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I lived among woods, which are now killed with copper works, and I took my walk over sandy sea-coast deserts, then covered with low roses and thousands of nameless flowers and plants, trodden by the naked feet of the Welsh peasantry, and trackless. These creatures were somewhat between me and the animals, and were as useful to the landscape as masses of weed or stranded boats. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gebir_(poem) |
Several lines in the poem reference and reflect Landor's hopes that the leadership of Napoleon Bonaparte would bring about a greater equality (Book 6, 191-3; Book 307-8). These lines were qualified by a note in the 1803 edition, expressing disappointment that these hopes had not been fulfilled. According to Landor, parts of Gebir were first composed in Latin, others first in English. The Latin version would not be published until 1803, five years after the first edition. This Latin version (Gebirus) Landor finalized during a trip to France in the summer of 1802. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gebir_(poem) |
Gebir is divided into seven books. The poetic style is blank verse. By way of explanation, Landor stated, “there never was a poem in rhyme that grew not tedious in a thousand lines.” He cited Pindar and Milton as influences. “The style of Gebir is severe because when I composed it I was fresh from repeated perusals of Pindar." Although the poem's overall mode is Hellenistic and epical-heroic, it also blends elements of pastoral, romance, and tragedy. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gebir_(poem) |
The first English version of Gebir was anonymously published in July or August 1798. The printer for this edition was Henry Sharpe of Warwick, although the title page bore the imprint of Rivingtons. Landor had first submitted the manuscript to Cadell & Davies of London who had published his first book The Poems of Walter Savage Landor (1795), but they declined Gebir. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gebir_(poem) |
As published in 1798, the text was plagued by a number of errors, mostly arising from Landor’s own messy and numerous corrections to the manuscript and his residing at a distance of sixteen miles from the printer's offices. The poem was paperbound and sold for either 1 or 2 shillings. An important related work was printed around 1800, although not published until 1802. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gebir_(poem) |
This was Poetry by the Author of Gebir: and A Postscript To that Poem, with Remarks on Some Critics. The main contents of this book were the two blank verse epic poems "The Story of Crysaor" and "From The Phocæans" and "Protis's Narrative", each in a blank verse epic style much like the style of Gebir. In the "Postscript to Gebir", Landor acknowledged and replied to Gifford's and Southey's reviews of Gebir that appeared in late 1799 and early 1800. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gebir_(poem) |
The postscript also gave an account of the book's very limited distribution: Far from soliciting the attention of those who are passing by, Gebir is confined, I believe, to the shop of one bookseller, and I never heard that he had even made his appearance at the window. I understand not the management of these matters, but I find that the writing of a book is the least that an author has to do. My experience has not been great; and the caution which it has taught me lies entirely on the other side of publication. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gebir_(poem) |
Likely around 1802, partly to address the errors in the first edition of the text, Landor undertook to have the poem republished. Relying on his brother Robert to assist in preparing the text, Landor had the text published in its revised form by Slatter & Munday of London in January or February 1803. It was probably Robert who hired a Christ Church scholar named Dovaston to correct the text at a rate of £2 per sheet. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gebir_(poem) |
Revisions to the text of 1798 included the addition of 43 lines (1,881 lines in the 1803 version, compared to 1,838 lines in the 1798 version). Landor also added "Arguments" offering a brief synopsis of the story at the beginning of each book, as well as explanatory footnotes, glossing the text's obscure passages. The book was announced in the Monthly Epitome for February 1803 at a price of 4 shillings in boards. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gebir_(poem) |
In late November of the same year was published in identical format the Latin version, Gebirus, Poema, with the Latinized name "Savagius Landor" appearing on the title page. The next publication of the poem was in 1831, in the volume of Gebir, Count Julian, and Other Poems. Landor once again revised the text, starting with the excision of the first eleven lines from Book One. The poem was republished a few times toward the end of Landor's lifetime in various collections. The poem can be found in volume one of Stephen Wheeler's The Poetical Works of Walter Savage Landor (1937), with variants between editions noted, and some commentary. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gebir_(poem) |
The first to review Gebir was the young poet Robert Southey, who was given the book to review by the editor of The Critical Review. His enthusiastic review appeared in September 1799, and included ample quotation from the poem. “We have read his poem repeatedly with more than common attention, and with far more than common delight,” Southey wrote. He also wrote enthusiastically to friends of the poem, stating that it contained "some of the most exquisite poetry in the language"; that "its intelligible passages are flashes of lightning at midnight"; that "There is a poem called Gebir, written by God knows whom, sold for a shilling: it has miraculous beauties." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gebir_(poem) |
He would later cite Gebir as a strong influence on his own long poem Thalaba the Destroyer: "I am sensible of having derived great improvement from the frequent perusal of Gebir at that time. "The poem received an approving but brief notice in The Gentleman's Magazine of London in its supplement for 1799 and referred to it as a poem "of little price, but great merit". However, William Gifford, writing in The Monthly Review a few months later in February 1800, pronounced the poem “a jumble of incomprehensible trash... the most vile and despicable effusion of a mad and muddy brain that ever disgraced, I will not say the press, but the ‘darkened walls’ of Bedlam.” One enthusiastic reader of the poem in its 1803 edition was Thomas De Quincey. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gebir_(poem) |
