismo remained a common phenomenon until the 20th century, either as Peronism-like populist movements or as direct military dictatorships. == References == | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personalismo |
The Parliament Gardens is a small park in downtown Windhoek, Namibia. It is located between the Tintenpalast (Namibia's Parliament building) and the Christuskirche. It was laid out in 1932 and was originally called the Tintenpalast gardens, adopting its present name after Namibian independence in 1990.The Parliament Gardens contain Namibia's first post-independence monument: a bronze-cast statue of the Herero chief Hosea Kutako. Two other Namibian nationalists are also honoured with bronze statues in the gardens: Hendrik Samuel Witbooi and Theophilus Hamutumbangela. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parliament_Gardens |
The three statues flank the steps towards the main entrance of the parliament building. The gardens used to be an olive plantation, and still include an olive grove. They also contain a bowling green lined with bougainvilleas along with a thatched-roof clubhouse. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parliament_Gardens |
Twice a month the gardens host "Theatre in the Park", run by the College of the Arts.In 2016, the opening of the Namibian Parliament was held in the Parliament Gardens because of limited space in the Tintenpalast. Due to a change to the Constitution in 2014, the number of parliamentarians had increased significantly, and so joint sittings have to be held elsewhere.Rough Guides describes the Parliament Gardens as "delightful, shady... definitely merit a stroll". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parliament_Gardens |
The gardens are "particularly popular at lunchtimes and weekends, when students laze on the lawns pouring over their books or each other." They are also a "popular place for a lunchtime picnic." == References == | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parliament_Gardens |
Ministry of Education, or the MOE, is a government branch in the Marshall Islands that controls and takes care of education, as well as all public schools in the Marshall Islands. The Minister of the MOE is one of the senators of the Marshall Islands and is appointed by the president of the Marshall Islands. Wilbur Heine is the current minister. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministry_of_Education_(Marshall_Islands) |
Marshall Islands Public School System College of the Marshall Islands (CMI) National Vocational Training Institute (NVTI) == References == | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministry_of_Education_(Marshall_Islands) |
Social Psychology Quarterly is a peer-reviewed academic journal that publishes theoretical and empirical papers in the field of social psychology. The editors-in-chief are Jody Clay-Warner, Dawn Robinson, and Justine Tinkler (University of Georgia). It is published by SAGE Publications on behalf of the American Sociological Association, of which this is an official journal. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_Psychology_Quarterly |
The journal was established in 1937 under the title Sociometry by Jacob L. Moreno, who served as publisher and chair of the editorial committee until 1955. In 1955, Moreno transferred ownership of the journal to the American Sociological Society (now the American Sociological Association), which has published the journal continuously since then. The journal's name was changed to Social Psychology in 1978 and it obtained its current name in 1979. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_Psychology_Quarterly |
Social Psychology Quarterly is abstracted and indexed in Scopus and the Social Sciences Citation Index. According to the Journal Citation Reports, its 2017 impact factor is 2.341, ranking it 18th out of 64 journals in the category "Psychology, Social". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_Psychology_Quarterly |
The following persons have been editors-in-chief of the journal: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_Psychology_Quarterly |
The most commonly used definition of school belonging comes from a 1993 academic article by researchers Carol Goodenow and Kathleen Grady, who describe school belonging as "the extent to which students feel personally accepted, respected, included, and supported by others in the school social environment." The construct of school belonging involves feeling connected with and attached to one's school. It also encompasses involvement and affiliation with one's school community. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/School_belonging |
Conversely, students who do not feel a strong sense of belonging within their school environment are frequently described as being alienated or disaffected. There are a number of terms within educational research that are used interchangeably with school belonging, including school connectedness, school attachment, and school engagement.School belonging is determined by a myriad of factors, including academic achievement and motivation, personal characteristics, social relationships, demographic characteristics, school climate, and participation in extracurricular activities. Research indicates that school belonging has significant implications for students, as it has been consistently linked with academic outcomes, psychological adjustment, well-being, identity formation, mental health, and physical health—it is considered a fundamental aspect of students' development. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/School_belonging |
A sense of belonging to one's school is considered particularly important for adolescents because they are within a period of transition and identity formation, and research has found that school belonging significantly declines during this period.Psychological Sense of School Membership (PSSM), developed in 1993, is one of the measures to ascertain the degree to which students feel a sense of school belonging. Students rate the extent to which they agree or disagree with statements, such as "People here notice when I'm good at something." In 2003, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention held an international convention where the Wingspread Declaration on School Connections was developed as a group of tactics to increase students' sense of belonging and connection with their school. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/School_belonging |
