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In a study conducted by Sherif, he discovered the power of crowds when he worked with experimenters who looked up in the middle of New York City. As the number of the precipitating group increased, the percentage of passers-by who looked up increased as well. Reciprocity is returning a favor. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attitude_change |
People are more likely to return a favor if they have a positive attitude towards the other party. Reciprocities also develop interdependence and societal bonds. Authority plays a role in attitude change in situations where there are superior-inferior relationships. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attitude_change |
We are more likely to become obedient to authorities when the authority's expertise is perceived as high and when we anticipate receiving rewards. A famous study that constitutes the difference in attitude change is the Milgram experiment, where people changed their attitude to "shocking their partner" more when they followed authorities whereas the subjects themselves would have not done so otherwise. Liking has shown that if one likes another party, one is more inclined to carry out a favor. The attitude changes are based on whether an individual likes an idea or person, and if he or she does not like the other party, he/she may not carry out the favor or do so out of obligation. Liking can influence one's opinions through factors such as physical attractiveness, similarities, compliments, contact and cooperation. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attitude_change |
The elaboration likelihood model is similar in concept to and shares many ideas with other dual processing models, such as the heuristic-systematic model of information processing. In the elaboration likelihood model, cognitive processing is the central route and affective/emotion processing is often associated with the peripheral route. The central route pertains to an elaborate cognitive processing of information while the peripheral route relies on cues or feelings. The ELM suggests that true attitude change only happens through the central processing route that incorporates both cognitive and affective components as opposed to the more heuristics-based peripheral route. This suggests that motivation through emotion alone will not result in an attitude change. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attitude_change |
Cognitive dissonance, a theory originally developed by Festinger (1957), is the idea that people experience a sense of guilt or uneasiness when two linked cognitions are inconsistent, such as when there are two conflicting attitudes about a topic, or inconsistencies between one's attitude and behavior on a certain topic. The basic idea of the Cognitive Dissonance Theory relating to attitude change, is that people are motivated to reduce dissonance which can be achieved through changing their attitudes and beliefs. Cooper & Fazio's (1984) have also added that cognitive dissonance does not arise from any simple cognitive inconsistency, but rather results from freely chosen behavior that may bring about negative consequences. These negative consequences may be threats to the consistency, stability, predictability, competence, moral goodness of the self-concept, or violation of general self-integrity.Research has suggested multiple routes that cognitive dissonance can be reduced. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attitude_change |
Self-affirmation has been shown to reduce dissonance, however it is not always the mode of choice when trying to reduce dissonance. When multiple routes are available, it has been found that people prefer to reduce dissonance by directly altering their attitudes and behaviors rather than through self-affirmation. People who have high levels of self-esteem, who are postulated to possess abilities to reduce dissonance by focusing on positive aspects of the self, have also been found to prefer modifying cognitions, such as attitudes and beliefs, over self-affirmation. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attitude_change |
A simple example of cognitive dissonance resulting in attitude change would be when a heavy smoker learns that his sister died young from lung cancer due to heavy smoking as well, this individual experiences conflicting cognitions: the desire to smoke, and the knowledge that smoking could lead to death and a desire not to die. In order to reduce dissonance, this smoker could change his behavior (i.e. stop smoking), change his attitude about smoking (i.e. smoking is harmful), or retain his original attitude about smoking and modify his new cognition to be consistent with the first one--"I also work out so smoking won't be harmful to me". Thus, attitude change is achieved when individuals experience feelings of uneasiness or guilt due to cognitive dissonance, and actively reduce the dissonance through changing their attitude, beliefs, or behavior relating in order to achieve consistency with the inconsistent cognitions. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attitude_change |
Carl Hovland and his band of persuasion researchers learned a great deal during World War 2 and later at Yale about the process of attitude change. High-credibility sources lead to more attitude change immediately following the communication act, but a sleeper effect occurs in which the source is forgotten after a period of time. Mild fear appeals lead to more attitude change than strong fear appeals. Propagandists had often used fear appeals. Hoveland's evidence about the effect of such appeals suggested that a source should be cautious in using fear appeals, because strong fear messages may interfere with the intended persuasion attempt. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attitude_change |
The process of how people change their own attitudes has been studied for years. Belief rationalization has been recognized as an important aspect to understand this process. The stability of people's past attitudes can be influenced if they hold beliefs that are inconsistent with their own behaviors. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attitude_change |
The influence of past behavior on current attitudes is stable when little information conflicts with the behavior. Alternatively, people's attitudes may lean more radically toward the prior behavior if the conflict makes it difficult to ignore, and forces them to rationalize their past behavior.Attitudes are often restructured at the time people are asked to report them. As a result, inconsistencies between the information that enters into the reconstruction and the original attitudes can produce changes in prior attitudes, whereas consistency between these elements often elicits stability in prior attitudes. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attitude_change |
Individuals need to resolve the conflict between their own behaviors and the subsequent beliefs. However, people usually align themselves with their attitudes and beliefs instead of their behaviors. More importantly, this process of resolving people's cognitive conflicts that emerges cuts across both self-perception and dissonance even when the associated effect may only be strong in changing prior attitudes | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attitude_change |