Many years later, in an article on Landor for Tait's Edinburgh Magazine published in January 1847 ("Notes on Walter Savage Landor"), De Quincey recalled finding Gebir in a bookshop in December 1803 and being "astonished... by the splendour of its descriptions".. Unaware of Southey's enthusiastic praise of the poem, he wrote that he imagined himself as "the one sole purchaser and reader of the poem".Another fascinated reader of the poem was Percy Bysshe Shelley. Thomas Jefferson Hogg related that he had visited Shelley at University College but found him so engrossed in Gebir that he could not draw his attention away from it. He flung the book out the window, whereupon it was brought back by a servant and Shelley engrossed once again.Charles Lamb was less enthusiastic. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gebir_(poem) |
In a letter to Southey, he wrote, “I have seen Gebor! Gebor aptly so denominated from Geborish, quasi Gibberish. But Gebor hath some lucid intervals. I remember darkly one beautiful simile veiled in uncouth phrases about the youngest daughter of the Ark.” | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gebir_(poem) |
Gebir (July or August 1798; anonymously published) Gebir; A Poem: In Seven Parts (January or February 1803) Gebirus: Poema (November 1803; in Latin) Gebir, Count Julian, and Other Poems (1831) The Poetical Works of Walter Savage Landor, vol. 1. Ed. Stephen Wheeler. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1937. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gebir_(poem) |
Bainbridge, Simon. Napoleon and English Romanticism. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1995. Pp. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gebir_(poem) |
30-49. Bradley, William. The Early Poems of Walter Savage Landor. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gebir_(poem) |
London: Bradbury, Agnew, & Co, Ltd, 1913. Bush, Douglas. Mythology And The Romantic Tradition In English Poetry. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gebir_(poem) |
Cambridge: Harvard UP, 1937. Pp. 236-240. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gebir_(poem) |
Elwin, Malcolm. Landor: A Replevin. London: Macdonald, 1958. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gebir_(poem) |
Garcia, Humberto. “The Hermetic Tradition of Arabic Islam and the Colonial Politics of Landor’s Gebir.” Studies in Romanticism, Vol. 46, No. 4 (Winter 2007), pp. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gebir_(poem) |
433-459. Islam, MD Monirul. “A Tale of Three Journeys: Orientalist Poetics/Politics of Landor’s Gebir.” Impressions, Vol. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gebir_(poem) |
11, No. 2 (2017). Pinsky, Robert. Landor’s Poetry. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gebir_(poem) |
Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1968. Richardson, Alan. "Epic Ambivalence: Imperial Politics and Romantic Deflection in Williams's Peru and Landor's Gebir". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gebir_(poem) |
Romanticism, Race, and Imperial Culture, 1780-1834. Ed. Alan Richardson and Sonia Hofkosh. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gebir_(poem) |
Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1996. Roberts, Adam. “Epic.” Landor’s Cleanness. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gebir_(poem) |
Oxford: Oxford UP, 2014. Schlaak, Robert. Entstehungs- u. Textgeschichte von Landors “Gebir”. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gebir_(poem) |
Halle, 1909. Sharafuddin, Mohammed. “Landor’s Gebir and the Establishment of Romantic Orientalism.” Islam and Romantic Orientalism: Literary Encounters with the Orient. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gebir_(poem) |
London: I.B. Tauris & Co. Ltd., 1994. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gebir_(poem) |
Pp. 1-42. Super, R.H. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gebir_(poem) |
The Publication of Landor’s Works. London: Bibliographical Society, 1954. Super, R.H. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gebir_(poem) |
Walter Savage Landor: A Biography. New York: New York University Press, 1954. Tucker, Herbert F. Epic: Britain's Heroic Muse, 1790–1910. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gebir_(poem) |
Oxford: Oxford UP, 2008. Pp. 80-85. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gebir_(poem) |
Vitoux, Pierre. “Gebir as an Heroic Poem.” The Wordsworth Circle, Vol. 7, No. 1 (Winter 1976), pp. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gebir_(poem) |
51-57. Williams, Stanley T. “The Story of Gebir.” PMLA, Vol. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gebir_(poem) |
36, No. 4 (Dec. 1921), pp. 615-631. == References == | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gebir_(poem) |
Roxane Cohen Silver (born August 1955) is a social, health psychologist known for her work on personal, national, and international traumas and how people cope with these traumas. She holds the position of Vice Provost for Academic Planning & Institutional Research and Distinguished Professor of Psychological Science, Public Health, and Medicine at the University of California, Irvine.Silver is the Past-President of the Federation of Associations in Behavioral and Brain Sciences. She has served on the U.S. Department of Homeland Security's Homeland Security Advisory Council and on the Board of Directors of Psychology Beyond Borders, a nonprofit organization focused on disaster relief. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roxane_Cohen_Silver |
Silver received the American Psychological Association (APA) Award for Distinguished Service to Psychological Science in 2007. She was awarded the Public Advocacy Award from the International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies in 2010 for “outstanding and fundamental contributions to advancing social understanding of trauma”. In 2011, she received both the American Psychological Association Award for Distinguished Contributions to Psychology in the Public Interest and the Award for Outstanding Service to the Field of Trauma Psychology (APA, Division 56, Trauma Psychology). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roxane_Cohen_Silver |
At age 17, Silver discovered a career path for herself in psychology. Her close friend's father was diagnosed with a brain tumor and died within three months of his diagnosis. Since her friend was only a teenager, it was hard to cope with the loss. This event triggered Silver's interest in how people cope with traumatic events and she turned to psychology as her career choice.Silver received her B.A. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roxane_Cohen_Silver |
degree in psychology with highest distinction and honors at Northwestern University in 1976. She continued her education at Northwestern, graduating in 1982 with a Ph.D. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roxane_Cohen_Silver |