Research indicates that many students have deficient feelings of school belonging. The Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) has an investigated school belonging and disaffection in students around the world since 2003. Their most recent collection of data occurred in 2018. Approximately 600,000 students representing 32 million 15 years olds (aged between 15 years 3 months and 16 years 2 months) from 79 countries and economies participated in PISA 2018. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/School_belonging |
Their analyses revealed that a significant proportion of students around the world are lacking strong feelings of belongingness to school. On average, a third of all students surveyed felt they did not belong to their school. In addition, they found that one in five students feels like an outsider at school and one in six reports feeling lonely. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/School_belonging |
In most of the education systems, students who were socio-economically felt less belonging to school. On average student belonging to school declined by 2% between 2015 and 2018. The portion of students who do not feel like they belong to school has increased since 2003 indicating a trend in the deterioration of school belonging globally.School belonging tends to decrease as students grow older, as indicated in several different research studies. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/School_belonging |
In one study involving students from Latin America, Asia, and Europe, researchers Cari Gillen-O'Neel and Andrew Fuligni found that in childhood, students generally report high levels of school belonging. However, once students transition into middle school and adolescence, their perceptions of school belonging drop significantly. Similarly, a separate study found that students' school belonging decreased in the transition from middle to high school; these students also displayed an increase in depressive symptoms and a decline in social support, which could be considered either causes or consequences of the decline in school belonging. This trend has been replicated in many other studies, suggesting that school belonging declines once students reach adolescence. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/School_belonging |
A meta-analysis of 51 studies (N = 67,378) by K. Allen and colleagues (2018) identified that there are multiple individual and social level factors that influence school belonging. These core themes include academic factors, personal characteristics, social relationships, demographic characteristics, school climate and extra-curricular activities. For many of the determinants of school belonging, it is likely that each of them have a reciprocal relationship with a student's sense of belonging. That is, they operate as both an antecedents or consequences. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/School_belonging |
Research has documented the influence of academic factors (i.e. achievement, motivation, hardiness, interest in school) on students' school belonging. Academic achievement, or one's skills and competencies in school, has been identified as a substantial predictor of school belonging. For example, research has demonstrated that students' grade point averages (GPAs), a common measure of academic achievement, are positively associated with school belonging. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/School_belonging |
This means that students who have higher GPAs have higher levels of school belonging. Studies have also found several measures of academic motivation to be determinants of students' school belonging. Academic motivation encompasses behaviors such as homework completion, setting goals, expectancy of success, and effort and engagement within the classroom. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/School_belonging |
Carol Goodenow and Kathleen Grady found each of these sub-sects of academic motivation to be significant predictors of students' perceptions of school belonging. More recent research has replicated these findings, suggesting that academic motivation plays an important role in developing feelings of school belonging. In addition, students' perceived value of school influences their school belonging: when they perceive their assignments and education as instructive, meaningful, and valuable, they are more likely to report greater school belonging. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/School_belonging |
Personal characteristics refer to students' distinctive qualities, traits, personality, emotions, and attributes, and have been consistently identified as a substantial determinant of school belonging. Personal characteristics can be classified as either positive or negative. Positive personal characteristics such as self-esteem, self-efficacy, positive affect, and effective emotional regulation have been shown to help foster students' sense of school belonging. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/School_belonging |
A study by Xin Ma found that students' self-esteem had the greatest impact on school belonging compared to all other personal factors. Conversely, negative personal characteristics like anxiety, depressive symptoms, heightened stress, negative affect, and mental illness can lower students' perceptions of school belonging. Emotional instability can further influence school belonging by negatively affecting students' educational experiences. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/School_belonging |
Social relationships are involved in developing students' feelings of belonging within a school. There are large, positive correlations between school belonging and positive social relations with peers, teachers, and parents. Support, acceptance, and encouragement from these sources can help students develop the feeling that they connect and identify with their school. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/School_belonging |
