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Every two years, it publishes a select list known as the Watch List of 100 Most Endangered Sites that is in urgent need of preservation funding and protection. The sites are nominated by governments, conservation professionals, site caretakers, non-government organizations (NGOs), concerned individuals, and others work... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2006_World_Monuments_Watch |
The 2006 World Monuments Watch List of 100 Most Endangered Sites was launched on June 21, 2005, by WMF President Bonnie Burnham. It marked the first time that an entire country was placed on the Watch List. Iraq, long considered as the "cradle of human civilization" and within whose borders lie an estimated 10,000 arch... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2006_World_Monuments_Watch |
The following countries/territories have multiple sites entered on the 2006 Watch List, listed by the number of sites: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2006_World_Monuments_Watch |
Data preprocessing can refer to manipulation or dropping of data before it is used in order to ensure or enhance performance, and is an important step in the data mining process. The phrase "garbage in, garbage out" is particularly applicable to data mining and machine learning projects. Data collection methods are oft... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_Preprocessing |
Thus, representation and quality of data is necessary before running any analysis. Often, data preprocessing is the most important phase of a machine learning project, especially in computational biology. If there is a high proportion of irrelevant and redundant information present or noisy and unreliable data, then kn... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_Preprocessing |
The origins of data preprocessing are located in data mining. The idea is to aggregate existing information and search in the content. Later it was recognized, that for machine learning and neural networks a data preprocessing step is needed too. So it has become to a universal technique which is used in computing in g... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_Preprocessing |
Data preprocessing allows for the removal of unwanted data with the use of data cleaning, this allows the user to have a dataset to contain more valuable information after the preprocessing stage for data manipulation later in the data mining process. Editing such dataset to either correct data corruption or human erro... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_Preprocessing |
Users use Python programming scripts accompanied by the pandas library which gives them the ability to import data from a comma-separated values as a data-frame. The data-frame is then used to manipulate data that can be challenging otherwise to do in Excel. pandas (software) which is a powerful tool that allows for da... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_Preprocessing |
Many also use the R programming language to do such tasks as well. The reason why a user transforms existing files into a new one is because of many reasons. Data preprocessing has the objective to add missing values, aggregate information, label data with categories (data binning) and smooth a trajectory. More advance... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_Preprocessing |
Semantic data mining is a subset of data mining that specifically seeks to incorporate domain knowledge, such as formal semantics, into the data mining process. Domain knowledge is the knowledge of the environment the data was processed in. Domain knowledge can have a positive influence on many aspects of data mining, ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_Preprocessing |
It does this by using working as set of prior knowledge to reduce the space required for searching and acting as a guide to the data. Simply put, semantic preprocessing seeks to filter data using the original environment of said data more correctly and efficiently. There are increasingly complex problems which are aski... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_Preprocessing |
Instead of creating a simple script for aggregating different numerical values into a single value, it make sense to focus on semantic based data preprocessing. The idea is to build a dedicated ontology, which explains on a higher level what the problem is about. In regards to semantic data mining and semantic pre-proc... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_Preprocessing |
The Protégé (software) is the standard tool for constructing an ontology. In general, the use of ontologies bridges the gaps between data, applications, algorithms, and results that occur from semantic mismatches. As a result, semantic data mining combined with ontology has many applications where semantic ambiguity ca... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_Preprocessing |
Applications include the medical field, language processing, banking, and even tutoring, among many more. There are various strengths to using a semantic data mining and ontological based approach. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_Preprocessing |
As previously mentioned, these tools can help during the per-processing phase by filtering out non-desirable data from the data set. Additionally, well-structured formal semantics integrated into well designed ontologies can return powerful data that can be easily read and processed by machines. A specifically useful e... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_Preprocessing |
As an example, a patient is having a medical emergency and is being rushed to hospital. The emergency responders are trying to figure out the best medicine to administer to help the patient. Under normal data processing, scouring all the patient’s medical data to ensure they are getting the best treatment could take to... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_Preprocessing |
However, using semantically processed ontologies, the first responders could save the patient’s life. Tools like a semantic reasoner can use ontology to infer the what best medicine to administer to the patient is based on their medical history, such as if they have a certain cancer or other conditions, simply by exami... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_Preprocessing |