in social psychology. As an undergraduate and graduate student, Silver worked with Philip Brickman, whose suicide profoundly influenced her thinking about how people cope with traumatic events. Silver's dissertation, supervised by Camille Wortman, was titled Coping with an undesirable life event: A study of early reactions to physical disability.Silver's research on coping and adjustment in response to traumatic events and natural disasters has been funded by the National Science Foundation. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roxane_Cohen_Silver |
Silver's research team studies how people cope with traumatic life events. She was the Principal Investigator of a multi-year national project that studied the emotional impact of the September 11 attacks on people in the United States. She found that the attack caused long-term mental and physical health effects, including post-traumatic stress and increases in cardiovascular ailments. Silver also found that the traumatic stress was not limited to those who were in the area of the September 11 attacks; people throughout the nation were experiencing trauma from the attacks as well.Silver's studies examined how social constraints on discussions of a traumatic experience can interfere with cognitive processing of and recovery from loss, and have explored associations between intrusive thoughts and depressive symptoms. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roxane_Cohen_Silver |
In one of her well-publicized longitudinal studies, Silver and her colleagues examined resilience among people who had had to cope with negative events such as natural disasters, divorce, a recent death, or illness. They observed that people who were going through difficult personal events often learned ways to ease the pain of traumatic stress and actually had higher life satisfaction and lower distress than people who had no history of adversity.Silver has collaborated with other psychologists in studying people's mental health during the COVID-19 pandemic. The researchers examined stress and depressive symptoms that people began experiencing at the beginning of March 2020 and how they coped with the deaths of family members and friends caused by COVID-19. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roxane_Cohen_Silver |
The researchers concluded that the media's continuous coverage of COVID-19 increased stress and anxiety. After studying how people dealt with depression and anxiety due to COVID-19, Silver and her colleagues concluded that technology use during this time helped promote mental health. The authors emphasized that reaching out to friends, family, and/or professionals to discuss emotions and thoughts were effective ways of coping and improving mental health during this time. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roxane_Cohen_Silver |
Friedman, H. S., & Silver, R. C. (Eds.). (2007). Foundations of health psychology. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roxane_Cohen_Silver |
Oxford University Press. Silver, R. C., & Updegraff, J. A. (2013). Searching for and finding meaning following personal and collective traumas. American Psychological Association. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roxane_Cohen_Silver |
The chain of survival refers to a series of actions that, properly executed, reduce the mortality associated with sudden cardiac arrest. Like any chain, the chain of survival is only as strong as its weakest link. The six interdependent links in the chain of survival are early recognition of sudden cardiac arrest and access to emergency medical care, early CPR, early defibrillation, early advanced cardiac life support, and physical and emotional recovery. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chain_of_survival |
The first three links in the chain can be performed by lay bystanders, while the second three links are designated to medical professionals. Currently, between 70 and 90% of cardiac arrest patients die before they reach the hospital. However, a cardiac arrest does not have to be lethal if bystanders can take the right steps immediately. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chain_of_survival |
According to the American Heart Association, out-of-hospital cardiac arrest can affect more than 300,000 people in the United States each year. Three minutes after the onset of cardiac arrest, a lack of blood flow starts to damage the brain, and 10 minutes after, the chances of survival are low. Therefore, bystanders have only a few minutes to act to optimize a person's chances of survival and recovery.To improve survival outcomes for people who have experienced out-of-hospital cardiac arrest, the American Heart Association–International Liaison Committee on Resuscitation recommended the chain of survival concept in the early 2000s. Originally, the chain consisted of four steps: early access to emergency medical care was the first link, the second link was early CPR, early defibrillation was the third link, and the final link was early advanced cardiac life support. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chain_of_survival |
Over the years, the American Heart Association has added two new links to the chain: post-resuscitation care in 2010, and physical and emotional recovery in 2020. Also in 2020, the American Heart Association issued a new pediatric chain of survival for infants, children, and adolescents. Mary M. Newman, co-founder and president/CEO of the Sudden Cardiac Arrest (SCA) Foundation and previous executive director of the National Center for Early Defibrillation at the University of Pittsburgh, developed the chain of survival metaphor and first described it in an article she wrote for the Journal of Emergency Medical Services in 1989, and further promoted in an editorial she wrote for the first issue of Currents in Emergency Cardiac Care in 1990. The American Heart Association later adopted the concept and elaborated on it in its 1992 guidelines for cardiopulmonary resuscitation and emergency cardiac care, The International Liaison Committee on Resuscitation (ILCOR) echoed the concept in 1997. The links of the Chain of survival are described below. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chain_of_survival |
Ideally, someone must recognize an impending cardiac arrest or otherwise witness the cardiac arrest and activate the EMS system as early as possible with an immediate call to the emergency services. Unfortunately, many persons experiencing symptoms (for example, angina) that may lead to a cardiac arrest ignore these warning symptoms or, recognizing these warning symptoms correctly, fail to activate the EMS system, preferring to contact relatives instead (e.g., the elderly often contact their adult offspring rather than contact emergency services). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chain_of_survival |