Human judgment is comparative in nature. Departing from identifying people's need to justify their own beliefs in the context of their own behaviors, psychologists also believe that people have the need to carefully evaluate new messages on the basis of whether these messages support or contradict with prior messages, regardless of whether they can recall the prior messages after they reach a conclusion. This comparative processing mechanism is built on "information-integration theory" and "social judgement theory". Both of these theories have served to model people's attitude change in judging the new information while they have not adequately explained the influential factors that motivate people to integrate the information. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attitude_change |
More recent work in the area of persuasion has further explored this "comparative processing" from the perspective of focusing on comparing between different sets of information on one single issue or object instead of simply making comparisons among different issues or objects. As previous research demonstrated, analyzing information on one target product may trigger less impact of comparative information than comparing this product with the same product under competing brands.When people compare different sets of information on one single issue or object, the effect of people's effort to compare new information with prior information seemed to correlate with the perceived strength of the new, strong information when considered jointly with the initial information. Comparison processes can be enhanced when prior evaluations, associated information, or both are accessible. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attitude_change |
People will simply construct a current judgment based on the new information or adjust the prior judgment when they are not able to retrieve the information from prior messages. The impact this comparative process can have on people's attitude change is mediated by changes in the strength of new information perceived by receivers. The effects of comparison on judgment change were mediated by changes in the perceived strength of the information. These findings above have wide range of applications in social marketing, political communication, and health promotion. For example, designing an advertisement that is counteractive against an existing attitude towards a behavior or policy is perhaps most effective if the advertisement uses the same format, characters, or music of ads associated with the initial attitudes. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attitude_change |
Global art is terminology used to identify contemporary art produced after 1989. It was introduced to distinguish it from the term world art, which tends to refer to historical ethnographic objects in a museum. == References == | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_art |
The interviewer effect (also called interviewer variance or interviewer error) is the distortion of response to a personal or telephone interview which results from differential reactions to the social style and personality of interviewers or to their presentation of particular questions. The use of fixed-wording questions is one method of reducing interviewer bias. Anthropological research and case-studies are also affected by the problem, which is exacerbated by the self-fulfilling prophecy, when the researcher is also the interviewer it is also any effect on data gathered from interviewing people that is caused by the behavior or characteristics (real or perceived) of the interviewer. Interviewer effects can also be associated with the characteristics of the interviewer, such as race. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interviewer_effect |
Whether black respondents are interviewed by white interviewers or black interviewers has a strong impact on their responses to both attitude questions and behavioral ones. In the latter case, for example, if black respondents are interviewed by black interviewers in pre-election surveys, they are more likely to actually vote in the upcoming election than if they are interviewed by white interviewers.Furthermore, the race of the interviewer can also affect answers to factual questions that might take the form of a test of how informed the respondent is. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interviewer_effect |
Black respondents in a survey of political knowledge, for example, get fewer correct answers to factual questions about politics when interviewed by white interviewers than when interviewed by black interviewers. This is consistent with the research literature on stereotype threat, which finds diminished test performance of potentially stigmatised groups when the interviewer or test supervisor is from a perceived higher status group. Interviewer effects can be mitigated somewhat by randomly assigning subjects to different interviewers, or by using tools such as computer-assisted telephone interviewing (CATI). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interviewer_effect |
Relational-cultural theory, and by extension, relational-cultural therapy (RCT) stems from the work of Jean Baker Miller, M.D. Often, relational-cultural theory is aligned with the feminist and or multicultural movements in psychology. In fact, RCT embraces many social justice aspects from these movements. RCT was developed in Wellesley, Massachusetts in the 1970s through the work of psychiatrist, Jean Baker Miller (Toward a New Psychology of Women), psychologists, Judith V. Jordan, Janet Surrey, and Irene Stiver at the Stone Center at Wellesley College in reaction to psychodynamic theory. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relational-cultural_therapy |
The Stone Center at Wellesley College and the Jean Baker Miller Training Institute are the hubs of RCT research and training and are perhaps best known for their Working Papers series, collective works that are continuously considered for review and reconsideration. As RCT was founded in strong feminist principles, and was started at Wellesley College, the movement's traditional focus was on women and their relational experiences.Many mental health professionals employ RCT in their practice. A nonexhaustive list of these include: counselors, social workers, psychologists, and psychiatrists. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relational-cultural_therapy |
Some current major relational-cultural theorists, writers, and practitioners include: Judith V. Jordan, Ph D, Amy Banks, MD, Maureen Walker, Ph D, Linda Hartling, Ph D, Sarah Sydelle Price, PCC, and Thelma Duffey, Ph D The consistent, primary focus of RCT is the primacy of relationships. That is, relationships are both the indicators for, and the healing mechanism in psychotherapy toward, mental health and wellness. One of the core tenets of RCT is the Central Relational Paradox (CRP). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relational-cultural_therapy |
The CRP assumes that we all have a natural drive toward relationships, and in these relationships we long for acceptance. However, we come to believe that there are things about us that are unacceptable or unlovable. Thus, we choose to hide these things; we keep them out of our relationships. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relational-cultural_therapy |
In the end, the connections we make with others are not as fulfilling and validating as they otherwise might have been. A primary goal of RCT is to create and maintain Mutually-Growth-Fostering Relationships, relationships in which both parties feel that they matter. In these healthy relationships, all of the involved parties experience what is known as the Five Good Things. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relational-cultural_therapy |