In general, this illustrates the incredible strength of using semantic data mining and ontologies. They allow for quicker and more efficient data extraction on the user side, as the user has fewer variables to account for, since the semantically pre-processed data and ontology built for the data have already accounted ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_Preprocessing |
However, there are some drawbacks to this approach. Namely, it requires a high amount of computational power and complexity, even with relatively small data sets. This could result in higher costs and increased difficulties in building and maintaining semantic data processing systems. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_Preprocessing |
This can be mitigated somewhat if the data set is already well organized and formatted, but even then, the complexity is still higher when compared to standard data processing.Below is a simple a diagram combining some of the processes, in particular semantic data mining and their use in ontology. The diagram depicts a... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_Preprocessing |
Meanwhile, the data set is processed and stored so that the domain knowledge can applied to it, so that the process may continue. This application forms the ontology. From there, the ontology can be used to analyze data and process results. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_Preprocessing |
Fuzzy preprocessing is another, more advanced technique for solving complex problems. Fuzzy preprocessing and fuzzy data mining make use of fuzzy sets. These data sets are composed of two elements: a set and a membership function for the set which comprises 0 and 1. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_Preprocessing |
Fuzzy preprocessing uses this fuzzy data set to ground numerical values with linguistic information. Raw data is then transformed into natural language. Ultimately, fuzzy data mining's goal is to help deal with inexact information, such as an incomplete database. Currently fuzzy preprocessing, as well as other fuzzy ba... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_Preprocessing |
Karu Treasure is the name given to a collection of 363 valuable Lydian artifacts dating from the 7th century BC and originating from Uşak Province in western Turkey, which were the subject of a legal battle between Turkey and New York Metropolitan Museum of Art between 1987 and 1993, which were returned to Turkey in 19... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karun_Treasure |
Although the artifacts were closely contemporary to Croesus, whether they should be directly associated with the legendary Lydian king or not remains debatable. Croesus' wealth had repercussions on a number of Asian cultures in a vein similar to his fame in the western cultures, and is referred to either as Qaru (Arabi... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karun_Treasure |
The main and the most precious part of the treasure comes from a tomb chamber of a Lydian princess reached through illegal excavations carried out by three fortune-seekers from Uşak's depending Güre village, at the proximity of which the tomb was located, at the locality called Toptepe. After having dug for days and un... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karun_Treasure |
The efforts made by successive Turkish governments to retrieve the collection were incited since the very beginning and followed until conclusion by the journalist Özgen Acar. Acar had chanced upon some pieces of the collection for the first time in 1984 in a Met Museum catalogue and had informed Turkey's Ministry of C... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karun_Treasure |
The clear need for a museum worthy of the treasure was being voiced ever since the artifacts had returned to Turkey. With the seizure by the authorities of ten other illegally excavated artifacts in 1998, further archaeological discoveries and the known presence of eight gold pieces that had appeared in 2000 during an ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karun_Treasure |
Some in Uşak and beyond associate the treasure with a curse. Legend has it that the seven men who took part in the illegal digs "died violent deaths or suffered great misfortune". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karun_Treasure |
The NRS process (New Regeneration System) is a process to reduce calcium from beet-root thin-juice. It is used in beet-sugar factories to improve the capacity and operating time of evaporators and to produce soft molasses that can be further de-sugarised with chromatography. The original technology was invented by AKZO... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NRS_process |
Plants may have a capacity of 100-1000 m3/h or greater. The system is often used in the US, France, and Britain. German sugar makers traditionally prefer to invest into bigger evaporation capacity. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NRS_process |
The NRS-installation will consist of a number of columns filled with strong-acid-cationic resin. It is installed after carbonatation and filtration and before evaporation. The resin is loaded with sodium Na+ ions, that are exchanged for calcium Ca++. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NRS_process |
The softened juice will then be evaporated. For the regeneration of the resin softened juice will be mixed with caustic-soda (NaOH) and will be sent to the columns to transform the resin back into Na-form. The calcium-rich juice with high pH is sent in several fractions to the beginning of the clarification process, wh... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NRS_process |
It is effluent free and uses the product for regeneration. Chemicals are consumed in about the same amount as in traditional technology. The resin is robust, stable and not expensive. The control technology is simple. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NRS_process |