To be most effective, bystanders should provide CPR immediately after a patient collapses. In their 2015 guidelines, the American Heart Association re-emphasized the importance of more bystanders performing hands-only CPR until EMS personnel arrive because, at present, fewer than 40% of people who have an out-of-hospital cardiac arrest receive CPR from a bystander. The guidelines recommend lay rescuers start CPR on a person with presumed cardiac arrest because the overall risk of harm to patients from CPR is low, even if their heart hasn't stopped beating. Properly performed CPR can keep the heart in a shockable rhythm for 10–12 minutes longer. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chain_of_survival |
Most adults who can be saved from cardiac arrest are in ventricular fibrillation or pulseless ventricular tachycardia, which means their heart has fallen out of rhythm. Early defibrillation is the link in the chain most likely to improve survival since defibrillation can help shock the heart back into a regular beat. Early, rapid defibrillation is considered the most important link in the chain of survival. Rapid defibrillation outside of the hospital improves the chances of survival by as much as 30%, and involves using an automated external defibrillator (AED) to shock the patient's heart.While CPR keeps blood flowing artificially, rapid defibrillation is the only way to restart the heart and reset it to a healthy rhythm. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chain_of_survival |
And while only 40% of adults experiencing cardiac arrest receive CPR, fewer than 12% receive shocks from an AED before EMS arrival. What is more, the chances of the patient's survival decrease by as much as 10% with every minute that they do not receive rapid defibrillation.AEDs are becoming more common in businesses, schools, and even the home as the public becomes more aware of the importance of rapid defibrillation. AEDs come with pre-recorded instructions and are easy to use. If an AED is not available, bystanders will need to continue CPR until emergency responders arrive with a defibrillator, which is why it is important to recognize cardiac arrest and call for help quickly.Public access defibrillation may be the key to improving survival rates in out-of-hospital cardiac arrest, but is of the greatest value when the other links in the chain do not fail. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chain_of_survival |
Early advanced cardiac life support by paramedics is another critical link in the chain of survival. In communities with survival rates > 20%, a minimum of two of the rescuers are trained to the advanced level.Some ACLS ambulance providers will administer medications to manage pain, arrhythmias, shock, and pulmonary congestion; monitor the heart rhythm to identify any potentially lethal cardiac arrhythmias; or initiate transcutaneous pacing. ACLS ambulance providers use the mnemonic "MONA" (morphine, oxygen, nitroglycerin, and aspirin) to reflect the out-of-hospital therapies they will use for cardiac arrest.Often, ACLS ambulance providers will attach an electrocardiogram to the patient and transmit its findings to the receiving hospital or care facility, which leads to earlier diagnosis of a heart attack, and significantly reduces time to treatment at the hospital. This prearrival ECG and notification has been shown to improve patient outcomes. In the event of a complication at the scene of the event or on the way to the hospital, ACLS ambulance providers can administer life saving therapies, including CPR, rapid defibrillation, airway management, and intravenous medications. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chain_of_survival |
In October 2020, the American Heart Association added the recovery phase as the sixth link in the chain of survival. Recovery consists of cardiac arrest survivors receiving treatment, surveillance, and rehabilitation at a hospital. It also includes an assessment for anxiety, depression, and post-traumatic stress, which can all lead to future repeated events. Before being discharged from the hospital, the American Heart Association recommends that cardiac arrest survivors receive rehabilitation assessment and treatment for physical, neurologic, cardiopulmonary, and cognitive impairments. They also recommend that cardiac arrest survivors and their caregivers receive comprehensive, multidisciplinary discharge planning to include medical and rehabilitative treatment recommendations and return to activity and work expectations.A patient's recovery from cardiac arrest continues long after their initial hospitalization following the event, so the American Heart Association recommended in their 2020 guidelines that patients have formal assessment and support for their physical, cognitive, and psychosocial needs. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chain_of_survival |
Processing (simplified Chinese: 炮制; traditional Chinese: 炮製; pinyin: páozhì, or Chinese: 炮炙; pinyin: páozhì) in Chinese materia medica (Chinese herbology) is the technique of altering the properties, sterilizing and removing poisons of crude medicines by processing using heat and combination with various materials in a kind of alchemical approach to preparation. It lacks scientific evidence and hence is considered as pseudoscientific. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Processing_(Chinese_materia_medica) |
Pao Zhi processing may involve such means as washing, soaking, boiling, steaming, fermenting, drying, roasting, honey frying, wine frying, earth frying, vinegar frying, calcining, or other means. This is a kind of alchemical processing used in everyday preparation of herbal, mineral and animal medicinals. There are also more esoteric traditions of processing, including those involving mercury, but the term is used to refer to the more common preparations. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Processing_(Chinese_materia_medica) |
For instance, frying with wine is believed to enhance the circulatory properties of herbs. Frying with salt is believed to draw the herbal actions to the kidneys. Otherwise cooling herbs may be warmed up by heated techniques. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Processing_(Chinese_materia_medica) |
In psychology, empathic accuracy is a measure of how accurately one person can infer the thoughts and feelings of another person. The term was introduced in 1988, in conjunction with the term "empathic inference," by psychologists William Ickes and William Tooke. Since then research on empathic accuracy has explored its relationship with the concepts of affect sharing and mentalizing. In order to accurately infer another's psychological state, one must be able to both share that state (affect sharing), and understand cognitively how to label that state (mentalizing). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empathic_accuracy |