These include: 1) a desire to move into more relationships, because of how a good relational experience feels; 2) a sense of zest, or energy; 3) increased knowledge of oneself and the other person in the relationship; 4) a desire to take action both in the growth-fostering relationship and outside of it; 5) an overall increased sense of worth.RCT involves working with clients to identify, and strive in, relationships that present opportunities for them to experience Mutually-Growth-Fostering Relationships. In fact, a strong, connected therapeutic relationship should be a model for these kinds of relationships. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relational-cultural_therapy |
While there a number of specific challenges presented in the therapeutic relationship, RCT practitioners believe that their relationships with their clients can have a reasonably high degree of mutuality. Clinical experiences of mutuality include: the client's movement toward the awareness that she/he matters to the therapist, the therapist that she/he, too, matters to the client, an integrative awareness both have of what it means to feel like one matters, and the worth involved in offering this to another person through the process of connection. == References == | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relational-cultural_therapy |
Tripartism is an economic system of neo-corporatism based on a mixed economy and tripartite contracts between employers' organizations, trade unions, and the government of a country. Each is to act as a social partner to create economic policy through cooperation, consultation, negotiation, and compromise. In Tripartism, the government has a large role in the economy and engages in negotiations between labor unions and business interest groups to establish economic policy.Tripartism became a popular form of economic policy during the economic crisis of the 1930s. Tripartism was supported by a number of different political movements at this time, including: Catholic social teaching, fascism, and democratic political movements. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tripartism |
Tripartism is a prominent economic policy in Europe, particularly where Christian Democratic parties influenced by Catholic social teaching have held power; it is a core part of the Nordic model seen in the economic systems of Scandinavia and the Benelux that were put in place by social democratic governments. An example is the national income policy agreement in Finland. Tripartite agreements are an important component in practical labor law, since they cover not only wages, but also issues such as policies on benefits, vacation, work hours and worker safety. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tripartism |
The International Labor Organization is the only United Nations agency that is based on tripartism. It uses the discussions between the three groups in drafting of standards and conventions. Also for the implementation of ILO-standards in national law tripartite consultations on a national level are a requirement for those countries party to the Tripartite Consultation (International Labor Standards) Convention, 1976. The United States withdrew from the ILO in 1977, based partly on the claim that communist countries could not send authentically tripartite representation. The United States restored its membership with the ILO in 1980, with President Jimmy Carter having established the President's Committee on the ILO ("PC/ILO"). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tripartism |
Some countries have already used a tripartite structure to deal with social issues at the end of 19th century. And World War I made this type of approach far more urgent. In this new kind of conflict, military success was tightly bound up with the ability of nations to support increasing demands on their economies and to build ever more sophisticated weapons, which demanded concerted industrial efforts. Business and labour had to become involved in policy and cooperate to support the national effort. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tripartism |
During the war, Allied countries had made many promises to trade unions and employers so that they could rely on business' contribution to the war effort. Trade union and employers were invited to sit on governmental bodies in Great Britain, the United States and elsewhere. Moreover, unions were asked to forego acquired trade union rights for the sake of the war effort with promises that these rights would be restored after the conflict. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tripartism |
The first draft of the labour proposals for the peace conference had been prepared by British Government and became the basis for the discussions in the Labour Commission, and these proposals included the establishment of an international organization for labour legislation that would give a voting role to representatives of workers and employers. To sum up, ILO offered the world a different way to solve social strife. It provided it with the procedures and techniques of bargaining and negotiation to replace violent conflict as a means of securing more humane and dignified conditions of work. While there have been problems along the way, tripartism has generally survived without successful challenge to the principle, despite attempts by the Soviet Union, in particular, to weaken it. As World War II would to a close, the value of tripartism was reaffirmed in the Declaration of Philadelphia. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tripartism |
The implications of tripartism in the ILO are manifold. To put it simply, the participation in the ILO deliberations of delegates directly representing the interest of workers and employers adds a connection with economic reality that cannot be reproduced in an organization where governments are the only spokespersons. The roles played by representatives of workers and employers differ markedly. For workers, the ILO is a major instrument to pursue their goals, and they have a much more active agenda than employers. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tripartism |
On the other hand, employers frequently play the role of the “brake” on initiatives put forward both by the workers and the Office and its Director-General, to slow action they consider hasty, or which would work against the perceived interest of business. The ILO is valuable for both workers and employers because of the voice and influence that it offers them. One author aptly characterizes the importance of tripartism, when discussing the ILO's remarkable survival through World War II, as having been both a straitjacket and a lifejacket. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tripartism |
As the ILO's Committee on Freedom of Association put it, "the right conferred upon workers' and employers' organizations must be based on respect for those civil liberties which have been enunciated in particular in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the absence of these civil liberties removes all meaning from the concept of trade union rights. Ever if tripartism makes the ILO far more representative of civil society than any other intergovernmental organization, employers' and workers' organization, employers’ and workers’ organizations necessarily represent the formal economy rather than the huge –and growing-informal economy, especially in developing nations. In addition, with membership of trade unions shrinking in many industrialized states, the representativeness of these organizations even in the formal sector is often questioned. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tripartism |
The challenge for the ILO and its constituents is to adapt the tripartite model to a globalizing world, where there are new actors operating outside national frameworks and increasingly diverse forms of voice and representation. Some measures of accommodation have been found, for instance involving cooperation with NGOs in action against child labour, and dialogue with parliamentarians and other important actors. The broader challenge remains. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tripartism |