Peer relations have been identified as a direct contributor to students' development of school belonging. Positive social relations with peers involve feelings of acceptance, connection, encouragement, academic and social support, trust, closeness, and caring. Such qualities within a peer relationship can significantly facilitate students' feelings of school belonging. When students are rejected or unsupported by their peers, they may experience anxiety, stress, and alienation. This alters their perceptions of belonging at school because the school environment now seems unwelcome and distressing, making it harder to identify and connect with the school. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/School_belonging |
Relationships with one's parents can have significant implications for students' feelings of school belonging, given that parents typically provide students' first social relationships. Positive parental relations include parents providing academic and social support, healthy communication, encouragement, compassion, acceptance, and safety. Such qualities within parent-child relationships have been shown to foster students' sense of school belonging by influencing their perceived connection with their school environment. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/School_belonging |
Teachers have been identified as being noteworthy contributors to students' feelings of belonging at school. Several academic studies have identified teacher support as the strongest predictor of school belonging compared to support from peers or parents. Teachers can help instil school belonging by developing a safe and healthy classroom climate, providing academic and social support, fostering respect amongst peers, and treating students fairly. Teachers can also promote feelings of school belonging by being friendly, approachable, and making an effort to connect with their students. Teaching practices that seem to promote students' school belonging include scaffolding learning, commending positive behaviors and performance, allowing students autonomy within the classroom, and using academic pressure, such as holding high expectations of students. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/School_belonging |
The relationship between gender and school belonging is largely inconclusive because research has produced conflicting results. Several studies have found gender differences in perceptions of school belonging: some research indicates that females possess a higher sense of school belonging compared to males, while other studies have found the opposite effect and conclude that males have higher school belonging than females. Other research has demonstrated that school belonging is not at all influenced by gender. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/School_belonging |
Similar to gender, some research on the effect of race and ethnicity on school belonging has found a significant relationship between the two, while other research contradicts these findings. For example, one study found that Black students experience lower feelings of school belonging compared to white students, however, other research has found the opposite pattern or has found no significant influence of race on school belonging at all. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/School_belonging |
A school's climate can have significant consequences for students feeling like they belong at school. School climate broadly refers to the feelings associated with a school's environment and quality; it is considered to have physical (e.g. adequacy of buildings), social (e.g. interpersonal relationships), and academic dimensions (e.g. teaching quality). School climate influences school belonging through its support (or lack thereof) of students' feelings of connection with and attachment to their school. One important facet of school climate is school safety, which is how safe students feel at school. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/School_belonging |
It includes variables such as a school's safety policies, use of discipline, bullying prevalence, and fairness. School safety is regarded as an important determinant of school belonging. Higher perceptions of school safety is associated with students holding greater feelings of school belonging. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/School_belonging |
Research has shown that being involved in extracurricular activities can positively influence students' perceptions of school belonging. For example, researchers Casey Knifsend and Sandra Graham found that students who participated in two extracurricular activities reported greater feelings of school belonging compared to those students who participated in fewer than two. Other studies have replicated this relationship, highlighting the importance of participating in extracurricular activities for developing school belonging. Extracurricular activities may influence school belonging by providing collaborative and long-term interactions between students and their peers. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/School_belonging |
The many determinants of school belonging can be conceptualised in a socio-ecological model. The Socio-ecological Model of School Belonging developed by Allen and Colleagues (2016), adapted from Bronfenbrenner's Socio-ecological systems theory (1979) is used to describe the school system as whole and the multiple and dynamic influencers of school belonging. The model depicts students at the centre of their school environment. The inner circles describe biological and individual level characteristics that influence school belonging. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/School_belonging |
These factors include biological traits and personal characteristics such as emotional stability and academic motivation. The microsystem is represented by relationships with others, specifically, teachers, peers, and parents. The mesosystem represents the school policy and practices that occur within the day-to-day operations of the school and the exosystem represents a broader level that may include the wider school community. The macro-system describes the cultural context of a school that may be influenced by where a school is geographically located, the external social climate, and other factors such as history, legislation, and government driven priorities. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/School_belonging |
School belonging has numerous consequences for students' psychological health and adjustment. Research has shown that when students feel a greater sense of school belonging, their mental health and well-being is improved: they exhibit greater levels of emotional stability, lower levels of depression, reduced stress, and an increase in positive emotions, such as happiness and pride. Feelings of school belonging have also been shown to predict self-esteem, self-concept, and self-worth. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/School_belonging |