Neuroscience research has shown that brain activation associated with empathic accuracy overlaps with both the areas responsible for affect sharing and mentalizing.Empathic accuracy is an aspect of what William Ickes called "everyday mind reading". A person's understanding of the states of others is extremely important to that person's successful social interaction, and the costs of failing in this task can be high, as seen in the social difficulties of people with autism spectrum disorders. Empathic accuracy is linked to positive peer relationship outcomes and overall healthy adjustment for adolescents. In adult relationships, empathic accuracy correlates with stable romantic relationships. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empathic_accuracy |
In 1951, Carl Rogers published Client-Centered Therapy, the work he is most known for. In it, he created three guidelines for psychologists to follow in a therapeutic session with a client: to have unconditional positive regard, empathy, and genuineness. Roger's goal was to have the client actualize his or her own inherent potentialities (which is termed self-actualization). But, according to Rogers, self-actualization could not be accomplished until the need for positive regard, positive self-regard, and having a self-concept were gained. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empathic_accuracy |
The therapist's empathy thereby helps to move the client towards self-actualization. Empathy in Rogers's client-centered therapy means to better understand the client and his or her issues. This relates to empathic accuracy because Rogers's intent was not to make the client feel pitied, but for the psychologist to be in tune with the client's needs and perspectives. To do so, the psychologist must be an accurate "reader". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empathic_accuracy |
Empathic accuracy was a topic of social psychological research in the 1990s. Social psychology explored how empathic accuracy relates to the concept of empathy in general. Social psychologists posit two main theories for how people empathize with others: simulation theory and theory theory. In simulation theory, we understand another by putting ourselves in that other's state, simulating their experience. Theory theory is more cognitive: we find meanings in other's behaviors and contextual cues, and use those to construct an idea of that person's internal mental state. Empathic accuracy requires both processes; simulation theory correlates with the affect-sharing aspect of empathic accuracy, while theory theory relates to one's ability to effectively mentalize about that shared affect. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empathic_accuracy |
Neuroscience research solidified the shared roles of simulation theory and theory theory in empathic accuracy. Neuroscience work on empathy focused on two main neural networks: the mirror system and the mentalizing system. The mirror system involves the bilateral posterior ventrolateral prefrontal cortex and bilateral anterior inferior parietal lobule. It is a more automatic form of shared mental representation, and so corresponds with simulation theory. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empathic_accuracy |
The mentalizing system involves areas dependent upon task demands but converges in the dorsomedial prefrontal cortex.These systems rely on separate neural regions and can be activated at the same time. Recent work on empathic accuracy shows this concurrent activation, providing further evidence that empathic accuracy involves both processes. It follows as well that the difficulty of the task would differentially activate the two networks; more basic tasks such as simple emotion recognition through facial expression correlate with greater activation of the mirror system, while tasks that require more complex social judgments to assess another's state activate the mentalizing system to a greater degree. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empathic_accuracy |
William Ickes and colleagues developed a method to measure the accuracy of a perceiver's inferences about the content of a target person's reported thoughts and feelings. In this method, the perceiver is asked to view a videotaped interaction that was previously recorded. The videotape is paused for the perceiver at each of the points at which a target person on the videotape had reported having a specific thought or feeling, and the perceiver's writes down the thought or feeling content that the perceiver infers. Because the researchers have a list of the thoughts and feelings that the target reported having at the various "stop points," they can compare the content of each inferred thought or feeling with the reported thought or feeling and assess the level of the perceiver's empathic accuracy. This method has been adapted for neuroscience research by including fMRI scanning of participants while watching videos of others. Participants then report perceived emotional states of the recorded individual while the participants are in the scanner, so that researchers can measure brain activity during the empathic accuracy task.In some research on psychotherapy, audio- and videotapes record the sessions of a patient and therapist, which allows expert judges to rate the "empathic responsivity" or empathic accuracy of the therapist towards the patient. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empathic_accuracy |
Social psychology research focuses on how empathic accuracy affects interpersonal relationships, and how people differ in empathic accuracy ability. Closeness improves empathic accuracy; in a study of friends, for example, men were better at reading their friends' emotional states than those of strangers. In romantic relationships, empathic accuracy is higher when couples feel stable in their relationships than not. This suggests that people may inaccurately interpret partners' states when they feel threatened, such as when evaluating whether a partner is physically attracted to someone else. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empathic_accuracy |
In healthy relationships, empathic accuracy is linked to better instrumental social support: partners who are more accurate at inferring their partners' states are also better at providing tangible, concrete supports such as material goods or financial assistance.Work on empathic inaccuracy and aggression toward spouses has shown that men who are more likely to be aggressive toward their wives are also less accurate at reading emotional states of women who they do not know, and more likely to inaccurately label those women's states as critical or rejecting, suggesting a basic cognitive bias within these men. Research looking explicitly at partners found the same trend, with men who have acted violently toward their partners performing poorly when identifying their partners' emotional states.Research on gender differences has been mixed, with effects mainly showing up when participants are made aware of gender-role expectations and of the fact that empathy is being measured. These findings suggest that men and women are no different in empathic accuracy skill, but that social norms can impact men's performance. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empathic_accuracy |