The tertiary sector of the economy, generally known as the service sector, is the third of the three economic sectors in the three-sector model (also known as the economic cycle). The others are the primary sector (raw materials) and the secondary sector (manufacturing). The tertiary sector consists of the provision of services instead of end products. Services (also known as "intangible goods") include attention, advice, access, experience and affective labour. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tertiary_sector_of_the_economy |
The tertiary sector involves the provision of services to other businesses as well as to final consumers. Services may involve the transport, distribution and sale of goods from a producer to a consumer, as may happen in wholesaling and retailing, pest control or entertainment. The goods may be transformed in the process of providing the service, as happens in the restaurant industry. However, the focus is on people by interacting with them and serving the customers rather than transforming the physical goods. The production of information has been long regarded as a service, but some economists now attribute it to a fourth sector, called the quaternary sector. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tertiary_sector_of_the_economy |
It is sometimes hard to determine whether a given company is part of the secondary or the tertiary sector. It is not only companies that have been classified as part of a sector in some schemes, since governments and their services (such as the police or military), as well as nonprofit organizations (such as charities or research associations), can also be seen as part of that sector.To classify a business as a service, one can use classification systems such as the United Nations' International Standard Industrial Classification standard, the United States' Standard Industrial Classification (SIC) code system and its new replacement, the North American Industrial Classification System (NAICS), the Statistical Classification of Economic Activities in the European Community (NACE) in the EU and similar systems elsewhere. These governmental classification systems have a first-level of hierarchy that reflects whether the economic goods are tangible or intangible. For purposes of finance and market research, market-based classification systems such as the Global Industry Classification Standard and the Industry Classification Benchmark are used to classify businesses that participate in the service sector. Unlike governmental classification systems, the first level of market-based classification systems divides the economy into functionally related markets or industries. The second or third level of these hierarchies then reflects whether goods or services are produced. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tertiary_sector_of_the_economy |
For the last 100 years, there has been a substantial shift from the primary and secondary sectors to the tertiary sector in industrialized countries. This shift is called tertiarisation. The tertiary sector is now the largest sector of the economy in the Western world, and is also the fastest-growing sector. In examining the growth of the service sector in the early nineties, the globalist Kenichi Ohmae noted that: In the United States, 70 per cent of the workforce works in the service sector; in Japan, 60 per cent, and in Taiwan, 50 per cent. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tertiary_sector_of_the_economy |
These are not necessarily busboys and live-in maids. Numerous of them are in the skilled category. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tertiary_sector_of_the_economy |
They are earning as much as manufacturing employees, and often more. Economies tend to follow a developmental progression that takes them from heavy reliance on agriculture and mining, toward the development of manufacturing (e.g. automobiles, textiles, shipbuilding, steel) and finally toward a more service-based structure. The first economy to follow this path in the modern world was the United Kingdom. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tertiary_sector_of_the_economy |
The speed at which other economies have made the transition to service-based (or "post-industrial") economies has increased over time. Historically, manufacturing tended to be more open to international trade and competition than services. However, with dramatic cost reduction and speed and reliability improvements in the transportation of people and the communication of information, the service sector now includes some of the most intensive international competition, despite residual protectionism. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tertiary_sector_of_the_economy |
Service providers face obstacles selling services that goods-sellers rarely face. Services are intangible, making it difficult for potential customers to understand what they will receive and what value it will hold for them. Indeed, some, such as consultants and providers of investment services, offer no guarantees of the value for the price paid. Since the quality of most services depends largely on the quality of the individuals providing the services, "people costs" are usually a high fraction of service costs. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tertiary_sector_of_the_economy |
Whereas a manufacturer may use technology, simplification, and other techniques to lower the cost of goods sold, the service provider often faces an unrelenting pattern of increasing costs. Product differentiation is often difficult. For example, how does one choose one investment adviser over another, since they are often seen to provide identical services? Charging a premium for services is usually an option only for the most established firms, who charge extra based upon brand recognition. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tertiary_sector_of_the_economy |
Examples of tertiary industries may include: Mass media Entertainment Broadcasting Telecommunication Hospitality industry/tourism Healthcare/hospitals Public health Pharmacy Information technology Waste disposal Consulting Gambling Retail sales Fast-moving consumer goods (FMCG) Franchising Real estate Education Financial services Banking Insurance Payment card services Professional services Legal services Management consulting Transportation | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tertiary_sector_of_the_economy |
Below is a list of countries by service output at market exchange rates in 2016: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tertiary_sector_of_the_economy |
Critique of Economic Reason is a 1989 book by the French philosopher André Gorz. The book is a comprehensive examination of the assumptions and values underlying the dominant economic ideologies of the modern world, and a call for a reevaluation of the way we think about social life. The book is also a critique of work and a historicisation of the concept of work as well as a rejection of Marx "utopia of work". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critique_of_Economic_Reason |