Reduces the calcium content. Less soda needed. Reduces possible turbidity. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NRS_process |
Academic discourse socialization is defined as one's growing process to realize the academic discourse and reach the expectation of the academic community. Academic discourse socialization is a form of language socialization through which newcomers or novices gain knowledge of the academic discourses by socializing and... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_discourse_socialization |
Over the last two decades, the field of applied linguistics has given renewed attention to academic discourse socialization, especially the disciplinary socialization of second language students. A growing body of research has explored socialization experiences of both first and second language learners through oral di... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_discourse_socialization |
Collaboration is central to academic discourse socialization. Shifting from individual to collaborative work and building a social network expands understanding of the textbook and discourses. Not only interactions that take place in formal settings (classrooms) but also collaborating with others, especially peers beyo... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_discourse_socialization |
Peers are also called literacy brokers and could be someone who is going through the same process, they don't necessarily have to be experts. Peer support both inside (formal contexts) and outside (informal contexts) of the classroom help learners gain knowledge of academic discourses and enhances students' understandi... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_discourse_socialization |
"Academic discourse refers to the ways of thinking and using language which exist in the academy." Discourse is not just "language" itself; discourse is language use that represents a person's existence in the world. Thus, what one has said and written are significant to academic community, which also shows that the in... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_discourse_socialization |
Academic discourse does not only function as a tool to convey one's thoughts but also influences one's formation of social identity, values, and world knowledge. The common ways to present academic discourse are through textbooks, conference presentations, dissertations, lectures, and research articles. Students in the... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_discourse_socialization |
In this way, they acquire social practice in the different academic fields, get to the heart of the academic enterprise, and finally become a member of a social group. Discourse conventions in a particular academic field are shaped by the ways of thinking of community members and the values they believe in. Written wor... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_discourse_socialization |
The recognition of a publication from an academic community is regarded as the accomplishment of one's academic life and the realization of academic discourse. It is highly motivating when one's published paper was cited or further developed by community members because it is evidence of acceptance. In order to get a r... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_discourse_socialization |
From the mid-1960s, the issues of academic discourse have caught researchers’ and scholars’ eyes and grown massively. The first reason why academic discourse has become popular is because the number of students in higher education has dramatically increased, resulting in greater diversity of students. “This more cultur... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_discourse_socialization |
With the popularity of the concept of academic discourse, teachers can clearly define students’ learning achievement through their performance on different types of academic discourse. The second reason concerns the transformation of education system. Nowadays, schools do not solely rely on government funding; instead,... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_discourse_socialization |
Universities are more competitive because students as customers choose prestigious schools which are highly evaluated on the aspect of academic discourse, including the publication of dissertations and lectures in conferences. The last reason, and also the most important factor affecting the development of academic dis... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_discourse_socialization |
Even academic journals, as a representative type of academic discourse, are most in English. Moreover, “the global status of English has come to influence both the lives of scholars throughout the globe and the production and exchange of academic knowledge in the twenty-first century.” As a result, the learning of acad... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_discourse_socialization |
That is, beginners first acquire the conventions of academic discourse peripherally and imitate discourse activities from experienced learners or experts. After a period of time, learners can also complete academic oral presentations and academic essays, and in the end, the publication of dissertations and participatio... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_discourse_socialization |
Externships are experiential learning opportunities, similar to internships, provided by partnerships between educational institutions and employers to give students practical experiences in their field of study. In medicine, it may refer to a visiting physician who is not part of the regular staff. In law, it usually ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Externship |
Externships are often viewed as job shadowing since externs are closely supervised by employee volunteers who agree to walk them through day-to-day routines at the company or organization. They can be viewed as external studies which combine classroom knowledge with real-world experience. This knowledge prepares studen... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Externship |