Research with opposite-gender couples found significant differences between genders: women were better at reading their partner's emotions. These differences, however, were dramatically diminished when the couples were told that they would receive money for each emotion they correctly identified in their partner. Men and women are very similar, according to these results, in terms of skill, but differ in terms of motivation to be empathetic. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empathic_accuracy |
Social neuroscience has located regions of the brain correlated with empathic accuracy, which helped clarify the debate regarding simulation theory and theory-theory. Other research in social neuroscience has explored processes that may affect empathic accuracy both behaviorally and in the brain. One such study looked at the relationship between oxytocin and empathic accuracy. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empathic_accuracy |
Oxytocin, known for its role in regulating prosocial behavior, selectively improved the empathic accuracy of those individuals who scored higher on the Autism Spectrum Quotient (AQ), meaning that increased levels of oxytocin helped people with poorer social skills but not those who were already socially skilled. Neuroscience methods have also been used to explore how compassion meditation relates to empathic accuracy. Compassion meditation, also referred to as Mettā or loving-kindness meditation, is a Buddhist practice in which the meditator focuses on increasing empathic feelings and compassion toward others. When study participants were trained in an eight-week course on compassion meditation, they were found to be more empathically accurate than controls and showed corresponding increased brain activation in areas related to empathic accuracy, particularly the mentalizing system. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empathic_accuracy |
Certain conditions can impair empathic accuracy. Alexithymia, which involves difficulty with labeling one's own emotional states, is linked with empathic inaccuracy. When considering the importance of the mirror system in empathic accuracy this deficit makes sense, as people who have difficulty recognizing their own emotions likely would show less brain activation in those regions, which are also used in recognizing others' emotions. Indeed, alexithymic individuals show decreased activation of the mirror system when presented with images of others.Deficits in empathic accuracy have also been found in individuals on the autism spectrum. Higher AQ scores correlate with lower empathic accuracy in normal populations. Similar findings have been found in clinical populations, with those on the autism spectrum experiencing greater difficulty with empathic accuracy tasks. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empathic_accuracy |
An incest taboo is any cultural rule or norm that prohibits sexual relations between certain members of the same family, mainly between individuals related by blood. All human cultures have norms that exclude certain close relatives from those considered suitable or permissible sexual or marriage partners, making such relationships taboo. However, different norms exist among cultures as to which blood relations are permissible as sexual partners and which are not. Sexual relations between related persons which are subject to the taboo are called incestuous relationships. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incest_taboo |
Some cultures proscribe sexual relations between clan-members, even when no traceable biological relationship exists, while members of other clans are permissible irrespective of the existence of a biological relationship. In many cultures, certain types of cousin relations are preferred as sexual and marital partners, whereas in others these are taboo. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incest_taboo |
Some cultures permit sexual and marital relations between aunts/uncles and nephews/nieces. In some instances, brother–sister marriages have been practised by the elites with some regularity. Parent–child and sibling–sibling unions are almost universally taboo. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incest_taboo |
Debate about the origin of the incest taboo has often been framed as a question of whether it is based in nature or nurture. One explanation sees the incest taboo as a cultural implementation of a biologically evolved preference for sexual partners with whom one is unlikely to share genes, since inbreeding may have detrimental outcomes. The most widely held hypothesis proposes that the so-called Westermarck effect discourages adults from engaging in sexual relations with individuals with whom they grew up. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incest_taboo |
The existence of the Westermarck effect has achieved some empirical support.Another school argues that the incest prohibition is a cultural construct which arises as a side effect of a general human preference for group exogamy, which arises because intermarriage between groups construct valuable alliances that improve the ability for both groups to thrive. According to this view, the incest taboo is not necessarily universal, but is likely to arise and become more strict under cultural circumstances that favour exogamy over endogamy, and likely to become more lax under circumstances that favor endogamy. This hypothesis has also achieved some empirical support. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incest_taboo |
While it is theoretically possible that natural selection may, under certain genetic circumstances, select for individuals that instinctively avoid mating with (close) relatives, incest will still exist in the gene pool because even genetically weakened, inbred individuals are better watchposts against predators than none at all, and weak individuals are useful for the stronger individuals in the group as looking out for predators without being able to seriously compete with the stronger individuals. Additionally, protecting the health of closer relatives and their inbred offspring is more evolutionarily advantegous than punishing said relative, especially in a context where predation and starvation are significant factors, as opposed to a rich welfare state. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incest_taboo |