Gorz begins by arguing that the dominant economic theories of the 20th century, including neoliberalism and classical liberalism, are based on the assumption that human beings are motivated solely by self-interest and the desire for material wealth. This, he argues, is a fundamentally flawed and incomplete understanding of human nature, and has led to a narrow and narrow-minded approach to economic and social policy which is damaging to society.Instead, Gorz advocates for a new approach to economic and social life that takes into account the full range of human needs and values, including non-material ones such as social relationships, community, and personal fulfillment. He argues that the pursuit of economic growth for its own sake is ultimately self-defeating, as it leads to social inequality, and calls for a more holistic and sustainable approach to economic and social development. Gorz also critiques the consumer society and the ideology of consumerism, arguing that it is based on the false premise that happiness can be achieved through the acquisition of more and more material goods. He argues that this ideology is a key factor in the environmental and social problems facing the world today, and calls for a shift towards a more sustainable and equitable economic system that prioritizes the well-being of people and the planet over short-term profit. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critique_of_Economic_Reason |
Gorz's arguments have been widely debated and discussed in the academic literature. David McNally contended that Gorz's analysis offers a much-needed alternative to the dominant neoliberal ideology and provides a valuable perspective on the limitations of market-based solutions.Some scholars have focused on specific aspects of Gorz's argument, such as his critique of work and his vision of a post-work society. For instance philosopher André Comte-Sponville argues that Gorz's critique of work highlights important issues around the meaning and value of work in contemporary society and provides a valuable starting point for thinking about alternative approaches to work and leisure. Other scholars have also commented on the significance of Gorz's work. J. K.Galbraith also argued that Gorz's work offers a "deeply humane and practical alternative to the narrow and self-defeating economic theories that dominate our time." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critique_of_Economic_Reason |
Electrical injury is a physiological reaction caused by electric current passing through the body. The injury depends on the density of the current, tissue resistance and duration of contact. Very small currents may be imperceptible or produce a light tingling sensation. A shock caused by low and otherwise harmless current could startle an individual and cause injury due to jerking away or falling. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_injury |
Stronger currents may cause some degree of discomfort or pain, while more intense currents may induce involuntary muscle contractions, preventing the person from breaking free of the source of electricity. Still larger currents result in tissue damage and may trigger ventricular fibrillation or cardiac arrest. Consequences of injury from electricity may include amputations, bone fractures and orthopedic and musculoskeletal injuries. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_injury |
If death results from an electric shock the cause of death is generally referred to as electrocution. Electric injury occurs upon contact of a body part with electricity that causes a sufficient current to pass through the person's tissue. Contact with energized wiring or devices is the most common cause. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_injury |
In cases of exposure to high voltages, such as on a power transmission tower, direct contact may not be necessary as the voltage may "jump" the air gap to the electrical device. Following an electrical injury from household current, if a person has no symptoms, no underlying heart problems, and is not pregnant further testing is not required. Otherwise an electrocardiogram, blood work to check the heart, and urine testing for signs of muscle breakdown may be performed.Management may involve resuscitation, pain medications, wound management, and heart rhythm monitoring. Electrical injuries affect more than 30,000 people a year in the United States and result in about 1,000 deaths. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_injury |
Heating due to resistance can cause extensive and deep burns. When applied to the hand, electricity can cause involuntary muscle contraction, producing the "no-let-go" phenomenon, and increasing the risk for serious burns. Voltage levels of 500 to 1000 volts tend to cause internal burns due to the large energy (which is proportional to the duration multiplied by the square of the voltage divided by resistance or the square of the current multiplied by the resistance) available from the source. Damage due to current is through tissue heating and/or electroporation injury. For most cases of high-energy electrical trauma, the Joule heating in the deeper tissues along the extremity will reach damaging temperatures in a few seconds. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_injury |
A domestic power supply voltage (110 or 230 V), 50 or 60 Hz alternating current (AC) through the chest for a duration longer than one second may induce ventricular fibrillation at currents as low as 30 milliamperes (mA). With direct current (DC), 90 to 130 mA are required at the same duration. If the current has a direct pathway to the heart (e.g., via a cardiac catheter or other kind of electrode), a much lower current of less than 1 mA (AC or DC) can cause fibrillation. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_injury |
If not immediately treated by defibrillation, ventricular fibrillation is usually lethal, causing cardiac arrest, because all of the heart muscle fibres move independently instead of in the coordinated action needed for successful cardiac cycle to pump blood and maintain circulation. Above 200 mA, tetanic muscle contractions are so strong that the heart muscles cannot move at all, but this condition might even prevent fibrillation. Short single DC pulses induce VF dependent on the amount of charge (in mC) transferred to the body, which makes the amplitude of the electrical stimulus independent of the exact amount of current flowing through the body for very short pulse durations. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_injury |
DC shocks of short duration are usually better tolerated by the heart even at high currents and rarely induce ventricular fibrillation compared to contacts with longer duration DC or AC. The amount of current can easily reach very high values as amperage is only of second order importance to fibrillation risk in the case of ultra short contact times with direct currents. But even if the charge itself is harmless, the amount of energy being discharged still can lead to thermal and chemical hazards if its value is high enough. One example of high current electric shock which may be usually harmless is an electrostatic discharge as experienced in every day life on door handles, car doors etc. These currents can reach values up to 60 A without harmful effects on the heart as the duration is in the order of only several ns. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_injury |
Mechanism of cardiac arrhythmias induced by electricity is not fully understood, but various biopsies have shown arrhythmogenic foci in patchy myocardial fibrosis which contained increased amount of Na+ and K+ pumps, possibly associated with transient and localized changes in sodium-potassium transport as well as their concentrations, resulting in changes in membrane potential. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_injury |