Externships may lead to opportunities after students complete their studies. They can help pre-graduates get their foot in the door for possible job openings or even make them better candidates for aggressive internship opportunities, and to allow externs to become familiar with new professions and job fields. Externsh... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Externship |
Externships are not only conducted for the benefit of the extern, but for the host as well. Both parties get a chance to observe one another. Successful externships could lead to recruitment possibilities which would be based on a thoroughly informed decision. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Externship |
Legal externships, like internships, can be taken for law school credit. Internships and externships offered by law schools accredited by the Council of the ABA Section on Legal Education and Admission to the Bar are called "law clinic" and "field placement" courses, respectively, by (Accreditation) Standard 304. Exper... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Externship |
Standard 304(d) applies to field placements (externships), defining them as follows for purposes of law school accreditation: "A field placement course provides substantial lawyering experience that (1) is reasonably similar to the experience of a lawyer advising or representing a client or engaging in other lawyering ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Externship |
Admissions and Educational Standards provides: "A law school provisionally or fully approved by the American Bar Association is deemed accredited by the Committee and exempt from these rules, unless the American Bar Association withdraws its approval." (Inset added.) Other states that accredit law schools within their... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Externship |
No university or free-standing law school allows students to receive academic credit in simulation, clinic (internship) or field placement (externship) courses for making coffee, taking inventory, or other tasks unrelated to practical experience to develop lawyering skills. Students can make the coffee if they wish - b... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Externship |
The History of the Museums Association is the history of the UK based Museums Association (MA), which is the oldest museum association in the world. The concept was first proposed by Elijah Howarth of the Weston Park Museum, Sheffield in 1877. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Museums_Association |
The objects of the MA were stated as follows:: 88 The object of the Association shall be the promotion of better and more systematic working of Museums throughout the Kingdom. In order to promote a better knowledge of Museums, the Association shall meet in a different town each succeeding year. That each Museum contrib... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Museums_Association |
6d. annually. That each Museum be represented by three delegates, each having one vote. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Museums_Association |
Each Associate to have one vote. That each Museum belonging to the Association and each Associate receive one copy of the publications of the Association. That a General Meeting of the Association be held annually, for the transaction of business, the reading of papers, and the discussion of matters relating to Museums | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Museums_Association |
The Museums Association held annual conferences incorporating the Annual General Meeting, hosted by different museums: == References == | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Museums_Association |
In classical differential geometry, Clairaut's relation, named after Alexis Claude de Clairaut, is a formula that characterizes the great circle paths on the unit sphere. The formula states that if γ is a parametrization of a great circle then ρ ( γ ( t ) ) sin ψ ( γ ( t ) ) = constant , {\displaystyle \rho (\gamma (... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clairaut's_relation_(differential_geometry) |
The expression military–industrial complex (MIC) describes the relationship between a country's military and the defense industry that supplies it, seen together as a vested interest which influences public policy. A driving factor behind the relationship between the military and the defense-minded corporations is that... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military–industrial_complex |
President of the United States (and five-star general since World War II) Dwight D. Eisenhower used the term in his Farewell Address to the Nation on January 17, 1961: A vital element in keeping the peace is our military establishment. Our arms must be mighty, ready for instant action, so that no potential aggressor ma... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military–industrial_complex |
We recognize the imperative need for this development. Yet we must not fail to comprehend its grave implications. Our toil, resources and livelihood are all involved; so is the very structure of our society. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military–industrial_complex |
In the councils of government, we must guard against the acquisition of unwarranted influence, whether sought or unsought, by the military–industrial complex. The potential for the disastrous rise of misplaced power exists, and will persist. We must never let the weight of this combination endanger our liberties or dem... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military–industrial_complex |
We should take nothing for granted. Only an alert and knowledgeable citizenry can compel the proper meshing of the huge industrial and military machinery of defense with our peaceful methods and goals so that security and liberty may prosper together. The phrase was thought to have been "war-based" industrial complex b... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military–industrial_complex |
Geoffrey Perret, in his biography of Eisenhower, claims that, in one draft of the speech, the phrase was "military–industrial–congressional complex", indicating the essential role that the United States Congress plays in the propagation of the military industry, but the word "congressional" was dropped from the final v... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military–industrial_complex |