Modern anthropology developed at a time when a great many human societies were illiterate, and much of the research on incest taboos has taken place in societies without legal codes, and, therefore, without written laws concerning marriage and incest. Nevertheless, anthropologists have found that the institution of marriage, and rules concerning appropriate and inappropriate sexual behavior, exist in every society. The following excerpt from Notes and Queries on Anthropology (1951), a well-established field manual for ethnographic research, illustrates the scope of ethnographic investigation into the matter: Incest is sexual intercourse between individuals related in certain prohibited degrees of kinship. In every society there are rules prohibiting incestuous unions, both as to sexual intercourse and recognized marriage. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incest_taboo |
The two prohibitions do not necessarily coincide. There is no uniformity as to which degrees are involved in the prohibitions. The rules regulating incest must be investigated in every society by means of the genealogical method. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incest_taboo |
The prohibition may be so narrow as to include only one type of parent–child relationship (though this is very rare), or those within the elementary family; or so wide as to include all with whom genealogical or classificatory kinship can be traced. The more usual practice is that unions with certain relatives only are considered incestuous, the relationships being regulated by the type of descent emphasized. In some societies unions with certain persons related by affinity are also considered incestuous. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incest_taboo |
What penalties fall on (a) the individuals concerned; (b) the community as a whole? Are such penalties enforced by authority, or are they believed to ensure automatically by all action of supernatural force? Is there any correlation between the severity of the penalty and the nearness of the blood-tie of the partners in guilt? | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incest_taboo |
Should children be born as the result of incestuous unions, how are they treated? Are there any methods, ritual or legal, by which persons who fall within the prohibited degrees and wish to marry can break the relationship and become free to marry? | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incest_taboo |
As this excerpt suggests, anthropologists distinguish between social norms and actual social behavior; much social theory explores the difference and relationship between the two. For example, what is the purpose of prohibitions that are routinely violated (as for example when people claim that incest is taboo yet engage in incestuous behavior)? It should be further noted that in these theories anthropologists are generally concerned solely with brother–sister incest, and are not claiming that all sexual relations among family members are taboo or even necessarily considered incestuous by that society. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incest_taboo |
These theories are further complicated by the fact that in many societies people related to one another in different ways, and sometimes distantly, are classified together as siblings, and others who are just as closely related genetically are not considered family members. Moreover, the definition restricts itself to sexual intercourse; this does not mean that other forms of sexual contact do not occur, or are proscribed, or prescribed. For example, in some Inuit societies in the Arctic, and traditionally in Bali, mothers would routinely stroke the penises of their infant sons; such behavior was considered no more sexual than breast-feeding.It should also be noted that, in these theories, anthropologists are primarily concerned with marriage rules and not actual sexual behavior. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incest_taboo |
In short, anthropologists were not studying "incest" per se; they were asking informants what they meant by "incest", and what the consequences of "incest" were, in order to map out social relationships within the community. This excerpt also suggests that the relationship between sexual and marriage practices is complex, and that societies distinguish between different sorts of prohibitions. In other words, although an individual may be prohibited from marrying or having sexual relations with many people, different sexual relations may be prohibited for different reasons, and with different penalties. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incest_taboo |
For example, Trobriand Islanders prohibit both sexual relations between a woman and her brother, and between a woman and her father, but they describe these prohibitions in very different ways: relations between a woman and her brother fall within the category of forbidden relations among members of the same clan; relations between a woman and her father do not. This is because the Trobrianders are matrilineal; children belong to the clan of their mother and not of their father. Thus, sexual relations between a man and his mother's sister (and mother's sister's daughter) are also considered incestuous, but relations between a man and his father's sister are not. A man and his father's sister will often have a flirtatious relationship, and, far from being taboo, Trobriand society encourages a man and his father's sister or the daughter of his father's sister to have sexual relations or marry. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incest_taboo |
An explanation for the taboo is that it is due to an instinctual, inborn aversion that would lower the adverse genetic effects of inbreeding such as a higher incidence of congenital birth defects (see article Inbreeding depression). Since the rise of modern genetics, belief in this theory has grown. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incest_taboo |
The increase in frequency of birth defects often attributed to inbreeding results directly from an increase in the frequency of homozygous alleles inherited by the offspring of inbred couples. This leads to an increase in homozygous allele frequency within a population, and results in diverging effects. Should a child inherit the version of homozygous alleles responsible for a birth defect from its parents, the birth defect will be expressed; on the other hand, should the child inherit the version of homozygous alleles not responsible for a birth defect, it would actually decrease the ratio of the allele version responsible for the birth defect in that population. The overall consequences of these diverging effects depends in part on the size of the population. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incest_taboo |