Electric current can cause interference with nervous control, especially over the heart and lungs. Electric shock which does not lead to death has been shown to cause neuropathy in some cases at the site where the current entered the body. The neurologic symptoms of electrical injury may occur immediately, which traditionally have a higher likelihood for healing, though they may also be delayed by days to years. The delayed neurologic consequences of electrical injury have a worse prognosis.When the path of electric current proceeds through the head, it appears that, with sufficient current applied, loss of consciousness almost always occurs swiftly. This is borne out by some limited self-experimentation by early designers of the electric chair and by research from the field of animal husbandry, where electric stunning has been extensively studied.If ventricular fibrillation occurs (as above), the blood supply to the brain is diminished, which may cause cerebral hypoxia (and its associated neurologic consequences). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_injury |
There are a variety of psychiatric effects that may occur as a result of electrical injuries. Behavioral changes can occur as well, even if the path of electric current did not proceed through the head. Symptoms may include: Depression, including feelings of low self-esteem and guilt Anxiety spectrum disorders, including posttraumatic stress disorder and fear of electricity Moodiness, including a lower threshold for frustration and "losing one's temper" Memory loss, decreased attention span, and difficulty learning | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_injury |
OSHA found that up to 80 percent of its electrical injuries involve thermal burns due to arcing faults. The arc flash in an electrical fault produces the same type of light radiation from which electric welders protect themselves using face shields with dark glass, heavy leather gloves, and full-coverage clothing. The heat produced may cause severe burns, especially on unprotected flesh. The arc blast produced by vaporizing metallic components can break bones and damage internal organs. The degree of hazard present at a particular location can be determined by a detailed analysis of the electrical system, and appropriate protection worn if the electrical work must be performed with the electricity on. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_injury |
The minimum current a human can feel depends on the current type (AC or DC) as well as frequency for AC. A person can sense electric current as low as 1 mA (rms) for 60 Hz AC and as low as 5 mA for DC. At around 10 mA, AC current passing through the arm of a 68-kilogram (150 lb) human can cause powerful muscle contractions; the victim is unable to voluntarily control muscles and cannot release an electrified object. This is known as the "let go threshold" and is a criterion for shock hazard in electrical regulations. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_injury |
The current may, if it is high enough, cause tissue damage or fibrillation which can cause cardiac arrest; more than 30 mA of AC (rms, 60 Hz) or 300–500 mA of DC at high voltage can cause fibrillation. A sustained electric shock from AC at 120 V, 60 Hz is an especially dangerous source of ventricular fibrillation because it usually exceeds the let-go threshold, while not delivering enough initial energy to propel the person away from the source. However, the potential seriousness of the shock depends on paths through the body that the currents take. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_injury |
If the voltage is less than 200 V, then the human skin, more precisely the stratum corneum, is the main contributor to the impedance of the body in the case of a macroshock—the passing of current between two contact points on the skin. The characteristics of the skin are non-linear however. If the voltage is above 450–600 V, then dielectric breakdown of the skin occurs. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_injury |
The protection offered by the skin is lowered by perspiration, and this is accelerated if electricity causes muscles to contract above the let-go threshold for a sustained period of time.If an electrical circuit is established by electrodes introduced in the body, bypassing the skin, then the potential for lethality is much higher if a circuit through the heart is established. This is known as a microshock. Currents of only 10 µA can be sufficient to cause fibrillation in this case with a probability of 0.2%. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_injury |
The voltage necessary for electrocution depends on the current through the body and the duration of the current. Ohm's law states that the current drawn depends on the resistance of the body. The resistance of human skin varies from person to person and fluctuates between different times of day. The NIOSH states "Under dry conditions, the resistance offered by the human body may be as high as 100,000 ohms. Wet or broken skin may drop the body's resistance to 1,000 ohms," adding that "high-voltage electrical energy quickly breaks down human skin, reducing the human body's resistance to 500 ohms".The International Electrotechnical Commission gives the following values for the total body impedance of a hand to hand circuit for dry skin, large contact areas, 50 Hz AC currents (the columns contain the distribution of the impedance in the population percentile; for example at 100 V 50% of the population had an impedance of 1875Ω or less): | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_injury |
The voltage-current characteristic of human skin is non-linear and depends on many factors such as intensity, duration, history, and frequency of the electrical stimulus. Sweat gland activity, temperature, and individual variation also influence the voltage-current characteristic of skin. In addition to non-linearity, skin impedance exhibits asymmetric and time varying properties. These properties can be modeled with reasonable accuracy. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_injury |
Resistance measurements made at low voltage using a standard ohmmeter do not accurately represent the impedance of human skin over a significant range of conditions. For sinusoidal electrical stimulation less than 10 volts, the skin voltage-current characteristic is quasilinear. Over time, electrical characteristics can become non-linear. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_injury |
The time required varies from seconds to minutes, depending on stimulus, electrode placement, and individual characteristics. Between 10 volts and about 30 volts, skin exhibits non-linear but symmetric electrical characteristics. Above 20 volts, electrical characteristics are both non-linear and symmetric. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_injury |
Skin conductance can increase by several orders of magnitude in milliseconds. This should not be confused with dielectric breakdown, which occurs at hundreds of volts. For these reasons, current flow cannot be accurately calculated by simply applying Ohm's law using a fixed resistance model. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_injury |
Macroshock: Current across intact skin and through the body. Current from arm to arm, or between an arm and a foot, is likely to traverse the heart, therefore it is much more dangerous than current between a leg and the ground. This type of shock by definition must pass into the body through the skin. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_injury |
Microshock: Very small current source with a pathway directly connected to the heart tissue. The shock is required to be administered from inside the skin, directly to the heart i.e. a pacemaker lead, or a guide wire, conductive catheter etc. connected to a source of current. This is a largely theoretical hazard as modern devices used in these situations include protections against such currents. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_injury |
The earliest usage of the term "electrocution" cited by the Oxford English Dictionary was an 1889 newspaper reference to the method of execution then being considered. Shortly thereafter, in 1892, the term was used in Science to refer generically to death or injury caused by electricity. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_injury |