Students who possess school belonging experience more positive life transitions as well, which can have important implications for psychological health and adjustment.On the other hand, students who do not have a strong sense of school belonging are at risk for a number of disadvantageous psychological and mental health outcomes. Students who lack a sense of belonging at school are at significantly greater risk for exhibiting anxiety, depression, negative affect, suicidal ideation, and overall developing mental illness. It may also increase their feelings of social rejection and alienation. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/School_belonging |
Feelings of school belonging can have a significant influence on academic development and outcomes for students. School belonging is related to students' expectancy of success, effort in school, and perceived value of school and education. Greater feelings of school belonging has been shown to increase engagement and participation both inside school and within extracurricular activities. Similarly, school belonging is associated with a greater commitment to school. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/School_belonging |
Strong feelings of school belonging have also been shown to improve overall academic performance and achievement, as shown by increases in grade point averages. A sense of belonging at school can also improve academic self-efficacy, or in other words, students' belief in their ability to succeed in school.Research has suggested that school belonging can also alleviate the prevalence of negative academic outcomes. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/School_belonging |
Greater feelings of school belonging are associated with decreased misbehavior and misconduct, such as fighting, bullying, and vandalism. It can improve school attendance by reducing the frequency of truancy and absenteeism. Having school belonging also reduces students' likelihood of dropping out of school, thus improving rates of school completion. Conversely, students who lack a sense of school belonging are at greater risk for disengagement from school and potentially dropping out. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/School_belonging |
School belonging has several implications for students' physical health. Students who possess feelings of school belonging exhibit reduced risk of having a stroke or disease. School belonging is also associated with lower mortality rates for students. In addition, perceptions of school belonging have a significant inverse relationship with risk-taking behaviors, including substance and tobacco use and early sexualization. In other words, students who have higher levels of school belonging are less likely to engage in risk-taking behaviors. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/School_belonging |
There are a number of measures used to assess school belonging. The most commonly used measures include: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/School_belonging |
The most commonly used measure of school belonging is the Psychological Sense of School Membership (PSSM) scale, which was developed by Carol Goodenow in 1993. This scale measures students' feelings of belonging and membership within a school setting by having students respond to 18 items regarding their personal feelings and experiences within school. It is designed to be used with students of all ages and nationalities. Students answer the items on a scale ranging from 1 to 5, where 1 indicates Not at all true, and 5 indicates Completely true. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/School_belonging |
The items are intended to measure students' perceptions of acceptance, academic and social support, value, and contentment within their social relationships at school. The following are some examples of items that students respond to: "People here notice when I'm good at something," "Other students take my opinions seriously," and "I feel like a real part of this school." Research has found the PSSM to have high validity and reliability, attesting to its status as a valuable and functional measure of school belonging. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/School_belonging |
The Hemingway Measure of Adolescent Connectedness (HMAC) was constructed by Michael Karcher in 1999 and has been used in research as a measure of school belonging for adolescents specifically. It contains 74 items on a scale ranging from 1 (Not true at all) to 5 (Very true). It examines adolescents' perceptions of connectedness, or in other words, their involvement with and valuation of both the specific and general social support they receive, across three sub-categories: social connectedness, academic connectedness, and family connectedness. The social connectedness component measures adolescents' feelings of connection towards their friends, neighborhood, and self. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/School_belonging |
Academic connectedness evaluates adolescents' sense of connection towards their school, teachers, peers, and academic self. Finally, the family connectedness component assesses adolescents' feelings of connectedness to their parents, siblings, religion, and ancestry. Items measuring school belonging specifically include: "I feel good about myself when I am at school," "I get along well with the other students in my classes" and "I enjoy being at school." This scale has been found to be generalizable to adolescents across the globe. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/School_belonging |
Jill Hendrickson Lohmeier and Steven W. Lee created the School Connectedness Scale (SCS) in 2011 to assess students' peer, adult, and school relationships within three distinct categories: general support (belongingness), specific support (relatedness), and engagement (connectedness).The scale includes 54 self-report items presented on a scale ranging from 1 to 5, where 1 represents 'Not at all true' and 5 represents 'Completely true'. Some items include "Students at my school help each other", "I am very involved in activities at my school, like clubs or teams", "Teachers at my school care about their students", and "I like spending time with my classmates." The SCS has shown generalizability to students from diverse populations, including different ages and ethnicities. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/School_belonging |