In small populations, as long as children born with inheritable birth defects die (or are killed) before they reproduce, the ultimate effect of inbreeding will be to decrease the frequency of defective genes in the population; over time, the gene pool will be healthier. However, in larger populations, it is more likely that large numbers of carriers will survive and mate, leading to more constant rates of birth defects. Besides recessive genes, there are also other reasons why inbreeding may be harmful, such as a narrow range of certain immune systems genes in a population increasing vulnerability to infectious diseases (see Major histocompatibility complex and sexual selection). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incest_taboo |
The biological costs of incest also depend largely on the degree of genetic proximity between the two relatives engaging in incest. This fact may explain why the cultural taboo generally includes prohibitions against sex between close relatives but less often includes prohibitions against sex between more distal relatives. Children born of close relatives have decreased survival. Many mammal species, including humanity's closest primate relatives, avoid incest. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incest_taboo |
The Westermarck effect, first proposed by Edvard Westermarck in 1891, is the theory that children reared together, regardless of biological relationship, form a sentimental attachment that is by its nature non-erotic. Melford Spiro argued that his observations that unrelated children reared together on Israeli Kibbutzim nevertheless avoided one another as sexual partners confirmed the Westermarck effect. Joseph Shepher in a study examined the second generation in a kibbutz and found no marriages and no sexual activity between the adolescents in the same peer group. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incest_taboo |
This was not enforced but voluntary. Looking at the second generation adults in all kibbutzim, out of a total of 2769 marriages, none were between those of the same peer group.However, according to a book review by John Hartung of a book by Shepher, out of 2516 marriages documented in Israel, 200 were between couples reared in the same kibbutz. These marriages occurred after young adults reared on kibbutzim had served in the military and encountered tens of thousands of other potential mates, and 200 marriages is higher than what would be expected by chance. Of these 200 marriages, five were between men and women who had been reared together for the first six years of their lives, which would argue against the Westermarck effect.A study in Taiwan of marriages where the future bride is adopted in the groom's family as an infant or small child found that these marriages have higher infidelity and divorce and lower fertility than ordinary marriages; it has been argued that this observation is consistent with the Westermarck effect. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incest_taboo |
Another approach is looking at moral objections to third-party incest. This increases the longer a child has grown up together with another child of the opposite sex. This occurs even if the other child is genetically unrelated. Humans have been argued to have a special kin detection system that besides the incest taboo also regulates a tendency towards altruism towards kin. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incest_taboo |
One objection against an instinctive and genetic basis for the incest taboo is that incest does occur. Anthropologists have also argued that the social construct "incest" (and the incest taboo) is not the same thing as the biological phenomenon of "inbreeding". For example, there is equal genetic relation between a man and the daughter of his father's sister and between a man and the daughter of his mother's sister, such that biologists would consider mating incestuous in both instances, but Trobrianders consider mating incestuous in one case and not in the other. Anthropologists have documented a great number of societies where marriages between some first cousins are prohibited as incestuous, while marriages between other first cousins are encouraged. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incest_taboo |
Therefore, it is argued that the prohibition against incestuous relations in most societies is not based on or motivated by concerns over biological closeness. Other studies on cousin marriages have found support for a biological basis for the taboo. Also, current supporters of genetic influences on behavior do not argue that genes determine behavior absolutely, but that genes may create predispositions that are affected in various ways by the environment (including culture).Steve Stewart-Williams argues against the view that incest taboo is a Western phenomenon, arguing that while brother-sister marriage was reported in a diverse range of cultures such Egyptian, Incan, and Hawaiian cultures, it was not a culture-wide phenomenon, being largely restricted to the upper classes. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incest_taboo |
Stewart-Williams argues that these marriages were largely political (their function being to keep power and wealth concentrated in the family) and there is no evidence the siblings were attracted to each other and there is in fact some evidence against it (for example, Cleopatra married two of her brothers but did not have children with them, only having children with unrelated lovers). Stewart-Williams suggests that this was therefore simply a case of social pressure overriding anti-incest instincts. Stewart-Williams also observes that anti-incest behaviour has been observed in other animals and even many plant species (many plants could self-pollinate but have mechanisms that prevent them from doing so). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incest_taboo |
Psychoanalytic theory—in particular, the claimed existence of an Oedipus complex, which is not an instinctual aversion against incest but an instinctual desire—has influenced many theorists seeking to explain the incest taboo using sociological theories. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incest_taboo |
The anthropologist Claude Lévi-Strauss developed a general argument for the universality of the incest taboo in human societies. His argument begins with the claim that the incest taboo is in effect a prohibition against endogamy, and the effect is to encourage exogamy. Through exogamy, otherwise unrelated households or lineages will form relationships through marriage, thus strengthening social solidarity. That is, Lévi-Strauss views marriage as an exchange of women between two social groups. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incest_taboo |
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