The lethality of an electric shock is dependent on several variables: Current. The higher the current, the more likely it is lethal. Since current is proportional to voltage when resistance is fixed (ohm's law), high voltage is an indirect risk for producing higher currents. Duration. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_injury |
The longer the duration, the more likely it is lethal—safety switches may limit time of current flow. Short high current pulses as from capacitors are usually less dangerous as longer lasting low current shocks. Pathway. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_injury |
If current flows through the heart muscle, it is more likely to be lethal. High voltage (over about 600 volts). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_injury |
In addition to greater current flow, high voltage may cause dielectric breakdown at the skin, thus lowering skin resistance and allowing further increased current flow. Medical implants. Artificial cardiac pacemakers or implantable cardioverter-defibrillators (ICD) are sensitive to very small currents. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_injury |
Pre-existing medical condition. Age, body mass and health status.Other issues affecting lethality are frequency, which is an issue in causing cardiac arrest or muscular spasms. Very high frequency electric current causes tissue burning, but do not stimulate the nerves strongly enough to cause cardiac arrest (see electrosurgery). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_injury |
Also important is the pathway: if the current passes through the chest or head, there is an increased chance of death. From a main circuit or power distribution panel the damage is more likely to be internal, leading to cardiac arrest. Another factor is that cardiac tissue has a chronaxie (response time) of about 3 milliseconds, so electricity at frequencies of higher than about 333 Hz requires more current to cause fibrillation than is required at lower frequencies. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_injury |
The comparison between the dangers of alternating current at typical power transmission frequences (i.e., 50 or 60 Hz), and direct current has been a subject of debate ever since the war of the currents in the 1880s. Animal experiments conducted during this time suggested that alternating current was about twice as dangerous as direct current per unit of current flow (or per unit of applied voltage). It is sometimes suggested that human lethality is most common with alternating current at 100–250 volts; however, death has occurred below this range, with supplies as low as 42 volts. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_injury |
Assuming a steady current flow (as opposed to a shock from a capacitor or from static electricity), shocks above 2,700 volts are often fatal, with those above 11,000 volts being usually fatal, though exceptional cases have been noted. According to the Guinness Book of World Records, seventeen-year-old Brian Latasa survived a 230,000 volt shock on the tower of an ultra-high voltage line in Griffith Park, Los Angeles on November 9, 1967. A news report of the event stated that he was "jolted through the air, and landed across the line", and though rescued by firemen, he sustained burns over 40% of his body and was completely paralyzed except for his eyelids. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_injury |
The shock with the highest voltage reported survived was that of Harry F. McGrew, who came in contact with a 340,000 volt transmission line in Huntington Canyon, Utah.The severity and lethality of an electric shock also depend on time and frequency of the current flow passing through the human body. For example a high frequency current has a higher ventricular fibrillation threshold than lower frequency. Also shorter pulses create a higher threshold, short pulses below 10 ms are usually believed to have a primarily charge dependent threshold and shock amplitude. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_injury |
Research shows that for very short electric pulse durations below 1 ms the threshold curve converges into a linear, constant charge criterion for muscle and nerve stimulation including the heart and the brain. Heating is primarily determined by the amount of energy. These principles have been defined in IEC 60479-2, in opposite to IEC 60479-1 for longer durations above 10 ms with DC or AC which use a current-time curve based classification. This code is also used to determine the safety of capacitors, electrical shock weapons, electric fences and other short pulsed low- and high-voltage electrical applications. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_injury |
Grounding the electrical enclosure of high-voltage machinery Use of insulated gloves, insulated boots, mats and tools Protecting electrical circuit with a residual-current device (RCD) Following the five rules of electrical safety | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_injury |
There were 550 reported electrocutions in the US in 1993, 2.1 deaths per million inhabitants. At that time, the incidence of electrocutions was decreasing. Electrocutions in the workplace make up the majority of these fatalities. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_injury |
From 1980–1992, an average of 411 workers were killed each year by electrocution. Workplace deaths caused by exposure to electricity in the U.S. increased by nearly 24% between 2015 and 2019, from 134 to 166. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_injury |
However, workplace electrical injuries dropped 23% between 2015 and 2019 from 2,480 to 1,900. In 2019, the top 5 states with the most workplace electrical fatalities were: (1) Texas (608); (2) California (451); (3) Florida (306); (4) New York (273); and (5) Georgia (207).A recent study conducted by the National Coroners Information System (NCIS) in Australia has revealed 321 closed case fatalities (and at least 39 case fatalities still under coronial investigation) that had been reported to Australian coroners where a person died from electrocution between July 2000 and October 2011.In Sweden, Denmark, Finland and Norway the number of electric deaths per million inhabitants was 0.6, 0.3, 0.3 and 0.2, respectively, in the years 2007–2011.People who survive electrical trauma may develop a host of injuries including loss of consciousness, seizures, aphasia, visual disturbances, headaches, tinnitus, paresis, and memory disturbances. Even without visible burns, electric shock survivors may be faced with long-term muscular pain and discomfort, exhaustion, headache, problems with peripheral nerve conduction and sensation, inadequate balance and coordination, among other symptoms. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_injury |
Electrical injury can lead to problems with neurocognitive function, affecting speed of mental processing, attention, concentration, and memory. The high frequency of psychological problems is well established and may be multifactorial. As with any traumatic and life-threatening experience, electrical injury may result in post traumatic psychiatric disorders. There exist several non-profit research institutes that coordinate rehabilitation strategies for electrical injury survivors by connecting them with clinicians that specialize in diagnosis and treatment of various traumas that arise as a result of electrical injury. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_injury |