The actual authors of the speech were Eisenhower's speechwriters Ralph E. Williams and Malcolm Moos. Attempts to conceptualize something similar to a modern "military–industrial complex" existed before Eisenhower's address. Ledbetter finds the precise term used in 1947 in close to its later meaning in an article in For... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military–industrial_complex |
In 1956, sociologist C. Wright Mills had claimed in his book The Power Elite that a class of military, business, and political leaders, driven by mutual interests, were the real leaders of the state, and were effectively beyond democratic control. Friedrich Hayek mentions in his 1944 book The Road to Serfdom the danger... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military–industrial_complex |
Anything else would be an unacceptable shock to the American economy." In the late 1990s James Kurth asserted, "By the mid-1980s... the term had largely fallen out of public discussion." He went on to argue that "hatever the power of arguments about the influence of the military–industrial complex on weapons procuremen... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military–industrial_complex |
militarism continue to refer to and employ the term, however. For example, historian Chalmers Johnson uses words from the second, third, and fourth paragraphs quoted above from Eisenhower's address as an epigraph to Chapter Two ("The Roots of American Militarism") of a 2004 volume on this subject. P. W. Singer's book c... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military–industrial_complex |
federal and the Pentagon.The expressions permanent war economy and war corporatism are related concepts that have also been used in association with this term. The term is also used to describe comparable collusion in other political entities such as the German Empire (prior to and through the first world war), Britain... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military–industrial_complex |
At the end of the Cold War, American defense contractors bewailed what they called declining government weapons spending. They saw escalation of tensions, such as with Russia over Ukraine, as new opportunities for increased weapons sales, and have pushed the political system, both directly and through industry groups s... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military–industrial_complex |
Some sources divide the history of the military–industrial complex into three distinct eras. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military–industrial_complex |
From 1797 to 1941, the government only relied on civilian industries while the country was actually at war. The government owned their own shipyards and weapons manufacturing facilities which they relied on through World War I. With World War II came a massive shift in the way that the American government armed the mil... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military–industrial_complex |
Throughout World War II arms production in the United States went from around one percent of the annual GDP to 40 percent of the GDP. Various American companies, such as Boeing and General Motors, maintained and expanded their defense divisions. These companies have gone on to develop various technologies that have imp... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military–industrial_complex |
The second era is identified as beginning with the coining of the term by President Dwight D. Eisenhower. This era continued through the Cold War period, up to the end of the Warsaw Pact and the collapse of the Soviet Union. A 1965 article written by Marc Pilisuk and Thomas Hayden says benefits of the Military Industri... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military–industrial_complex |
In the third era, defense contractors either consolidated or shifted their focus to civilian innovation. From 1992 to 1997 there was a total of US$55 billion worth of mergers in the defense industry, with major defense companies purchasing smaller competitors.In the current era, the military–industrial complex is seen ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military–industrial_complex |
According to the military subsidy theory, the Cold War–era mass production of aircraft benefited the civilian aircraft industry. The theory asserts that the technologies developed during the Cold War along with the financial backing of the military led to the dominance of American aviation companies. There is also stro... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military–industrial_complex |
According to the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI), total world spending on military expenses in 2022 was $2,240 billion. 39% of this total, or $837 billion, was spent by the United States. China was the second largest spender, with $292 billion and 13% of the global share. The privatization of t... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military–industrial_complex |
In 2011, the United States spent more (in absolute numbers) on its military than the next 13 countries combined.The military budget of the United States for the 2009 fiscal year was $515.4 billion. Adding emergency discretionary spending and supplemental spending brings the sum to $651.2 billion. This does not include ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military–industrial_complex |
Overall the U.S. federal government is spending about $1 trillion annually on defense-related purposes.In a 2012 story, Salon reported, "Despite a decline in global arms sales in 2010 due to recessionary pressures, the United States increased its market share, accounting for a whopping 53 percent of the trade that year... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military–industrial_complex |
A thesis similar to the military–industrial complex was originally expressed by Daniel Guérin, in his 1936 book Fascism and Big Business, about the fascist government ties to heavy industry. It can be defined as, "an informal and changing coalition of groups with vested psychological, moral, and material interests in t... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military–industrial_complex |