The School Engagement Instrument (SEI) was designed by James Appleton, Sandra Christenson, Dongjin Kim, and Amy Reschly in 2006 and is commonly used to gauge perceptions of school belonging. It includes 35 items on a four-point scale ranging from Strongly agree to Strongly disagree that measure students' cognitive and affective engagement within the school environment. The items are categorized into six sub-domains: "future goals and aspirations, control and relevance of schoolwork, extrinsic motivation, family support for learning, peer support for learning, and teacher-student relationships." Items from the SEI include: "Overall, my teachers are open and honest with me," "Students at my school are there for me when I need them," "When I have problems at school, my family/guardian(s) want to know about it," and "What I'm learning in my classes will be important for my future." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/School_belonging |
In 2003, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) held an international convention to develop tactics for bolstering students' perceptions of school belonging. They developed the Wingspread Declaration on School Connections which identified the following strategies for increasing students' belonging to and connection with their school: Implementing high standards and expectations, and providing academic support to all students. Applying fair and consistent disciplinary policies that are collectively agreed upon and fairly enforced. Creating trusting relationships among students, teachers, staff, administrators, and families. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/School_belonging |
Hiring and supporting capable teachers skilled in content, teaching techniques, and classroom management to meet each learner's needs. Fostering high parent/family expectations for school performance and school completion. Ensuring that every student feels close to at least one supportive adult at school.—"Wingspread Declaration on School Connections", Journal of School Health The CDC later advanced the work of the Wingspread Declaration in 2009 by conducting a comprehensive, systematic review of school belonging and connectedness using sources from expert researchers, the government, educators, and more. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/School_belonging |
This work produced four additional strategies for enhancing students' perception of belonging within school: Adult Support: School staff members can dedicate their time, interest, attention, and emotional support to students. Belonging to a Positive Peer Group: A stable network of peers can improve student perceptions of school. Commitment to Education: Believing that school is important to their future and perceiving that the adults in school are investing in their education can help students engaged in their own learning and involved in school activities. School Environment: The physical environment and psychosocial climate can set the stage for positive student perceptions of school.—"School Connectedness: Strategies for Increasing Protective Factors Among Youth", Centers for Disease Control and Prevention | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/School_belonging |
Student-level interventions may also increase a sense of school belonging. Research has indicated that social and emotional learning opportunities may also increase a sense of school belonging in students. Many individual characteristics found to enhance a student's sense of belonging can be taught to students and thus offer a preventative mechanism to support their sense of school belonging. For example, research suggests that teaching emotional regulation, coping skills, interpersonal skills, and skills related to academic motivation hold promise for supporting a students sense of school belonging. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/School_belonging |
The International Institute of Sociology (IIS) is a scholarly organization which seeks to stimulate and facilitate the development, exchange, and application of scientific knowledge to questions of sociological relevance. Membership is open to all sociologists as well as to scholars in neighbouring disciplines. Created in Paris in 1893 by René Worms, it is the oldest continuous sociological association in existence. Its first congress was held in Paris in October 1894: 360 under the chairmanship of René Worms, which formalised the foundation of this institution. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Institute_of_Sociology |
: 169 The Révue internationale de sociologie, founded the year before, became the printed organ of the Institute. Since its foundation the goal of the IIS has been to bring together sociologists from around the world. It has a longstanding tradition of promoting discussions on the most crucial theoretical issues of the day and on the practical use of social scientific knowledge. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Institute_of_Sociology |
Among its members and associates were prominent scholars such as: Franz Boas, Roger Bastide, Lujo Brentano, Theodor Geiger, Gustave Le Bon, Karl Mannheim, William F. Ogburn, Pitirim Sorokin, Georg Simmel, Werner Sombart, Gabriel Tarde, Ferdinand Toennies, Thorstein Veblen, Lester F. Ward, Eliezer Ben-Rafael, Sidney Webb, Max Weber, Florian Znaniecki, and Ludwig Gumplowicz: 169 Every two years the IIS organizes a world congress in Sociology. Recent IIS World Congresses were held in Uppsala (2013), Delhi (2012), Yerevan (2009), Budapest (2008), Stockholm (2005), Beijing (2004), Kraków (2001), Tel Aviv (1999), Köln (1997), Trieste (1995), Paris (1993), Kobe (1991), and Rome (1989). In addition to the congresses and other meetings, the IIS publishes the Annales de l'Institut International de Sociologie / Annals of the International Institute of Sociology. First published in 1895 after the first world congress, this book series seeks to present cutting-edge research and synthesis. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Institute_of_Sociology |
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