Electric shock is also used as a medical therapy, under carefully controlled conditions: Electroconvulsive therapy or ECT, a psychiatric therapy for mental disorders As a surgical tool for cutting or coagulation in electrosurgery. An electrosurgical unit (ESU) uses high currents (e.g. 10 amperes) at high frequency (e.g. 500 kHz) with various schemes of amplitude modulation to cut or coagulate As a treatment for fibrillation or irregular heart rhythms: see Defibrillation and Cardioversion As a method of pain relief: see Transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS) As a treatment for excessive sweating with a process called iontophoresis Electrodiagnosis, for example nerve conduction studies and electromyography Electroporation for gene delivery | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_injury |
Mild electric shocks are also used for entertainment, especially as a practical joke for example in such devices as a shocking pen or a shocking gum. However devices such as a joy buzzer and most other machines in amusement parks today only use vibration that feels somewhat like an electric shock to someone not expecting it. It is also used entertainingly for sex stimulation. This is usually done via the use of an erotic electrostimulator which induces erotic electrostimulation. These devices may include a violet wand, transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation, electrical muscle stimulation, and made-for-play units. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_injury |
Electroshock weapons are incapacitant weapons used for subduing a person by administering electric shock to disrupt superficial muscle functions. One type is a conductive energy device (CED), an electroshock gun popularly known by the brand name "Taser", which fires projectiles that administer the shock through a thin, flexible wire. Although they are illegal for personal use in many jurisdictions, Tasers have been marketed to the general public. Other electroshock weapons such as stun guns, stun batons ("cattle prods"), and electroshock belts administer an electric shock by direct contact. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_injury |
Electric fences are barriers that use electric shocks to deter animals or people from crossing a boundary. The voltage of the shock may have effects ranging from uncomfortable, to painful or even lethal. Most electric fencing is used today for agricultural fencing and other forms of animal control purposes, though it is frequently used to enhance security of restricted areas, and there exist places where lethal voltages are used. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_injury |
Electric shocks are used as a method of torture, since the received voltage and current can be controlled with precision and used to cause pain and fear without always visibly harming the victim's body. Electrical torture has been used in war and by repressive regimes since the 1930s. The United States Army is known to have used electrical torture during World War II. During the Algerian War electrical torture was used by French military forces. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_injury |
Amnesty International published a statement that Russian military forces in Chechnya tortured local women with electric shocks by attaching wires onto their breasts.The parrilla (Spanish for 'grill') is a method of torture whereby the victim is strapped to a metal frame and subjected to electric shock. It has been used in a number of contexts in South America. The parrilla was commonly used at Villa Grimaldi, a prison complex maintained by Dirección de Inteligencia Nacional, a part of the Pinochet regime. In the 1970s, during the Dirty War, the parrilla was used in Argentina. Francisco Tenório Júnior (known as Tenorinho), a Brazilian piano player, was subjected to the parrilla during the military dictatorship in Brazil.Advocates for the mentally ill and some psychiatrists such as Thomas Szasz have asserted that electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) is torture when used without a bona fide medical benefit against recalcitrant or non-responsive patients.The Judge Rotenberg Center in Canton, Massachusetts has been condemned for torture by the United Nations special rapporteur on torture for its use of electric shocks as punishment as part of its behavior modification program.Japanese serial killer Futoshi Matsunaga used electric shocks to control his victims. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_injury |
Electric shock delivered by an electric chair is sometimes used as an official means of capital punishment in the United States, although its use has become rare from the 1990s onward due to the adoption of lethal injection. Although some original proponents of the electric chair considered it to be a more humane execution method than hanging, shooting, poison gassing, etc., it has now generally been replaced by lethal injections in states that practice capital punishment. Modern reporting has claimed that it sometimes takes several shocks to be lethal, and that the condemned person may actually catch fire before death. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_injury |
Other than in parts of the United States, only the Philippines reportedly has used this method, from 1926 to 1976. It was intermittently replaced by the firing squad, until the death penalty was abolished in that country. Electrocution remains legal in at least 4 states (Florida, Alabama, North Carolina and Kentucky) of the United States. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_injury |
Reilly, J. Patrick (1998). Applied Bioelectricity: From Electrical Stimulation to Electropathology (2nd ed.). Springer. ISBN 978-0-387-98407-0. LCCN 97048860. OCLC 38067651. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_injury |
Gebir is a long poem by the English writer Walter Savage Landor. The poem was first published anonymously in English in July 1798, before being revised and republished in 1803, in dual, separate Latin and English editions.The main subject matter of the poem concerns an Iberian ruler named Gebir, who invades Egypt, where he falls in love with its Queen Charoba. Her attendant Dalica eventually poisons him and he dies. A subplot concerns the romantic alliance of Gebir's brother, a shepherd named Tamar, with a nymph. The poem has been noted for being one of the first works of the Romantic period with an Orientalist theme. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gebir_(poem) |
When he was twenty-two years old, Landor was living in South Wales. In the latter part of 1796, his friend Rose Aylmer loaned him a copy of The Progress of Romance (1785) by Clara Reeve, which Aylmer had gotten from the Swansea Circulating Library. This book included "The History of Charoba, Queen of Ægypt," a tale taken from a seventeenth century French translation of an Arabic book from the medieval period. Reading this text provided Landor with the characters and the situational outline for Gebir, and he probably worked on the poem initially from 1796–1797. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gebir_(poem) |
After having written a portion of the poem, Landor inadvertently left the manuscript behind in North Wales "on returning from a grouse-shooting expedition on the moors above Bala—where he was possibly a guest of the Price family at Rhiwlas—and 'many months' elapsed before it was forwarded to him at Swansea”. This circumstance of the poem's composition is referenced in Landor's 1854 poem "Apology for Gebir". Years later, writing in a letter to Lady Blessington, Landor recollected the days of Gebir's composition in the following way: Never were my spirits better than in my twentieth year, when I wrote Gebir, and did not exchange twelve sentences with men. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gebir_(poem) |
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