: ix–xxv Virtually all institutions in sectors ranging from agriculture, medicine, entertainment, and media, to education, criminal justice, security, and transportation, began reconceiving and reconstructing in accordance with capitalist, industrial, and bureaucratic models with the aim of realizing profit, growth, an... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military–industrial_complex |
Mode choice analysis is the third step in the conventional four-step transportation forecasting model of transportation planning, following trip distribution and preceding route assignment. From origin-destination table inputs provided by trip distribution, mode choice analysis allows the modeler to determine probabili... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mode_choice |
The early transportation planning model developed by the Chicago Area Transportation Study (CATS) focused on transit. It wanted to know how much travel would continue by transit. The CATS divided transit trips into two classes: trips to the Central Business District, or CBD (mainly by subway/elevated transit, express b... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mode_choice |
For the latter, increases in auto ownership and use were a trade-off against bus use; trend data were used. CBD travel was analyzed using historic mode choice data together with projections of CBD land uses. Somewhat similar techniques were used in many studies. Two decades after CATS, for example, the London study fol... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mode_choice |
The CATS had diversion curve techniques available and used them for some tasks. At first, the CATS studied the diversion of auto traffic from streets and arterial roads to proposed expressways. Diversion curves were also used for bypasses built around cities to find out what percent of traffic would use the bypass. The... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mode_choice |
A variation on the technique is to use costs rather than time in the diversion ratio. The decision to use a time or cost ratio turns on the problem at hand. Transit agencies developed diversion curves for different kinds of situations, so variables like income and population density entered implicitly. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mode_choice |
Diversion curves are based on empirical observations, and their improvement has resulted from better (more and more pointed) data. Curves are available for many markets. It is not difficult to obtain data and array results. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mode_choice |
Expansion of transit has motivated data development by operators and planners. Yacov Zahavi’s UMOT studies, discussed earlier, contain many examples of diversion curves. In a sense, diversion curve analysis is expert system analysis. Planners could "eyeball" neighborhoods and estimate transit ridership by routes and ti... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mode_choice |
Travel demand theory was introduced in the appendix on traffic generation. The core of the field is the set of models developed following work by Stan Warner in 1962 (Strategic Choice of Mode in Urban Travel: A Study of Binary Choice). Using data from the CATS, Warner investigated classification techniques using models... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mode_choice |
Analysis is disaggregate in that individuals are the basic units of observation, yet aggregate because models yield a single set of parameters describing the choice behavior of the population. Behavior enters because the theory made use of consumer behavior concepts from economics and parts of choice behavior concepts ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mode_choice |
Choice models have attracted a lot of attention and work; the Proceedings of the International Association for Travel Behavior Research chronicles the evolution of the models. The models are treated in modern transportation planning and transportation engineering textbooks. One reason for rapid model development was a ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mode_choice |
Systems were being proposed (especially transit systems) where no empirical experience of the type used in diversion curves was available. Choice models permit comparison of more than two alternatives and the importance of attributes of alternatives. There was the general desire for an analysis technique that depended ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mode_choice |
Early psychology work involved the typical experiment: Here are two objects with weights, w1 and w2, which is heavier? The finding from such an experiment would be that the greater the difference in weight, the greater the probability of choosing correctly. Graphs similar to the one on the right result. Louis Leon Thur... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mode_choice |
Economists deal with utility rather than physical weights, and say that observed utility = mean utility + random term.The characteristics of the object, x, must be considered, so we have u(x) = v(x) + e(x).If we follow Thurston's assumption, we again have a probit model. An alternative is to assume that the error terms... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mode_choice |
Daniel McFadden argued that the Weibull had desirable properties compared to other distributions that might be used. Among other things, the error terms are normally and identically distributed. The logit model is simply a log ratio of the probability of choosing a mode to the probability of not choosing a mode. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mode_choice |
log ( P i 1 − P i ) = v ( x i ) {\displaystyle \log \left({\frac {P_{i}}{1-P_{i}}}\right)=v(x_{i})} Observe the mathematical similarity between the logit model and the S-curves we estimated earlier, although here share increases with utility rather than time. With a choice model we are explaining the share of travele... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mode_choice |
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